climate change campaigns case study

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Seven case studies in carbon and climate

Every part of the mosaic of Earth's surface — ocean and land, Arctic and tropics, forest and grassland — absorbs and releases carbon in a different way. Wild-card events such as massive wildfires and drought complicate the global picture even more. To better predict future climate, we need to understand how Earth's ecosystems will change as the climate warms and how extreme events will shape and interact with the future environment. Here are seven pressing concerns.

The Far North is warming twice as fast as the rest of Earth, on average. With a 5-year Arctic airborne observing campaign just wrapping up and a 10-year campaign just starting that will integrate airborne, satellite and surface measurements, NASA is using unprecedented resources to discover how the drastic changes in Arctic carbon are likely to influence our climatic future.

Wildfires have become common in the North. Because firefighting is so difficult in remote areas, many of these fires burn unchecked for months, throwing huge plumes of carbon into the atmosphere. A recent report found a nearly 10-fold increase in the number of large fires in the Arctic region over the last 50 years, and the total area burned by fires is increasing annually.

Organic carbon from plant and animal remains is preserved for millennia in frozen Arctic soil, too cold to decompose. Arctic soils known as permafrost contain more carbon than there is in Earth's atmosphere today. As the frozen landscape continues to thaw, the likelihood increases that not only fires but decomposition will create Arctic atmospheric emissions rivaling those of fossil fuels. The chemical form these emissions take — carbon dioxide or methane — will make a big difference in how much greenhouse warming they create.

Initial results from NASA's Carbon in Arctic Reservoirs Vulnerability Experiment (CARVE) airborne campaign have allayed concerns that large bursts of methane, a more potent greenhouse gas, are already being released from thawing Arctic soils. CARVE principal investigator Charles Miller of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), Pasadena, California, is looking forward to NASA's ABoVE field campaign (Arctic Boreal Vulnerability Experiment) to gain more insight. "CARVE just scratched the surface, compared to what ABoVE will do," Miller said.

Methane is the Billy the Kid of carbon-containing greenhouse gases: it does a lot of damage in a short life. There's much less of it in Earth's atmosphere than there is carbon dioxide, but molecule for molecule, it causes far more greenhouse warming than CO 2 does over its average 10-year life span in the atmosphere.

Methane is produced by bacteria that decompose organic material in damp places with little or no oxygen, such as freshwater marshes and the stomachs of cows. Currently, over half of atmospheric methane comes from human-related sources, such as livestock, rice farming, landfills and leaks of natural gas. Natural sources include termites and wetlands. Because of increasing human sources, the atmospheric concentration of methane has doubled in the last 200 years to a level not seen on our planet for 650,000 years.

Locating and measuring human emissions of methane are significant challenges. NASA's Carbon Monitoring System is funding several projects testing new technologies and techniques to improve our ability to monitor the colorless gas and help decision makers pinpoint sources of emissions. One project, led by Daniel Jacob of Harvard University, used satellite observations of methane to infer emissions over North America. The research found that human methane emissions in eastern Texas were 50 to 100 percent higher than previous estimates. "This study shows the potential of satellite observations to assess how methane emissions are changing," said Kevin Bowman, a JPL research scientist who was a coauthor of the study.

Tropical forests

Tropical forests are carbon storage heavyweights. The Amazon in South America alone absorbs a quarter of all carbon dioxide that ends up on land. Forests in Asia and Africa also do their part in "breathing in" as much carbon dioxide as possible and using it to grow.

However, there is evidence that tropical forests may be reaching some kind of limit to growth. While growth rates in temperate and boreal forests continue to increase, trees in the Amazon have been growing more slowly in recent years. They've also been dying sooner. That's partly because the forest was stressed by two severe droughts in 2005 and 2010 — so severe that the Amazon emitted more carbon overall than it absorbed during those years, due to increased fires and reduced growth. Those unprecedented droughts may have been only a foretaste of what is ahead, because models predict that droughts will increase in frequency and severity in the future.

In the past 40-50 years, the greatest threat to tropical rainforests has been not climate but humans, and here the news from the Amazon is better. Brazil has reduced Amazon deforestation in its territory by 60 to 70 percent since 2004, despite troubling increases in the last three years. According to Doug Morton, a scientist at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, further reductions may not make a marked difference in the global carbon budget. "No one wants to abandon efforts to preserve and protect the tropical forests," he said. "But doing that with the expectation that [it] is a meaningful way to address global greenhouse gas emissions has become less defensible."

In the last few years, Brazil's progress has left Indonesia the distinction of being the nation with the highest deforestation rate and also with the largest overall area of forest cleared in the world. Although Indonesia's forests are only a quarter to a fifth the extent of the Amazon, fires there emit massive amounts of carbon, because about half of the Indonesian forests grow on carbon-rich peat. A recent study estimated that this fall, daily greenhouse gas emissions from recent Indonesian fires regularly surpassed daily emissions from the entire United States.

Wildfires are natural and necessary for some forest ecosystems, keeping them healthy by fertilizing soil, clearing ground for young plants, and allowing species to germinate and reproduce. Like the carbon cycle itself, fires are being pushed out of their normal roles by climate change. Shorter winters and higher temperatures during the other seasons lead to drier vegetation and soils. Globally, fire seasons are almost 20 percent longer today, on average, than they were 35 years ago.

Currently, wildfires are estimated to spew 2 to 4 billion tons of carbon into the atmosphere each year on average — about half as much as is emitted by fossil fuel burning. Large as that number is, it's just the beginning of the impact of fires on the carbon cycle. As a burned forest regrows, decades will pass before it reaches its former levels of carbon absorption. If the area is cleared for agriculture, the croplands will never absorb as much carbon as the forest did.

As atmospheric carbon dioxide continues to increase and global temperatures warm, climate models show the threat of wildfires increasing throughout this century. In Earth's more arid regions like the U.S. West, rising temperatures will continue to dry out vegetation so fires start and burn more easily. In Arctic and boreal ecosystems, intense wildfires are burning not just the trees, but also the carbon-rich soil itself, accelerating the thaw of permafrost, and dumping even more carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere.

North American forests

With decades of Landsat satellite imagery at their fingertips, researchers can track changes to North American forests since the mid-1980s. A warming climate is making its presence known.

Through the North American Forest Dynamics project, and a dataset based on Landsat imagery released this earlier this month, researchers can track where tree cover is disappearing through logging, wildfires, windstorms, insect outbreaks, drought, mountaintop mining, and people clearing land for development and agriculture. Equally, they can see where forests are growing back over past logging projects, abandoned croplands and other previously disturbed areas.

"One takeaway from the project is how active U.S. forests are, and how young American forests are," said Jeff Masek of Goddard, one of the project’s principal investigators along with researchers from the University of Maryland and the U.S. Forest Service. In the Southeast, fast-growing tree farms illustrate a human influence on the forest life cycle. In the West, however, much of the forest disturbance is directly or indirectly tied to climate. Wildfires stretched across more acres in Alaska this year than they have in any other year in the satellite record. Insects and drought have turned green forests brown in the Rocky Mountains. In the Southwest, pinyon-juniper forests have died back due to drought.

Scientists are studying North American forests and the carbon they store with other remote sensing instruments. With radars and lidars, which measure height of vegetation from satellite or airborne platforms, they can calculate how much biomass — the total amount of plant material, like trunks, stems and leaves — these forests contain. Then, models looking at how fast forests are growing or shrinking can calculate carbon uptake and release into the atmosphere. An instrument planned to fly on the International Space Station (ISS), called the Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI) lidar, will measure tree height from orbit, and a second ISS mission called the Ecosystem Spaceborne Thermal Radiometer Experiment on Space Station (ECOSTRESS) will monitor how forests are using water, an indicator of their carbon uptake during growth. Two other upcoming radar satellite missions (the NASA-ISRO SAR radar, or NISAR, and the European Space Agency’s BIOMASS radar) will provide even more complementary, comprehensive information on vegetation.

Ocean carbon absorption

When carbon-dioxide-rich air meets seawater containing less carbon dioxide, the greenhouse gas diffuses from the atmosphere into the ocean as irresistibly as a ball rolls downhill. Today, about a quarter of human-produced carbon dioxide emissions get absorbed into the ocean. Once the carbon is in the water, it can stay there for hundreds of years.

Warm, CO 2 -rich surface water flows in ocean currents to colder parts of the globe, releasing its heat along the way. In the polar regions, the now-cool water sinks several miles deep, carrying its carbon burden to the depths. Eventually, that same water wells up far away and returns carbon to the surface; but the entire trip is thought to take about a thousand years. In other words, water upwelling today dates from the Middle Ages – long before fossil fuel emissions.

That's good for the atmosphere, but the ocean pays a heavy price for absorbing so much carbon: acidification. Carbon dioxide reacts chemically with seawater to make the water more acidic. This fundamental change threatens many marine creatures. The chain of chemical reactions ends up reducing the amount of a particular form of carbon — the carbonate ion — that these organisms need to make shells and skeletons. Dubbed the “other carbon dioxide problem,” ocean acidification has potential impacts on millions of people who depend on the ocean for food and resources.

Phytoplankton

Microscopic, aquatic plants called phytoplankton are another way that ocean ecosystems absorb carbon dioxide emissions. Phytoplankton float with currents, consuming carbon dioxide as they grow. They are at the base of the ocean's food chain, eaten by tiny animals called zooplankton that are then consumed by larger species. When phytoplankton and zooplankton die, they may sink to the ocean floor, taking the carbon stored in their bodies with them.

Satellite instruments like the Moderate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA's Terra and Aqua let us observe ocean color, which researchers can use to estimate abundance — more green equals more phytoplankton. But not all phytoplankton are equal. Some bigger species, like diatoms, need more nutrients in the surface waters. The bigger species also are generally heavier so more readily sink to the ocean floor.

As ocean currents change, however, the layers of surface water that have the right mix of sunlight, temperature and nutrients for phytoplankton to thrive are changing as well. “In the Northern Hemisphere, there’s a declining trend in phytoplankton,” said Cecile Rousseaux, an oceanographer with the Global Modeling and Assimilation Office at Goddard. She used models to determine that the decline at the highest latitudes was due to a decrease in abundance of diatoms. One future mission, the Pre-Aerosol, Clouds, and ocean Ecosystem (PACE) satellite, will use instruments designed to see shades of color in the ocean — and through that, allow scientists to better quantify different phytoplankton species.

In the Arctic, however, phytoplankton may be increasing due to climate change. The NASA-sponsored Impacts of Climate on the Eco-Systems and Chemistry of the Arctic Pacific Environment (ICESCAPE) expedition on a U.S. Coast Guard icebreaker in 2010 and 2011 found unprecedented phytoplankton blooms under about three feet (a meter) of sea ice off Alaska. Scientists think this unusually thin ice allows sunlight to filter down to the water, catalyzing plant blooms where they had never been observed before.

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U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit

• Steps to Resilience
• Case Studies

Communities, businesses, and individuals are taking action to document their vulnerabilities and build resilience to climate-related impacts. Click dots on the map to preview case studies, or browse stories below the map. Use the drop-down menus above to find stories of interest. To expand your results, click the Clear Filters link.

A Climate for Resilience

A Community Effort Stems Runoff to Safeguard Corals in Puerto Rico

A Community Works Together to Reduce Damages from Flooding

A Coral Bleaching Story With an Unknown Ending

A New Generation of Water Planners Confronts Change Along the Colorado River

A Road-Flooding Fix for a California State Park

A Town with a Plan: Community, Climate, and Conversations

Addressing Links Between Climate and Public Health in Alaska Native Villages

Addressing Short- and Long-Term Risks to Water Supply

Addressing Water Supply Risks from Flooding and Drought

After Katrina, Health Care Facility's Infrastructure Planned to Withstand Future Flooding

After Record-Breaking Rains, a Major Medical Center's Hazard Mitigation Plan Improves Resilience

Alaska Native Villages Work to Enhance Local Economies as They Minimize Environmental Risks

Alaskan Tribes Join Together to Assess Harmful Algal Blooms

Alert System Helps Strawberry Growers Reduce Costs

All Hands on Deck: Creating Green Infrastructure to Combat Flooding in Toledo

Amending Land Use Codes for Natural Infrastructure Planning

American Rivers: Increasing Community and Ecological resilience by Removing a Patapsco River Fish Barrier

An Inland City Prepares for a Changing Climate

An Integrated Plan for Water and Long-Term Ecological Resilience

Analyzing Future Urban Growth and Flood Risk in North Carolina

And the Trees Will Last Forever

Anticipating and Preventing the Spread of Invasive Plants

Aquifer Storage and Recovery: A Strategy for Long-Term Water Security in Puerto Rico

Asheville Makes a Plan for Climate Resilience

Ashland Climate and Energy Action Plan

Assessing a Tropical Estuary's Climate Change Risks

Assessing Climate Risks in a National Estuary

Assessing the Timing and Extent of Coastal Change in Western Alaska

Balancing Variable Water Supply With Increasing Demand in a Changing Climate

Battling Blazes Across Borders

Better Soil, Better Climate

Blue Lake Rancheria Tribe Undertakes Innovative Action to Reduce the Causes of Climate Change

Boosting Community Storm Resilience in Alaska

Boosting Ecosystem Resilience in the Southwest's Sky Islands

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40 councils leading the way on climate

• The full set of case studies can be viewed here

Local authorities are crucial to the delivery of the UK’s transition to a cleaner, greener future. But progress needs to be accelerated in every local area if the UK’s climate and nature targets are to be met, Friends of the Earth and the climate charity Ashden say today as they publish new resources for councils and campaigners.

The environmental organisations have drawn together a unique set of case studies which showcase the inspiring work of 40 local authorities. They demonstrate how councils have implemented successful initiatives and solutions in response to pressing local challenges, as well as the need to fulfil their own green targets and counter the climate emergency.

These examples of best practice spanning areas such as nature restoration, energy efficiency and transport, highlight the many ways councils can make a substantial difference where they operate, and overcome some of the barriers that currently frustrate progress on local issues as well as the climate.

Among those included as part of the huge bank of examples, are:

• Warrington Borough Council , which raised funds for a renewable energy project through community municipal bonds that could be purchased for as little as £5 by residents
• Blaenau Gwent Council , which set up a citizens assembly for just £50,000 to engage the local community in climate decision-making
• Nottingham City Council , which raised millions for better public transport in the local area through its workplace parking levy
• North East Derbyshire District Council , which upgraded hundreds of council homes to improve energy efficiency and alleviate fuel poverty simultaneously
• Wirral Council , which adopted an ambitious tree strategy to plant 210,000 by 2030 and protect existing trees
• Waltham Forest Council , which has almost fulfilled its target to completely divest its pension funds from fossil fuels within 5 years
•  Derry and Strabane District Council, which is one of the first local authorities in the UK to have created a zero-waste circular economy strategy

Most councils have now declared a climate emergency, and 85% have formulated climate action plans, but the quality and scale of ambition still varies greatly between local authorities. A lack of clarity from central government about the role that councils must play in the transition to a safer planet remains a significant stumbling block for the sector, alongside a shortfall in funding, resources and powers.

