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Substance Abuse and Public Health: A Multilevel Perspective and Multiple Responses

Substance abuse has been a thorny public health concern throughout human history. Manifestly, prevention and treatment are the two main strategies commonly adopted to tackle the problem of substance abuse. They are in fact cross-disciplinary, and they relate to the various domains of heredity, biology, psychology, cognitive science, family, social development and cultural structures. This special issue, “Substance Abuse, Environment and Public Health,” has published empirical studies from different regions and countries globally to enhance the international exchange of latest views and findings on the etiology, processes and influences of substance abuse across different domains, through which a multilevel perspective is considered more helpful for analyzing its complex nature, courses and consequences. This in turn suggests the possible need to employ multiple responses dynamically and integratively in the prevention and treatment of substance abuse.

1. Introduction

It is apparent that substance abuse is a cross-disciplinary topic of research and concern [ 1 , 2 ], which involves the need to employ concomitantly various theoretical explications and empirical evidence in collaborative efforts to strive for more optimal solutions to limit its contagiousness, and to curb any direct and indirect harm [ 3 , 4 ]. Substance abuse has been described as a “chronic relapsing disease”, with extremely high relapse rates that range from 56.8% to 81.8% [ 5 , 6 ]. Recently, the United Nations reported that “(i)n 2017, an estimated 271 million people, or 5.5 per cent of the global population aged 15–64, had used substances in the previous year” ([ 7 ], p.7). This is 11.5% higher than the estimated number of substance-using people in 2012 [ 8 ]. Due to the nature of recurrence and the rising number of substance users globally, a continuing upsurge in human, social, health and economic costs in the form of substance-related violence, criminal acts, health care needs, legal orders, rehabilitative services, reduced labor productivity and judicial expenditure is evident [ 4 , 6 , 9 ]. Undoubtedly, prevention and treatment are two main intervention approaches that have been commonly adopted to tackle substance abuse [ 2 , 10 ], in which the former focuses primarily on enhancing public awareness of the dangers of substance misuse and addiction, and the latter mainly emphasizes helping substance abusers to attain complete abstinence and avoid relapse. Both prevention and treatment of substance abuse are pertinent to public health, as the two approaches need to employ a multilevel perspective to conceptualize and solve fallout generated from drug trafficking, misuse and harm [ 11 , 12 ]. This points to the need to investigate human hereditary, biological, and psychological needs, cognitive and mental conditions, social development and cultural structures simultaneously and interactively.

For a comprehensive understanding of the nature, processes and impact of substance abuse on human individuals and societies as a whole, an international exchange of the latest scholarly views and empirical research findings is needed. This special issue, “Substance Abuse, Environment and Public Health,” aims to promote international exchange of empirical academic works on substance abuse and its related concerns. It includes 14 empirical research articles and one intervention paper from Bosnia, Croatia, Hong Kong, Italy, mainland China, Norway, Poland, Singapore, South Korea, Spain, Slovenia, Sweden and the United States, and covers the topics of substance misuse and addiction amongst various social groups, different types and forms of illicit and legally approved substances and multiple research methods and designs. Importantly, the scholarly works published in this special issue are expected to present an opportunity to enhance the international exchange of cross-disciplinary research and academic inquiries in the prevention and treatment of substance abuse.

2. Substance Abuse and Different Social Groups

When researching substance abuse and its harmful effects, researchers predominantly focus on certain social groups with a higher tendency towards substance taking and misuse, such as adolescents and male adults [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ]. This is valid, as they may encounter various demanding life and social challenges, expectations, interpersonal alienation and biological impulses, all of which are relevant to the triggering of their initiation into drug experimentation as a form of self-medication. Substances may also act as a comforting “soul mate” to help users evade hard realities [ 19 , 20 ]. In this special issue, Zubak et al. [ 21 ] examined the effects of scholastic factors—for example, grade point averages, school and other unexcused absences and poor behavior—in relation to illicit drug misuse (IDM) and its initiation among adolescents in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Jee et al. [ 22 ] investigated the trajectories of different smoking groups of young South Korean male adults and the implication of the habit in their atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) in middle age. However, substance takers are never restricted to any specific social groups; they can be found in communities of professionals, social talents, elders and university students. Devcic et al. [ 23 ] examined socio-demographics, sports-related factors, factors of hesitation, doping-related factors, consumption of dietary supplements, knowledge of doping and predictors of doping behavior in terms of misusing performance-enhancing substances among high-level competitive swimmers in Slovenia. Wang et al. [ 24 ] investigated how gender, residential areas and study majors were related to misconceptions about antibiotic use among Chinese university students, which in turn linked to their antibiotic misuse behavior. Through the use of a community-based participatory research design, Walter et al. [ 25 ] inquired how work-related musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) and injuries among US fishing industry workers affected their use of prescription opioids to treat their pain, which in turn exposed them to increased risk of developing substance disorders. Apparently, different social groups are equally susceptible to the risk of substance abuse and addiction [ 3 , 4 , 12 ], and this is likely to be affected by their specific personal characteristics and environmental conditions. Hence, there is a need for researchers to discover both common and unique precursors germane to different social groups which lead to their substance using behavior.

3. Substance Abuse and Its Types and Forms

Substances that are misused or abused can be categorized into two forms. These include illicit and legally approved substances of various types. The most common illicit types of substances include cannabis, amphetamines, ketamine, methamphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy and heroin [ 2 , 6 ], which are largely banned in most countries. However, marijuana products have recently been legalized and commercialized in some northern American and Western states and regions under the umbrella of “control of reasonable use,” which casts a contemplative doubt over the original intent of reducing cannabis-related criminality and public health problems; hence, more research is needed on this subject [ 26 , 27 , 28 ]. Tobacco and alcohol are two legally approved types of substances that have been widely used by different social groups across different societies and cultures [ 6 , 11 , 29 ]. Some legally prescribed drugs, such as cough medications and the antibiotics mentioned above, can also be easily misused and abused by the general public, and these too merit the further attention of researchers [ 2 , 30 ].

In this special issue, Lo et al. [ 31 ] explored how far using illicit drugs, smoking cigarettes and drinking alcohol predicted sexual misconduct among Macau youths, while simultaneously adjusting for the effects of susceptibility to peer influence and school attachment/commitment. Assari et al. [ 32 ] attempted to assess the impact of subjective and objective socioeconomic status on the cigarette smoking and alcohol use of older African Americans by controlling the effects of pertinent covariates, which included demographic factors (age and gender), living arrangement and family type, health insurance status, chronic medical conditions, self-rated health, sick days, depression and chronic pain. Muller et al. [ 33 ] investigated changes in exercise and nicotine use among 1464 Norwegian prison inmates by classifying them into harmful and non-harmful substance use pre-incarceration groups, according to the Drug Use Disorders Identification Test (DUDIT) and the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), both of which are commonly used by healthcare practitioners and researchers to assess the severity of illicit drug and intoxicant use. Wang et al. [ 34 ] analyzed the sources of antibiotics leftovers in the home and the risk factors of keeping them in relation to antibiotic self-medication among Chinese university students. Taken together, the relationships between the use of illicit drugs and legally approved substances are complex and intertwined or mutually reinforcing [ 35 , 36 ]. They may be affected by the personal circumstances and environmental conditions of the abusers, and may cause other forms of behavioral maladjustment [ 17 , 37 , 38 ]. Nevertheless, our current understanding of this complicated phenomenon of substance abuse is limited, and so more cross-disciplinary research is again recommended.

4. Researching Substance Abuse: Methods and Designs

As has been mentioned, substance abuse is a public health concern that involves human biological and physical needs, psychosocial demands, cognitive and spiritual fulfillment, and environmental formulations. Therefore, cross-disciplinary research using different methodologies and designs is much needed to scrutinize substance abuse in respect of etiology, maintenance, consequences, abstinence and relapse. Generally speaking, empirical studies using quantitative methods are more common than research involving qualitative inquiry, analysis of secondary data and/or documentary inspection [ 16 , 39 , 40 ]. In fact, research based on a range of methods and designs is useful in enhancing our comprehension of the nature and impact of substance abuse from different perspectives. This special issue incorporates empirical studies conducted by quantitative, qualitative and documentary methods. For quantitative research designs, study findings based on a representative sample or any of the random sampling procedures are desirable, and can strengthen empirical evidence and provide greater external validity [ 41 ]. For example, Oh et al. [ 42 ] investigated whether those who had current or previous experience of facial flushing would drink for different primary reasons, compared with those who had no experience of facial flushing. The sample comprised 4590 college students who were recruited by stratified random sampling procedures proportionately in 82 colleges in South Korea. There are other empirical studies in this special issue that similarly used a representative sample [ 21 , 24 , 31 , 34 ]. However, using quantitative methods to survey empirically the attitudes and behaviors of certain health and human service professional groups is less likely to require a representative sample, and so it is necessary to use non-probabilistic sampling procedures such as quota, purposive or snowballing sampling designs. Molina-Mula et al. [ 43 ] analyzed the attitudes and perceptions of emergency and mental health nurses with regard to alcoholics. Their findings will hopefully help to develop appropriate professional and clinical responses to substance abuse.

Qualitative research methods can help reveal in-depth and formative information related to the processes and development of substance abuse. For their qualitative study, Chan et al. [ 44 ] interviewed 67 drug abusers to explore how their psychological experiences—with special emphasis on interpersonal relatedness—affected their drug taking and relapse behaviors. Walter et al. [ 25 ] used qualitative interviewing to examine knowledge of and attitudes towards opioid use among 21 fishing industry workers in the US. In addition, use of secondary data or documentary information can efficiently and objectively assist in the transition processes of substance users. For example, Asharani et al. [ 45 ] employed and analyzed recorded data from the Registry of Birth and Death, Immigration and Checkpoint Authority of Singapore to investigate the unnatural deaths of 42 treatment seekers of substance addiction between 2011–2015. Their findings provide evidence of the lethal consequences of substance abuse in an unobtrusive manner. Moreover, Chmielowiec et al. [ 46 ] examined the relationship between the mesolimbic dopamine system and addiction in a group of 299 addicted subjects and another group of 301 non-addict controls by analyzing two polymorphisms in their genes (a variable number of tandem repeats in DRD4 and DAT1), which are mainly responsible for dopaminergic transmission, representing a human reward system that is closely related to substance abuse and misuse. It is clear that research using different methods and designs is useful in fortifying and enhancing currently established concepts and knowledge of substance abuse. Therefore, more novel research methods and designs should be encouraged, so that patterns of substance abuse can be more efficiently dissected.

5. Conclusions

Substance abuse has been an issue of public health for hundreds of years [ 47 ]. Nevertheless, professionals and researchers of different domains tend to adopt a one-dimensional view based on their particular expertise when examining, explaining and trying to find solutions to this complex problem [ 10 , 48 , 49 ]. Thus, various and often competing perspectives rooted in the paradigms of heredity, biology, psychology, cognitive science, family, social development and cultural structures can exist simultaneously, thereby unwittingly compounding the problem [ 1 , 2 , 39 , 50 ]. However, as substance abuse is composed of layers of individual development, family and social influences, cultural values and environmental conditions, a multilevel perspective is needed to analyze its etiology, maintenance and consequences. Various theories and models from different scholarly paradigms at different levels of social systems should be employed concomitantly to help examine and resolve the issues as part of a dynamic and comprehensive process [ 2 , 3 , 12 ]. Employing such a multilevel perspective requires researchers and practitioners to explore the interaction of hereditary, physical, psychological, cognitive, mental, family, social, cultural and environmental factors, and to show exactly how such synergy leads to and/or maintains substance use and addiction. Doing so will help in the design of improved multiple responses to the fallout from substance abuse.

As substance abuse is never limited to particular social groups in human societies, it is essential to understand the unique psychological, personality, cognitive, socioeconomic, familial and cultural differences of various social groups, and to explore what common and unique characteristics they hold in terms of the initiation, processes and consequences of substance abuse [ 4 , 6 ]. If researchers, service practitioners, educators and policy makers were able to understand the common and unique etiological causes and stimulants that incur experimentation and the subsequent maintenance of substance abuse, more effective prevention and treatment strategies and programs could be introduced. Furthermore, because each society or nation is comprised of multiple differing social groups, a knowledge and understanding of their unique cultural and ethnic structures would be empirically useful for researchers trying to unearth the common and distinct etiological causes and stimulants of substance use and abuse. This is a largely unchartered area of research.

The abuse of different types and forms of substances may generate different levels of addiction and harm [ 2 , 51 ], which in turn may trigger distinct social maladjustment and craving behaviors [ 12 , 52 ]. Therefore, future research should discern and clarify the effects of different types and forms of substances on the progress, abstinence and relapse of addicts; this would lead to a better comprehension of the nature and impact of substance abuse. Quantitative methods and designs should be adopted to this end, in addition to other methods and designs that will broaden our perspectives on the topic. In other words, future addiction research should consider the employment of mixed-method designs to investigate the nature of different types and forms of substances and their effects on different social groups. Furthermore, the interaction between the biological, individual, family, social and cultural factors that lead to substance abuse is worthy of research, but will require more advanced methodological designs and mathematical and statistical procedures.

The processes and consequences of substance abuse can be seen to evolve in step with social, technological and cultural developments [ 4 , 39 ]. The patterns and forms of substance abuse can vary according to different social groups. Therefore, comparative and longitudinal research is more useful and insightful in helping to reveal its precarious and dynamic influences. In fact, polysubstance abuse—in which substance addicts expect to achieve higher substance-synergy effects of enjoyability by simultaneously abusing multiple types of drugs and substances—has become more common in the past decade [ 53 , 54 ]. This apparently presents an even greater challenge to treatment and healthcare services. In the face of this new phenomenon, the role of empirical research becomes more pivotal in helping to configure effective approaches and solutions.

In conclusion, substance abuse has long been a thorny public health problem, and it continues to evolve. Multiple responses supported by the employment of a multilevel research perspective are needed. Cross-disciplinary collaboration and concerted research are urgently required if we are to optimize our current strategies and remediation.

Author Contributions

T.W.L., J.W.K.Y., and C.H.L.T. conceived the topic for the Special Issue and were the guest editors. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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• April 01, 2024 | VOL. 181, NO. 4 CURRENT ISSUE pp.255-346
• March 01, 2024 | VOL. 181, NO. 3 pp.171-254
• February 01, 2024 | VOL. 181, NO. 2 pp.83-170
• January 01, 2024 | VOL. 181, NO. 1 pp.1-82

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Substance Use Disorders and Addiction: Mechanisms, Trends, and Treatment Implications

• Ned H. Kalin , M.D.

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The numbers for substance use disorders are large, and we need to pay attention to them. Data from the 2018 National Survey on Drug Use and Health ( 1 ) suggest that, over the preceding year, 20.3 million people age 12 or older had substance use disorders, and 14.8 million of these cases were attributed to alcohol. When considering other substances, the report estimated that 4.4 million individuals had a marijuana use disorder and that 2 million people suffered from an opiate use disorder. It is well known that stress is associated with an increase in the use of alcohol and other substances, and this is particularly relevant today in relation to the chronic uncertainty and distress associated with the COVID-19 pandemic along with the traumatic effects of racism and social injustice. In part related to stress, substance use disorders are highly comorbid with other psychiatric illnesses: 9.2 million adults were estimated to have a 1-year prevalence of both a mental illness and at least one substance use disorder. Although they may not necessarily meet criteria for a substance use disorder, it is well known that psychiatric patients have increased usage of alcohol, cigarettes, and other illicit substances. As an example, the survey estimated that over the preceding month, 37.2% of individuals with serious mental illnesses were cigarette smokers, compared with 16.3% of individuals without mental illnesses. Substance use frequently accompanies suicide and suicide attempts, and substance use disorders are associated with a long-term increased risk of suicide.