However, the role of councils in the coming years will be essential in meeting the UK’s decarbonisation targets. Unless progress at the local level advances swiftly, both local and national ambitions to make the country future fit will fail to be realised.

That’s why Friends of the Earth and Ashden have developed these 40 case studies, so that the wealth of knowledge and learnings that already exist within the sector can be shared widely. It is hoped that all councils can learn from the range of practical insights and examples that have been collected to help them replicate best practice in their areas.

The two organisations also hope to amplify the many benefits that come with action on climate. By making the switch to green, clean infrastructure, local authorities can guarantee warmer homes, better health and hundreds of thousands of long-term jobs in sustainable industries for their residents.

For the full set of case studies, please visit the Take Climate Action website .

Sandra Bell, campaigner at Friends of the Earth, said:

“Whether it’s declaring a climate emergency or producing a plan to curb climate and nature breakdown, most local authorities have shown they want to do more to protect our planet. But in spite of this, we’re still not seeing local progress at the rate needed to halt the worst climate impacts.  

“For many councils, it’s a question of funding and powers, both of which are in short supply. But we have identified a huge number of ways that local authorities can accelerate climate progress where they operate. It’s vital that councils use the powers and resources they have now to drive things forward, while lobbying government for more support in the meantime.

“It’s inspiring to see how councils have overcome some of their own local challenges with creative and practical climate solutions, and we hope that others will use these examples as the springboard to further their own climate ambitions.”

Harriet Lamb, CEO of climate charity Ashden, says:

“Behind the scenes, local authorities are often doing the climate heavy-lifting, engaging communities and seeking to cut carbon in neighbourhoods. They are trialling new initiatives from raising funds through community bonds to training people in the skills of tomorrow such as for retrofitting homes or planting parklets. These initiatives while being good for the planet also have wider benefits – such as improving health when air quality improves through fewer private cars, or warmer homes and lower fuel bills from insulating homes.”

• The full set of case studies compiled by Friends of the Earth and Ashden can be viewed here . Further examples of best practice are due to be published in due course.
• Friends of the Earth’s Climate Action Plan for Councils sets out 50 important actions that councils can take to address the climate and ecological emergencies while setting out a path to green and fair local economic recovery. Each of the case studies relate directly to 40 of these actions.
• This set of case studies showcases specific examples of good practice relating to climate action, but this is not necessarily an endorsement of the wider work that these councils are doing.
• Friends of the Earth and Ashden are part of a coalition of local government, environmental, and research organisations that has published a Blueprint for accelerating climate action and a green recovery at the local level which sets out the national leadership, policies, powers and funding needed to empower local authorities to deliver at scale, working together with communities and businesses.
• There are over 300 Climate Action groups and Friends of the Earth local groups helping to provide the local solution to a global crisis. They harness community power to make our neighbourhoods greener and more climate friendly. They have convinced local decision-makers to rollout ambitious Climate Action Plans and many are now focussed on turning those plans into action.
• To find out which councils have declared climate emergencies and adopted Climate Action Plans, please visit: https://data.climateemergency.uk/

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Original research article, how academic research and news media cover climate change: a case study from chile.

• 1 Education, Research, and Innovation (ERI) Sector, NEOM, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia
• 2 Departamento de Ciencias del Lenguaje, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Santiago, Chile

Introduction: Climate change has significant impacts on society, including the environment, economy, and human health. To effectively address this issue, it is crucial for both research and news media coverage to align their efforts and present accurate and comprehensive information to the public. In this study, we use a combination of text-mining and web-scrapping methods, as well as topic-modeling techniques, to examine the similarities, discrepancies, and gaps in the coverage of climate change in academic and general-interest publications in Chile.

Methods: We analyzed 1,261 academic articles published in the Web of Science and Scopus databases and 5,024 news articles from eight Chilean electronic platforms, spanning the period from 2012 to 2022.

Results: The findings of our investigation highlight three key outcomes. Firstly, the number of articles on climate change has increased substantially over the past decade, reflecting a growing interest and urgency surrounding the issue. Secondly, while both news media and academic research cover similar themes, such as climate change indicators, climate change impacts, and mitigation and adaptation strategies, the news media provides a wider variety of themes, including climate change and society and climate politics, which are not as commonly explored in academic research. Thirdly, academic research offers in-depth insights into the ecological consequences of global warming on coastal ecosystems and their inhabitants. In contrast, the news media tends to prioritize the tangible and direct impacts, particularly on agriculture and urban health.

Discussion: By integrating academic and media sources into our study, we shed light on their complementary nature, facilitating a more comprehensive communication and understanding of climate change. This analysis serves to bridge the communication gap that commonly, exists between scientific research and news media coverage. By incorporating rigorous analysis of scientific research with the wider reach of the news media, we enable a more informed and engaged public conversation on climate change.

1. Introduction

Climate change is the most pervasive threat to the world's natural, social, political, and economic systems. Human activities have caused a rise in greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere and caused the earth's surface temperature to rise, leading to many other changes around the world—in the atmosphere, on land, and in the oceans ( Wyser et al., 2020 ; Masson-Delmotte et al., 2021 ). Indicators of these changes include increases in global average air and ocean temperature, rising global sea levels ( Zemp et al., 2019 ; Garcia-Soto et al., 2021 ; Oliver et al., 2021 ), amplification of permafrost thawing and glacier retreat ( Sommer et al., 2020 ; Wilkenskjeld et al., 2022 ), reduction of snow and ice cover ( Shepherd et al., 2018 ), ocean acidification ( Doney et al., 2020 ) and stronger and more frequent extreme events such as heatwaves, storms, droughts, wildfires, and flooding ( Abram et al., 2021 ; van der Wiel and Bintanja, 2021 ). These changes are projected to continue throughout at least the rest of this century ( Smale et al., 2019 ; Cook et al., 2020 ; Kwiatkowski et al., 2020 ; Ortega et al., 2021 ). Mitigation and adaptation are two complementary strategies for addressing climate change ( Abubakar and Dano, 2020 ; Diamond et al., 2020 ; Tosun, 2022 ). Mitigation focuses on reducing emissions or enhancing GHG sinks, while adaptation involves building resilience to the unavoidable impacts on people and ecosystems. To be successful, these efforts require a deep scientific understanding, as well as the active engagement of the scientific community, civil society, and other stakeholders ( Wamsler, 2017 ; Tai and Robinson, 2018 ; Gonçalves et al., 2022 ).

News media and academic research have distinct roles in communicating scientific findings on climate change ( Corbett, 2015 ). News media rapidly disseminate scientific findings to a broader audience, shaping public understanding and influencing science-policy translation, practices, politics, public opinion, and understanding of climate change. They select and frame information to shape public awareness and perception, often influenced by various factors such as political, economic, scientific, ecological, or social events. Academic research provides a scientific foundation, evidence-based insights, and focuses on rigorous methodologies, data analysis, and the generation of scientific knowledge related to climate change. Aligning news media and academic research in their coverage is essential for effectively addressing climate change. Consistent messaging and shared thematic structures between media and academia build public trust and understanding, enabling informed decision-making and collective action. However, it's important to acknowledge that variations may exist between news media and academic research coverage due to factors like economic development, political influences, and differing focuses on the societal dimension of climate change ( Hase et al., 2021 ).

Over the past decade, media coverage of climate science has grown in accuracy, though the extent and type of coverage varies between countries and is often connected to political, scientific, ecological, or social events ( Shehata and Hopmann, 2012 ; Schmidt et al., 2013 ; Lopera and Moreno, 2014 ; Schäfer and Schlichting, 2014 ; Stecula and Merkley, 2019 ; Hase et al., 2021 ; Dubash et al., 2022 ). A growing body of experimental research has explored how climate change has been represented in news media ( Dotson et al., 2012 ; Wozniak et al., 2015 ; Barkemeyer et al., 2017 ; Bohr, 2020 ; Keller et al., 2020 ) as well as providing an overview of the state of knowledge on the science of climate change ( Berrang-Ford et al., 2015 ; Pacifici et al., 2015 ; Rojas-Downing et al., 2017 ; Cianconi et al., 2020 ; Fawzy et al., 2020 ; Olabi and Abdelkareem, 2022 ; Talukder et al., 2022 ). As far as we know, however, no previous research has investigated simultaneously news media coverage and academia's research agenda on climate change globally or locally. Therefore, the primary goal of our study is to evaluate, by means of text-mining, web-scraping methods, and topic-modeling techniques, the extent of alignment between news media and academic research in their coverage of climate change topics in the context of Chile. By examining the content and comparing the thematic focus of climate change discourse in both sources, this study will contribute to understanding the similarities, discrepancies, and gaps in the coverage of climate change in Chile. Furthermore, the findings can inform future efforts to improve the alignment and comprehensiveness of climate change communication between news media and academia, ultimately promoting public awareness and understanding of this critical global issue ( Leuzinger et al., 2019 ; Albagli and Iwama, 2022 ).

Chile is particularly interesting as study model due to a variety of political, geographic, ecological, political, and social factors. Despite contributing only 0.23% to global GHG emissions ( Labarca et al., 2023 ), Chile is highly vulnerable to climate change impacts. Evidence of current and future effects of climate change on Chilean territory has been mounting ( Bozkurt et al., 2017 ; Araya-Osses et al., 2020 ; Martínez-Retureta et al., 2021 ), which could have detrimental consequences for citizens' health and wellbeing by impacting key sectors such as fisheries and aquaculture, forestry, agriculture and livestock, mining, energy, and water resources. Additionally, the Government of Chile chaired the 2019 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP25) in Spain ( Navia, 2019 ) and has committed to reducing its GHG emissions by 30% compared to 2007 levels as part of its nationally determined contributions. Previous studies have explored ideological bias in media coverage of climate change in Chile ( Dotson et al., 2012 ), however there is a lack of research comparing academic research with news media. Although this study focuses on climate change in Chile, its results more broadly inform gaps in the coverage of climate change between academic and media discourse and emphasizes the importance of analyzing both sources to improve public understanding of climate change issues.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. academic articles.

The ISI Web of Science WOS Core Collection ( https://apps.webofknowledge.com/ ) and Scopus ( https://www.scopus.com/home.uri ) database were chosen for the collection of academic articles. On January 18, 2023, we retrieved all publications related to climate change in Chile using the following Boolean search strategy: [(climat * chang * OR global chang * OR “climat * emergenc * OR “climat * crisis OR “global warming) AND Chile * ]. A comprehensive search strategy was employed to identify relevant publications from 2012 to 2022, without any language restrictions Following the search based on these criteria, a total of 1,758 articles from Web of Science (WOS) and 1,730 articles from Scopus were retrieved. The search results were downloaded in.xlsx format for further analysis. To ensure data accuracy, a manual comparison was conducted between the SCOPUS and WOS records, which involved examining the title, primary author, source title, and year of publication. All the articles obtained, including their titles and abstracts, were exclusively in English. Duplicate articles were discarded. We next used the title and abstract- when available- of each article to ensure we only included studies aimed at understanding climate change in Chile either by Chilean or international scientists. We include original articles and reviews, but not conference proceedings or books/book chapters, in our analysis. Articles without an abstract were also excluded. This resulted in 1,261 articles used to build the academic corpus, which comprises the following metadata for each document: database, title, abstract, and publication year.

2.2. News media articles

Climate Change coverage from Chilean electronic news platforms was also studied over the 10-year period from 2012 to 2022. This time period was determined by the availability of items on the selected platforms. The sample included eight electronic platforms: La Tercera, Meganoticias, CNN Chile, El Mostrador, T13, CHV Noticias, El Desconcierto and Diario Financiero. The platforms were chosen based on their national coverage, their high circulation and accessibility without a subscription fee. The approach to retrieve the articles was as follows. First, tags directly related to climate change were identified: “climate change,” “global warming,” “climatic crisis,” and “climatic emergency.” This strategy allows for a systematization of sampling. For each article, the name of the media, tag, headline, date, and URL of the source page were retrieved using the Rvest ( Wickham, 2016 ) and RSelenium ( Harrison and Harrison, 2022 ) R-packages. The URLs were then used to extract the articles' full text (body). Those articles that were not retrievable using this method due to forbidden access or any other restrictions in the source page were discarded from the collection. A total of 6,056 news articles were retrieved between January 06 and 15, 2023. Because a news item may include different tags, we removed duplicate articles for each of the platforms. Articles in which the date could not be retrieved were also discarded. After this filtering process, we obtained 5024 articles, which were used to build the news media corpus ( Table 1 ).

Table 1 . Information of electronic platform and news media articles retrieved.

2.3. Preprocessing

The corpora were preprocessed as follows: performing tokenization into unigrams (one word) using the “tidytext” R-package ( Silge and Robinson, 2016 ), normalizing text into lowercase and removing punctuation, symbols, numbers, and HTML tags. English and Spanish lists of stop words were applied to the academic ( Puurula, 2013 ) and news media (a proposed list of Spanish stop-words was used; Díaz, 2016 ) corpus, respectively. Additional terms (e.g., academic corpus: “mission”, “b.v”, “rights”, “reserved”; news media corpus: “tags”, “u-uppercase”, “video”, “cnn”, “iphone”) were added to the list of stop words as frequent words present across many documents that are expected not to be related to any topic and whose presence might hinder the interpretation of the results. Also, plural words were converted to singular (e.g., academic corpus: “glaciers” to “glacier”, “southern” to “south”; news media corpus: “gases” to “gas”, “emissions” to “emission”). To preprocess the corpora, we used the “quanteda” R-package ( Benoit et al., 2018 ).

2.4. Publication trends

The Mann-Kendall trend test was used to detect an increase, decrease or no difference in the number of articles published for both academic and news media corpora. Mann-Kendall test is a distribution-free test that can be used to identify monotonic trends for as few as four samples ( Mann, 1945 ; Kendall, 1975 ). This is relevant for our purposes, given the results of our study were limited by a small sample size ( n = 10). In brief, we tested the null hypothesis if the data are identically distributed (i.e., non-trend). The alternative hypothesis was that the data follow a monotonic trend. This monotonic trend could be positive or negative. We fitted the Mann-Kendall model using the “Kendall” R-package ( McLeod and McLeod, 2015 ).