Addiction is the key process that underlies substance use disorders, and research using animal models and humans has revealed important insights into the neural circuits and molecules that mediate addiction. More specifically, research has shed light onto mechanisms underlying the critical components of addiction and relapse: reinforcement and reward, tolerance, withdrawal, negative affect, craving, and stress sensitization. In addition, clinical research has been instrumental in developing an evidence base for the use of pharmacological agents in the treatment of substance use disorders, which, in combination with psychosocial approaches, can provide effective treatments. However, despite the existence of therapeutic tools, relapse is common, and substance use disorders remain grossly undertreated. For example, whether at an inpatient hospital treatment facility or at a drug or alcohol rehabilitation program, it was estimated that only 11% of individuals needing treatment for substance use received appropriate care in 2018. Additionally, it is worth emphasizing that current practice frequently does not effectively integrate dual diagnosis treatment approaches, which is important because psychiatric and substance use disorders are highly comorbid. The barriers to receiving treatment are numerous and directly interact with existing health care inequities. It is imperative that as a field we overcome the obstacles to treatment, including the lack of resources at the individual level, a dearth of trained providers and appropriate treatment facilities, racial biases, and the marked stigmatization that is focused on individuals with addictions.

This issue of the Journal is focused on understanding factors contributing to substance use disorders and their comorbidity with psychiatric disorders, the effects of prenatal alcohol use on preadolescents, and brain mechanisms that are associated with addiction and relapse. An important theme that emerges from this issue is the necessity for understanding maladaptive substance use and its treatment in relation to health care inequities. This highlights the imperative to focus resources and treatment efforts on underprivileged and marginalized populations. The centerpiece of this issue is an overview on addiction written by Dr. George Koob, the director of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), and coauthors Drs. Patricia Powell (NIAAA deputy director) and Aaron White ( 2 ). This outstanding article will serve as a foundational knowledge base for those interested in understanding the complex factors that mediate drug addiction. Of particular interest to the practice of psychiatry is the emphasis on the negative affect state “hyperkatifeia” as a major driver of addictive behavior and relapse. This places the dysphoria and psychological distress that are associated with prolonged withdrawal at the heart of treatment and underscores the importance of treating not only maladaptive drug-related behaviors but also the prolonged dysphoria and negative affect associated with addiction. It also speaks to why it is crucial to concurrently treat psychiatric comorbidities that commonly accompany substance use disorders.

Insights Into Mechanisms Related to Cocaine Addiction Using a Novel Imaging Method for Dopamine Neurons

Cassidy et al. ( 3 ) introduce a relatively new imaging technique that allows for an estimation of dopamine integrity and function in the substantia nigra, the site of origin of dopamine neurons that project to the striatum. Capitalizing on the high levels of neuromelanin that are found in substantia nigra dopamine neurons and the interaction between neuromelanin and intracellular iron, this MRI technique, termed neuromelanin-sensitive MRI (NM-MRI), shows promise in studying the involvement of substantia nigra dopamine neurons in neurodegenerative diseases and psychiatric illnesses. The authors used this technique to assess dopamine function in active cocaine users with the aim of exploring the hypothesis that cocaine use disorder is associated with blunted presynaptic striatal dopamine function that would be reflected in decreased “integrity” of the substantia nigra dopamine system. Surprisingly, NM-MRI revealed evidence for increased dopamine in the substantia nigra of individuals using cocaine. The authors suggest that this finding, in conjunction with prior work suggesting a blunted dopamine response, points to the possibility that cocaine use is associated with an altered intracellular distribution of dopamine. Specifically, the idea is that dopamine is shifted from being concentrated in releasable, functional vesicles at the synapse to a nonreleasable cytosolic pool. In addition to providing an intriguing alternative hypothesis underlying the cocaine-related alterations observed in substantia nigra dopamine function, this article highlights an innovative imaging method that can be used in further investigations involving the role of substantia nigra dopamine systems in neuropsychiatric disorders. Dr. Charles Bradberry, chief of the Preclinical Pharmacology Section at the National Institute on Drug Abuse, contributes an editorial that further explains the use of NM-MRI and discusses the theoretical implications of these unexpected findings in relation to cocaine use ( 4 ).

Treatment Implications of Understanding Brain Function During Early Abstinence in Patients With Alcohol Use Disorder

Developing a better understanding of the neural processes that are associated with substance use disorders is critical for conceptualizing improved treatment approaches. Blaine et al. ( 5 ) present neuroimaging data collected during early abstinence in patients with alcohol use disorder and link these data to relapses occurring during treatment. Of note, the findings from this study dovetail with the neural circuit schema Koob et al. provide in this issue’s overview on addiction ( 2 ). The first study in the Blaine et al. article uses 44 patients and 43 control subjects to demonstrate that patients with alcohol use disorder have a blunted neural response to the presentation of stress- and alcohol-related cues. This blunting was observed mainly in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, a key prefrontal regulatory region, as well as in subcortical regions associated with reward processing, specifically the ventral striatum. Importantly, this finding was replicated in a second study in which 69 patients were studied in relation to their length of abstinence prior to treatment and treatment outcomes. The results demonstrated that individuals with the shortest abstinence times had greater alterations in neural responses to stress and alcohol cues. The authors also found that an individual’s length of abstinence prior to treatment, independent of the number of days of abstinence, was a predictor of relapse and that the magnitude of an individual’s neural alterations predicted the amount of heavy drinking occurring early in treatment. Although relapse is an all too common outcome in patients with substance use disorders, this study highlights an approach that has the potential to refine and develop new treatments that are based on addiction- and abstinence-related brain changes. In her thoughtful editorial, Dr. Edith Sullivan from Stanford University comments on the details of the study, the value of studying patients during early abstinence, and the implications of these findings for new treatment development ( 6 ).

Relatively Low Amounts of Alcohol Intake During Pregnancy Are Associated With Subtle Neurodevelopmental Effects in Preadolescent Offspring

Excessive substance use not only affects the user and their immediate family but also has transgenerational effects that can be mediated in utero. Lees et al. ( 7 ) present data suggesting that even the consumption of relatively low amounts of alcohol by expectant mothers can affect brain development, cognition, and emotion in their offspring. The researchers used data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study, a large national community-based study, which allowed them to assess brain structure and function as well as behavioral, cognitive, and psychological outcomes in 9,719 preadolescents. The mothers of 2,518 of the subjects in this study reported some alcohol use during pregnancy, albeit at relatively low levels (0 to 80 drinks throughout pregnancy). Interestingly, and opposite of that expected in relation to data from individuals with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, increases in brain volume and surface area were found in offspring of mothers who consumed the relatively low amounts of alcohol. Notably, any prenatal alcohol exposure was associated with small but significant increases in psychological problems that included increases in separation anxiety disorder and oppositional defiant disorder. Additionally, a dose-response effect was found for internalizing psychopathology, somatic complaints, and attentional deficits. While subtle, these findings point to neurodevelopmental alterations that may be mediated by even small amounts of prenatal alcohol consumption. Drs. Clare McCormack and Catherine Monk from Columbia University contribute an editorial that provides an in-depth assessment of these findings in relation to other studies, including those assessing severe deficits in individuals with fetal alcohol syndrome ( 8 ). McCormack and Monk emphasize that the behavioral and psychological effects reported in the Lees et al. article would not be clinically meaningful. However, it is feasible that the influences of these low amounts of alcohol could interact with other predisposing factors that might lead to more substantial negative outcomes.

Increased Comorbidity Between Substance Use and Psychiatric Disorders in Sexual Identity Minorities

There is no question that victims of societal marginalization experience disproportionate adversity and stress. Evans-Polce et al. ( 9 ) focus on this concern in relation to individuals who identify as sexual minorities by comparing their incidence of comorbid substance use and psychiatric disorders with that of individuals who identify as heterosexual. By using 2012−2013 data from 36,309 participants in the National Epidemiologic Study on Alcohol and Related Conditions–III, the authors examine the incidence of comorbid alcohol and tobacco use disorders with anxiety, mood disorders, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The findings demonstrate increased incidences of substance use and psychiatric disorders in individuals who identified as bisexual or as gay or lesbian compared with those who identified as heterosexual. For example, a fourfold increase in the prevalence of PTSD was found in bisexual individuals compared with heterosexual individuals. In addition, the authors found an increased prevalence of substance use and psychiatric comorbidities in individuals who identified as bisexual and as gay or lesbian compared with individuals who identified as heterosexual. This was most prominent in women who identified as bisexual. For example, of the bisexual women who had an alcohol use disorder, 60.5% also had a psychiatric comorbidity, compared with 44.6% of heterosexual women. Additionally, the amount of reported sexual orientation discrimination and number of lifetime stressful events were associated with a greater likelihood of having comorbid substance use and psychiatric disorders. These findings are important but not surprising, as sexual minority individuals have a history of increased early-life trauma and throughout their lives may experience the painful and unwarranted consequences of bias and denigration. Nonetheless, these findings underscore the strong negative societal impacts experienced by minority groups and should sensitize providers to the additional needs of these individuals.

Trends in Nicotine Use and Dependence From 2001–2002 to 2012–2013

Although considerable efforts over earlier years have curbed the use of tobacco and nicotine, the use of these substances continues to be a significant public health problem. As noted above, individuals with psychiatric disorders are particularly vulnerable. Grant et al. ( 10 ) use data from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions collected from a very large cohort to characterize trends in nicotine use and dependence over time. Results from their analysis support the so-called hardening hypothesis, which posits that although intervention-related reductions in nicotine use may have occurred over time, the impact of these interventions is less potent in individuals with more severe addictive behavior (i.e., nicotine dependence). When adjusted for sociodemographic factors, the results demonstrated a small but significant increase in nicotine use from 2001–2002 to 2012–2013. However, a much greater increase in nicotine dependence (46.1% to 52%) was observed over this time frame in individuals who had used nicotine during the preceding 12 months. The increases in nicotine use and dependence were associated with factors related to socioeconomic status, such as lower income and lower educational attainment. The authors interpret these findings as evidence for the hardening hypothesis, suggesting that despite the impression that nicotine use has plateaued, there is a growing number of highly dependent nicotine users who would benefit from nicotine dependence intervention programs. Dr. Kathleen Brady, from the Medical University of South Carolina, provides an editorial ( 11 ) that reviews the consequences of tobacco use and the history of the public measures that were initially taken to combat its use. Importantly, her editorial emphasizes the need to address health care inequity issues that affect individuals of lower socioeconomic status by devoting resources to develop and deploy effective smoking cessation interventions for at-risk and underresourced populations.

Conclusions

Maladaptive substance use and substance use disorders are highly prevalent and are among the most significant public health problems. Substance use is commonly comorbid with psychiatric disorders, and treatment efforts need to concurrently address both. The papers in this issue highlight new findings that are directly relevant to understanding, treating, and developing policies to better serve those afflicted with addictions. While treatments exist, the need for more effective treatments is clear, especially those focused on decreasing relapse rates. The negative affective state, hyperkatifeia, that accompanies longer-term abstinence is an important treatment target that should be emphasized in current practice as well as in new treatment development. In addition to developing a better understanding of the neurobiology of addictions and abstinence, it is necessary to ensure that there is equitable access to currently available treatments and treatment programs. Additional resources must be allocated to this cause. This depends on the recognition that health care inequities and societal barriers are major contributors to the continued high prevalence of substance use disorders, the individual suffering they inflict, and the huge toll that they incur at a societal level.

Disclosures of Editors’ financial relationships appear in the April 2020 issue of the Journal .

1 US Department of Health and Human Services: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality: National Survey on Drug Use and Health 2018. Rockville, Md, SAMHSA, 2019 ( https://www.samhsa.gov/data/nsduh/reports-detailed-tables-2018-NSDUH ) Google Scholar

2 Koob GF, Powell P, White A : Addiction as a coping response: hyperkatifeia, deaths of despair, and COVID-19 . Am J Psychiatry 2020 ; 177:1031–1037 Link ,  Google Scholar

3 Cassidy CM, Carpenter KM, Konova AB, et al. : Evidence for dopamine abnormalities in the substantia nigra in cocaine addiction revealed by neuromelanin-sensitive MRI . Am J Psychiatry 2020 ; 177:1038–1047 Link ,  Google Scholar

4 Bradberry CW : Neuromelanin MRI: dark substance shines a light on dopamine dysfunction and cocaine use (editorial). Am J Psychiatry 2020 ; 177:1019–1021 Abstract ,  Google Scholar

5 Blaine SK, Wemm S, Fogelman N, et al. : Association of prefrontal-striatal functional pathology with alcohol abstinence days at treatment initiation and heavy drinking after treatment initiation . Am J Psychiatry 2020 ; 177:1048–1059 Abstract ,  Google Scholar

6 Sullivan EV : Why timing matters in alcohol use disorder recovery (editorial). Am J Psychiatry 2020 ; 177:1022–1024 Abstract ,  Google Scholar

7 Lees B, Mewton L, Jacobus J, et al. : Association of prenatal alcohol exposure with psychological, behavioral, and neurodevelopmental outcomes in children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study . Am J Psychiatry 2020 ; 177:1060–1072 Link ,  Google Scholar

8 McCormack C, Monk C : Considering prenatal alcohol exposure in a developmental origins of health and disease framework (editorial). Am J Psychiatry 2020 ; 177:1025–1028 Abstract ,  Google Scholar

9 Evans-Polce RJ, Kcomt L, Veliz PT, et al. : Alcohol, tobacco, and comorbid psychiatric disorders and associations with sexual identity and stress-related correlates . Am J Psychiatry 2020 ; 177:1073–1081 Abstract ,  Google Scholar

10 Grant BF, Shmulewitz D, Compton WM : Nicotine use and DSM-IV nicotine dependence in the United States, 2001–2002 and 2012–2013 . Am J Psychiatry 2020 ; 177:1082–1090 Link ,  Google Scholar

11 Brady KT : Social determinants of health and smoking cessation: a challenge (editorial). Am J Psychiatry 2020 ; 177:1029–1030 Abstract ,  Google Scholar

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A comprehensive map of molecular drug targets

The success of mechanism-based drug discovery depends on the definition of the drug target, but targets are often poorly defined in the literature. Here, Overington and colleagues present a comprehensive map of the molecular targets of approved drugs, and explore aspects including the footprint of target classes across disease areas, the success of privileged target families and drug target orthologues across standard model organisms.

• Rita Santos
• John P. Overington

An analysis of the attrition of drug candidates from four major pharmaceutical companies

Attempts to reduce the number of efficacy- and safety-related failures that may be linked to the physicochemical properties of small-molecule drug candidates have been inconclusive owing to the limited size of data sets from individual companies. Waring and colleagues analyse the largest data set compiled so far on the causes of attrition for oral, small-molecule drug candidates, derived from a pioneering data-sharing effort by AstraZeneca, Eli Lilly and Company, GlaxoSmithKline and Pfizer.

• Michael J. Waring
• John Arrowsmith

The discovery of first-in-class drugs: origins and evolution

Previous analyses of new drug approvals have suggested that phenotypic screening strategies have been more productive than target-based approaches in the discovery of first-in-class small-molecule drugs. Eder and colleagues analysed the origins of the first-in-class drugs approved by the US Food and Drug Administration from 1999 to 2013, and found that target-based approaches have had a substantial impact in more recent years. They discuss the implications for drug discovery strategies, including viewing phenotypic screening as a novel discipline rather than as a neoclassical approach.

• Richard Sedrani
• Christian Wiesmann

Phenotypic screening in cancer drug discovery — past, present and future

There has been a resurgence of interest in the use of phenotypic screens in drug discovery as an alternative to target-focused approaches. Moffat and colleagues investigated the contribution of phenotypic assays in oncology by analysing the origins of the new small-molecule cancer drugs approved by the US Food and Drug Administration over the past 15 years. They also discuss technical and biological advances that could empower phenotypic drug discovery in oncology by enabling the development of mechanistically informed phenotypic screens.

• John G. Moffat
• Joachim Rudolph
• David Bailey

The role of ligand efficiency metrics in drug discovery

Ligand efficiency metrics quantify the molecular properties required to gain binding affinity for a drug target. This article discusses the application of such metrics in the selection and optimization of fragments, hits and leads, highlighting how optimizing ligand efficiency metrics based on both molecular mass and lipophilicity, when set in the context of the specific target, has the potential to increase the quality of drug candidates.

• Andrew L. Hopkins
• György M. Keserü
• Charles H. Reynolds

Objective assessment of cancer genes for drug discovery

Effectively selecting therapeutic targets from the sizeable lists that are emerging from large-scale multi-omics initiatives is a key challenge in drug discovery. This article describes an objective, systematic computational assessment of biological and chemical space that can be applied to any human gene set to prioritize targets for further evaluation, and demonstrates its use on a set of 479 cancer-associated genes to identify new opportunities for drug discovery and repurposing.