2.5. LDA topic modeling

Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA), a probabilistic topic-modeling technique, was used to identify the most common topics and themes in both corpora. Briefly, topic modeling is an unsupervised machine learning technique which can identify co-occurring terms and patterns from collections of text documents ( Kherwa and Bansal, 2019 ). Latent LDA is a well-suited unsupervised algorithm for general topic modeling tasks, particularly when dealing with long documents, which is the case with analyzing academic or news media articles ( Anupriya and Karpagavalli, 2015 ; Goyal and Kashyap, 2022 ). LDA is a three-level hierarchical Bayesian model that employs three basic elements, namely the corpus which is constituted from a set of documents that is composed from a group of words ( Blei et al., 2003 ; Blei, 2012 ). LDA can infer probabilistic word clusters, called topics, based on patterns of (co) occurrence of words in the documents that are analyzed. LDA models each document as a mixture of topics and the model generates automatic summaries of topics in terms of a discrete probability distribution over words for each topic, and further infers per-document discrete distributions over topic. LDA output can be used logically to classify the documents according to the topic it belongs to.

Before performing the LDA, the number of topics needs to be estimated. In this study, we used two metrics from the R-package “ldatuning” ( Nikita, 2016 ): CaoJuan2009 and Deveaud2014. Whereas measure CaoJuan2009 has to be minimized ( Cao et al., 2009 ), Deveaud2014 has to be maximized ( Deveaud et al., 2014 ). Both metrics showed a plateau in the curves at 9 and 13 topics (k) for both academic and news media corpora, respectively ( Figure 1 ). For each corpus, we fitted the LDA model using the “topicmodels” R-package ( Grün and Hornik, 2011 ). The collapsed Gibbs sampling method was used to estimate the LDA parameters with 1,000 iterations for k = 13 and k = 9 topics for academic and news media corpora, respectively). Once generated, we assigned a label that adds an interpretable meaning to each of the inferred topics. It is important to note that the news media corpus was analyzed in its original language (i.e., Spanish), but the results (i.e., topics and themes) are presented in English.

Figure 1 . Suggested number of topics in the (A) academic and (B) news media corpora using the CaoJuan2009 and Deveaud2014 metrics.

Lastly, we used a variation of Vu et al. (2019) and Keller et al. (2020) procedures to sort the topics into five overarching themes: climate change indicators (e.g., warming, temperature, glaciers, sea-level, oceans, coastal, weather, wildfires, drought, etc.); climate change impacts (e.g., water, food, agriculture, livestock, biodiversity, ecosystems, financial etc.); climate change and society (e.g., health, wellbeing, pollution, education, humanity, population, etc.); climate politics (e.g., government, law, policy, regulation, U.N., COP, agreement, etc.); and addressing climate change (e.g., adaptation, mitigation, action, renewable, GHG, emissions, fuel, management, etc.). Figure 2 summarizes the steps of data retrieval, corpus creation and content analysis.

Figure 2 . Data collection and analysis framework.

2.6. Visualizations

Data visualizations were performed using R ( R Core Team, 2022 ) in conjunction with the software package ggplot2 ( Wickham et al., 2016 ) and dplyr ( Wickham et al., 2022 ).

3.1. Publications trends over 2012–2022 period

National and international authors published 1,261 research academic articles related to climate change in Chile during the 2012–2022 period. More than half of these articles, approximately 66.0%, were published from 2019 onwards. In terms of news media, we retrieved 5,024 articles over the period 2012–2022. Of these articles, 76.6% were published in the past 4 years. Figure 3 shows trends in the number of articles for both the academic and news media corpus. Note that the scales of the y-axis are different between corpora. Mann-Kendall trend analysis showed a significant and upward trend for the number of academic articles (τ = 1, p < 0.01, Figure 3A ) and news media articles (τ = 0.85, p = < 0.05, Figure 3B ) articles. The number of articles published per year follows a similar trend in both corpora, however, news media articles showed a sharp increase in 2019. After these peaks, the number of published media articles decreased before an additional increase was observed.

Figure 3 . Annual trend of (A) academic and (B) news media articles published from 2012 to 2022.

3.2. LDA topic modeling

The output of the LDA for the academic and news media corpora are displayed in Table 2 . Topics were labeled based on the top 15 keywords with the largest probabilities in topics vectors ( Figures 4 , 5 ) and content in most relevant articles. In the academic corpus, the nine topics extracted were categorized into three overarching themes: “climate change indicators” (Topic A 2, A3 and A 4), “climate change impacts” (Topics A 7, A 8, and A 9), and “addressing climate change” (Topics A 1, A 5, and A 6). No topics in the academic corpus were classified as “climate change and society” or “climate politics”. The 13 topics extracted from news media corpus were classified in five themes: “climate change indicators” (Topic NM 1, NM 4, NM 7, and NM 9), “climate change impacts” (Topic NM 8 and NM 12), “addressing climate change” (Topics NM 5 and NM 13), “climate change and society” (Topics NM 2 and NM 11), and “climate politics” (Topics NM 6 and NM 10).

Table 2 . Themes, labels, and topics identified by LDA for academic ( n = 9) and news media ( n = 13) corpora.

Figure 4 . Word-topic probability from LDA model in the academic corpus.

Figure 5 . Word-topic probability from LDA model in the news media corpus.

4. Discussion

This study evaluates the extent of alignment between news media and academic research in their coverage of climate change topics in Chile between 2012 and 2022. By comparing two corpora consisting of 1,261 news articles and 5,024 academic articles, this research sheds light on the similarities, discrepancies, and gaps in the coverage of climate change in Chilean academic and general-interest publications. Our analysis revealed three key findings. Firstly, the number of articles on climate change has increased substantially over the past decade, reflecting a growing interest and urgency surrounding the issue. Secondly, while both news media and academic research cover similar themes, such as climate change indicators, climate change impacts and mitigation and adaptation strategies, the news media provides a wider variety of themes, including climate change and society and climate politics, which are not as commonly explored in academic research. Thirdly, academic literature offers in-depth insights into the ecological consequences of global warming on coastal ecosystems and their inhabitants. In contrast, press media tends to prioritize the tangible and direct impacts, particularly on agriculture and urban health. These disparities not only underscore the differing emphases between news media and academic coverage but also illustrate how news media predominantly focuses on the immediate and visible impacts of climate change events.

4.1. Publications trends over 2012–2022 period

Our study explores the coverage of climate change in Chile by news media and research academia during the 2012–2022 period. We found a significant increase in the number of academic and news media articles published on climate change in Chile over the past decade, indicating growing interest and urgency surrounding the issue ( Figure 3 ). The rise in Chilean literature suggests an increased interest by the scientific community in understanding climate change in Chile, which is crucial for understanding global environmental changes and their impacts on natural, social, political, and economic systems. Our findings are consistent with previous studies that have mapped the evolution of climate change science worldwide ( Klingelhöfer et al., 2020 ; Nalau and Verrall, 2021 ; Reisch et al., 2021 ; Rocque et al., 2021 ). The media coverage of climate change in Chile also increased significantly since 2012, reaching a peak during 2019 before decreasing sharply in 2020 and increasing again thereafter. In 2019, the peak coincided with the climate summit (COP 25) held by Chile, generating great interest among civil society, scientists, and the private sector to share their plans for mitigating and adapting to climate change ( Hjerpe and Linnér, 2010 ). This event occurred at the same time as the #FridaysForFuture campaign, which mobilized an unprecedented number of youths worldwide to join the climate movement, including Chile ( Fisher, 2019 ). The campaign was instrumental not only for its potential impact on policy but also for raising public awareness about climate change and promoting action to address it. However, the media landscape experienced a notable shift in priorities due to the global COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic brought about unprecedented challenges and uncertainties, leading to changes in media coverage patterns and public attention. News media had to allocate significant resources to reporting on the pandemic, including public health information, policy responses, and updates on the spread of the virus ( Krawczyk et al., 2021 ; Mach et al., 2021 ). This shift in media priorities affected the extent and prominence of climate change coverage. Consequently, the media coverage of climate change in Chile experienced a temporary decline in 2020. However, as the world gradually adapted to the ongoing pandemic, news media resumed their coverage of climate change, and the topic regained attention. Additionally, the upcoming international conferences, such as COP 26 in England (2021) and COP 27 in Egypt (2022), may have contributed to the increased media coverage observed since 2021, as these events serve as key moments to discuss global climate action.

4.2. LDA topic modeling

Using LDA topic analysis, we found that both academic and news media articles covered three of the five evaluated themes—“climate change indicators”, “climate change impacts”, and “addressing climate change”—as shown in Table 2 and Figures 4 , 5 . The themes “climate change and society” and “climate politics” were covered by news media but has been relatively underexplored in academic research.

4.2.1. Climate change indicators

Both corpora shared a common focus on droughts and precipitations as key climate change indicators. Academic studies covered extreme precipitation and drought (Topic A 2), as well as precipitation patterns in the Andean region (Topic A 4). Similarly, news media concentrated on drought and precipitation patterns in central Chile (Topic NM 9). Research by Chilean scientists shows that since 2010, the country has witnessed a significant increase in drought intensity and frequency, accompanied by a sharp reduction in precipitation ( Garreaud et al., 2020 ; González-Reyes et al., 2023 ). The resulting prolonged drought has caused acute water stress, food insecurity, loss of livelihoods, and severe biodiversity impacts, particularly in the central region. The shared focus reflects the concern for the tangible and urgent impacts of the mega-drought experienced by Chile over the last decade ( De la Barrera et al., 2018 ; Sarricolea et al., 2020 ; Alvarez-Garreton et al., 2021 ). Thus, the alignment in attention to these issues highlights the pressing nature of the topic in Chile's context.

Moreover, the academic corpus focuses on climate change scenarios scenarios (Topic A 3) related to precipitation patterns. This indicates a strong emphasis on understanding the potential impacts of climate change on rainfall patterns and hydrological systems. On the other hand, the news media corpus predominantly focuses on indicators and trends (Topic NM 1) related to financial aspects, such as countries' expenditures, economic programs over the last decade, and historical perspectives on the planet. Although the focus of the two corpora differs in terms of temporal perspective, both share the overarching objective of understanding climate change and its indicators. The academic corpus with its emphasis on scenarios offers valuable insights into long-term projections and the potential consequences of climate change. Meanwhile, the news media corpus, with its focus on indicators and trends, serves to inform the public about the immediate impacts of climate change. By examining these complementary approaches, a more holistic understanding of climate change and its multifaceted nature can be obtained, incorporating both long-term projections and current reality.

Interestingly, news media coverage of climate change impacts extends beyond droughts and precipitation scenarios, encompassing a wide range of issues such as melting ice, sea-level rise, urban flooding, heatwaves, and fires, which have become particularly problematic in Chile and other countries, notably Europe (Topic NM 4 and 7). Heatwaves have been increasingly frequent and intense, resulting in record-breaking high temperatures across, Chile ( Piticar, 2018 ; Suli et al., 2023 ), Europe ( Xu et al., 2020 ; Becker et al., 2022 ; Lhotka and Kyselý, 2022 ) and worldwide. These episodes result in elevated mortality rates, particularly among vulnerable populations, and the amplification of other health-related risks ( An der Heiden et al., 2020 ; Błazejczyk et al., 2022 ). Fires, fueled by warmer and drier conditions, have also received considerable attention in news media. The incidence of wildfires has risen substantially, causing significant ecological damage, property destruction, and threats to human wellbeing ( Wong-Parodi, 2020 ; Hertelendy et al., 2021 ). Fires have been a significant concern in Chile between 2015 and 2022, accounting for 36% of the total burnt area from 1985 to 2022 ( Ruffault et al., 2018 ; CONAF, 2022 ; Varga et al., 2022 ). These fires have resulted in the destruction of thousands of hectares of land, vital ecosystems, and significant air pollution, all of which have adverse effects on human health. This broader coverage aligns with academic research findings that emphasize the devastating effects of climate change events on the environment, local communities, economy, welfare, and health in Chile and elsewhere ( Piticar, 2018 ; Suli et al., 2023 ). The news media serves a pivotal role in disseminating information about these climate change impacts, effectively highlighting their far-reaching consequences. Furthermore, these examples shed light on the differing emphases between news media and academic coverage, with news media giving considerable attention to the immediate and visible impacts of climate change events. This approach serves to raise awareness and engage the public in comprehending and addressing these pressing challenges.

4.2.2. Climate change impacts

The analysis reveals that academic literature predominantly concentrates on the impacts of global warming on coastal organisms (Topics A 9). Similarly, the population response of coastal species is a major research focus within academia, examining the implications of climate change on species' survival, reproductive success, and migration patterns (Topics A 7). Changes in oceans, such as temperature increase, sea level rise, and acidification, have had wide-ranging biological implications ( Dewitte et al., 2021 ; Navarrete et al., 2022 ), and recent studies have shown that marine organisms can adapt or acclimate to these changes ( Navarro et al., 2016 ; Ramajo et al., 2019 ; Fernandez et al., 2021 ; Lardies et al., 2021 ; Vargas et al., 2022 ). For instance, Navarro et al. (2020) examined the effects of ocean warming and acidification on juvenile Chilean oysters ( Ostrea chilensis ), inhabiting coastal and estuarine areas of the mid to high latitudes of southern Chile. Silva et al. (2016) investigated the impacts of projected sea surface temperature on habitat suitability and geographic distribution of anchovy ( Engraulis ringens ) due to climate change in the coastal areas off Chile, an important commercial fishery resource in Chile. Most of these species are commercially important and provide food and livelihoods for local communities. The future impacts of climate change on marine biodiversity in Chile are uncertain but could be severe if current trends persist ( Du Pontavice et al., 2020 ). Additionally, a considerable amount of academic research revolves around environmental impact and risk assessment (Topics A 9), which reflects the growing concern over the susceptibility of human and natural systems to climate change impacts in Chile. Vulnerability and risk assessment can help identify populations, regions, and sectors that are most susceptible to the current and future impacts of climate change ( Urquiza et al., 2021 ). Addressing these vulnerabilities can inform decision-making processes and support the development of effective policies and adaptation strategies ( Gandini et al., 2021 ; Simpson et al., 2021 ).

In contrast, news media predominantly highlights the significant impacts of climate change on Chilean agriculture and ecosystem services (Topic NM 8) ( Fernández et al., 2019 ). Extreme weather events, such as heatwaves and droughts, have resulted in significant alterations in the timing and quantity of rainfall. These changes, in turn, have led to notable shifts in soil moisture levels and water availability for crop cultivation. These events have also impacted soil fertility, crop yields, and farm infrastructure, as well as pollination services provided by insects, such as bees, which are critical for fruit and vegetable production ( Gajardo-Rojas et al., 2022 ). By emphasizing this interconnectedness, news media can help people understand the significant economic, social, and food security impacts of climate change on the country's agricultural sector ( Muluneh, 2021 ). Furthermore, news articles often focus on the health impacts of climate change on urban populations (Topic NM 12), such as the increased prevalence of heat-related illnesses, air pollution-related respiratory diseases, and the spread of vector-borne diseases in cities ( Bell et al., 2008 ; Oyarzún et al., 2021 ).

These disparities between academic literature and news media highlight the communication gap between scientific research and mainstream discourse on climate change impacts in Chile. While academia provides detailed insights into the ecological consequences of global warming on coastal ecosystems and their inhabitants, the news media places more emphasis on tangible and direct impacts, such as those on agriculture and urban health. Bridging this gap between academia and news media is crucial for enhancing public awareness and understanding of the comprehensive range of climate change impacts, ultimately supporting informed decision-making and sustainable action in response to this urgent global issue.

4.2.3. Adressing climate change

An alignment between academic literature and news media can be observed in their shared focus on adaptation efforts and mitigation strategies. Academic literature extensively examines the role of mitigation and adaptation in the energy sector (Topic A 1), emphasizing the importance of diversifying energy sources, developing and implementing renewable energy sources, and energy efficiency to reduce GHG emissions and provide cost-effective mitigation and adaptation benefits to households and businesses ( Nasirov et al., 2019 ; Pamparana et al., 2019 ; Kairies-Alvarado et al., 2021 ; Martinez-Soto et al., 2021 ; Raihan, 2023 ). This aligns with the coverage in news media, which highlights the transition toward low carbon energy systems (Topic NM 5), reflecting policy agendas in many countries, including Chile, where the energy sector is the largest contributor to GHG emissions ( Álamos et al., 2022 ; Labarca et al., 2023 ). The transition to a more sustainable energy system in Chile has been promoted through the implementation of renewable energy production and energy efficiency ( Simsek et al., 2019 , 2020 ; Babonneau et al., 2021 ; Osorio-Aravena et al., 2021 ; Ferrada et al., 2022 ). These findings are in line with those of Lyytimäki (2018) , who found that news media created a highly positive narrative of renewable energies as an environmentally friendly solution to GHG emissions.

However, disparities between academic literature and news media coverage are apparent. While both sources recognize the significance of these measures, academic literature provides more comprehensive coverage than news media. Academic literature places significant emphasis on forest carbon management, acknowledging the crucial role of forests in carbon sequestration (Topic A 5), and climate change mitigation. This involves implementing forest conservation, reforestation, and afforestation practices to increase carbon sequestration in forest biomass and soil, thereby reducing GHG emissions Additionally, academic literature extensively addresses agriculture-water management (Topic A 6), emphasizing the importance of sustainable agricultural practices and efficient water resource management in response to changing climate conditions. Relevant mitigation and adaptation strategies for agriculture, such as improving water use efficiency, adopting irrigation technologies, and modifying crop choices, have been identified in academic research ( Novoa et al., 2019 ; Jordán and Speelman, 2020 ; Zúñiga et al., 2021 ). In contrast, news media coverage is more limited in these areas, focusing more narrowly on the transition toward low carbon energy systems (Topic NM 5), and general adaptation efforts and mitigation strategies (Topic NM 13). Despite this, news media plays a vital role in climate change communication by highlighting various actions that can be taken to effectively mitigate and adapt to the impacts of climate change, which can help promote the adoption of sustainable solutions.

4.2.4. Climate change and society

Our analysis reveals an interesting pattern: the theme of “climate change and society” is covered by news media but has been relatively underexplored in academic research. In news media coverage, the theme of society and sustainable development (Topic NM 2) takes center stage, focusing on dimensions such as economy, technology, social, and environment. Additionally, news media pays significant attention to climate action (Topic NM 11), exemplified by movements like “Fridays for Future” and speeches by climate activist Greta Thunberg during international climate conferences such as COP.

This media coverage plays a vital role in highlighting contingent events and showcasing the direct and indirect impacts of climate change on people's daily lives on both local and global scales. However, it is notable that the theme of “climate change and society” lacks adequate representation in the scientific literature.

Understanding the societal implications of climate change is of paramount importance for all stakeholders, including policymakers, civil society organizations, and individuals. The scientific exploration of this topic can provide valuable insights into effective and equitable adaptation and mitigation strategies. Consequently, there is a pressing need to develop further research on this topic, bridging the gap between news media coverage and scientific inquiry. By expanding our understanding of the societal dimensions of climate change in the academic literature, we can better inform evidence-based decision-making, foster collective action, and ultimately contribute to a more sustainable future.

4.2.5. Climate politics

Climate politics is another topic covered by news media underexplored in academic. This theme has included topics such international conferences and commitments (Topic NM 3), IPCC Reports (Topic NM 6) and Chilean climate change framework law (Topic NM 10). The Climate Change Framework Law, is a recent important policy instrument for addressing climate change, as it aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change ( Madariaga Gómez de Cuenca, 2021 ). The IPCC report, on the other hand, is a crucial scientific report that provides a comprehensive assessment of the state of knowledge on climate change, its causes, impacts, and future risks ( Pörtner et al., 2019 ). IPCC report coverage in the news media is vital for the understanding of climate change in Chile and worldwide, as they inform the public about the latest developments in climate policy and the scientific understanding of climate change. The coverage of these topics in the news media is important for society's understanding of climate change, both in Chile and worldwide, as it highlights the importance of political will and action in tackling climate change at local, national, and global levels. The relatively low coverage of these themes in academic research, however, suggests the need for more interdisciplinary research on the social and political dimensions of climate change.

4.3. Analyzing news media and academic research

Our study focused on assessing the alignment between climate change coverage in news media and academic research in Chile, revealing significant gaps in the framing of climate change between these two domains. Academic research and media coverage of climate change often focus on different aspects and utilize distinct methodologies. Academic sources offer rigorous scientific investigations, providing in-depth analysis and evidence-based insights into the complexities of climate change ( Cook, 2019 ; Farrell et al., 2019 ; Masson-Delmotte et al., 2021 ). In contrast, media sources serve as a bridge between scientific findings and public understanding, shaping public opinion and influencing societal actions ( Boykoff, 2009 ; Drews and Van den Bergh, 2016 ; Boykoff and Luedecke, 2017 ; Stecula and Merkley, 2019 ; Merkley, 2020 ; McAllister et al., 2021 ; Okoliko and de Wit, 2023 ). The complementary nature of academic and media sources allows for a more comprehensive communication and understanding of climate change ( Goldstein et al., 2020 ; Lewandowsky, 2021 ). Through analyzing both academic and media sources, discrepancies and gaps in climate change coverage can be identified, uncovering biases and insufficient attention to certain aspects. This analysis significantly enhances public understanding by facilitating the development of targeted communication strategies that bridge these gaps, ultimately promoting informed public debates and driving effective actions. However, it is crucial to recognize that the level of media influence on public opinion depends on the level of audience engagement with climate change discourse ( Wonneberger et al., 2020 ). Consequently, aligning academic and media coverage becomes even more essential as it enables a more accurate and balanced portrayal of climate change, thereby facilitating the implementation of necessary policies and practices to address this pressing global concern. Our findings have important implications for future research and climate communication in Chile, suggesting the need for increased attention to the challenging dimensions of climate change, such as the social dynamics and political factors associated with this global issue.

4.4. Limitations

This study has several limitations that should be taken into account when interpreting the findings. Firstly, the academic corpus only included articles published in English, while the news media corpus only included articles published in Spanish. As a result, topics' keywords had to be translated into English for comparison between corpora, which could have an effect on the results. Secondly, we selected eight Chilean electronic news media sources with high readership and free accessibility without subscription fees; however, future studies should consider including other paid subscription news media as well. Thirdly, our research does not take into account other mass media platforms that can provide information about climate change ( Tandoc and Eng, 2017 ; Becken et al., 2022 ). Future research could explore this topic further. Lastly, this study analyzed two corpora inherently different in terms of their coverage; news media tends to cover climate change from an international perspective, while academia focuses on a more local or regional level. These limitations do not diminish the significance of our findings. Our study highlights the need for better communication and dissemination of scientific findings to the general public. The findings of this study are not only relevant to Chile but also have global implications in addressing the pressing issue of climate change. It is crucial to bridge the gap between academic research and news media coverage to promote effective solutions for tackling this issue.

5. Conclusion

Through the application of text-mining, web-scraping methods, and topic-modeling techniques to an academic and news media corpus, this study has yielded valuable insights into the similarities, discrepancies, and gaps in the coverage of climate change in Chilean academic and general-interest publications. By identifying and analyzing these patterns, our research contributes to a deeper understanding of climate change coverage in Chile, providing relevant evidence that bridges the communication gap between scientific research and mainstream discourse. The integration of academic and media sources in this study has revealed their complementary nature, facilitating a more comprehensive communication and understanding of climate change. This interdisciplinary approach expands our perspective, allowing us to appreciate the multifaceted aspects associated with climate change more holistically. This study underscores the importance of considering both academic and media sources when addressing climate change. By combining the rigorous analysis of scientific research with the broader reach of media coverage, it's possible to promote a more informed and engaged public discourse on climate change.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/ Supplementary material , further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

PC and RQ contributed to conception and design of the study. PC organized the database, retrieved the information, performed the analysis, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. All authors contributed to manuscript revision, read, and approved the submitted version.

Acknowledgments

We thank to Dr. Christos Joannides, Fredy Núñez, and Manuel Valenzuela for their feedback on previous versions of this manuscript.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcomm.2023.1226432/full#supplementary-material

Supplementary Table 1. Academic and news media corpora analyzed in this study.

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Keywords: climate change, academic research, news media, LDA topic modeling, text-mining, web-scrapping, Chile

Citation: Cortés PA and Quiroga R (2023) How academic research and news media cover climate change: a case study from Chile. Front. Commun. 8:1226432. doi: 10.3389/fcomm.2023.1226432

Received: 21 May 2023; Accepted: 31 July 2023; Published: 17 August 2023.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2023 Cortés and Quiroga. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Pablo A. Cortés, pablocortesgarcia@gmail.com

Ben & Jerry’s Climate Change Campaign [CASE STUDY]

Hisham Itani

Junior Marketing Specialist

Engineer, Master's Student and Process Optimization Enthusiast. A fan of data analytics, renewable energies and good bike rides on sunny days.

As a social media data analytics and research company , we’re always interested in how big brands manage their campaigns and what we could possibly learn from their successes or failures . In order to shed light on the concept of societal and social marketing , this case study first gives an overview of the ice cream producer Ben & Jerry’s, followed by an analysis of  “If it’s melted, it’s ruined!” – Ben & Jerry’s climate change campaign . Their campaign has taken off quite well in the past two years and this can be closely seen in the release and expansion of new ice cream flavors that are vegan (i.e. non-dairy, less polluting ones) which are also lactose-intolerance friendly.

Coauthors: Martin Kasperski ,  David Omar , Kishan Patel , Utsav Purohit

Company Background

Ben and Jerry’s was founded in 1978 by Ben Cohen and Jerry Grienfield with a capital investment of 12,000 $. The first ice-cream batches were produced in a modified gas station which they had bought at the time. By 2000 Ben & Jerry’s was acquired by Unilever for $326 Million through a hostile takeover. The company’s revenue is at $521 million, which accounts for 1% of Unilever’s total revenue.

Efforts by Ben & Jerry’s with their Climate Change Campaign

Ben & Jerry’s has made a significant impact on the social issue of Climate Change through numerous actions which they have undertaken since 2002 . These efforts are both economically sustainable for the company as well as Positive Social Change generators in the society.

Creating Awareness with Marketing

Ben & Jerry’s primary focus of the campaign is to market their participation in the  climate change marches around the world. They advertise this campaign with the videos of the marches along with facts and figures concerning climate change and the march itself.

With the help of this movement, the company intends to spread awareness regarding the online petition initiated by them. Over 3.5 million people signed the petition which was submitted to the United Nations Climate Summit of 2015 .

In this conference, an agreement commonly referred to as the Paris Agreement/Accord was reached and the main takeaway was to keep global average temperature increase below 1.5°C  by 2100. A video was released narrating the effects of 2°C change on the ice cream as well as the environment .

Through such advertisements, the company has not only managed to spread its brand awareness across their potential customer base, but has also been successful in igniting a spark among the general public regarding the significance of the issue.

Furthermore, awareness within the society is spread through online blogs focusing on issues and news relating to climate change. The company has also released products with awareness quotes printed on them; adding further value to their campaign.

Moreover, Ben & Jerry’s has also laid emphasis on addressing the environmental difficulties faced by countries that are less economically developed and also stated that its the responsibility of countries with well developed economies to help in resolving the issue.

Actions to Reduce Carbon Emissions

Ben & Jerry’s undertook several steps for reducing their own carbon footprints over the years. The company’s pledge of using 100% renewable energy sources by the year 2020 reflects their commitment towards their climate change campaign.

Additionally, a new in-company tax system was introduced with the aim of raising funds for the programs to reduce on farm emissions. Under this system, the company raises $10 USD for every metric ton of greenhouse gas they produce. The funds collected are used to fund other social programs.

Furthermore, the company also installed an Anaerobic Floatation Reactor called Chunkinator which converts ice cream waste into Bio Gas. This gas is used to power the factories and thereby significantly reduces their greenhouse emission.

Analysis of Ben & Jerry’s Climate Change Campaign

Campaign analysis – ben & jerry’s performance on facebook, youtube, .

In order to analyze the campaign and Ben & Jerry’s performance in general, we looked at different profiles ranging from YouTube to Instagram trying to identify how intensely the campaign was promoted and peoples’ reactions to this campaign and others Ben & Jerry’s are active in . We also focused quite a bit on how people perceived the campaign and what their reactions were to a dairy company working towards climate change .

As far as data goes in the analysis of Ben & Jerry’s climate change campaign, not much is available from conventional sources. The reach of the campaigns was not highly viral; their highest video only accumulating approximately 128,000 views for the English version of the video and 164,000 for the Portuguese version as shown below on YouTube.

Furthermore, the financial records of the company are not readily available and we were only able to access Unilever annual reports which limited the ability to assess the effect and outcome of the campaign. A feasible key performance indicator (KPI) is the reach of the campaigns measured in views.

In the following sections a more in depth look will be taken at various aspects surrounding the campaign in order to have a better evaluation of its performance.

Ben & Jerry’s Climate Change Video:

Ben & Jerry’s YouTube Channel Videos

The Impact of Ben & Jerry’s Climate Change Campaign:

Disregarding the fact that these campaigns were not viral on a global scale , Ben & Jerry’s still had some impact and shed some light on important climate issues; especially when compared to other campaigns that were social or societal in Ben & Jerry’s portfolio.

An example is shown above regarding the most popular YouTube video published on Ben & Jerry’s channel which has garnered 7.16 million views since its publication date. This video and others targeted issues like GMO products, Fair Trade and Diversity in Community . Except for the third one, the videos were highly related to Ben & Jerry’s product as well as being short clips.

More data is presented below which is related to engagement levels on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram through different periods based on the availability of the data. This data corroborates the previous statements stating a lack of reach potential within the fans that they reach.

One important distinction in terms of Facebook especially is the difference between campaigns on the Global Page and the different local pages ; with Ben & Jerry’s US page having a lot more engagement than the global one for example.