• Mishal N. Patel
• Mark D. Halling-Brown
• Bissan Al-Lazikani

Quantifying factors for the success of stratified medicine

Co-developing a drug with a diagnostic to create a stratified medicine — a therapy that is targeted to a specific patient population on the basis of a clinical biomarker — presents challenges for product developers, regulators, payers and physicians. With the aim of developing a shared framework and tools for addressing these challenges, this article presents an analysis using data from case studies in oncology and Alzheimer's disease, coupled with integrated computational modelling of clinical outcomes and economic value, to quantify the effects of decisions on key issues such as the design of clinical trials.

• Mark R. Trusheim
• Breon Burgess
• Michael C. Palmer

The influence of the 'organizational factor' on compound quality in drug discovery

In the past 15 years, it has become clear that physicochemical properties of drug candidates, such as lipophilicity and molecular mass, have an important influence on the likelihood of compound-related attrition during development. By analysing the properties of compounds described in patents from leading pharmaceutical companies between 2000 and 2010, this article indicates that a substantial part of the industry has not modified its drug design practices accordingly and is still producing compounds with suboptimal physicochemical profiles.

• Paul D. Leeson
• Stephen A. St-Gallay

Trends in the exploitation of novel drug targets

Schiöth and colleagues examine the drugs approved by the US Food and Drug Administration over the past 30 years and analyse the interactions of these drugs with therapeutic targets encoded by the human genome, identifying 435 effect-mediating drug targets. They also analyse trends in the introduction of drugs that modulate previously unexploited targets, and discuss the network pharmacology of the drugs in the data set.

• Mathias Rask-Andersen
• Markus Sällman Almén
• Helgi B. Schiöth

How were new medicines discovered?

To investigate whether some strategies have been more successful than others in the discovery of new drugs, this article analyses the discovery strategies and the molecular mechanism of action for 259 new drugs that were approved by the US Food and Drug Administration between 1999 and 2008. Observations from this analysis — such as the fact that the contribution of phenotypic screening to the discovery of first-in-class small-molecule drugs exceeded that of target-based approaches in an era in which the major focus was on target-based approaches — could have important implications for efforts to increase the productivity of drug research and development.

• David C. Swinney
• Jason Anthony

The productivity crisis in pharmaceutical R&D

Although investment in pharmaceutical research and development (R&D) has increased substantially in recent decades, the lack of a corresponding increase in the output in terms of new drugs being approved indicates that therapeutic innovation has become more challenging. Here, using a large database that contains information on R&D projects for more than 28,000 compounds investigated since 1990, Riccaboni and colleagues examine the factors underlying the decline in R&D productivity, which include an increasing concentration of R&D investments in areas in which the risk of failure is high.

• Fabio Pammolli
• Laura Magazzini
• Massimo Riccaboni

Probing the links between in vitro potency, ADMET and physicochemical parameters

A common assumption in current drug discovery strategies is that compounds with high in vitro potency at their target(s) have a greater potential to translate into successful, low-dose therapeutics, which is reflected in screening cascades with in vitro potency embedded as an early filter. This analysis of the publicly available ChEMBL database, which includes more than 500,000 drug discovery and marketed oral drug compounds, suggests that the perceived benefit of high in vitro potency may be negated by poorer absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination and toxicity (ADMET) properties.

• M. Paul Gleeson
• Anne Hersey
• John Overington

The importance of new companies for drug discovery: origins of a decade of new drugs

Understanding the factors that promote drug innovation is important both for improvements in health care and the future of organizations engaged in the field. To investigate these factors, Kneller identifies the inventors of 252 new drugs approved by the US Food and Drug Administration from 1998 to 2007 and their places of work, and classifies these drugs according to innovativeness. This article presents a comprehensive analysis of these data, which highlight the strong contribution of biotechnology companies, particularly in the United States, to innovative drug discovery, and discusses potential contributing factors to the trends observed.

• Robert Kneller

How to improve R&D productivity: the pharmaceutical industry's grand challenge

Improving R&D productivity is crucial to ensuring the future viability of the pharmaceutical industry and advances in health care. This article presents a detailed analysis, based on comprehensive, recent, industry-wide data, to identify the relative contributions of each of the steps in the drug discovery and development process to overall R&D productivity, and proposes strategies that could have the most substantial impact in enhancing R&D productivity.

• Steven M. Paul
• Daniel S. Mytelka
• Aaron L. Schacht

Lessons from 60 years of pharmaceutical innovation

This article investigates pharmaceutical innovation by analysing data on the companies that introduced the ∼1,200 new drugs that have been approved by the US FDA since 1950. Implications of this analysis — which shows that the rate of new drug output in this period has essentially been constant despite the huge increases in R&D investment — are discussed, as well as options to achieve sustainability for the pharmaceutical industry.

• Bernard Munos

Can literature analysis identify innovation drivers in drug discovery?

Here, the authors use bibliometrics and related data-mining methods to analyse PubMed abstracts, literature citation data and patent filings. The analyses are used to identify trends in disease-related scientific activity that are likely to give new therapeutic opportunities.

• Pankaj Agarwal
• David B. Searls

Community-wide assessment of GPCR structure modelling and ligand docking: GPCR Dock 2008

The recent determination of several crystal structures of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is providing new opportunities for structure-based drug design. This article analyses the state of the art in the prediction of GPCR structure and the docking of potential ligands on the basis of a community-wide, blind prediction assessment — GPCR Dock 2008 — that was carried out in coordination with the publication of the human adenosine A 2A receptor structure in 2008 and public release of the three-dimensional coordinates.

• Mayako Michino
• Enrique Abola
• Raymond C. Stevens

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Drugs Research Paper

This sample drugs research paper features: 8700 words (approx. 29 pages), an outline, and a bibliography with 34 sources. Browse other research paper examples for more inspiration. If you need a thorough research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates.

Introduction

Bingham dai, alfred lindesmith, howard s. becker, edwin schur, implications of early sociological insights, social control, self-control, social learning, patterns in drug use, policy and legal issues, epidemiology and etiology, drugs and crime, drugs and the community, the effectiveness of treatment programs, the methodology of surveying drug use, the dynamics of drug markets, other topics, conclusion: the future of the sociology of drug use.

• Bibliography

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• Psychoactive Drugs Research Paper

Pharmacologists refer to substances that have an impact on thinking, feeling, mood, and perception as psychoactive. Humans have always ingested psychoactive substances. Higher organisms are neurologically hardwired to derive pleasure from the action of certain chemical substances. Psychoactive drugs, some powerfully so, activate pleasure centers of the brain, thereby potentiating continuing drug-taking behavior. People take drugs to experience the effects that come with their mind-active properties.

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The neurological/pharmacological factor addresses how and why drug-taking behavior got started, but it does not address the most sociologically relevant issues: differences in drug-taking behavior between and among societies, social categories, and individuals in the population, as well as among drug types. In addition, the predisposition to use is a necessary but not sufficient explanation of use. Use also presupposes the availability or supply of, or opportunity to take, a given drug. Without a predisposition to use, drug use will not take place; without availability, it cannot take place.

Moreover, substances are defined as “drugs” in a variety of ways. Indeed, most substances referred to as drugs do not influence the mind at all—that is, they are not psychoactive. Many have medicinal or therapeutic value: Antibiotics, antacids, and antitussives offer ready examples. Why people take such drugs can be answered by addressing medical motives. Other drugs influence perception, mood, cognitive processes, and emotion. Alcohol clearly qualifies in this respect, as do methamphetamine and PCP. Hence, the recreational motive—getting high—factors into the explanatory equation. Still other substances, such as LSD, marijuana, and heroin, are illegal or illicit—their possession and sale are controlled by law. Hence, their legal status is implicated in why—or, more accurately, why not—some people use them. The medical, psychoactive, and illegal categories overlap: LSD is both psychoactive and a controlled substance, and morphine is both psychoactive and used as medicine, as well as illegal for nonmedical or recreational purposes.

Medical sociologists are interested in the use of drugs in therapy. Criminologists study drugs as illegal substances. Economists look at drugs as an exchange commodity, bought, sold, and distributed according to patterns both similar to and different from those of legal products. Anthropologists conduct research on the consumption of psychoactive plant products by tribal and agrarian peoples; here, cultural factors in drug use predominate. Policy analysts examine the feasibility of specific drug policies. Pharmacologists consider the effects of drug substances on the physical organism; psychologists and psychopharmacologists study their effects on the brain—that is, the mind. In this research paper, I will focus on the use of drugs that are both psychoactive and illicit. In fact, drugs that strongly influence the mind tend to become criminalized. In the United States, aside from tobacco, which generates a “low-key” high, and alcohol, the only psychoactive substances that are not illegal for recreational purposes are those that are not widely used and have not yet become publicized as recreational drugs.

The task of sociologists has always been and remains establishing a distinctive voice in the din of competing perspectives and disciplines investigating drug use. Their focus is on what makes drug use a specifically social activity, how socialization, culture, social interaction, social inequality, deviance, and group membership play a central role in the use of psychoactive substances; what people do under the influence; and what societies do about the control of—or why they tolerate or accept—drug use and distribution.

Early Sociological Research on Drug Use

People have been writing about psychoactive drug use and drug effects for at least 6,000 years, but it was not until little more than a century ago that the pathological or harmful side of substance abuse proved to be the major theme in texts on drug use. Surveys on rates of and dependence on medical opium and morphine were conducted in the United States as early as 1877 (Courtwright 1982:10). During a brief period following 1884, the medical profession dubbed cocaine “a miracle of modern science” (Spillane 2000:7–24), but within a decade, physicians began recognizing danger lurking in the unregulated use of the drug, specifically for causing overdoses, or what was then referred to as “cocaine poisoning,” and dependence, or developing the “cocaine habit” (pp. 25–42). With respect to drugs, the second half of the nineteenth century witnessed a shift from a completely tolerant, laissez-faire or “hands off” legal policy to one that favored increasingly strict controls over their distribution and sale. By 1900, the unregulated medical consumption of drugs was drawing to a close, while users who sought recreation and intoxication loomed increasingly larger in the drug picture. By the 1920s, the intellectual context that surrounded drug use was saturated with the view that medical use is often, and recreational use is by its very nature, dangerous, harmful, and pathological.

Hence, most of the early sociological researchers found themselves challenging the dominant, conventional view. None of them questioned the idea that nonmedical drug use could be or was often harmful; the view they challenged was that such harm was intrinsic to the activity itself and was unmediated by social forces or factors. Moreover, these early sociologists suggested that the cure for the drug problem, namely, the drug laws and their enforcement, may be more harmful than drug use itself.

The first systematic sociological research on the subject of drug use grew out of the research on deviance, delinquency, and crime that was conducted in the 1920s by the faculty and graduate students of the Department of Sociology at the University of Chicago. These early Chicago sociologists located the cause of such untoward behavior in the social disorganization of certain neighborhoods, which they characterized by high residence density, poverty, transience, and dilapidation, conditions that generate moral cynicism among residents, increased opportunities for crime and deviance, and diminished social control.

During the 1920s, intellectuals, along with society’s more enlightened wealthier citizens, abandoned the idea of a laissez-faire program of letting problems take care of themselves and began to see their role as one of progressive stewardship—that is, they saw themselves as having “a moral obligation to further the betterment of society.” The early Chicago sociologists saw themselves as part of this emerging liberal, enlightened, reformist perspective, seeking solutions to “such social problems as crime, mental disorders, family breakdown, and alcoholism” (Pfohl 1994:184–85). It was out of this sociohistorical context that the sociology department’s focus on social disorganization and the problematic behaviors it spawned was born.

The first systematic, full-scale sociological study of drug addiction in the Chicago tradition was conducted in the 1930s by Bingham Dai (1937) and was published as Opium Addiction in Chicago. While a tradition of medical and legal writings existed when he began his research, Dai argued that the sociological approach represented a contribution because the addict is “a member of society and a carrier of culture” (p. v). Moreover, sociology attempts to trace out the etiological or causal factors related to addiction. Dai examined data on 2,500 addicts from a psychiatric hospital, more than 300 nonaddict drug dealers, and 118 female addicts, for the period from 1928 to 1934. In addition, he conducted interviews and summarized 25 of them as “case studies” in his book.

The lives of these addicts, nearly all above the age of 20, were marked by irregular employment, poverty, weak or nonexistent family ties, and high rates of property crime after they became addicted. Dai (1937) characterized the neighborhoods in which his sample lived by a low level of community spirit and weak or absent “primary group associations” among residents, a high percentage of unattached males, many transients, physical deterioration, and cheap rental units. His drug addicts, he said, lived in an environment of high levels of “family disorganization, crime, vice, alcoholism, insanity and suicide” (p. 189). Such neighborhoods tolerated, gave license to, or encouraged deviant and criminal behavior—and drug addiction fit comfortably within this constellation of social problems.

Dai (1937) did, however, stress that opiate addicts were psychologically normal, did not commit crime prior to their addiction, and tended to commit property crimes rather than crimes of violence and, most important, that opiates did not have a medically harmful or “deteriorating effect” on the body (p. 72). Moreover, Dai’s social disorganization approach emphasized an important truth that can be found in much sociological writing: Aside from their “unfortunate spatial location in the natural ecology of a changing society,” the perspective “asks us to imagine” that drug addicts, like deviants in general, “are people like ourselves” (Pfohl 1994:209). In short, in most respects, Dai challenged the pathology orientation of the writings on drug use that were current at that time.

Alfred Lindesmith also studied drug addiction, but unlike Dai, whose work fit squarely within the social disorganization tradition, made very little use of the Chicago School’s focus on communities and neighborhoods. Lindesmith’s dissertation devised and tested a microinteractionist theory of opiate addiction. In Opiate Addiction, Lindesmith (1947, 1968) argued that in the initial stage of narcotic use, pleasure dominates as a motivating force. Because of the body’s growing tolerance to narcotics, the user, to continue receiving pleasure, is forced to increase the dose of the drug—eventually to a point at which a physical dependence takes place. If use is discontinued because of arrest, disrupted supply, insufficient funds, or attempts at abstinence—or for any reason whatever—painful withdrawal symptoms wrack the addict’s body. When the addict administers a dose of a narcotic and recognizes that it alleviates the anguish of withdrawal, an intense craving is generated for the drug. Hence, the addict does not become addicted voluntarily “but is rather trapped ‘against his [or her] will’ by the hook of withdrawal” (Lindesmith 1968:9). Lindesmith saw addicts as basically normal people ensnared in a compulsive habit over which they have no control. The crimes they commit are strictly to maintain their habits. Moreover, he argued, addicts derive no pleasure from opiates. Interestingly, Lindesmith’s formulation begs the question of what it was that led the addict to experiment with opiates initially.

The political and policy implications of Lindesmith’s (1965) conclusions were profound, conclusions that he developed in considerable detail in The Addict and the Law. If addiction is a direct consequence of the conjunction of a biophysical mechanism (withdrawal distress) and a cognitive process (recognizing that a dose of an opiate relieves withdrawal), then the addict cannot be held responsible for his or her condition. Like Dai’s addicts, who were caught up in the tangle of community disruption, Lindesmith’s addicts were innocents caught up in the uncontrollable impulse to avoid a relentless pharmacological process. Consequently, he reasoned, addiction should not be a crime, and addicts should not be locked up for attempting to relieve what is in effect a medical condition. Moreover, Lindesmith emphasized, the effects of the opiates are not medically harmful, adding further fuel to the fire of his criticism of the drug laws. As a consequence of his findings, Lindesmith became a staunch critic of American drug policy. Indeed, from the 1930s until the early 1960s, Lindesmith was one of the few critical voices speaking out against the government’s war on drugs. Lindesmith’s impact on the sociology of drug use has been enormous.

Howard S. Becker earned his way through graduate school by playing the piano for jazz bands. His musical experience led to acquaintances with other musicians, most of whom used one or another illicit, controlled substance, mainly marijuana. Just as Lindesmith had raised the question of how someone becomes an opiate addict, Becker’s research posed the issue of how one becomes a marijuana smoker. The intersection of the physiology of marijuana’s effects and three social/cognitive processes—namely, learning how to use it, learning to perceive its effects, and learning to enjoy its effects—provides the mechanism that accounts for its use. Once one enjoys the effects of marijuana, to continue using it, one needs to nullify the forces of social control that conventional society exercises to prohibit this behavior—namely, maintain a supply of the drug, ensure a measure of secrecy about its use, and reorganize the sense of morality so that definitions of the deviance of use are neutralized. Becker’s (1953, 1955) two articles on marijuana use, published in the 1950s, were later incorporated as chapters into his treatise, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (Becker 1963).