Facebook Engagement – Low levels of engagement on the global page, US page engagement significantly higher:

We can see quite clearly below that levels of engagement on Ben & Jerry’s global page on Facebook were not that high and did not garner much attention. The videos on climate change that they had there for example got only 2.5k views while the same on the US page had 35k views and other videos stating calls to action got up to 145k views as well. That kind of discrepancy is quite big and can have an impact on the perceived popularity and reach of brands depending on their page assignment (whether they choose to use global pages or not). The top post can also be seen targeting Ben & Jerry’s Climate Change Campaign by a satirical post on their website about pulling out of the Paris Agreement  – mocking Donald Trump in the process (titled: 6 Reasons Pulling Out of the Paris Climate Agreement Was Totally, Definitely the Right Move ).

Ben & Jerry’s Facebook Engaged Users – Global Default Page

Ben & Jerry’s Facebook Engaged Users – US Page

Ben & Jerry’s Facebook Top Posts – US Page

Twitter Hashtags, Brand Tweets and Top Posts – Ben & Jerry’s Engages with a lot of Replies:

On Twitter, Ben & Jerry’s main achievements were through the hashtag #vegan , replying to most tweets directed at them and having more engagement on posts targeting vegan and non-dairy options rather than clean energy posts – a key issue to brand alignment .

Ben & Jerry’s Twitter Hashtags

Ben & Jerry’s Twitter Types of Tweets

Ben & Jerry’s Twitter Top Tweet #Vegan

Ben & Jerry’s Twitter Top Tweet #ActOnClimate

Instagram Top Hashtags and Posts – #Vegan beats #ClimateMarch:

On Instagram, engagement was quite good with a high number of likes and comments, especially towards topics that align with the brand and products offered to people –  hence signifying the importance of alignment to the product and that people do not always appreciate social initiatives taken by companies if they don’t feel they align to brand values or to the products themselves.

Ben & Jerry’s Instagram Top Hashtags

Ben & Jerry’s Instagram Top Posts

Regardless of the level of engagement or the image that Ben & Jerry’s is trying to set in this context, people seem to highly disagree with the values being portrayed in the published videos and their implications with  cynical  reactions and comments.

Comments on the Non-GMO Video:

Comments on the One Sweet World Video:

Comments on the Climate Movement Video:

Shortly afterwards, perhaps due to these kinds of pressures – and because 42% of their Greenhouse Gas emissions come from dairy production, Ben & Jerry’s released non-dairy products into their portfolio. This started in February 2016  and included several flavors and there have been further expansions as well into more countries such as recently in the UK as well as new flavors being introduced or old flavors being offered as non-dairy options.

Bonus Content – Pepsi’s Kendall Jenner Fiasco:

Here’s another example of how marketing can fail when it does not align with a company’s image, even with the biggest brands when they try to portray something not related to them or something that looks too outlandish just for the sake of marketing purposes, especially in real-time marketing cases. This is where consumer behavior practices come heavily into play.

Pepsi’s marketing campaign with Kendall Jenner Criticism

Benefits of External Engagement to Ben & Jerry’s Climate Change Campaign:

It can be observed that the engagement level (how many people commented, liked and shared) on Ben & Jerry’s social media platforms was low and the fact that other sources mentioning Ben & Jerry’s have more engagement and reach than the original publications by Ben & Jerry’s made this low level of engagement even more visible.

This could be seen in an article released by Delish (release of non-dairy ice cream) which has 5.9K shares to date and another one by Mashable  (similar but with more of a climate change context) which has 11.3K shares. While external sources Ben & Jerry’s own social media posts accumulated 123 shares for one of their main posts and only 2.5K views on another – Facebook Global Page .

Another point to add is that having that many shares means that the actual reach of the articles in terms of views was much higher. Such reactions indicate that the main followers of Ben & Jerry’s are mostly interested in the product offerings rather than the messages and calls for action that the brand tries to push forward as well as the reactions seen earlier.

One more outlying post can be seen below relating to the release of new non-dairy products into their portfolio and the difference in engagement is striking in comparison to other posts such as their clean energy post on Twitter.

One further aspect to judge the effectiveness of the company is its commitment towards the messages it is preaching and whether the company is truly aiming for it or not. This can be seen through stats from B Corporation’s Rating in which the company is certified in terms of its Social Corporate Responsibility aspects.

The trend for Ben & Jerry’s has been increasing in terms of its overall scores and the main cause of this is the company’s community engagement . However, their environmental score has decreased slightly over the years meaning that they are keeping consistent efforts for their promises but need to invest more into the CSR factor of environmental practices in order to avoid further criticism and stay true to their word.

Industry Leaders – How Ben & Jerry’s Compares Against Others:

The final factor to observe is the benchmarking of Ben & Jerry’s against competitors. Based on the World Atlas (2017), the top market share globally for ice cream sales lie in the hands of Magnum, Häagen Dazs, Cornetto and Ben & Jerry’s respectively.

Looking deeper into this, we found that Ben & Jerry’s is the only ice cream brand out of the four that has the B Corp certification. Furthermore, combing through the publications of the other three brands on YouTube , no significant societal campaigns were found and especially none related to climate change .

Final Thoughts and Evaluation:

In terms of Subscribers, Number of Views and Post Interactions from people Ben & Jerry’s has the highest engagement numbers, especially driven by their societal and social campaigns ; however, their climate change campaign has not been up to par with what it could be, possibly due to the fact of the misalignment of the campaign with their core values and the fact that dairy production contributes heavily to global warming. However, Ben & Jerry’s seem to be working hard on staying committed to their climate change campaign which could yield great results in the future especially if they become the leading global company in that aspect.

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Robyn Gulliver , Kelly S. Fielding , Winnifred Louis; Understanding the Outcomes of Climate Change Campaigns in the Australian Environmental Movement. Case Studies in the Environment 31 December 2019; 3 (1): 1–9. doi: https://doi.org/10.1525/cse.2018.001651

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Climate change is a global problem requiring a collective response. Grassroots advocacy has been an important element in propelling this collective response, often through the mechanism of campaigns. However, it is not clear whether the climate change campaigns organized by the environmental advocacy groups are successful in achieving their goals, nor the degree to which other benefits may accrue to groups who run them. To investigate this further, we report a case study of the Australian climate change advocacy sector. Three methods were used to gather data to inform this case study: content analysis of climate change organizations’ websites, analysis of website text relating to campaign outcomes, and interviews with climate change campaigners. Findings demonstrate that climate change advocacy is diverse and achieving substantial successes such as the development of climate change-related legislation and divestment commitments from a range of organizations. The data also highlights additional benefits of campaigning such as gaining access to political power and increasing groups’ financial and volunteer resources. The successful outcomes of campaigns were influenced by the ability of groups to sustain strong personal support networks, use skills and resources available across the wider environmental advocacy network, and form consensus around shared strategic values. Communicating the successes of climate change advocacy could help mobilize collective action to address climate change. As such, this case study of the Australian climate change movement is relevant for both academics focusing on social movements and collective action and advocacy-focused practitioners, philanthropists, and non-governmental organizations.

This case study uses extensive empirical data gathered from the climate change sector of a national environmental movement to map the significant successes it has achieved through climate change campaigns. These successes are both the outcomes of climate change campaigns and the incremental and incidental benefits achieved throughout the course of campaigning, which support the ongoing survival and growth of the groups and broader movement. Demonstrating the substantial volume and range of campaign successes may help environmental organizations to engage more supporters in their campaigning work and enable the prioritization of campaigns more likely to achieve success. These factors can help campaigners maximize the ability of their groups to continue to grow and succeed in their advocacy in the future.

Climate change is a global problem that requires collective efforts to halt the many human activities directly or indirectly generating greenhouse gas emissions. Despite the call for grassroots advocacy to drive the urgent environmental action needed [ 1 ], evidence of successes of environmental advocacy is scant. In fact, some researchers have even argued that environmental groups do not impact the process of social change at all [ 2 ], nor achieve political change [ 3 – 5 ]. Rising greenhouse gas emissions and the lack of political will to address the root causes of climate change could be considered as evidence of the lack of impact of climate change advocacy.

Climate change advocacy activities are frequently framed as campaigns. Campaigns involve the mobilization of actors to achieve a specific aim [ 6 ], with some environmental groups implementing multiple campaigns. However, one challenge of climate change advocacy is that there is no single emission source nor one single emission reduction solution: climate change arises from emissions generated through systems embedded in global economic, political, and social structures. As a result, climate change campaigns can have both political and social goals [ 7 ]. Some campaigns focus on persuading governments to enact policy measures to reduce carbon emissions, and others focus on promoting individual change to reduce their consumption-related emissions [ 8 ], with groups choosing advocacy strategies which maximize the likelihood of achieving a successful outcome within the timeframe, finances, and other resources available to them [ 9 ]. Given that a significant proportion of environmental groups are entirely volunteer-run (see Gulliver et al. [ 10 ]), lack of resources may hinder informed decision making within advocacy groups. In the absence of data on campaign outcomes, choosing among advocacy strategies will be based, at best, on the leadership teams’ distilled intuitions or hunches.

Furthermore, achieving a successful campaign outcome (e.g., such as the closure of a coal-fired power station) is not only important in itself but also communicating the successful outcome can be influential for motivating increased engagement in pro-environmental actions [ 11 , 12 ]. Previous researches demonstrate that peoples’ shared belief that their group can produce successful results is an important antecedent of collective behavior [ 13 , 14 ]. Therefore, measuring and conveying the successes that climate change advocacy has achieved may be an important component in increasing grassroots advocacy.

Australia provides a suitable context in which to undertake this investigation. As an advanced industrial democracy, advocacy can occur freely and openly. Very high levels of access to digital communications also enable widespread access to environmental groups and their online and offline communications. Furthermore, Australia is at the forefront of climate impacts and has a diverse and active environmental movement responding to this collective crisis [ 10 ]. These factors enable us to gain a clearer picture of the characteristics of climate change advocacy and the level of success it is achieving.

This case study identifies the success and failure of climate change campaigns run by climate change advocacy groups in the Australian national environmental movement. It then considers the additional benefits of campaigning that can bring to organizations beyond campaign success or failure. Finally, it considers what organizational factors may influence campaign outcomes.

It uses the data gathered from the following three sources:

A content analysis of 83 Australian climate change advocacy group websites was conducted to identify the environmental group characteristics and specific campaigns undertaken.

Text analysis of the 58 campaigns (identified in the content analysis) listed on the study group websites in early 2017 was conducted to identify campaign goals and targets, following by an online search for evidence demonstrating whether the specific goal for each campaign had been achieved 24 months later. Each campaign was then assessed as achieving either a “Successful,” “Partially Successful,” “Unsuccessful,” or “Unknown” outcome. This assessment process involved searching for news stories, reports, or any data available online indicating whether the goal of the campaign had been achieved. It does not enable claims of causation between the activities of each group and the particular campaign outcomes that were identified.

In-depth semi-structured interviews with 26 environmental campaigning practitioners working in a wide diversity of formal and informal organizations across the local, regional, state, and national geographical areas were conducted. Thematic coding identified two themes: (1) the benefits accrued from running campaigns and (2) influences on campaign success.

To summarize: the content and text analyses enabled the identification of the distinguishing characteristics of climate change groups within the study population and construction of a database of climate campaigns and their outcomes. The thematic analysis of interviews provided a view from within the environmental movement: insights from experienced campaigners were gained about additional benefits of campaigns and factors that facilitate or impede campaign success.

The content analysis allowed the characterization of climate change groups in terms of their age, focal issue, geographical range, and the number of campaigns they run. These characteristics are important in influencing strategic and tactical approaches to advocacy (for example, see Dalton [ 15 ] and Johnson et al. [ 16 ]).

Table 1 shows that the majority of climate change groups are young and are formed after 2006. Of the 83 groups, 55 operate at a local scale such as within a neighborhood, town, or city area. There is a wide diversity of focal issues for their climate change advocacy (see also Kent [ 17 ]). The majority of groups describe themselves simply as “Action” groups, such as the “Bayside Climate Change Action Group” and “Climate Action Hobart.” Other groups focus on diverse issues from promoting zero emissions across communities and industries to organizing divestment campaigns. Some groups do not describe a particular focal issue at all (labeled “General” in Table 1 ). A total of 58 campaigns were undertaken by 24 groups, with the majority of campaigns run by groups operating on a national scale.

Climate change advocacy group characteristics and campaigns.

* Websites with no description of advocacy focal area.

** No founding dates stated on websites.

Currently, there is no pre-existing open-access database of climate change campaign outcomes at the movement scale. This is partly due to the fact that methodologies used to assess the success or failure of advocacy are contested [ 18 , 19 ]. Thus, assigning the causes and effects of complex advocacy systems is challenging. In addition, activists’ judgments of what constitutes successful advocacy can vary significantly depending on their own goals and expectations. To circumvent this debate, the outcomes of specific campaigns were used to inform this case study rather than general advocacy. This approach was chosen to capitalize on the information about the goals and targets contained in each campaign description [ 6 , 20 ], which provide an opportunity to then assess outcomes against that information. While this enables an analysis of campaign goals and outcomes, the extent to which the campaigns themselves influence the outcomes remains unknown.

Using the data acquired from the content analysis of climate change websites, we constructed a dataset of Australian climate change campaigns. Across this dataset, a wide diversity of campaign goals were identified. These include several campaigns focusing on divestment, fossil fuel subsidies, and mining/power station closures. A contrasting advocacy approach focused on influencing individual behavior as a mechanism to reduce emissions, such as by planting trees or encouraging alternative individual consumption practices to reduce emissions by one tonne of CO 2 per day. The targets of the campaigns included a broad range of social, economic, and political sectors, ranging from politicians and governments to businesses, religious communities, health and education providers, and individuals. Campaign data and outcomes are presented in Appendix S1.

The analysis of campaign outcomes was undertaken through coding campaign descriptions from the study population websites and then searching online 24 months later for evidence regarding whether individual campaign goals had been successful, partially successful, unsuccessful, or unknown. Successful campaigns are those where their goal has been achieved; for example, a campaign targeting a university to divest from fossil fuels was assessed as successful if the university made a formal, public commitment to do so. Likewise, a campaign was deemed unsuccessful if the goal had not been achieved. For example, a campaign to stop a coal mine would be considered as unsuccessful if the coal mine proceeded or continued to progress in its approval or construction process. Partially successful campaigns are those where there may be multiple goals or targets, of which one or more were achieved. The outcomes of campaigns targeting changes in behavior, such as reducing the amount of meat an individual eats, were unable to be assessed because data on individual behavior (e.g., meat consumption) in the areas targeted by those campaigns are unavailable. Links to evidence for each assessment are provided in Appendix S1 and on the OSF link: https://osf.io/q2yef/?view_only=6069256771af4374ae14c718427f6e0b .

In total, 11 of the 58 (18.97%) campaigns achieved outright success, 14 of the 58 (24.14%) campaigns achieved partial success, 12 of the 58 (20.69%) campaigns were unsuccessful, and 21 of the 58 (36.21%) campaigns’ outcome were unknown ( Table 2 ). Partial success most commonly arose for divestment campaigns, as well as one major coal mining project that was delayed over a five-year period through successive targeting of the political and financial groups associated with the project. Examples of the 12 unsuccessful campaigns include those that advocate for the elimination of subsidies to, or investments in, fossil fuel companies by the Australian Federal Government and the large Australian banks. While these outcomes are labeled “unsuccessful,” campaigning on these issues continues. As noted previously, the outcomes of campaigns that focused on awareness-raising or individual behavior change activities were not able to be ascertained due to the absence of data on individual behaviors to assess outcomes. Successful campaigns were more likely to be achieved by local groups, with 6 of the 20 (30%) local campaigns achieving this outcome compared to 5 of the 38 (13.16%) national campaigns. In contrast, partial success was more likely to be achieved by national campaigns (12/38, 31.58%) than local campaigns (2/20, 10%). This may imply that local campaigns choose more achievable targets or implement less complex campaigns involving multiple targets.

Outcomes of campaigns run by local and national climate change groups.

Nine campaigns had more than one target, taking the total number of targets to 73 (see Table 3 ). Of the 58 campaigns focusing on these 73 targets, 31 targets either fully or partially achieved the campaign goal (42.47%). Paradoxically, political and government targets were both overrepresented in the unsuccessful target cohort (8/12, 66.67%) and overrepresented in the successful target cohort (6/15, 40%). An unknown outcome was most likely to occur when individuals were targeted (11/30, 36.67%), primarily due to the lack of data on any individual behavior changes achieved. The highest proportion of successful outcomes was achieved by businesses, with 12 of the 19 campaigns targeting businesses (63.16%) achieving a partial or fully successful campaign outcome.

Outcomes of climate change campaigns by campaign target.

* Nine campaigns had more than one target.

Campaigns often require a range of activities conducted over an extended period [ 21 ]. These activities, such as undertaking litigation and organizing community workshops, usually require substantial human and organizational resources. The act of campaigning can be used to increase the supply of these resources available to groups, such as attracting more volunteers and increased donations. It can also offer opportunities for more supporters to become engaged [ 22 ]. Greater resources, which enable groups to respond to issues more quickly, can implement complex projects such as community renewable energy systems and undertake more campaigns over a longer period. The acquisition of these resources through campaigning can therefore provide the foundation for achieving successful advocacy [ 23 ].

Three benefits of undertaking campaigns emerged from the thematic analysis of interview data. The first of these benefits was the acquisition of additional funds and volunteer time. All 26 interviewees highlighted the importance of these resources due to their influence in both increasing the capacity of the group to undertake research, litigation, and other activities, as well as to assist with the running costs of these largely volunteer organizations. Many volunteer leaders interviewees were self-funded and worked largely full time on their climate change advocacy, with minimal resources available to fund or train new workers. Therefore, attracting and retaining volunteers with skills, financial security and the ability to “slot in” were highlighted as an important, yet rare, benefit of undertaking campaigns. To the extent that organizations can communicate their campaign successes, this could have the benefit of attracting new members to the cause [ 24 , 25 ]. However, this is challenging when such a high proportion of campaigns target individual behaviors and thus do not have measurable outcomes, making claims of success difficult to convey.

Second, all 26 interviewees highlighted building relationships with other environmental groups as a substantial benefit of undertaking a campaign, particularly during critical phases of campaigning. These relationships facilitate building knowledge, skills, and expertise of recipient groups, and through doing so, boost the strength of the network as a whole. Campaigners also noted that an additional benefit of increasing links between groups was that it afforded smaller groups political access. Many larger groups have greater access to politicians, and more resources to enable them to engage in legislative processes (such as nominating representatives to committees or developing detailed submissions). Developing strong connections between the climate change groups therefore provides a window of opportunity for the campaigns of smaller and more local groups to be heard, and possibly heeded, by political representatives.

The third campaign benefit stated by 25 interviewees was the strengthening of bonds among the core team within each climate change group. This bond provided support to individual campaigners, enabling them to engage in campaign activities over a period of years despite periods of failure and setbacks. According to climate change campaigners, finding and retaining reliable individuals with a shared drive to undertake climate advocacy were seen as a significant, if not vital, benefit of campaigns. In fact, the quality of the relationships between the core group members was described by interviewees as fundamental to the ability of groups to undertake any campaigns at all. Campaigners identified the inter-personal relationships developed or supported through their campaigning work as both the most important aspect of their ongoing campaigning work, as well as the most personally rewarding outcome of their climate change advocacy experiences.

From the perspective of climate change campaigners, campaign success (i.e., achieving the stated goal of the campaign) and campaign benefits (i.e., additional benefits that ensue to the group from the campaign) were seen as equally important. However, success can bring additional burdens to organizational growth and increased demands on individual campaigners’ time and energy. The increased expectations generated through achieving campaign success, or experiencing ongoing failure, can also have an emotional toll that can lead to individual burnout and group fragmentation. Interviewees identified three common individual and group characteristics that they believed influenced the outcomes of campaigns. The following sections consider each in turn.

Mutual Support

A key characteristic of an enduring and active volunteer group was the presence of a founding team. This was most commonly two people with like-minded values and desire to effect change. Relatedly, environmental group leaders consistently noted the importance of a reliable and steadfast core team to prevent burnout. Leaders who had experienced burnout recounted feeling an overwhelming sense of responsibility and despair, combined with a lack of personal and group support, with 24 of the 26 interviewees identifying these types of responses as negative consequences of group conflict. Conversely, those who persevered identified that they did so with the support of their team. Fifteen interviewees stated that being with like-minded people and sharing commons goals were the best aspects of their advocacy work. Thus, group dynamics emerge as a critical aspect which influences campaign implementation over the long term.

Despite the critical importance of a supportive core team highlighted above, finding, retaining, and managing like-minded volunteers can be challenging. New volunteers who were recruited during campaigns were described as often unreliable, lacking confidence, and need significant mentoring support. Therefore, the acquisition of additional resources such as money or volunteers, while welcome, was most commonly thought to bring additional burdens to volunteer leaders. Many leaders identified as a stressor the conflict between managing others (whether volunteers or paid staff) and having time and energy for advocacy tasks. Put simply, while recruiting competent and supportive others initiated a virtuous cycle of resilience and growth, failure to recruit and retain a healthy team was often part of a feedback loop eroding personal and organizational strength.

Network Links

Networks act as mobilizing structures [ 26 ], which enable increased volunteer engagement in group activities as well as increased pathways to political and economic power [ 27 ]. However, our data highlighted the factors that may constrain the ability of the group to capitalize on these opportunities. For 23 interviewees, prioritizing collaboration with other groups was also seen to come at a cost: reduced time for managing volunteers, activities, and campaigns within their own groups. For this reason, despite valuing the benefits of network collaboration, as highlighted above, most campaigners either did not work closely with other groups or had participated with and then left other groups in the past. Constraints perceived to restrict the ability of groups to work together constructively on campaigns included: a lack of financial or human resources to collaborate and implement campaigns, tensions around leadership and branding, and groups operating at different geographical or financial levels. Despite the opportunities to share and implement campaigns within the existing network links, there is little evidence of groups sharing campaign information between groups.

Strategic Choices

A final source of conflict versus energy within a group was the existence of consensus versus debate over strategic choices. Campaigns require individuals to engage in collective action and require group leaders to organize and drive that action [ 28 ]. Campaigns also require significant individual expertise, knowledge, and skill in effectively implementing and maintaining advocacy often in the face of significant hostility from individuals outside the group. The decisions around whether to focus on educating the public, lobbying politicians, or undertaking direct action can be highly contentious and therefore difficult for groups to manage effectively. Individuals appear to choose strategic approaches rooted in individual values and beliefs. This makes the choice of climate advocacy strategy challenging to debate and reach consensus over, particularly for those working on urgent, reactive campaigns. Thirteen campaigners identified situations where conflict over strategic choice had led to the break-down of a group, or loss of key individuals. Managing the conflict around the choice of strategies and tactics as groups grow and age can be an extremely challenging aspect of climate change advocacy work.

However, this creative tension may offer an insight into why such large numbers of groups persist across environmental movements. The proliferation of groups may be a positive mechanism to support an ongoing ecosystem of diverse grassroots activism, enabling people to find a group with strategies and tactics that align with their own personal motivations and theories of change [ 29 ].

This research has demonstrated that the climate change movement is diverse and achieving a substantial degree of campaign success. In addition, as shown in the campaign benefits section, campaigning can deliver significant benefits to advocacy groups through increasing financial and human resources available to the group, creating stronger links with the movement, and building the cohesion and unity of the core team. These benefits can accrue even when the campaigns themselves do not achieve a successful outcome.

It is important for climate change groups to communicate their successes, as this may attract greater support for their activities [ 11 , 12 ]. Successful outcomes achieved through campaigning work should be a key message communicated consistently across all communication platforms and materials. Conveying the sense of accomplishment and purpose that can be experienced through being part of a climate change advocacy community may also encourage more supporters to become more active. Currently, 36.21% of campaigns have goals that are not measurable. Ensuring that campaigns have measurable outcomes will enable groups to communicate success, and thereby increase the likelihood that others will become involved.

More broadly, stopping climate change requires a fundamental realignment of the way our species, and each of us individually, interact with our environment. Recognizing the power of climate change advocacy to drive this realignment may require shifting our concept of success away from achieving the ultimate goal, to recognizing and celebrating the additional benefits of engaging in climate change advocacy along the way. Our data indicate that campaigns, whether successful or not, can enhance a group’s potential to achieve their advocacy goals. The challenge campaigners face is to communicate this potential effectively to mobilize a groundswell of advocacy demanding action against climate change. In doing so, we will move closer to addressing this most urgent and dire threat to our future.

On Advocacy Characteristics

Q1: Engaging others in advocacy: How can people be encouraged to engage in grassroots climate advocacy? Is it more important to encourage individuals to understand and change unsustainable individual habits or politicians to enact legislation reducing carbon emissions?

Q2. Choosing to be an advocate: Imagine you wanted to do something about climate change. What type of advocacy or campaign would you choose to do? What motivates this choice? What opportunities and barriers exist with this type of advocacy that may affect whether others would want to join you?

Q3. Overcoming challenges: What kind of challenges do groups face when choosing and implementing their advocacy strategies? How would they overcome these challenges?

On Social, Economic, and Political Context

Q4. Negative consequences : Strengthening environmental protection can come with a price, occasionally leading to the backlash by businesses, farmers, community members, and others. How can climate change advocacy minimize backlash by these groups and encourage them to work together for the common good?

Q5. Context considerations : Campaign decisions are influenced by public opinion, political representation, and socio-economic features of a particular town or area. How would these contextual factors affect decision-making about campaign strategy, as well as reflect diverse theories of social change and worldviews? How could an advocacy group undertake a climate change campaign in a situation where all contextual factors work against them?

Q6. Political considerations: Advocacy groups in Australia can undertake campaigns in relative freedom. How would campaigns need to be adapted to work in countries where protest is illegal, or in authoritarian, non-secular or tribal nation-states?

On Measures of Advocacy Success

Q7. Goals and targets: What sort of goals and targets could be set for advocacy campaigns? Who is responsible for setting those targets and reporting against their outcomes?

Q8. Measuring success: How do advocacy groups know if they are making a measurable difference in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, even if their campaigns are successful? How can advocacy activities be tested to further our understanding of the factors that influence advocacy success?

Q9. Advocacy potential: Is advocacy against climate change capable of creating the changes required to stop climate change? What would this advocacy look like to be able to achieve this level of success?

RG conducted the collated analysis of the three data sources and associated materials and led the writing of the original draft of this article. KF and WL supervised all stages of the article development process and provided feedback and editorial review.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Appendix S1. Climate change campaign characteristics and outcomes. docx

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How Indigenous expertise is empowering climate action: A case study from Oceania

Indigenous Peoples are the world's foremost experts on preserving the climate and biodiversity — listening to them is the key to protecting our planet. Image:  REUTERS/Dylan Martinez

.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo{-webkit-transition:all 0.15s ease-out;transition:all 0.15s ease-out;cursor:pointer;-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none;outline:none;color:inherit;}.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo:hover,.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo[data-hover]{-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;}.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo:focus,.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo[data-focus]{box-shadow:0 0 0 3px rgba(168,203,251,0.5);} Amanda Young

Ginelle greene-dewasmes.

.chakra .wef-1nk5u5d{margin-top:16px;margin-bottom:16px;line-height:1.388;color:#2846F8;font-size:1.25rem;}@media screen and (min-width:56.5rem){.chakra .wef-1nk5u5d{font-size:1.125rem;}} Get involved .chakra .wef-9dduvl{margin-top:16px;margin-bottom:16px;line-height:1.388;font-size:1.25rem;}@media screen and (min-width:56.5rem){.chakra .wef-9dduvl{font-size:1.125rem;}} with our crowdsourced digital platform to deliver impact at scale

• Industrial-scale capitalism and mass urbanization have accelerated environmental degradation, necessitating a reconnection with nature and Indigenous expertise.
• Indigenous knowledge systems offer holistic approaches to environmental sustainability and are increasingly recognized for their value in climate action.
• Examples like traditional fire management and innovative applications of Indigenous knowledge demonstrate the potential for collaboration and cross-pollination between Indigenous and other practices to address climate and ecological challenges.

On Monday 15 April 2024 , the largest global annual gathering of Indigenous Peoples kicked off at the United Nations Headquarters in New York, with participants calling for greater efforts to close financial gaps for Indigenous Peoples. Next month, Sydney Climate Action Week during May 13-19 will take place in Australia, a series of community-led events across Sydney from all aspects of the climate action ecosystem.

Such a coming together of stakeholders presents a prime opportunity to explore how traditional regional innovation models can contribute global solutions under a more inclusive climate agenda.

Have you read?

Renewables projects must respect indigenous peoples and local communities. here's how, indigenous leaders bringing their knowledge to davos 2024, 5 ways indigenous people are protecting the planet, disconnection from nature is exacerbating climate change.

Industrial-scale capitalism has accelerated the erosion of climate and ecological systems. Mass urbanization has driven economic growth and extractive industries on scales previously unimaginable. Sadly, these trends are increasing. Around 2007, the United Nations estimated , we had reached a tipping point in the world: more people were living in urban than rural areas. By 2022, 57% of all humans became urban based. In developed nations, a whopping 80% of citizens are urban. Both of these trends are predicted to increase .

This is reflected in how we are responding to the climate emergency. We are rapidly losing our connection to nature, with scarce nature feedback loops in citified life. This skews our perceptions and worldviews. Our academies are urban, our scientists are trained and our businesspeople, financiers, teachers, politicians are upskilled in mostly urban landscapes. Atrophied natural knowledge leaves us unequipped for dealing with the complexity of ecosystems. We need to humbly acknowledge the true experts in nature, Indigenous people, and ask for their guidance, meeting with our resources to activate this expertise.