Becker’s analysis departed even more radically than did Dai’s and Lindesmith’s from the dominant “pathology” perspective: Dai’s addicts were a product of a negative condition (community disruption), and Lindesmith regarded addiction as a medical condition, much like an illness, in need of treatment. But Becker’s marijuana smokers— and his depiction of marijuana use—were normal in every imaginable way. Users had no pathological characteristics that impelled them to take the drug. There is no hint that the effects of marijuana are harmful. Even more striking, Becker’s intellectual problem is not how users stop their use of this drug, it is precisely the reverse: He asks how people manage to continue using marijuana. And like Dai and Lindesmith, Becker staked out the distinctively sociological factors that influence the lineaments of drug use.

Edwin Schur (1962) compared the British policy of narcotic control versus the American policy. Since 1914, when the Harrison Narcotic Act was passed, and especially during the 1920s, when it came to be enforced, the dominant stance toward drug use in the United States has been punitive. And in the United States, Schur explained, because of this punitive policy, narcotics are extremely expensive and can be purchased regularly only if the user resorts to a life of crime. Hence, the connection between drug use and crime is extremely intimate: Nearly all addicts engage in money-making crimes. A large and vigorous addict subculture flourishes that serves to continually entice fresh, young recruits into the world of addiction. And the population of addicts in the United States is enormous—in the late 1950s, as many as a million, according to the estimate of “some authorities” (Schur 1962:44). Clearly, the punitive drug policy that prevailed in the 1950s—and still prevails today—has failed to curb drug addiction.

In contrast, the British system in the 1950s regarded narcotic addiction as a disease in need of treatment. Drugs were not then—and are not now—“legalized” in the United Kingdom. The dispensation of narcotics for recreational purposes was a crime, punishable by a prison sentence. Physicians could use narcotics for “ministering to the strictly medical” needs of their patients. But what this includes was fairly broadly construed. It included administering narcotics in the following situations: in diminishing doses for the purpose of gradual withdrawal; where it is medically unsafe to withdraw the patient from narcotics because of the severity of withdrawal; and when the patient leads a normal life maintained on narcotics but is incapable of doing so when withdrawn. There was the recognition “that in some cases prolonged prescribing of drugs may be necessary” (Schur 1962:205). In short, during the 1950s, the policy that prevailed in the United Kingdom was medical rather than punitive. Law enforcement did not interfere with a medical judgment that maintaining an addict on narcotics may be necessary. Under the British program, Schur argues, doses of narcotics were very cheap, addicts engaged in little criminal behavior, there was no addict subculture, there was no recruitment of novices by addicts, there was almost no diversion of drugs into the black market, there were very few addict-sellers, and the number of narcotic addicts in the United Kingdom was extremely low (fewer than 500 registered addicts). In sum, concluded Schur (1962), this “medically oriented approach seems to work very well” (p. 205).

Schur was interested in the contrasts between the British medical approach and the American punitive approach to addiction for both policy and theoretical reasons. From a policy standpoint, he wanted to convince authorities in the United States that their war on drugs was a failure and that the British system was a “humane and workable” program that had much to teach them about how to deal with the problem of addiction. Of theoretical interest, Schur critiqued the view that drug effects alone, or the predisposition to engage in deviance alone, could account for engaging in deviant behavior. In Britain, he explained, addicts—a population customarily thought of as highly predisposed to engage in crime and deviance—were taking narcotics, a behavior associated elsewhere with engaging in crime and deviance, but engaging in very little deviance and crime. Clearly, addiction per se does not generate high rates of crime and deviance.

To explain the low rates of deviant behavior in the United Kingdom, Schur employed the work of the early deviance theorists Edwin Lemert (1951) and Cloward and Ohlin (1960). Addicts in Britain were not labeled as deviants, Schur explained, and hence, neither developed a deviant identity nor became “secondary” deviants—that is, their lives did not revolve around their addiction, as Lemert’s theory would predict, had they been stigmatized. And widespread illicit drug trafficking did not exist in the United Kingdom because no social structure of illicit drug distribution existed there, supporting Cloward and Ohlin’s insights on the importance of opportunity in criminal behavior.

However, beginning in the late 1960s, recreational drug use exploded in Britain, as it did elsewhere in the Western world. According to a BBC broadcast (March 24, 2002), there are 540 times as many registered narcotic addicts in the early twenty-first century in the United Kingdom as there were in the 1960s. There exists a huge black market there in heroin, as well as in all other illicit drugs, in addition to a vigorous, vibrant drug subculture. According to surveys conducted in Britain (Ramsay et al. 2001) and the European Union (European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction 2004), the recreational use of illicit drugs, heroin included, in the United Kingdom is at the high end of use of other Western European countries and is only slightly below that of the United States. Moreover, in some ways, the drug policy in the United States is less punitive than it was in the late 1950s. For instance, there are 150,000 addicts in methadone maintenance programs here, and most first- or second-time nonviolent drug offenders end up in treatment programs, through the drug courts, rather than jail or prison. Hence, Schur’s analysis is no longer as applicable today as it was in the late 1950s. The implications of these developments are now being debated by researchers and other observers.

These early sociologists of drug use imparted their distinctively sociological vision to the behavior they studied. The perspective on drug addiction, abuse, and consumption that prevailed at the time they wrote were overwhelmingly pathology oriented: Either the drug created out of whole cloth a new and fearsome creature, impelling the user against his or her will to engage in behavior totally alien and uncharacteristic, or users were psychopaths, their consumption of psychoactive substances a manifestation of their abnormal personalities. Sociologists challenged both versions of this pathology perspective, arguing that the social structure in which users interacted mediated and shaped their drug-taking and the impact that drugs had on their behavior. Neighborhood, cognitive processes, culture and subculture, laws and politics, all played a role in shaping why drugs are used and what impact they have on the lives of users as well as the society at large. The early research on drug use carved out a specialty where none had previously existed and placed its distinctive mark on future research.

If a single theme could be isolated out of the work of the pioneers of drug use, it would be that illicit drug use, abuse, and addiction are normative violations—that is, a form of deviance. Dai recognized that his drug addicts lived in disorganized neighborhoods, in which crime, delinquency, mental disorder, and suicide prevailed—drug addiction was in fact yet another variety of the deviant behavior that so abundantly thrived in such communities. Lindesmith’s research was dedicated to the proposition that his addicts were not mentally ill, not inherently or intrinsically mentally aberrant or criminal, but that their criminality was a function of their legal status and their addiction, their association with the world of crime, the deviant and criminal label imposed on them and their inevitable, forced, subsequent subcultural associations. Becker’s marijuana smokers struggled to neutralize the exercise of social control. Indeed, his work on drugs fit so neatly into the deviance paradigm that it provided chapters and case studies in a treatise on the sociology of deviance (Becker 1963). And Schur compared the impact of defining drug addiction as a crime and a form of deviance (as it was in the United States) with defining it as an illness (as it was in the United Kingdom) and found that criminalizing and stigmatizing the user here exacerbated the social and medical problems associated with addiction, while not doing so there minimized them. In short, these early researchers positioned the field of illicit drug use squarely within the context of the emerging field of the sociology of deviance.

Theories of Drug Use

The field of drug use studies has devised a substantial number of theories to explain or account for drug use. Most address predisposition only; very few attempt to explain availability or supply. In this section, I summarize a few of the more sociologically relevant theories of drug use. None of these theories is sufficient in itself to account for all drug use; instead, each argues that the condition or factor it focuses on makes drug use more likely than would be the case without it. Moreover, the validity of one of these theories should not imply that any of the others is false; for the most part, each of these theories complements rather than invalidates the others.

As with the efforts of the pioneers, current sociological theories depict illicit drug use as a subtype of deviant, nonnormative, and criminal behavior—that is, current theories account for the consumption of psychoactive substances with the same theory used to explain the violation of society’s laws and norms. As the authors of the “general theory of crime” point out (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990), nearly all theories of crime and deviance—and the same applies to theories of drug use—are theories of motivation or predisposition. But a predisposition to behave a certain way is not a complete explanation. When it comes to drug use, predisposition alone is incomplete. Opportunity has not been fully incorporated into theories of drug use. The availability of a disposable income for the age cohort most likely to use drugs, a development that did not begin until well into the twentieth century, and the globalization of drug distribution, which did not begin in earnest until the 1970s, must be counted among those structural factors that expanded opportunities for persons so disposed to use drugs. A full exposition of the role of opportunity in illicit drug use awaits later research.

Social control theory assumes that violations of society’s norms are natural, understandable, and not in need of an explanation. What needs to be explained, its proponents argue, is why people conform to society’s norms. If left to our own devices, we would all break the law and indulge in any manner of criminal behavior and normative violations. And what explains law-abiding behavior and conformity to society’s norms, they say, is attachment (or “bonds”) to conventional people, beliefs, institutions, and activities (Hirschi 1969). To the extent that we are bonded to our parents, to an education, to marriage and children, to a legal job and career, and to mainstream religion, we do not want to threaten or undermine our “investment” in them by engaging in deviant or criminal behavior—and that includes recreational, especially illicit, drug use. Hence, we see the patterning in drug use discussed in the following; that is, adolescents with college plans or persons who are religious, married, and/or have children are less likely to use drugs, while those with no college plans or who are irreligious, unmarried, and/or childless are more likely to do so. Drug use is “contained” by bonds with or adherence to conventional people, institutions, activities, and beliefs. To social control theorists, it is the attachment of people to conventionality that explains abstention from drugs; it is the absence or weakness of such attachments that explains drug use.

In support of social control theory, it is clear that criminal offending, illicit drug use included, varies enormously by involvement with conventional institutions and conventional others, independent of any stable, underlying traits or characteristics. For instance, men are less likely to commit crime, all other factors being held constant, when they are stably married and living with a wife. The same applies when persons are attending school. Both are independently related to the consumption of illegal psychoactive substances, and drug use, independent of any other factors, is related to criminal behavior (Horney, Osgood, and Marshall 1995). In short, “meaningful short-term change in involvement in crime”—and substance abuse as well— “is strongly related to variation in life circumstances” (p. 655). Marriage and school constitute social bonds that “contain” or inhibit deviant and criminal behavior, illicit drug use included.

Self-control theory agrees that it is conformity that needs to be explained, not normative violations or illegal behavior. But its explanation is very different, pushing its key factor, as it does, back to childhood. The factor that accounts for deviance and crime—drug use included— self-control theory argues, is low self-control. And its answer to the question of what accounts for low selfcontrol is poor, inadequate parenting. Children who grow up in a household in which their parents are unable or unwilling to monitor and control their untoward behavior early on will develop a pattern of engaging in uncontrolled, impulsive, hedonistic, high-risk, and, ultimately, shortterm, rewarding behavior that includes crime and drug use. People who lack self-control tend to be insensitive, self-centered, reckless, careless, short-sighted, nonverbal, inconsiderate, intolerant of frustration, and pleasure oriented. They are grabbers, cheats, liars, thieves, and exploiters. They act with no concern for the long-range consequences of their actions.

Drug use is simply one of many manifestations of their orientation to life, and that is to do whatever you want, whatever feels good, regardless of whether that causes harm to others or even, in the long run, to oneself. There is no need to explain the connection between drug use and crime, self-control theorists argue, because they are the same behavior, two sides of exactly the same low selfcontrol behavior. The usual controls that keep most individuals in check are inoperative in the lives of drug users. And according to the proponents of this theory, low selfcontrol can be traced back to bad parenting (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990). The impulse to use drugs does not have to be learned, this perspective argues; hence, all learning theories of drug use—as well as all learning theories of crime and deviance—are in error. It is abstention from drugs that needs to be explained.

The “strong relationship” between criminal behavior and the use of psychoactive drugs has been shown to hold “regardless of age, race, gender, or country” (Uihlein 1994:149). Self-control theory argues that “they are consequences of common causal factors,” that the age curve for both follows the same trajectory, that both drug use and delinquency are relatively stable over time, that drug use, like delinquency and crime, is versatile rather than specialized, that “drug use” and “crime” variables “appear indistinguishable from one another” (Uihlein 1994:151, 153–54), and that both can be traced to poor, inadequate parenting. Since the “logical structure” of drug use and that of criminal behavior are identical—both being the “manifestations of an underlying tendency to pursue shortterm, immediate pleasure”—it follows that “crime and drug use are the same thing” and that research “designed to determine the causal relationship” between them “is a waste of time and money” (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990:42, 93, 233–34).

Social learning theory emphatically disagrees with the control theories, arguing that people are not “naturally” predisposed to committing crimes or using drugs; instead, they have to specifically learn the positive value of nonnormative behaviors. The earliest sociological version of learning theory applies specifically to crime and is referred to as the theory of differential association (Sutherland 1939).

Learning theory argues that youngsters associate differentially with certain groups or social circles that provide “social environments for exposure” to definitions of correct or incorrect behavior, models of behavior to imitate, and opportunities to engage in certain kinds of behavior. These environments may discourage or encourage drug use. Family definitions, models, and opportunity are important in defining drug use one way or the other, but of course, they tend to discourage rather than encourage use. Additional agents of learning or socialization include other family members, neighbors, religious figures, teachers, and the mass media, each of whom has “varying degrees of effect on use and abstinence.” Typically, however, peers are most influential, the family is a distant second, and the other socializing agents trail far behind (Akers 1998:171–72).

Learning theory argues that the probability of the use of psychoactive substances increases to the extent that someone (a) is exposed to persons, especially peers, who use rather than abstain from drugs; (b) hears definitions favorable rather than unfavorable to use; and (c) finds such use pleasurable rather than neutral or unpleasant. In addition, use escalates to the extent that a person associates with heavier users and with parties who define heavier use in positive terms and who develop a pattern of heavy use that is reinforcing or pleasurable (Akers 1998:175–76).

Conflict theory argues that inequality is the root cause of drug use, at least the heavy, chronic abuse of and dependence on “hard” drugs such as crack cocaine and heroin. Such abuse, proponents of this theory argue, is strongly related to social class, income, power, and neighborhood. A significantly higher proportion of lower- and workingclass inner-city residents abuse the hard drugs than is true of more affluent members of the society. More important, this is the case because of the impact of a number of key structural conditions that have their origin in economics and politics (Hamid 1990; Levine 1991; Bourgeois 1995).

The conflict perspective argues that drug dealing is more likely to take root and flourish in poor, powerless, socially disorganized communities than in more affluent, powerful, organized communities. Where residents cannot mobilize the relevant political forces to act against undesirable activities in their midst, open, organized, and widespread drug dealing is extremely likely. In addition, in communities in which poverty is entrenched, the economic structure has never developed or has decayed and collapsed, and a feeling of hopelessness, depression, and anomie is likely to take hold, making drug abuse especially appealing and attractive, providing a means of “escaping from a dreadful condition into one that seems, temporarily at least, more pleasant” (Levine 1991:4). For some, getting high—and getting high frequently—has become an oasis of excitement, pleasure, and fantasy in lives that would otherwise feel psychically impoverished and alienated. Most of the residents of deteriorated communities resist such blandishments. But sufficient numbers succumb to drug abuse to make the lives of the majority unpredictable, insecure, and dangerous. A drug subculture flourishes in response to what some residents have come to see as the hopelessness and despair of the reality of their everyday lives. And it is poverty that generates these feelings. In the words of Harry Gene Levine (1991), “The three most important things to understand about the sources of long-term crack and heroin abuse are: poverty, poverty, poverty” (p. 3).

A crucial assumption of the conflict approach to drug abuse is that there are two overlapping but conceptually distinct forms or varieties of drug use. The first, which makes up the vast majority of illegal users, is “casual” or “recreational” use. It is engaged in by a broad spectrum of the class structure, the middle and upper-middle class included. This type of use ranges from experimental and episodic to regular but controlled use. Such users rarely become a problem for the society except insofar as they are regarded as a problem by others. “Middle class status,” says Harry Gene Levine (1991), “with its benefits and stability, tends to immunize people not against drug use, but against long-term, hard drug use ” (p. 4).

The second type of drug use is abuse—compulsive, chronic, or heavy use—drug use that often escalates to dependence and addiction. It is typically accompanied by social and personal harm. Chronic abuse is motivated by despair, alienation, poverty, and community disintegration. Experts argue that moving from the first type of drug use (recreational) to the second (abuse) is more likely to take place among the impoverished than among the affluent and to be indulged in by residents of disorganized rather than intact communities (Levine 1991).

Two of the largest, most nationally representative, and most valid drug use surveys are conducted in the United States: the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, based on a sample of the population as a whole (SAMHSA 2004), and the Monitoring the Future surveys, based on eighth, tenth, and twelfth graders, college students, and adults not in college of age 19 to 45. The results of these two yearly surveys, verified by others conducted in other countries, support the following generalizations or patterns in drug use.

The first pattern is that for all illicit drugs, experimental use is the rule. Most of the people who try a given illicit drug do not use it regularly; most in fact discontinue its use. The circle circumscribed by the universe of everyone who has ever taken a given drug at least once in their lives is much larger than the circle circumscribed by everyone who has taken it during the previous month.

The second pattern is that for all illicit drugs, irregular, episodic, occasional use is more common than heavy, chronic, compulsive abuse. The circle circumscribed by everyone who has used a given drug, say, less frequently than once a week in the past year is larger than the circle circumscribed by everyone who has used that drug more than 20 times a month—that is, more than 240 times in the past year.

The third pattern is that the use of the legal drugs, alcohol and tobacco, is vastly greater than the use of the illegal drugs. According to the most recent (2003) National Survey on Drug Use and Health, half of all Americans had consumed at least one alcoholic drink in the past month (50.1 percent) and a quarter had smoked one or more tobacco cigarettes (25.4 percent). But only 8 percent had used marijuana in the past 30 days, and just over one-half of 1 percent had used cocaine (0.6 percent).

Moreover—and this is the fourth pattern—the “loyalty” rate, the rate at which onetime users continue to use a drug, and use it regularly, is much greater for the legal drugs than for the illegal drugs. Six persons in 10 who ever drank alcohol (60.2 percent) had done so in the past month, and a third of persons who ever smoked a tobacco cigarette had done so in the past month (37.0 percent). But only one person in seven who had used marijuana at least one time in their lives (15.2 percent), and only 6.5 percent of those who had used cocaine one or more times in their lives did so in the past month. The comparable figures for PCP (0.8 percent) and LSD (0.5 percent) were much lower (SAMHSA 2004:188, 202). The more illicit the drug, the lower the continuance or loyalty rate it attracts among users.

The fifth pattern is that the correlation between the use of legal and illegal drugs is extremely strong. People who use alcohol and tobacco are much more likely to use any and all illicit drugs than people who do not do so. Moreover, the more they use the legal drugs, the greater is the likelihood that they use illegal drugs. Youths ages 12 to 17 who are both smokers and heavy drinkers are 20 times more likely to have used one or more illicit drugs (72.4 percent) than are youths who neither drink nor smoke (3.7 percent). Youths who drink heavily are 100 times more likely to have used cocaine in the past month (10.6 percent) than are nondrinkers (0.1 percent). The same generalizations prevail for all age groups, all drugs, legal and illegal, and all levels of use. The impulse to alter one’s consciousness with one substance—whether legal or illegal— is strongly related to altering it with other substances.

The sixth pattern is this: The use of psychoactive substances is strongly related to a person’s age. Drug use rises sharply from age 12 (the age at which most surveys begin asking respondents such questions) through adolescence, reaches a peak at about age 20, and then declines, year by year, after that. According to the 2003 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, only 2.7 percent of 12-year-olds say that they have used any illegal drug (excepting alcohol) in the past month. This rises to 24 percent for 20-year-olds and declines throughout the 20s and subsequently. It is 13.4 percent for persons in their late 20s (26–29); 8.4 percent for those in their late 30s (35–39); 6.8 percent for those in their late 40s (45–49); and only 2 percent for those in their late 50s. Only 0.6 percent of persons aged 65 or more said that they had used an illicit drug in the past month. For alcohol consumption, this curve is much flatter; the peak in consumption is reached between ages 21 and 22; use declines very slowly until age 60, and drops off more precipitously after that (SAMHSA 2004:193, 207).

The remaining patterns are the following. In addition to the young, and persons who use alcohol and smoke cigarettes, the categories in the population who have significantly higher-than-average likelihoods of using psychoactive substances include males (SAMHSA 2004:194); the unmarried, especially persons who cohabit without being married (Bachman et al. 2002:211–12); adolescents whose plans for the future do not include college (Johnston et al. 2004:452); and the unemployed (SAMHSA 2004:197). The categories in the population whose use of psychoactive substances is lower than the average include females (SAMHSA 2004:194); the married; women who are pregnant and couples with children; and persons who consider religion important in their lives and who frequently attend religious services. Persons who perceive great risks in drug use are more likely to disapprove of it and are less likely to indulge in drug use than are persons who do not perceive great risks in use (Bachman et al. 2002:121–55, 208–209, 211–12, 214–15).

These patterns, taken together, draw a consistent, coherent picture that provides a small number of generalizations about drug use as a form of behavior.

First generalization: Most people tend to be fairly cautious and temperate about their consumption of psychoactive substances. Heavy use is the exception, moderate use is the rule. This moderation extends to the relative avoidance of illicit drugs. Whether it is fear of arrest, the stigma of illegality, its deviant status, the inability to locate a dealer, or fear of physical harm, compared with alcohol and tobacco, the use of illegal drugs is relatively unpopular. And the more “illegal” and more deviant the use of the drug, the rarer its use is, and the less “loyal” users are to its use. The least stigmatized, the least deviant—and the least “criminal”—of the illicit drugs, marijuana, is by far the most popular, and the one users are most likely to “stick with” the longest. For the great majority of Americans— the same applies to the residents of the other countries in which drug surveys have been conducted—illicit drugs have less seductive appeal than do licit drugs.

And the second and closely related generalization: Unconventionality explains much of what we want to know about drug use. (An obvious but crucial point: Unconventionality is a matter of degree; it can be plotted along a continuum.) Unconventionality includes a broad range of associated and cognate characteristics, including experience and sensation seeking, low self-control, impulsivity, and the tendency to take risks. Most people do not take serious risks; hence, most people do not use illicit drugs that are perceived to be dangerous and harmful, and even fewer use them regularly. The minority who do so tend to be more unconventional than the majority who do not. Drug use is an aspect or manifestation of unconventionality. The dimension of unconventionality begs the question of causal origin; unconventionality has a variety of origins, and indeed, stressing its importance is consistent with all the theories spelled out in the foregoing. Certain social statuses foster or engender unconventionality. Their members have relatively few responsibilities, weak ties to conventional society, and few agents of social control monitoring and controlling their behavior, and hence there are relatively few harmful social consequences to the negative aspects of risk-taking. Hence, they are more likely to engage in unconventional, high-risk behavior than are persons in statuses or positions encumbered by stronger conventional social bonds. And people relatively slipped from the bonds of conventionality tend to congregate, thereby increasing the likelihood that they will violate the norms of society.

The late teens to the early 20s represents the peak years of drug use; it is the exact point of the trajectory combining diminished levels of parental supervision and as-yet low levels of adult responsibilities. Males are more likely to have been socialized to take greater risks and to violate the conventional norms of the society; hence, it should come as no surprise that they exhibit consistently higher levels of illicit drug use and heavy alcohol consumption. The unmarried tend to be less bonded to responsibility and convention than the married, and when children appear in the lives of the married, this difference widens—hence, the differences we observe in their illicit drug use. And persons who live together are already more unconventional compared with persons who are legally married; this unconventionality manifests itself in their higher rates of drug use. Adolescents with no college plans have less to lose through risky behavior than do those with plans to attend college—thus, their higher rates of drug use (although this difference decreases the closer the youngster is to actually attending college). The college experience itself generates a large, dense congregation of young people, and thus, college students have similar, or even slightly higher, rates of drug use than do young people who do not attend college, even though the former are more invested in the future than the latter. The more alienated people are from traditional religion, the greater the likelihood is that they use drugs; the more they attend religious services and say that religion is very important in their lives, the lower that likelihood is. Again, unconventionality rears its head in the drug picture. And last, perceived risk is not only a measure of rationality but of unconventionality as well: People who see greater risk in specific activities tend to be more unconventional than those who see less. And the perception of risk—or the lack thereof—is strongly related to drug use.

Drugs: Contemporary Issues and Concerns

The study by sociologists of drug use has become a substantial scholarly endeavor. More broadly, drug use constitutes a large conceptual and topical umbrella that attracts a collection of researchers with extremely diverse interests and concerns. The study of drug use is one of the more diffuse and incoherent fields in existence. Most of its researchers are not sociologists or even social scientists, and much of its data collection was not conducted for theoretical purposes. Drug-use surveys are extremely expensive to conduct, and hence, policy rather than theory tends to guide their direction. Many sociologists currently conducting research on drug use are members of a team made up of specialists working in other fields. Usually, sociologists offer methodological rigor to clinically oriented specialists. Even sociologists working on their own depend on the findings of research conducted by a scattering of nonsociological fields to a degree perhaps unprecedented in any subfield of sociology—these fields include pharmacology and psychopharmacology, medicine, psychiatry, epidemiology, the policy sciences, political science, history, anthropology, criminology, economics, cultural studies, and journalism. Sociologists are in a distinct minority among drug-use researchers. Many of the issues and questions that preoccupy contemporary sociologists of drug use are shaped outside their parent field.

In 2005, I mailed a questionnaire to the 120 members of the Society for the Study of Social Problems (SSSP), the majority of whom are sociologists, who list Drinking and Drugs as one of their division specialties, asking them about the topics that sociologists of drug use are most likely to investigate. Exactly half (60 members or 50 percent) responded. The topics respondents checked as most commonly investigated include the following.

More than half of the respondents of the survey said that policy-related issues are among the most frequently studied topics among sociologists of drug use. This finding is consistent with the work of MacCoun and Reuter (2001), who address much of the research on policy and legal issues. These issues include the consequences of imprisoning drug users and sellers; what other countries are doing about the drug problem; alternatives to strict prohibition; whether and to what extent the “war on drugs” is working, prohibition is causing more problems than it solves, some form of legalization can work; policy alternatives; whether strict prohibition is the best way of dealing with the problems posed by drug abuse; and learning about how to deal with suppressing drug abuse (MacCoun and Reuter 2001). More than half of the respondents (32 out of 60) said that policy-related issues are among the most frequently studied topics among sociologists of drug use.

At least from as far back as the 1930s, the causes of drug use and the distribution of drug use in the population have been a mainstay of sociological research on the abuse of psychoactive substances. Thirty-five of the 60 respondents said that the issues of who uses which drugs and why (Johnston et al. 2004) continue to engage sociological researchers.

Goldstein’s (1985) tripartite “drugs-violence nexus” has stimulated an enormous volume of commentary and research on the topic. In 2001, the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) invited three dozen experts to participate in a symposium titled “Toward a Drugs and Crime Research Agenda for the Twenty-First Century”; the presentations were published in 2003 (www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/ pub-sum/194616.htm). Although much work has been conducted in the area, the participants agreed that the drugs-and-crime link is unresolved and needs further research. In spite of the vagaries of funding, roughly threequarters of SSSP drug researchers (46 out of 60) believe that the drugs-crime nexus remains a central sphere of research attention for researchers.

Consistent with previous efforts of Hamid (1990), Bursik and Grasmick (1993), and Bourgeois (1995), 40 percent of the SSSP survey respondents believe the impact of drug use and extensive drug dealing on the viability of a community and whether and to what extent some communities are more vulnerable to the penetration of drug sellers into their midst offers a major topic of interest to sociologists and urban anthropologists who engage in drug research. “Drugs and the Community” is a specifically and distinctly sociological topic, one that has been on the subfield’s agenda for much of the past century.

Many researchers believe that a reliance on imprisonment is ineffective and counterproductive; hence, the research on alternatives, mainly drug treatment programs. The federal government has sponsored three waves of studies on drug treatment, the Drug Abuse Reporting Program (DARP), 1969 to 1972; the Treatment Outcome Prospective Study (TOPS), 1979 to 1981; and the Drug Abuse Treatment Outcome Study (DATOS), 1991 to 1993. These surveys, based on nationally representative samples, indicate that drug treatment is an effective means of addressing drug abuse and addiction. Currently, scores of smaller studies of treatment programs are ongoing. Sociologists continue to play a central role in conducting a substantial portion of these studies, a fact asserted by half (30 out of 60) of the survey respondents. In addition, preventing drug use, mainly by means of educational programs, is on the agenda of some researchers.

Research methods have been on the sociologist’s agenda since the field’s birth, and the study of drug use, which poses special methodological problems, exemplifies this principle, as asserted by a third of the respondents (19 out of 60). The best means of studying drug use and abuse, whether researchers get honest answers when asking respondents about their illicit, deviant behaviors, how the researcher addresses problems of validity and reliability, and how to conduct research among dangerous informants and subjects and access “hidden” populations of users and sellers are major topics that engage the field (Harrison and Hughes 1997; Dunlap and Johnson 1999; Wish et al. 2000).

The predisposition to use drugs does not explain use; it is a necessary but not sufficient condition for use. The availability of drugs is another precondition. How drugs are distributed, how drugs get from Point A to Point B, what is distinctive about buying and selling illicit products, and what the “social world” of the drug seller is like are frequently studied topics among sociologists and urban anthropologists engaged in studying drug use (Williams 1992; Bourgeois 1995; Jacobs 1999). These and related topics have offered intriguing strategic research issues to the drug researcher, a fact attested to by not quite half of our respondents (28 out of 60).

In addition to the forced-choice alternatives I offered, topics the survey respondents spontaneously wrote that attracted current sociological research interest include women and drug use; mothering and drug use; drugs and the family; HIV/AIDS; controlled or “functional” users of illicit drugs; the use of tobacco, especially by teenagers; drugs and health; the dangers of prescription and over-thecounter drugs; and cultural differences in drinking patterns.

Most of the SSSP/Drinking and Drugs Division respondents believe that the topics mentioned in the foregoing will remain on the subfield’s agenda. Furthermore, most respondents who answered the question specified their focus. Policy and legal questions will continue to engage sociologists of drug use, especially the decriminalization of marijuana; medical marijuana; the cost and impact of the “war on drugs,” especially on minorities; drug courts; the efficacy of harm reduction strategies; devising a “saner” drug policy; and control over the legal drug industry. Etiology remains central to the field, especially the impact of inadequate parenting on drug abuse. The effectiveness of drug treatment will continue to be studied, especially early intervention and drug education. The study of drug markets will remain important, including the diffusion of heroin and other narcotics into rural areas and the globalization of drug distribution.

Additional topics that will loom large in the twenty-first century include women and drug use; abuses by the pharmaceutical industry; teenagers and alcohol consumption; narcoterrorism; the spread of HIV/AIDS; the impact of drug abuse on the family; the use of performance-enhancing drugs; the use of drugs at work; drugs and health care; the use of medications and the development of neurological stimulation as a means of controlling deviant behavior; the reentry of released inmates into the general population; the misuse of prescription drugs; and smoking behavior and policies designed to control it.

Regardless of whether these predictions of future research enterprises will be borne out, the small, extremely eclectic field of the sociology of drug use will remain a dynamic component of drug-use research. Moreover, in the future, as in the present and the past, policy issues will influence the direction that research takes. In addition, sociologists of drug use will continue to be influenced by drug researchers in other disciplines more than they influence the field of sociology. A policy-oriented focus, theoretical eclecticism, interdisciplinary research, and the image of narrow specialization are the price the sociologist of drug use has to pay for conducting research on one of the most fascinating—and distinctively sociological—of human behaviors.

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Understanding the Impact of Drug Use on Health

Exploring the vast landscape of drug use and its implications on health unfolds an intricate tableau that is as complex as it is fascinating. It’s a topic that wades through the muddy waters of scientific research, societal norms, and personal choices. In this discourse, we aim to dissect the myriad ways in which drugs – be they prescribed, over-the-counter, or illicit – play a role in shaping our health landscape. Let’s dive into this nuanced exploration with an open mind and a touch of curiosity.