Indigenous knowledge in climate action

“The planet’s ill health has largely come about because humans have forgotten their relationship and responsibility to country. Imagine if we could tap into the way First Nations cultures focus on deep, holistic connections to the environment to help us rethink environmental and health policies.”

Although Indigenous knowledge systems have been built on millennia of lived experience, iteration and adaptation, they have too often been ignored.

Today, however, there is growing interest in the value of Indigenous knowledge systems in the wake of environmental and climate challenges. In contrast to non-indigenous value systems, indigenous value systems focus on environmental sustainability as an end in itself that is required for cultural, social and economic well-being. The knowledge we have lost is still very much alive in Indigenous worlds, built through millennia of observation and ecological management.

The world needs to reframe both the role and deep knowledge of Indigenous people as experts. Signs of this shift are already emerging. In carbon and emerging biodiversity markets , any project involving, run by or partnered with Indigenous people attracts a premium carbon credit price in recognition of the deeper integrity, provenance and permanence Indigenous people bring that mitigate greenwashing claims.

Harnessing Indigenous expertise for modern global impact

An example of superior Indigenous technology is found in traditional fire management . Western fuel reduction strategies have triggered catastrophic fires when containment lines are broken, but Indigenous people have practiced for millennia “cool burning” that allows time for biodiversity to move to safety. This knowledge is needed across Europe and North America, both of which have experienced staggering brush fires. According to Firesticks , the not-for-profit Indigenous network, “aboriginal fire management has become a priority for community, cultural, social and environmental wellbeing”. This awareness showcases an example of the acknowledged inter-relatedness of knowledge, land, culture and identity — and the prioritization of environmental wellbeing alongside the community and culture.

Alongside ancient practices sit novel applications of Indigenous knowledge. Rainstick, a novel biotech company that was inspired by the traditions of the Maiawali People of central west Queensland, Australia, has built on a 10,000-year-old practice that acknowledges the influence of lightning on how plants grow. The resulting approach combines ancient expertise with modern technology to show that indigenous knowledge is ever-changing and can be applied in new and novel ways for climate action. Another example can be found in Savimbo fair trade credits , which is Indigenous at its core — removing intermediaries to ensure Indigenous experts can attract capital to resist further incursion into precious Indigenous-managed lands by developers.

Indigenous people are also sharing their profound knowledge with each other to manage and fix the problem of climate change. In the Ampliseed network, Indigenous people managing lands as diverse as the snow-covered Boreal Forest in Canada, World Heritage Listed Coral Reefs, tropical rainforest in the Peruvian Amazon, Mediterranean habitat in Chile and Australia’s 10 vast central deserts are cross-pollinating their knowledge, navigating the climate disaster and creating global impact at the Climate and Biodiversity CoPs .

Next steps for applying Indigenous expertise

Given that 80% of remaining biodiversity is on Indigenous lands and in Indigenous hands, it is clear with the emerging biodiversity markets that Indigenous people are the primary market actors. Therefore, financing models need to evolve in order to safeguard and invest in the role of Indigenous people as stewards and equity owners of the conservation of the precious remaining biodiversity. Similarly, financing all other opportunities to cross-pollinate Western and Indigenous knowledge systems is essential.

The growing body of evidence reveals a simple truth: Indigenous people hold a key to our collective response to climate and ecological challenges.

Indigenous-led organizations are thriving by sharing this knowledge, and people and the planet are benefiting in turn.

With contributions from Harry Guinness, Head of Net Zero Strategy, Greenhouse.

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Research shows that company modeled and predicted global warming with ‘shocking skill and accuracy’ starting in the 1970s

Projections created internally by ExxonMobil starting in the late 1970s on the impact of fossil fuels on climate change were very accurate, even surpassing those of some academic and governmental scientists, according to an analysis published Thursday in Science by a team of Harvard-led researchers. Despite those forecasts, team leaders say, the multinational energy giant continued to sow doubt about the gathering crisis.

In “Assessing ExxonMobil’s Global Warming Projections,” researchers from Harvard and the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research show for the first time the accuracy of previously unreported forecasts created by company scientists from 1977 through 2003. The Harvard team discovered that Exxon researchers created a series of remarkably reliable models and analyses projecting global warming from carbon dioxide emissions over the coming decades. Specifically, Exxon projected that fossil fuel emissions would lead to 0.20 degrees Celsius of global warming per decade, with a margin of error of 0.04 degrees — a trend that has been proven largely accurate.

“This paper is the first ever systematic assessment of a fossil fuel company’s climate projections, the first time we’ve been able to put a number on what they knew,” said Geoffrey Supran, lead author and former research fellow in the History of Science at Harvard. “What we found is that between 1977 and 2003, excellent scientists within Exxon modeled and predicted global warming with, frankly, shocking skill and accuracy only for the company to then spend the next couple of decades denying that very climate science.”

“This paper is the first ever systematic assessment of a fossil fuel company’s climate projections, the first time we’ve been able to put a number on what they knew,” said Geoffrey Supran, lead author.

File photo by Stephanie Mitchell/Harvard Staff Photographer

“We thought this was a unique opportunity to understand what Exxon knew about this issue and what level of scientific understanding they had at the time,” added co-author Naomi Oreskes , Henry Charles Lea Professor of the History of Science whose work looks at the causes and effects of climate change denial. “We found that not only were their forecasts extremely skillful, but they were also often more skillful than forecasts made by independent academic and government scientists at the exact same time.”

Allegations that oil company executives sought to mislead the public about the industry’s role in climate change have drawn increasing scrutiny in recent years, including lawsuits by several states and cities and a recent high profile U.S. House committee investigation.

Harvard’s scientists used established Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) statistical techniques to test the performance of Exxon’s models. They found that, depending on the metric used, 63-83 percent of the global warming projections reported by Exxon scientists were consistent with actual temperatures over time. Moreover, the corporation’s own projections had an average “skill score” of 72 percent, plus or minus 6 percent, with the highest scoring 99 percent. A skill score relates to how well a forecast compares to what happens in real life. For comparison, NASA scientist James Hansen’s global warming predictions presented to the U.S. Congress in 1988 had scores from 38 to 66 percent.

The researchers report that Exxon scientists correctly dismissed the possibility of a coming ice age, accurately predicted that human-caused global warming would first be detectable in the year 2000, plus or minus five years, and reasonably estimated how much CO 2 would lead to dangerous warming.

The current debate about when Exxon knew about the impact on climate change carbon emissions began in 2015 following news reports of internal company documents describing the multinational’s early knowledge of climate science.  Exxon disagreed with the reports, even providing a link to internal studies and memos from their own scientists and suggesting that interested parties should read them and make up their own minds.

“That’s exactly what we did,” said Supran, who is now at the University of Miami. Together, he and Oreskes spent a year researching those documents and in 2017 published a series of three papers analyzing Exxon’s 40-year history of climate communications . They were able to show there was a systematic discrepancy between what Exxon was saying internally and in academic circles versus what they were telling the public. “That led us to conclude that they had quantifiably misled the public, by essentially contributing quietly to climate science and yet loudly promoting doubt about that science,” said Supran.

“I think this new study is the smoking gun, the proof, because it shows the degree of understanding … this really deep, really sophisticated, really skillful understanding that was obscured by what came next,” said Harvard Professor Naomi Oreskes.

Harvard file photo

In 2021, the team published a new study in One Earth using algorithmic techniques to identify ways in which ExxonMobil used increasingly subtle but systematic language to shape the way the public talks and thinks about climate change — often in misleading ways.

These findings were hardly a surprise to Oreskes, given her long history of studying climate communications from fossil fuel companies, work that drew national attention with her 2010 bestseller, “Merchants of Doubt.” In it she and co-author, Caltech researcher Erik Conway, argued that Exxon was aware of the threat of carbon emissions on climate change yet waged a disinformation campaign about the problem.  Despite the book’s popularity and the peer-reviewed papers with Supran, however, some continued to wonder whether she could prove the effect these campaigns had, if they indeed made a difference.

“I think this new study is the smoking gun, the proof, because it shows the degree of understanding … this really deep, really sophisticated, really skillful understanding that was obscured by what came next,” Oreskes said. “It proves a point I’ve argued for years that ExxonMobil scientists knew about this problem to a shockingly fine degree as far back as the 1980s, but company spokesmen denied, challenged, and obscured this science, starting in the late 1980s/early 1990s.”

Added Supran: “Our analysis here I think seals the deal on that matter. We now have totally unimpeachable evidence that Exxon accurately predicted global warming years before it turned around and publicly attacked climate science and scientists.”

The authors of this research were supported by a Rockefeller Family Fund grant and Harvard University Faculty Development funds.

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What the data says about Americans’ views of climate change

A recent report from the United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has underscored the need for international action to avoid increasingly severe climate impacts in the years to come. Steps outlined in the report, and by climate experts, include major reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from sectors such as energy production and transportation.

But how do Americans feel about climate change, and what steps do they think the United States should take to address it? Here are eight charts that illustrate Americans’ views on the issue, based on recent Pew Research Center surveys.

Pew Research Center published this collection of survey findings as part of its ongoing work to understand attitudes about climate change and energy issues. The most recent survey was conducted May 30-June 4, 2023, among 10,329 U.S. adults. Earlier findings have been previously published, and methodological information, including the sample sizes and field dates, can be found by following the links in the text.

Everyone who took part in the June 2023 survey is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. This way, nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories. Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and its methodology .

A majority of Americans support prioritizing the development of renewable energy sources. Two-thirds of U.S. adults say the country should prioritize developing renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, over expanding the production of oil, coal and natural gas, according to a survey conducted in June 2023.

In a previous Center survey conducted in 2022, nearly the same share of Americans (69%) favored the U.S. taking steps to become carbon neutral by 2050 , a goal outlined by President Joe Biden at the outset of his administration. Carbon neutrality means releasing no more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere than is removed.

Nine-in-ten Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents say the U.S. should prioritize developing alternative energy sources to address America’s energy supply. Among Republicans and Republican leaners, 42% support developing alternative energy sources, while 58% say the country should prioritize expanding exploration and production of oil, coal and natural gas.

There are important differences by age within the GOP. Two-thirds of Republicans under age 30 (67%) prioritize the development of alternative energy sources. By contrast, 75% of Republicans ages 65 and older prioritize expanding the production of oil, coal and natural gas.

Americans are reluctant to phase out fossil fuels altogether, but younger adults are more open to it. Overall, about three-in-ten adults (31%) say the U.S. should completely phase out oil, coal and natural gas. More than twice as many (68%) say the country should use a mix of energy sources, including fossil fuels and renewables.

While the public is generally reluctant to phase out fossil fuels altogether, younger adults are more supportive of this idea. Among Americans ages 18 to 29, 48% say the U.S. should exclusively use renewables, compared with 52% who say the U.S. should use a mix of energy sources, including fossil fuels.

There are age differences within both political parties on this question. Among Democrats and Democratic leaners, 58% of those ages 18 to 29 favor phasing out fossil fuels entirely, compared with 42% of Democrats 65 and older. Republicans of all age groups back continuing to use a mix of energy sources, including oil, coal and natural gas. However, about three-in-ten (29%) Republicans ages 18 to 29 say the U.S. should phase out fossil fuels altogether, compared with fewer than one-in-ten Republicans 50 and older.

There are multiple potential routes to carbon neutrality in the U.S. All involve major reductions to carbon emissions in sectors such as energy and transportation by increasing the use of things like wind and solar power and electric vehicles. There are also ways to potentially remove carbon from the atmosphere and store it, such as capturing it directly from the air or using trees and algae to facilitate carbon sequestration.

The public supports the federal government incentivizing wind and solar energy production. In many sectors, including energy and transportation, federal incentives and regulations significantly influence investment and development.

Two-thirds of Americans think the federal government should encourage domestic production of wind and solar power. Just 7% say the government should discourage this, while 26% think it should neither encourage nor discourage it.

Views are more mixed on how the federal government should approach other activities that would reduce carbon emissions. On balance, more Americans think the government should encourage than discourage the use of electric vehicles and nuclear power production, though sizable shares say it should not exert an influence either way.

When it comes to oil and gas drilling, Americans’ views are also closely divided: 34% think the government should encourage drilling, while 30% say it should discourage this and 35% say it should do neither. Coal mining is the one activity included in the survey where public sentiment is negative on balance: More say the federal government should discourage than encourage coal mining (39% vs. 21%), while 39% say it should do neither.

Americans see room for multiple actors – including corporations and the federal government – to do more to address the impacts of climate change. Two-thirds of adults say large businesses and corporations are doing too little to reduce the effects of climate change. Far fewer say they are doing about the right amount (21%) or too much (10%).

Majorities also say their state elected officials (58%) and the energy industry (55%) are doing too little to address climate change, according to a March 2023 survey.

In a separate Center survey conducted in June 2023, a similar share of Americans (56%) said the federal government should do more to reduce the effects of global climate change.

When it comes to their own efforts, about half of Americans (51%) think they are doing about the right amount as an individual to help reduce the effects of climate change, according to the March 2023 survey. However, about four-in-ten (43%) say they are doing too little.

Democrats and Republicans have grown further apart over the last decade in their assessments of the threat posed by climate change. Overall, a majority of U.S. adults (54%) describe climate change as a major threat to the country’s well-being. This share is down slightly from 2020 but remains higher than in the early 2010s.

Nearly eight-in-ten Democrats (78%) describe climate change as a major threat to the country’s well-being, up from about six-in-ten (58%) a decade ago. By contrast, about one-in-four Republicans (23%) consider climate change a major threat, a share that’s almost identical to 10 years ago.

Concern over climate change has also risen internationally, as shown by separate Pew Research Center polling across 19 countries in 2022. People in many advanced economies express higher levels of concern than Americans . For instance, 81% of French adults and 73% of Germans describe climate change as a major threat.

Climate change is a lower priority for Americans than other national issues. While a majority of adults view climate change as a major threat, it is a lower priority than issues such as strengthening the economy and reducing health care costs.

Overall, 37% of Americans say addressing climate change should be a top priority for the president and Congress in 2023, and another 34% say it’s an important but lower priority. This ranks climate change 17th out of 21 national issues included in a Center survey from January.

As with views of the threat that climate change poses, there’s a striking contrast between how Republicans and Democrats prioritize the issue. For Democrats, it falls in the top half of priority issues, and 59% call it a top priority. By comparison, among Republicans, it ranks second to last, and just 13% describe it as a top priority.

Our analyses have found that partisan gaps on climate change are often widest on questions – such as this one – that measure the salience or importance of the issue. The gaps are more modest when it comes to some specific climate policies. For example, majorities of Republicans and Democrats alike say they would favor a proposal to provide a tax credit to businesses for developing technologies for carbon capture and storage.