The Role of Community in Recovery and Prevention

To begin, it seems pertinent to highlight that community resources and support networks play an indispensable role in both the prevention of drug misuse and the recovery process. Broader access to healthcare can help connect community members to unknown substance drug testing , treatment, recovery centers, and more. From there, resources like peer support groups and community education programs offer a framework for shared experiences and collective healing. Engaging with community initiatives can bolster individual resilience, reduce stigma, and promote a culture of health and well-being.

Navigating the World of Over-the-Counter Drugs

Over-the-counter (OTC) drugs, accessible and ubiquitous, offer both convenience and challenge. Their availability empowers individuals to manage minor health issues independently, fostering an environment of proactive self-care. However, the ease of access to OTC drugs can also lead to underestimated risks, including misuse and interactions with other medications . Enlightening ourselves about these potential pitfalls is key to maximizing their benefits while minimizing harm.

The Double-Edged Sword of Prescription Medications

Prescription medications, while a cornerstone of modern medicine, wield immense power over our health. These meticulously crafted compounds, when utilized with precision, can be life-saving. Yet, their misuse or overuse heralds a different tale – one of dependency, adverse reactions, and a cascading series of health complications. Unraveling the delicate balance between benefit and harm uncovers the critical importance of informed usage and healthcare guidance.

Advancements in Medical Treatments for Addiction

The field of addiction medicine has seen remarkable advancements in recent years, with new medications and therapies offering hope to those struggling with drug dependence. These medical interventions, when coupled with supportive psychotherapy and holistic care, can significantly improve outcomes for individuals. It’s an exciting time in the realm of substance use treatment, as researchers and clinicians continue to push the boundaries of what’s possible.

The Physical Body on Drugs: A Biological Perspective

At their core, drugs interact with the body’s biological systems in profound ways. This interaction, depending on the substance and the context, can either reinforce health or ravage it. This segment delves into the mechanics of how various drugs affect the body, highlighting the sometimes astonishing, sometimes alarming physiological changes that ensue.

The Ripple Effect of Illicit Drug Use

The realm of illicit drugs is fraught with danger, not solely because of legal implications but due to the profound and often irreversible impact they have on health. From the immediate high to the long-term degradation of mental and physical well-being , the ripple effects are wide-reaching. This section explores the intricate web of consequences that illicit drug use weaves, shedding light on the broader societal and individual health ramifications.

Prevention and Recovery: Navigating the Path to Health

While the landscape of drug use is undoubtedly complex, there lies hope in prevention, treatment, and recovery. The journey towards health, for those touched by drug use, is both personal and collective. Society’s role in supporting prevention efforts and recovery paths underscores the importance of compassion, understanding, and comprehensive health strategies.

Psychological Thrills and Spills: The Mental Health Equation

Drug use does not exist in a vacuum; its influence on mental health is significant and multifaceted. From temporary euphoria to the depths of depression, the psychological roller-coaster associated with drug use can be as compelling as it is catastrophic. Understanding the complex interplay between drugs and our mental state offers insights into the broader discussion of substance use and mental health care.

Exploring Holistic Approaches to Drug Recovery

In recent years, the move towards holistic care paradigms has been gathering momentum. This approach emphasizes the interconnectedness of physical, psychological, and social health, advocating for strategies that encompass all aspects of a person’s life. By integrating traditional medical treatments with complementary therapies such as meditation, exercise, and nutritional counseling, individuals are finding new paths to recovery that are both empowering and sustainable.

Delving into the impact of drug use on health reveals a tapestry rich with challenges, lessons, and opportunities. As we navigate this intricate terrain, the importance of informed choices, supportive networks, and resilient health systems becomes glaringly apparent. It’s a journey that demands our attention, empathy, and action. Let’s tread this path with awareness and an eagerness to understand the vast spectrum of human health in the context of drug use.

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Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Drugs — Drugs: Effects and Solutions Explored in Research

Drugs: Effects and Solutions Explored in Research

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Published: Dec 3, 2020

Words: 1959 | Pages: 4 | 10 min read

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Introduction, drugs in general, drugs and society, drug abuse solutions.

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206 Substance Abuse Essay Topics + Examples

Writing a paper about addiction to drugs and alcohol is your chance to explore the substance abuse risk factors, experiences, treatment options, and prevention. Need catchy substance abuse research topics? You’re at the right place! StudyCorgi has plenty of essay and research topics on drug abuse, alcohol, and other psychoactive substances.

💊 7 Substance Abuse Essay Topics

🏆 best research topics on substance abuse, ❓ research questions on substance abuse, 👍 good substance abuse research topics & essay examples, 🔎 research questions on drug abuse among students, 🌶️ hot drug addiction research topics, 🎓 most interesting research topics on drug abuse, 💡 simple substance abuse essay ideas, 📝 more substance abuse research questions.