Perceptions of local climate impacts vary by Americans’ political affiliation and whether they believe that climate change is a serious problem. A majority of Americans (61%) say that global climate change is affecting their local community either a great deal or some. About four-in-ten (39%) see little or no impact in their own community.

The perception that the effects of climate change are happening close to home is one factor that could drive public concern and calls for action on the issue. But perceptions are tied more strongly to people’s beliefs about climate change – and their partisan affiliation – than to local conditions.

For example, Americans living in the Pacific region – California, Washington, Oregon, Hawaii and Alaska – are more likely than those in other areas of the country to say that climate change is having a great deal of impact locally. But only Democrats in the Pacific region are more likely to say they are seeing effects of climate change where they live. Republicans in this region are no more likely than Republicans in other areas to say that climate change is affecting their local community.

Our previous surveys show that nearly all Democrats believe climate change is at least a somewhat serious problem, and a large majority believe that humans play a role in it. Republicans are much less likely to hold these beliefs, but views within the GOP do vary significantly by age and ideology. Younger Republicans and those who describe their views as moderate or liberal are much more likely than older and more conservative Republicans to describe climate change as at least a somewhat serious problem and to say human activity plays a role.

Democrats are also more likely than Republicans to report experiencing extreme weather events in their area over the past year – such as intense storms and floods, long periods of hot weather or droughts – and to see these events as connected with climate change.

About three-quarters of Americans support U.S. participation in international efforts to reduce the effects of climate change. Americans offer broad support for international engagement on climate change: 74% say they support U.S. participation in international efforts to reduce the effects of climate change.

Still, there’s little consensus on how current U.S. efforts stack up against those of other large economies. About one-in-three Americans (36%) think the U.S. is doing more than other large economies to reduce the effects of global climate change, while 30% say the U.S. is doing less than other large economies and 32% think it is doing about as much as others. The U.S. is the second-largest carbon dioxide emitter , contributing about 13.5% of the global total.

When asked what they think the right balance of responsibility is, a majority of Americans (56%) say the U.S. should do about as much as other large economies to reduce the effects of climate change, while 27% think it should do more than others.

A previous Center survey found that while Americans favor international cooperation on climate change in general terms, their support has its limits. In January 2022 , 59% of Americans said that the U.S. does not have a responsibility to provide financial assistance to developing countries to help them build renewable energy sources.

In recent years, the UN conference on climate change has grappled with how wealthier nations should assist developing countries in dealing with climate change. The most recent convening in fall 2022, known as COP27, established a “loss and damage” fund for vulnerable countries impacted by climate change.

Note: This is an update of a post originally published April 22, 2022. Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and its methodology .

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Alec Tyson is an associate director of research at Pew Research Center

Cary Funk is director of science and society research at Pew Research Center

Brian Kennedy is a senior researcher focusing on science and society research at Pew Research Center

How Republicans view climate change and energy issues

How americans view future harms from climate change in their community and around the u.s., americans continue to have doubts about climate scientists’ understanding of climate change, growing share of americans favor more nuclear power, why some americans do not see urgency on climate change, most popular.

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To Fight Climate Change, We Need New ‘Political Technologies’

By Peter Coy

Opinion Writer

Science alone won’t stop the planet from overheating. But science coupled with political science just might.

That’s the theme of a new book, “Long Problems: Climate Change and the Challenge of Governing Across Time.” It’s by Thomas Hale, an American political scientist who teaches at the University of Oxford’s Blavatnik School of Government.

Hale argues that people are too quick to throw up their hands because the political will to stop climate change is lacking. For political scientists, he writes, “this is not the end but rather the start of the intellectual challenge.”

Hale has specific ideas for how to change institutions and procedures so that today’s inhabitants of Earth give more consideration to tomorrow’s inhabitants. He calls them, at one point, “political technologies,” a phrase I like.

Long problems such as climate change are ones in which there is a long lag between causes and effects. They are hard to solve, especially with today’s institutions. We don’t act early because we’re uncertain about how big the problem is, and it isn’t as salient as the daily emergencies all around us. Our hesitation gives an opening to obstructionist forces. Today’s decision makers vow to protect the planet for future generations, but the unborn multitudes are mere “shadows” to them, as Hale puts it.

On top of all that, Hale writes, “Institutions created to address the early phase of a long problem struggle to remain useful as the problem’s structure develops over time.” Case in point: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which was created in 1992. The original concept was for countries to make binding commitments to fight climate change. As the organization has evolved, though, “nothing is agreed until every country agrees on every point,” Hale writes.

That’s not useful. A better approach is the Paris Agreement of 2015, which went into effect the next year. It allows countries to set their own targets for greenhouse gas reductions while triggering a “norm cascade” that induces them to do more and more. Hale likes the Paris Agreement on the whole, though he says it’s not perfect.

Society has already invented institutions and systems that bring future considerations to the fore, Hale writes. The Congressional Budget Office and similar offices in other countries analyze how new legislation will affect economic growth and government finances in the long run. The bond market assesses whether bond issuers, such as governments, will be able to pay back what they owe. Insurance companies — which Hale doesn’t mention — won’t issue policies unless customers take steps to reduce their risks.

On climate, too, there have been efforts to create institutions and processes that help solve Hale’s long problems. Some governments are requiring business to incorporate the “social cost” of carbon into their decisions. And the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change brings together the world’s top experts and issues closely followed reports.

There are many more opportunities for political engineering, Hale writes. He approvingly mentions the Finnish Parliament’s cross-party Committee for the Future and the Finnish Government Report on the Future, which interact. He recommends more experimentation in policymaking — as Chinese leaders put it, crossing the river by feeling for stones.

To get the public and lawmakers thinking more about the future, he endorses Britain’s Climate Change Committee, which he writes “has become a significant political force for the long-term interest,” and similar organizations (some of them not as effective) in Hungary, Israel, Malta, Sweden, Tunisia and the United Arab Emirates.

To insulate long problems from partisan politicking, he recommends the appointment of a trustee to oversee climate decisions, analogous to the way a politically insulated central bank is delegated the authority to conduct monetary policy. The California Air Resources Board is “perhaps the strongest, though still imperfect” example of such an institution in the realm of the environment, he writes. (Hale told me he’s not aware of anything quite like the California agency elsewhere in the world.)

“Long Problems” is a kind of nonfiction counterpart to Kim Stanley Robinson’s science fiction book from 2020, “The Ministry for the Future,” which took seriously the idea that future generations need to be given as much consideration as our own.

Hale is a co-leader of the Net Zero Tracker , which tracks the decarbonization progress of countries and companies, and the Net Zero Regulation and Policy Hub . He told me that he has been involved in helping people at the United Nations prepare for a Summit for the Future, which will be held Sept. 22-23. On the U.N. website is an early draft of a declaration to be issued at the summit, which says among other things that “our conduct today will impact future generations exponentially.”

Anne-Marie Slaughter, the chief executive of the think tank New America who was Hale’s adviser on his doctorate at Princeton, shared a byline with Hale and two of his Oxford colleagues on a policy brief , “Toward a Declaration on Future Generations,” that recommends the U.N. appoint “a special envoy or high commissioner” to be a voice for the future.

I kind of prefer “envoy” because it sounds like the person has literally come from the future.

No one solution will instantly end the political obstacles to fighting climate change. Some of the ideas in Hale’s book may not pan out at all. But I give him credit for focusing on how to solve problems in which the cause and the effect are separated by decades. Getting the “political technology” right is every bit as important as inventing better solar cells, wind turbines and batteries.

Outlook: Oliver Allen

Retail sales rose more than expected in March, but the “booming” pace of growth isn’t likely to last, Oliver Allen, a senior U.S. economist at Pantheon Macroeconomics, wrote in a client note on Monday. “It is hard to see how the strength in consumption can continue for much longer, now that real after-tax income growth has slowed markedly, the bulk of excess savings from earlier in the pandemic has been spent, and a raft of leading indicators point to a marked softening in the labor market,” Allen wrote.

Quote of the Day

“Why do we need to make the rich richer to make them work harder but make the poor poorer for the same purpose?”

— Ha-Joon Chang, “Economics: The User’s Guide” (2014)

Peter Coy is a writer for the Opinion section of The Times, covering economics and business. Email him at [email protected] . @ petercoy

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Everyone on Earth is touched by the effects of climate change, such as hotter temperatures, shifts in rain patterns, and sea level rise. Collecting climate data helps communities better plan for these changes and build more resilience to them.

The International Space Station, one of dozens of NASA missions contributing to this effort, has multiple instruments collecting various types of climate-related data. Because the station’s orbit passes over 90 percent of Earth’s population and circles the planet 16 times each day, these instruments have views of multiple locations at different times of day and night. The data inform climate decisions and help scientists understand and solve the challenges created by climate change.

While crew members have little involvement in the ongoing operation of these instruments, they do play a critical role in unpacking hardware when it arrives at the space station and in assembling and installing the instruments via spacewalks or using the station’s robotic arm.

One investigation on the orbiting lab that contributes to efforts to monitor and address climate change is ECOsystem Spaceborne Thermal Radiometer Experiment on Space Station ( ECOSTRESS ). It provides thermal infrared measurements of Earth’s surface that help answer questions about water stress in plants and how specific regions respond to climate change. Research confirmed the accuracy of ECOSTRESS surface estimates 1 and found that the process of photosynthesis in plants begins to fail at 46.7 degrees C (114 degrees F). 2 Average temperatures have increased 0.5 degrees C per decade in some tropical regions, and temperature extremes are becoming more pronounced. Rainforests are a primary producer of oxygen and, without sufficient mitigation of the effects of climate change, leaf temperatures in these tropical forests soon could approach this failure threshold.

The Total and Spectral Solar Irradiance Sensor ( TSIS ) measures total solar irradiance (TSI) and solar spectral irradiance (SSI). TSI is the total solar energy input to Earth and SSI measures the Sun’s energy in individual wavelengths. Energy from the Sun drives atmospheric and oceanic circulations on Earth, and knowing its magnitude and variability is essential to understanding Earth’s climate. Researchers verified the instrument’s performance and showed that it made more accurate measurements than previous instruments. 3,4 TSIS maintains a continuity of nearly 40 years of data on solar irradiance from space-based observations.

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The Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation ( GEDI ) observes global forests and topography using light detection and ranging (lidar). These observations could provide insight into important carbon and water cycling processes, biodiversity, and habitat. One study used GEDI data to estimate pan-tropical and temperate biomass densities at the national level for every country observed and the sub-national level for the United States. 5

Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation ( EMIT ) determines the type and distribution of minerals in the dust of Earth’s arid regions using an imaging spectrometer. Mineral dust affects local warming and cooling, air quality, rate of snow melt, and ocean plankton growth. Researchers demonstrated that data from EMIT also can be used to identify and monitor specific sources of methane and carbon dioxide emissions. Carbon dioxide and methane are the primary human-caused drivers of climate change. Increasing emissions in areas with poor reporting requirements create significant uncertainty in the global carbon budget. 6 The high spatial resolution of EMIT data could allow precise monitoring even of sources that are close together.

The station’s Orbiting Carbon Observatory-3 ( OCO-3 ) collects data on global carbon dioxide during sunlit hours, mapping emissions of targeted local hotspots. This type of satellite-based remote sensing helps assess and verify emission reductions included in national and global plans and agreements. Monitoring by OCO-3 and the Italian Space Agency’s PRecursore IperSpettrale della Missione Applicativa (PRISMA) satellite of 30 coal-fired power plants between 2021 and 2022 showed agreement with on-site observations. 7 This result suggests that under the right conditions, satellites can provide reliable estimates of emissions from discreet sources. Combustion for power and other industrial uses account for an estimated 59% of global human-caused carbon dioxide emissions.

The Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment III-ISS ( SAGE III-ISS ) measures ozone and other gases and tiny particles in the atmosphere, called aerosols, that together act as Earth’s sunscreen. The instrument can distinguish between clouds and aerosols in the atmosphere. A study showed that aerosols dominate Earth’s tropical upper troposphere and lower stratosphere, a transition region between the two atmospheric levels. Continuous monitoring and identification of these layers of the atmosphere helps quantify their effect on Earth’s climate. 8

An early remote sensing system, ISS SERVIR Environmental Research and Visualization System ( ISERV ), automatically took images of Earth to help scientists assess and monitor disasters and other significant events. Researchers reported that this type of Earth observation is critical for applications such as mapping land use and assessing carbon biomass and ocean health. 9

John Love, ISS Research Planning Integration Scientist Expedition 71

Search this database of scientific experiments to learn more about those mentioned above.

1 Weidberg N, Lopez Chiquillo L, Roman S, Roman M, Vazquez E, et al. Assessing high resolution thermal monitoring of complex intertidal environments from space: The case of ECOSTRESS at Rias Baixas, NW Iberia. Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment. 2023 November; 32101055. DOI: 10.1016/j.rsase.2023.101055.

2 Doughty CE, Keany JM, Wiebe BC, Rey-Sanchez C, Carter KR, et al. Tropical forests are approaching critical temperature thresholds. Nature. 2023 August 23; 621105-111. DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06391-z.

3 Richard EC, Harber D, Coddington OM, Drake G, Rutkowski J, et al. SI-traceable spectral irradiance radiometric characterization and absolute calibration of the TSIS-1 Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SIM). Remote Sensing. 2020 January; 12(11): 1818. DOI:  10.3390/rs12111818.

4 Coddington OM, Richard EC, Harber D, Pilewskie P, Chance K, et al. The TSIS-1 hybrid solar reference spectrum. Geophysical Research Letters. 2021 April 26; 48(12): e2020GL091709. DOI:  10.1029/2020GL091709

5 Dubayah R, Armston J, Healey S, Bruening JM, Patterson PL, et al. GEDI launches a new era of biomass inference from space. Environmental Research Letters. 2022 August; 17(9): 095001. DOI: 10.1088/1748-9326/ac8694.

6 Thorpe A, Green RD, Thompson DR, Brodrick PG, Chapman DK, et al. Attribution of individual methane and carbon dioxide emission sources using EMIT observations from space. Science Advances. 2023 November 17; 9(46): eadh2391. DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adh2391.

7 Cusworth DH, Thorpe A, Miller CE, Ayasse AK, Jiorle R, et al. Two years of satellite-based carbon dioxide emission quantification at the world’s largest coal-fired power plants. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 2023 November 24; 23(22): 14577-14591. DOI: 10.5194/acp-23-14577-2023.

8 Bhatta S, Pandit AK, Loughman R, Vernier J. Three-wavelength approach for aerosol-cloud discrimination in the SAGE III/ISS aerosol extinction dataset. Applied Optics. 2023 May; 62(13): 3454-3466. DOI: 10.1364/AO.485466 .

9 Kansakar P, Hossain F. A review of applications of satellite earth observation data for global societal benefit and stewardship of planet earth. Space Policy. 2016 May; 3646-54.

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