• Drug Abuse among Teenagers Causes and Effects
• Drug and Alcohol Abuse among Young People
• Substance Abuse Literature Review
• Prevention of Substance Abuse
• Drug Abuse and Theories Explaining It
• Substance Abuse and Addiction Treatment: The Humanistic Theory
• Substance Abuse Prevention in Adolescence
• Assessment of Clients with Substance Abuse Up-to-date medicine struggles with treating humans’ bodies and spirit as sometimes spending more attention to the first aspect lead to an increase in human addictions.
• Drug Abuse in Homeless Community The number of homeless people is continuously increasing, creating a severe threat to a country’s general well-being.
• Adolescent Drug Abuse, Their Awareness and Prevention This essay provides a critique of an article written by Chakravarthy, Shah, and Lotfipour about adolescent drug abuse prevention interventions.
• Substance Abuse Disorder in “The Breaking Bad” Film The series that is built on substance abuse disorders is Breaking Bad, directed by Vince Gilligan. Walter White turns to producing and selling methamphetamine.
• Drug and Substance Abuse: Sociological Causes and Explanations It is normal to think that drug and substance abuse affects only consumers. However, it also affects various aspects of society.
• The Link Between Drug Abuse and Corruption This paper discusses that drug abuse and corruption deserve attention. It introduces causes and reasons for drug abuse and corruption.
• The Theme of Drug Abuse in Egan’s Book In her novel “A Visit from the Goon Squad”, Jennifer Egan discusses a number of problems of modern society. Among them is the problem of drug abuse.
• Drug Abuse Relation to the Violent Behavior Various groups of drugs greatly vary and relate to violence in different ways. Any person with heavy drug habits may act negatively and involve in violent acts punishable by law.
• Drug Abuse and Its Effects on Families Because of the lack of control that a substance abuse patient has over their actions, families of the people that develop chemical dependency are under constant threat.
• The Problems of Substance Abuse in Homeless Veterans The problem of homelessness often affects the most vulnerable segments of society, among them veterans. This group also experiences excessive alcohol consumption.
• Drugs and Substance Abuse in College: Effects and Treatments The paper will give a review of a treatment approach to drug abuse and describe the effects of substance abuse on a person who is in college.
• Alcohol and Drug Abuse in the Workplace Alcohol and drug abuse is one of the major causes of accidents in the workplace. Random alcohol and drug tests would discourage employees of organization from abusing alcohol or drugs.
• Social Factors of Substance Drug Abuse Substance abuse refers to the pattern of continued use, despite adverse consequences. Socio determinants of substance abuse imply social factors that affect the outcome of drugs.
• Genetic and Environmental Factors Causing Alcoholism and Effects of Alcohol Abuse The term alcoholism may be used to refer to a wide range of issues associated with alcohol. Simply put, it is a situation whereby an individual cannot stay without alcohol.
• Drug Abuse and Alcohol-Related Crimes in Adolescents The current paper focuses on the topic of drug abuse and alcohol-related crimes among teenagers, showing that substances remain the most notable factor in juvenile crime.
• Victimless Crimes: Drug Abuse and Sex Work This work’s primary objective is to research and analyze victimless crimes, namely drug abuse and sex work, from the viewpoint of criminology.
• Drug Abuse in the United States’ Social Context Drug abuse is one of the problems affecting people in the United States. Society has contributed to the continued misuse of drugs today, through bad parenting or the environment.
• Developments in Global Tobacco and Alcohol Policy WHO reports that about 8 million people die from smoking every year. Tobacco is a major cause of the emergence and development of multiple complications such as cancer, heart disease.
• Substance Abuse Counselling: Current Trends substance abuse is one of the major problems which have seized most individuals in the United States. It is a problem for all sets of the population.
• Parental Substance Abuse: Negative Impact on Child Development The researchers focus on the negative impact of parental substance abuse on child development, leading to addiction problems when these children become teenagers or young adults.
• Drug Misuse, Abuse, and Their Factors Addiction is a recurrent, chronic disorder characterized by compulsive substance seeking and use despite harmful consequences.
• Juvenile Drug Abuse Problems Analysis This essay describes the problem of juvenile drug use and applies the relevant delinquency theory. Additionally, the interventions or programs to fix the issue will be highlighted.
• Substance Abuse: The Cause of Social Problems Substance abuse is a contributing factor to social problems but cannot be said to be the one that is most responsible.
• Substance Abuse Disorder Causes, Syptoms, Types Substance abuse – illicit, prescriptive, or licit drugs – has been linked to multiple chronic behavioral and psychotic disorders.
• Parental Alcohol Abuse as a Family Issue Parental alcohol abuse is a serious problem in the community that impacts not only one individual but spreads to different social units.
• Alcohol Abuse and Self-Management Program The main self-management program for a high school student with alcohol addiction is to set long-term and intermediate goals, and the development of a reward system.
• Substance Abuse Treatment in Pembroke Pines City Pembroke Pines is a beautiful suburban city close to Miami. Unfortunately, the town is infamous due to the high number of people suffering from substance abuse.
• Substance Abuse and Its Social Determinants The paper argues that substance abuse is intensely predisposed by relational, domestic, and communal changing aspects.
• How Does Substance Abuse in Utero Affect a Child?
• Does Substance Abuse Cause Mental Disorders?
• How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Substance Abuse?
• Does Substance Abuse Treatment Make a Difference for Child Welfare Case Outcomes?
• How Does Parenting Affect Teen Substance Abuse?
• What Is the Effect of Substance Abuse on an Individual and Society?
• How Does Substance Abuse Affect the Community?
• What Are the Causes and Effects of Substance Abuse?
• How Do Psychologists Define and Explain Substance Abuse?
• What Are the Social Problems That Are Caused by Substance Abuse?
• How Can Substance Abuse Addicts Benefit From Art Therapy and Spiritual Nourishment?
• What Are the Main Environmental Factors That Influence Substance Use and Abuse?
• How Does Substance Abuse Influence Youngsters?
• Does Substance Abuse Impact Conception?
• How Does Substance Abuse Affect the Family Unit?
• What Birth Defects Are Caused by Substance Abuse?
• How Has Substance Abuse Become a Worldwide Public Health Problem?
• Does Substance Abuse Affect Academic Performance?
• How Does Poverty Lead to Substance Abuse?
• What Are the Causes of Substance Abuse During Adolescence?
• How Does Substance Abuse Affect an Individual’s Social Life?
• Are There Strategies for the Prevention and Control of Substance Use and Abuse?
• How Can We Prevent Substance Abuse Among Youth?
• Why Is It Important to Talk About Substance Abuse?
• How Can Substance Abuse Be Addressed and Reduced?
• The Factors Which Determine Substance Abuse Substance addiction is a disease that affects the patient’s behavior and physical well-being. It is associated with mood modification and chemical intoxication.
• Predatory Crime Causation and Substance Abuse Problems Substance abuse problems, as the causes of deviant behavior, are a subject of study in biosocial criminological theories.
• Impaired Nurses: Substance Abuse Treatment Many organizations are more likely to provide impaired nurses with substance abuse treatment rather than with punishment that is considered to be a less effective approach.
• Substance Abuse in Low-Income Community Cocaine abusers become heroin-addicted fifteen times more, whereas people with addiction to prescription drugs are forty times more likely to shift to heroin abuse.
• Personal Issues: Marriage, Obesity, and Alcohol Abuse The actions of every person have a particular impact on society and its development, and this impact is sometimes underestimated.
• Psychotherapy and Counseling for Drug Abuse Treatment Drugs are the biggest vice of humanity, along with the mental and moral deviations, horrible diseases of modern times, social neglect and abuse it causes and goes along with.
• Drug Abuse Case: Jenny G This paper present the case of drug abuse. Jenny G., a 48-year-old recovering IV drug abuser, presents with general malaise, anorexia, abdominal pain, and slight jaundice.
• Substance Abuse and Impact on the Family This report will investigate the background, impact on personal lives, and cultural perspectives of the critically dangerous opioid epidemic in the United States due to substance abuse of legal medications.
• Alcohol Abuse: the Economist Approach To an economist, the problem of alcohol abuse is viewed as an externality in both consumption and production. The value to consumers is greater than the value to society.
• Drug Abuse Treatment in Nursing Jenny G., a 48-year-old recovering IV drug abuser, presents with general malaise, anorexia, abdominal pain, and slight jaundice. She is currently staying in a women’s shelter and looking for a job.
• Substance Abuse Versus Addiction When abuse of psychoactive substances is regularly repeated, dependence syndrome develops a person begins to crave the drug or alcohol more.
• Drug Abuse Among Homeless People in Miami This paper aims to better assess the disaster of drug abuse among homeless people in Miami, and develop ways to counter this issue.
• Drug Abuse During Pregnancy: Policy Options Heated discussions on whether or not drug abuse during pregnancy should be illegal due to the potential risks to the developing fetus or child persist.
• How Does Substance Abuse Affect Mental Health in High School? The paper states that the number of students who begin to try drugs has increased. The reasons may be a banal interest to try something new in their life.
• Substance Abuse Among Adolescents Substance abuse and addiction are rampant within the adolescent age. Children abuse substances due to peer pressure, poor parenting, and lack of sufficient sensitization.
• Leadership in Drug Abuse Program Development Within the context of a potential intervention for drug abuse, the roles and competencies of leaders are the primary emphasis of this paper.
• The CAGE Substance Abuse Screening Tool Issues The paper states that the CAGE Assessment has a high rate of false positives, which can lead to individuals being wrongly accused of drug abuse.
• Drug Abuse and Its Impact on Creativity The boosting effect of drugs on creativity is a myth because changes in thinking are a brain reaction to a narcotic that is temporary yet severe.
• The Experience of Substance Abuse in Homeless Veterans The problem of homelessness often affects the most vulnerable segments of society, one of them being veterans. This particular group also experiences significant issues.
• Aspects of Substance Abuse Group Counselling The paper discusses the substance abuse counseling group. It is based on minimizing the substance abuse cases that are among the youth.
• Substance Abuse in Population and How to Address It Substance abuse is one of the issues in the population that affect not only the people who conduct the abuse but those around them as well.
• Substance Abuse and Its Financial Dimension The purpose of this paper is to explore substance use as a healthcare finance issue and review its significance with regard to healthcare policy.
• The Drug Abuse Problem in Indiana Drug usage is one of Indiana’s most serious societal problems, affecting the state’s health, economy, behavioral, and criminal elements.
• Substance Abuse in Media: Godfather of Harlem In the Godfather of Harlem film directed by Chris Brancato and Paul Eckstein, the character meets two criteria of the DSM-5 qualifying signs and symptoms.
• Overcoming the Drug Abuse Addiction The use of narcotic drugs brings irreparable harm to health and diminishes the quality of life. Opioid abuse is a predominant problem that continues to be a concern.
• The Problems of Drug Misuse and Abuse and Their Management This research aims to determine the best ways to prescript drugs, the importance of drug interactions, and the potential dangers of drug abuse.
• Drug Prescription Issues and Abuse This paper aims to determine the best ways to prescript drugs, the importance of drug interactions, and the potential dangers of drug abuse.
• Substance Abuse Issues in Modern Society Substance abuse entails using illicit drugs, prescription or over-the-counter pharmaceuticals, or alcohol for reasons besides those medically intended or at excessive levels.
• Drug Abuse Demographics in Prisons Drug abuse, including alcohol, is a big problem for the people contained in prisons, both in the United States and worldwide.
• Elderly Health and Substance Abuse Relationship The topics chosen for this scientific paper are elderly health and social care and alcohol and substance abuse.
• Pandemic’s Impact on Mental Health & Substance and Alcohol Abuse While substance use disorder can impose mental health challenges on those who consume drugs, COVID-19 affects the psychology of all humankind.
• Challenges of Treating Substance Abuse in Homeless Population Substance abuse remains among the major problems the health care industry is facing, also in developed countries.
• Drug Abuse at the Workplace and a Policy to Address It In this proposal, a policy to address worker substance abuse and addiction, will be discussed, with both its major goals and potential benefits being outlines.
• Substance Abuse Counseling Practices The main statistic of the research is that trauma in childhood is an indispensable part of the substance abuse experience.
• Alcohol Abuse: Causes and Solutions Alcohol abuse remains one of the key healthcare concerns around the globe, not least because addicts do not purely injure their own health.
• What are the commonly abused drugs among students?
• How does peer pressure affect students’ drug abuse?
• What are the gender and socioeconomic differences in students’ substance abuse?
• How does drug abuse influence the overall campus environment?
• What are the psychological and behavioral effects of drug abuse on students?
• What is the link between the accessibility of drugs on campus and student drug abuse?
• How does stress affect the development of student substance abuse?
• How does social support impact students’ susceptibility to drug abuse?
• Does the use of random drug testing reduce student substance abuse rates?
• What are the long-term consequences of student drug abuse?
• Substance Abuse Experience and Treatment Substance abuse is a major issue that can affect an addicted person’s life profoundly. Furthermore, it has a strong impact on those around this individual.
• Personalized Substances Abuse Assessment The paper discusses the fact that the client was addicted to marijuana and methamphetamine, and she realized that this addiction changed her life for the worse.
• National Association for Alcoholism and Drug Abuse Counselors This paper will consider the fourth principle of the organization’s ethical code, which reads: “Working in a culturally diverse world.”
• Substance Abuse Addiction: Guide for Colleagues in the Workplace If a colleague exhibits an addictive behavior, there is need to handle the situation properly and professionally to ensure better productivity after addressing the issue.
• Types of Drugs and Types of Domestic Abuse Correlation Understanding that the consumption of particular drugs causes physical changes is essential in ascertaining the probability of a specific type of domestic violence.
• Prescription Drug Abuse Problem Providing access to prescription drugs is among the key tasks that the modern healthcare system should fulfill to increase recovery rates.
• Substance Abuse: Determinants, Widespread Use, Financial Costs, Defense Mechanism Substance abuse is also referred to as drug abuse. Substance abuse has been defined as the harmful use of both prescription and illicit drugs.
• Substance Abuse and Its Effect on the Community This paper discusses how substance abuse contributes to teen pregnancy, HIV, domestic violence, child abuse, and how the epidemiological problem has affected the entire community.
• The Availability of Recovery High Schools in Overcoming Substance Abuse The article by Deborah Yaffe, titled “Recovery High Schools Make Dent in Teen Substance Abuse,” was published in District Administration journal in 2019.
• Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986: Crack vs. Cocaine Sentencing Disparity The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 imposes disproportionate sentences for offenders convicted of using or possessing crack and powder cocaine.
• Researching of Pregnancy and Alcohol Abuse In order to address the issue of alcohol abuse during pregnancy, the interprofessional team should consider the current trends and recommendations on maternal alcohol consumption
• Accessory Plus Incorporated’s Drug Abuse Case In the case of Accessory Plus Incorporated, the issue of drug abuse has been suspected. However, there is no policy framework for the company to deal with the case.
• The Link Between Culture and Substance Abuse Drugs and substance abuse have become a very important element of youth culture as time goes by. The abuse of drugs has become a normal trend among the youths.
• Adolescent Males With Depression: Poly-Substance Abuse Depression is the most crucial aspect that makes young males indulge in poly-substance abuse. There are various ways in which male adolescents express their depression.
• Prescription Drug Abuse as a Community Health Issue Consumption of prescription drugs in a manner that has not been prescribed by the doctor is an outstanding community health issue. This can be more harmful than people understand.
• Crime Trends: Drug Abuse in Adults and Juveniles One notes a mixed trend in the different crimes over the years. Drug abuse, for example, increased steadily from the 1970s in both the adult and juvenile populations.
• Substance Abuse Problem Analysis This essay explores substance abuse and its general impact on society and on individuals. Substance abuse has been a major concern for all governments over the last century.
• Substance Abuse: Alcohol and Drugs in the Movie “Ray” The movie “Ray” by Taylor Hackford. In “Ray,” the issue of substance abuse helps understand the problems that a person faces when dealing with addiction.
• Treatment of Substance Abuse Problems among Adolescents The study involves an examination of the effective treatment models utilized in the treatment of substance abuse problems among adolescents.
• Substance Abuse among Black Women Aged 22-55 in Miami Substance abuse in black women who are aged between 25 and 55 years is rarely considered an issue of major concern and it is often relegated to the background.
• Substance Abuse Therapy Positive and Negative Outcomes The indispensable role played by substance abuse therapists, in providing rehabilitative measures to curb this drug abuse scourge.
• Drug Abuse in Correction Facilities The purpose of this article is to consider the problem of drug abuse in correctional facilities, as well as to suggest possible solutions to this problem.
• Adolescents With a Substance Abuse Issue Treatment The study is a review of the current treatment modalities employed in management of substance abuse among adolescents.
• Costs and Effects of Substance Abuse There are a number of factors of social, economic, environmental, biological and psychological factors that are recognized as the most common determinants of substance abuse
• Substance Abuse in the Young People Substance abuse refers to unsafe or hazardous use of substances that are psychoactive. Such substances may include alcohol or illicit drugs.
• Substance Abuse Among African American Women in Miami The purpose of this paper is to discuss substance abuse among African American women aged 25-55 years living in Miami.
• Impact of Alcohol Abuse on Breast Cancer Risk in Women This paper will examine the effects of alcohol abuse on the development of breast cancer in women to uncover its devastating consequences.
• Alcohol Abuse: External and Internal Perspectives This paper will examine the social costs of alcohol abuse problems, in particular, the external rise of violence and the private stigma surrounding addiction.
• The Drug Courts: The Question of Drug Abuse Drug abuse is one of the most prevalent crimes in the world. It is a concern for both local governments and international organizations.
• Alcohol Abuse as It Pertains to High Risk Families The main objections of the promotion and prevention program are to ensure reduced substance abuse among young people to protect their health.
• Community Health: Prescription Drug Abuse The rising access to frequently abused prescription drugs via the internet has created public anxieties within the healthcare system in the United States.
• Family Involvement in Substance Abuse Cases The family systems theory underlies eight interconnected concepts, which purport to highlight the source of different conflicts and other emotional problems within the family.
• Health Issue Analysis: Prescription Drug Abuse Prescription drug abuse is a rapidly growing epidemic that spreads worldwide. Various national and international health organizations research this field.
• The Link Between Cultural Family and Substance Abuse The paper identifies the prevalence, correlates, and negative implications of substance abuse among African American women.
• Substance Abuse and Health Care Cost for Employers: A Review of the Literature Substance abuse is a condition that can be prevented and treated. Substance abuse disorders impose huge financial costs to both the employer and the society at large.
• Dealing With Alcohol Abuse in Adolescents This research evaluates how the public can be incorporated in developing effective interventions aimed at dealing with alcohol abuse and binge drinking among youth.
• The Drug Abuse in the U.S. Navy: The Problem Analysis The purpose of this report is to capture drug abuse in the U.S. Navy and to analyze some of the measures that the Naval Criminal Investigative Service (NCIS) has put in place.
• OxyContin as a Legitimate Drug and a Drug of Abuse OxyContin is the brand name used to sell the extended-release form of oxycodone, it describes a semi-synthetic prescription opioid used to manage severe pain.
• Hispanic Community: Alcohol & Substance Abuse Among the Female Gender Population This study will focus on alcohol and substance abuse among the female gender population proportion (12-20 years and 25-45 years) in the Hispanic community in California.
• Adolescence Substance Abuse: Over The Counter Inhalants And Cough Syrup Over-the-counter drugs, commonly known as OTC, refer to the prescription of drugs that are not meant for medical use.
• Drug Abuse Factors: Substance Use Disorder The various reasons for the abuse of opioids, alcohol, and nicotine account for the challenge in research and treatment.
• Substance Abuse Problem in the Miami City Community In Miami City, teenagers are at a particularly high risk of developing alcohol use disorder. More efforts should be implemented into screening and surveying this at-risk.
• White Collar Crime, Corporate Crime and Substance Abuse A single corporate crime can cause harm to many people. The fiscal impact of white-collar crimes significantly surpasses those of blue-collar offenses.
• Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Social Anxiety and Substance Abuse Mark is a student who suffers from social anxiety and alcohol abuse problems. The assessment regime is needed to identify the cause of Mark’s substance abuse.
• Drug Abuse and Addiction: Risk Factors People with drug abuse issues have enhanced motivation to take drugs, increased probability of reacting to stress, emotional dysregulation, and impaired self-control.
• Linking Obamacare Policy, Substance Abuse, and Mental Health Obamacare, or The Affordable Care Act, is one of the most prominent health care policies in the United States because disputes over its advantages and disadvantages last for years.
• The Relations Between Drug Abuse and Criminal Justice The purpose of this article is to use conflict theory to analyze how race, class, and gender affect drug abuse and crime in the United States.
• Drug and Alcohol Abuse in Organizations The purpose of this paper is to analyze the impact of drugs and alcohol on the behavior of the employees and the relationships between business owners and their subordinates.
• Drug Abuse: Impaired American Society The history of American society as far as drug abuse is concerned has had a dark past where drugs and alcohol were considered a lifestyle.
• The Issue of Drug Abuse in the Community of Kinsburg This paper aims to research the community of the city of Keansburg, located in the state of New Jersey and its issue of substance abuse.
• Adolescent Drug Abuse: Diagnosis and Cultural Awareness The paper examines the effect of amphetamine on human and, as a consequence, the development of mental illness, namely, mood disorder.
• Substance Abuse Relapse among Women For substance abuse relapse among women, it is the issue of resumption of females to substance abuse after they have recovered from using such drugs.
• The Problem of Prescription Drug Abuse in the United States Prescription drug abuse is a serious health concern that causes an overdose crisis in the United States. There are determinants such as social, economic, and healthcare-related issues.
• A Health Issue Analysis: Prescription Drug Abuse Prescription drug abuse is one of the acutest problems of healthcare systems in the USA. In the past decade, the rate of deaths due to prescription drug overdose grew by 142%.
• Substance Abuse Among Teenagers: Factors and Causes This study seeks to investigate the impact of gender, family structure, parental influence, and peer pressure on teenagers’ alcohol use.
• Drug Abuse and Drug Addiction and Various Policies Related to Drugs The harm reduction policy is concerned with reducing or minimizing the risks that are accrued to drug abuse in various societies.
• Drug Abuse and Crime Correlation The correlation between drug use and crimes go, most prisoners said they commit crimes for obtaining money for drugs, so drugs are the motivation.
• Family Violence and Substance Abuse Substance abuse does not only affect the individuals but its consequences spill over to the society especially the community and also the work places.
• Drug Addiction: The Problem of Xanax Abuse and Its Consequences Xanax as a drug can be very addictive and difficult to stop and it is very important for anyone using the drug to be cautious and follow the instructions that are provided.
• Alcohol Abuse Among Students: Reforming College Drinking A large number of works are devoted to the problem of alcohol abuse among students. One of them is Drinking in College: Rethinking a Social Problem by George Dowdall.
• The Impacts of Substance Abuse on Pregnancy The consequences of substance abuse on pregnancy are very diverse: both physiological and psychological and there are many specific aspects which have not been fully discussed.
• Substance Abuse and Preventive Measures The paper analyzes socio-economic and health issues for families, communities, and nations caused by psychoactive substances abuse.
• Drug Abuse Among Teenagers Before analyzing the causes of addiction among teenagers, we have to look at this issue from sociological point of view.
• Substance Abuse, Lack of Treatment, Prejudice and Incarceration – A Community Health Problem Substance abuse and poor mental health form some of the biggest concerns of society. People of all ages especially the young are influenced by substance abuse.
• Substance Abuse Prevention and Effective Prevention Programs Substance abuse is a maladaptive pattern of drug or alcohol use that leads to clinical impairment or distress. Substance abuse is manifested in failure to fulfill adaptation at work, school, or home.
• Interprofessional Health Promotion Resources: Substance Abuse in Adults Available interventions, risks, and factors contributing to substance abuse in adults will be discussed in the present paper.
• Fear Appeal in Anti-Drug Abuse Public Campaign The problem of prescription drug abuse has become a crucial concern for Florida residents. The public campaign proposes raising awareness about the dangers of prescription drugs.
• Personal Relationship With Alcohol Abuse Given that alcohol abuse affects myriad families, ruining people’s health and harming social life, it is still a sensitive and critical issue to consider.
• Substance Abuse Effects on Person and Community Substance abuse is a well-documented problem that can lead to numerous complications on a personal, family, community, and national level.
• The Alcohol Abuse Treatment Among the Elderly This paper delves into the issue of alcohol abuse among the elderly, its potential implications, the origin of the problem, and methods to resolve the issue.
• Alcohol Abuse’ Treatment Among the Elderly This research focuses on finding the best treatment for the problem of alcohol abuse among the elderly as it may pose serious health problems.
• Drug and Alcohol Abuse Treatment Effectiveness The production and consumption of drugs is a core challenge in the modern world. It is the reason why there is an increased need for treatment of people affected by drug addiction.
• The Treatment of Alcohol Abuse of the Elderly This paper delves into the issue of alcohol abuse among the elderly, its potential implications, and examines what the current methods utilize to resolve the issue.
• The Treatment of Alcohol Abuse among the Elderly Alcohol abuse among the elderly is an issue that has raised concern among medical practitioners and society in general.
• Substance Abuse and Frustration Relationships A report released by the Harvard health institute indicated that substance abuse is high among frustrated individuals.
• Substance Abuse and Its Promotion in Advertisement Substance abuse is very common in the world, and lately, the general populace has perceived substance abuse mentally as one of the vital questions facing almost all countries.
• Caring for Vulnerable Population: Substance Abuse Substance abuse is a rampant problem in the current society despite the availability of information regarding the consequences of drug abuse.
• Teenage Drug and Substance Abuse It is crucial for governments, not just the U.S., where teenage drug and substance abuse are on the rise, but also other countries, to establish mechanisms that can help to fight the menace.
• Drug Abuse, HIV/AIDS, and Songs on Social Issues Drug abuse and HIV/AIDS are some of the major social issues affecting society today. Songs have been used in raising awareness about social issues that affect the world.
• Female Drug Abuser’s Recovery Care Plan A woman is an IV drug abuser. The laboratory tests reveal elevated alanine aminotransferase and antibody-positive for Hepatitis C and Hepatitis B.
• Substance Abuse: Environmental Influences and Biology Substance abuse is not a new problem the human society faces. This paper examines different ways biological and environment influences interact and affect drug taking behavior.
• Substance Abuse in Reducing Frustration Frustration usually co-occurs with substance abuse. The research question is whether substance abuse can reduce frustration.
• Contingency Management for Patients With Substance Abuse Contingency management is a behavioral treatment for patients with substance abuse problems. This work discusses methods of treatment and contingency management.
• Mental Health and Substance Abuse in Obamacare The Affordable Care Act (ACA) offered an opportunity to improve healthcare for people with mental illnesses. The implementation of new regulations required certain payment reform.
• Substance Abuse Treatment and Domestic Violence The histories of child abuse and neglect form the present behavior of a person a define his administering treatment needs regarding the fact of whether a person was sexually or emotionally abused.
• Substance Abusers Alcoholics – Psychology Alcoholics suffer from a distinct physical yearning to take alcohol past their capability to manage it, irrespective of every law of common sense.
• Minimizing Prescription Drug Abuse in Oklahoma Over the past few years, the rates of prescription drug abuse in Oklahoma have grown impressively. The issue must be addressed by raising awareness via modern media.
• Crisis of Chemical Dependence: Drug Abuse Drug abuse mainly begins during teenage. The first part of this essay discusses social and cultural determinants of substance abuse. The second part focuses on the dynamics of addiction.
• Substance Abuse: How Much Is Enough? Drug and substance abuse is caused by many factors that include environmental, age, race and ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, income level and socioeconomic class
• Social Cultural Determinants of Substance Abuse This paper presents a discussion on the social cultural determinants of substance abuse. It also addresses the dynamics of addiction and the mechanisms that are cope with challenges that arise.
• Personality and Substance Abuse This article looks at personalities of frequent substance users, experimenters, and non-users from the point of view of social psychology.
• How do genetic factors contribute to one’s susceptibility to substance abuse?
• What is the impact of substance abuse on brain development in adolescents?
• How do co-occurring mental health disorders affect substance abuse treatment outcomes?
• What are the long-term physical health consequences of prolonged substance abuse?
• How does substance abuse affect family relationships?
• What are the economic costs of substance abuse?
• How do healthcare professionals’ attitudes affect substance abuse treatment quality?
• How does substance abuse affect occupational performance?
• What are the unique challenges of LGBT people in accessing substance abuse treatment?
• How do drug laws affect substance abuse rates?

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StudyCorgi. (2022, May 10). 206 Substance Abuse Essay Topics + Examples. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/substance-abuse-essay-topics/

"206 Substance Abuse Essay Topics + Examples." StudyCorgi , 10 May 2022, studycorgi.com/ideas/substance-abuse-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . (2022) '206 Substance Abuse Essay Topics + Examples'. 10 May.

1. StudyCorgi . "206 Substance Abuse Essay Topics + Examples." May 10, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/substance-abuse-essay-topics/.

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StudyCorgi . "206 Substance Abuse Essay Topics + Examples." May 10, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/substance-abuse-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2022. "206 Substance Abuse Essay Topics + Examples." May 10, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/substance-abuse-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Substance Abuse were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 20, 2024 .

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91 Drug Trafficking Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best drug trafficking topic ideas & essay examples, 🎓 good research topics about drug trafficking, 📌 simple & easy drug trafficking essay titles, ❓ research questions about drug trafficking.

• Drug Trafficking and Drug Abuse Drug trafficking contributes to drug abuse in the society. Drug trafficking also contributes to increased criminal activities that affect the security of citizens.
• What Can Law Enforcement Do About Drug Trafficking Therefore, there is a need for the creation and implementation of new federal and local laws that would ensure the appropriateness of police operations in the field of drug trafficking prevention. We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• International Drug Trafficking: Critical Thinking Moreover, it is of concern that the power of drug traffickers is constantly growing and that they are influencing the economic and political affairs of cities.
• International Drug Trafficking: Analysis and Solution If an attempt is made to unify the process for all significant areas of drug trafficking, such a system will fail.
• Drug Trafficking and Pablo Escobar Pablo Escobar created the largest drug cartel in the world, and the criminal activities affecting the population at the time still negatively impact the community.
• Drug Cartels Problem Overview Drugs have been the major cause of the rise in the levels of corruption, disobedience to the law, and human rights abuses The selection highlights the key challenge of drug cartels in Latin America.
• Drug Trafficking in the United States This shortage of cocaine has been brought due to low production of cocaine In Mexico, and this was as a result of pressure from the United States government to DTOs, large seizure of cocaine consignment […]
• Policy Project: The Drug Trafficking The committee was also in making reports to the convention. Reforms in judicial systems should be advocated to the countries that are signatories of UN convention.
• Drug Trafficking in the UK This is the extent of the information available at the start of the research. The first element that has to be developed is the list of organizations that could potentially be involved with the smuggling […]
• Economics of Organized Crime and Drug Trafficking Three major conditions associated with the development and origins of mafias include the abdication of legitimate government power, excessive bureaucratic power, and the financial potential of illegal markets.
• Human and Drug Trafficking as Transnational Organised Crimes While a transnational crime implies illegal actions and the breaking of law across borders or between two or more countries, the UN Convention has not made an effort of listing the type of crimes for […]
• International Drug Trafficking and Its Legal Status The large-scale of the global drug trade has grown primarily due to the levels of financing and expansion that organized crime has invested in the industry.
• The Crown Court Case: Drug and Weapons Trafficking To continue the process of the trial, it is necessary to translate the found text and identify what the defendant was about to do before he was arrested, as it will help to proceed with […]
• Drug Trafficking, National Security and Intelligence In most of the cases, these cartels used carrot-and-stick approach when it came to dealing with security agencies both in their home country and in the United States. The drug cartels in this country use […]
• Drug Trafficking in Central Asia and US Interests The interests of the United States in the Central Asia Region increased significantly after the 9/11bomb attacks in the United States.
• Drug Traffickers Arrest: Intelligence Cycle The case study about the arrest of 7 drug traffickers by Drug Enforcement Agency, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, and Homeland Security Investigations agents is a perfect case that required collection of information, processing it to […]
• Illegal Drug Trafficking Rates This is one of the most thriving trades in the world markets owing to the fact that, although majority of nations have criminalized drug trafficking, due to effects of the economic crisis that affected most […]
• Mexican Drug Cartels and Human Trafficking Reports from Mexico says that due to the pressure exerted on the drug cartels by the government, they have resolved in other means of getting revenue and the major one has been human trafficking alongside […]
• The Mexican Drugs Cartels Apparently, Mexican drug cartels have dominated the illegal drug trading in the United States, as there is increased co-operation with the prisoners and street peddlers in the United States; moreover, drug trafficking has spread rapidly […]
• Colombian Drug Cartels: Government Response For instance, the Cali cartel participated a great deal in the downfall of the Medellin cartel as it was involved in the manhunt of the leaders of the Medellin cartel which saw the killing of […]
• Mexican Drug Cartels and the War on Drugs The examination of the current research on Mexican drug cartels and the War on Drugs helps to understand the causes of the outburst of violence, define the major tendencies of the Mexican War on Drugs […]
• Drug Cartels in Mexico According to sociologist Luis Astorga, the history of drug cartels in Mexico has a correlation with the political eras in the region. As such, they are the eyes and ears of the drug cartels.
• Drug Trafficking in the US Kleiman argues that drug trafficking in the US has brought about harmful effects to families, children and the greater population of the young people.
• Pre-Colombia Era of Drug Trafficking in the Americas: Andean Cocaine, 1947-1973 This led to the period where cocaine was considered as an illicit drug in most parts of the world. The United States utilized its popularity to spread the word over the continents on the dangers […]
• Reducing Drug Trafficking in the United States For this to be effective, the US government has instituted a task force that specializes in the capturing of drug dealers and traffickers.
• US Proposed Plan for Reducing Security Threat by Mexican Drug Cartels Terrorism in the modern world has become a big threat to the security of the world and especially the US citizens which is the largest economy in the world.
• Achieving Wealth and Power: Drug Trafficking
• Border Patrol Enforcement Have Impact on Illegal Drug Trafficking
• The Battle Between Border Security and Drug Trafficking
• Can National Governments Prevent Illicit Drug Trafficking?
• Death Penalty for Drug Trafficking: Is It Required?
• Drug Smoking and Drug Trafficking in the World
• The Link Between Drug Trafficking and Gang Violence
• Drug Trafficking and Distribution of Drugs: Overview
• Linking Drug Trafficking and Illegal Immigration
• The Relationships Between Drug Trafficking and Insurgent Terrorists
• Drug Trafficking and Its Effects on America
• Link Between Drug Trafficking and the Financing of Terrorism
• Drug Trafficking and Its Effects on the American Civil War
• Relations Between Drug Trafficking, Organized Crime, and Terrorism Interactions
• Drug Trafficking and Its Effects on the Human Body
• Illicit Trade and Drug Trafficking Proving to Be a Major Problem
• Drug Trafficking and Its Effects on US Policy and Economy
• Joint Interagency Engagement and Drug Trafficking
• Drug Trafficking and Narco-Terrorism as Security Threats
• Mexican Drug War: Drug Trafficking and Its Effects on Mexico
• Drug Trafficking and the Criminal Justice System of America
• Reducing Drug Trafficking In the United States
• Drug Trafficking Between Mexico and The United States
• Terrorism and Drug Trafficking at the South American Borders
• Drug Trafficking: Consequences, and Accountability
• Overview of the Biggest Drug Trafficking Organization
• Drug Trafficking Has Caused the Coffee Industry
• The Economics Behind Drug Trafficking and Cartels in Mexico
• Drug Trafficking Organizations and Counter-Drug Strategies in the US-Mexican Context
• The Fight Against Drugs and Drug Trafficking in America
• The History, Effect, and Cost of Drug Trafficking on Society
• The Long Existed Business of Drug Trafficking in Latin Countries
• Punishments and Laws Associated With Drug Trafficking in the United States
• UN’s Efforts to Control Drug Trafficking in Thailand, Laos, Myanmar, and Korea
• The United States’ Strategy for Combating Drug Trafficking
• War Against Drug Trafficking and the Drug Crisis in the USA
• Overview of Transnational Criminality and Illicit Drug Trafficking
• United States Drug Trafficking Problem Analysis
• Why Drug Trafficking Causes Gun Violence?
• Would Legalizing Drugs Discourage Drug Trafficking?
• How Can Drug Trafficking Be Controlled?
• Why Does Drug Trafficking Continue to Rise Despite the Risks Involved?
• How Does Drug Trafficking Affect the United States?
• What Is the Connection Between Drug Abuse and Drug Trafficking?
• How Does Drug Trafficking Impact the Economy and the World at Large?
• Why Is It Important to Stop Drug Trafficking?
• When Did Drug Trafficking Become a Problem?
• Is Human Trafficking Bigger Than Drug Trafficking?
• What Is the Difference Between Drug Trafficking and Drug Smuggling?
• How Can We Solve the Problem of Drug Trafficking?
• What Is the Golden Triangle in Drug Trafficking?
• Is Drug Trafficking and Smuggling the Same Thing?
• What Are the Effects of Drug Trafficking in the Country?
• Why Is Drug Trafficking a Threat to Any Nation?
• What Are the Root Causes of Drug Trafficking in Central America?
• How Do Drug Trafficking Organizations Work?
• What Is the Penalty for Drug Trafficking in the USA?
• Is Human Trafficking More Profitable Than Drug Trafficking?
• What Is the Biggest Drug Trafficking Organization in the World?
• Does the FBI Handle Drug Trafficking?
• What Is the Political Effect of Drug Trafficking?
• Did Latin America’s Drug Trafficking Thrive During COVID-19?
• Who Started Drug Trafficking in Colombia?
• How Is Drug Trafficking to Blame for Violence in Latin America?
• What Has the UN Done for Drug Trafficking?
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IvyPanda. (2024, February 26). 91 Drug Trafficking Essay Topic Ideas & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/drug-trafficking-essay-topics/

"91 Drug Trafficking Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." IvyPanda , 26 Feb. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/topic/drug-trafficking-essay-topics/.

IvyPanda . (2024) '91 Drug Trafficking Essay Topic Ideas & Examples'. 26 February.

IvyPanda . 2024. "91 Drug Trafficking Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 26, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/drug-trafficking-essay-topics/.

1. IvyPanda . "91 Drug Trafficking Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 26, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/drug-trafficking-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "91 Drug Trafficking Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 26, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/drug-trafficking-essay-topics/.

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Essay on Drug Abuse in 250 and 500 Words in English for Students

• Updated on  
• Apr 2, 2024

Drug abuse refers to the excessive and frequent consumption of drugs. Drug abuse can have several harmful effects on our mental and physical health. Ronald Reagan, the 40th President of the USA, passed the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 and initiated the War on Drugs . He said, ‘Let us not forget who we are. Drug abuse is a repudiation of everything America is.’

Consuming drugs not only harms the individual himself but also affects society as a whole. Studies have shown that people who consume drugs become addicted to it. This addiction turns into substance abuse, resulting in self-damage, behaviour changes, mood swings, unnecessary weight loss, and several other health problems. Let’s understand what drug abuse is and how to fight it.

This Blog Includes:

Essay on drug abuse in 250 words, why do people consume drugs, why is drug abuse bad, laws in india against drug consumption, steps to prevent drug addiction, 10 lines essay on drug abuse.

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‘When people consume drugs regularly and become addicted to it, it is known as drug abuse. In medical terminology, drugs means medicines. However, the consumption of drugs is for non-medical purposes. It involves the consumption of substances in illegal and harmful ways, such as swallowing, inhaling, or injecting. When drugs are consumed, they are mixed into our bloodstream, affecting our neural system and brain functioning.

The Indian government has taken significant steps to help reduce the consumption of drugs. In 1985, the Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act came into force. This act replaced the Opium Act of 1857, the Opium Act of 1878, and the Dangerous Drugs Act of 1930. 

Drug abuse can lead to addiction, where a person becomes physically or psychologically dependent on the substance and experiences withdrawal symptoms when attempting to stop using it. 

Drug abuse can have serious consequences for the individual and society as a whole. On an individual level, drugs can damage physical health, including organ damage, infectious diseases, and overdose fatalities. Not only this, a person already suffering from mental health disorders will face more harmful aftereffects. Addiction disrupts our cognitive functioning and impairs our decision-making abilities.

To fight drug abuse, we need collective action from all sections of society. Medical professionals say that early intervention and screening programmes can identify individuals at risk of substance misuse and provide them with the necessary support services. Educating people, especially those who are at-risk, about drug abuse and its harmful effects can significantly help reduce their consumption.

Drug abuse is serious and it must be addressed. Drug abuse is killing youth and society. Therefore, it is an urgent topic to address, and only through sustainable and collective efforts can we address this problem.

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Essay on Drug Abuse in 500 Words

Drug abuse is known as frequent consumption. In time, these people become dependent on drugs for several reasons. Curiosity drives adolescents and teenagers, who are among the most susceptible groups in our society. Cocaine, marijuana, methamphetamine, heroin, etc. are some of the popular drugs consumed. 

The very first question about drugs is: why do people consume drugs? Studies have shown that more than 50% of drug addicts consider drugs as a coping mechanism to alleviate emotional or psychological distress. In the beginning, drugs temporarily relieve feelings of anxiety, depression, or trauma, providing a temporary escape from difficult emotions or life circumstances. 

Some consume drugs out of curiosity, some under peer pressure, and some want to escape the painful experiences. Some people enjoy the effects drugs produce, such as euphoria, relaxation, and altered perceptions. Recreational drug use may occur in social settings or as a form of self-medication for stress relief or relaxation.

The National Institute on Drug Abuse states that drugs can worsen our eyesight and body movement, our physical growth, etc. Marijuana, one of the most popular drugs, can slow down our reaction time, affecting our time and distance judgement and decreasing coordination. Cocaine and Methamphetamine can make the consumer aggressive and careless.

Our brain is the first victim of drugs. Drugs can disorder our body in several ways, from damaging organs to messing with our brains. Drugs easily get mixed into our bloodstream, and affect our neural system. Prolonged and excessive consumption of drugs significantly harms our brain functioning.

The next target of drug abuse is our physical health and relationships. Drugs can damage our vital organs, such as the liver, heart, lungs, and brain. For example, heavy alcohol use can lead to cirrhosis of the liver, while cocaine use can increase the risk of heart attack and stroke.

Here is an interesting thing; the USA has the highest number of drug addicts and also has strict laws against drug consumption. According to a report by the Narcotics Control Bureau, around 9 million people in India consume different types of drugs. The Indian government has implemented certain laws against drug consumption and production.

The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 (NDPS), prohibits the production, sale, purchase, and consumption of narcotics and other illegal substances, except for scientific and medical purposes.

Also, Article 47 of the Indian Constitution states that ‘ The State shall endeavour to bring about prohibition of the consumption, except for medicinal purposes, of intoxicating drinks and drugs which are injurious to health.’

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Several steps can be taken to prevent drug addiction. But before we start our ‘War on Drugs’ , it is crucial to understand the trigger point. Our social environment, mental health issues and sometimes genetic factors can play a role in drug abuse.

• Education and awareness are the primary weapons in the fight against drugs. 
• Keeping distance from people and places addicted to drugs.
• Encourage a healthy and active lifestyle and indulge in physical workouts.
• Watch motivating videos and listen to sound music.
• Self-motivate yourself to stop consuming drugs.
• Talk to a medical professional or a psychiatrist, who will guide you to the right path.

Drug abuse is a serious problem. The excessive and frequent consumption of drugs not only harms the individual but also affects society as a whole. Only a collective approach from lawmakers, healthcare professionals, educators, community leaders, and individuals themselves can combat drug abuse effectively. 

Quick Read: Speech About Life

Here is a 10-line essay on drug abuse.

• Drug abuse can significantly affect our physical growth
• Drug abuse can affect our mental functioning.
• Drug abuse may provide instant pleasure, but inside, it weakens our willpower and physical strength.
• Educating people, especially those who are at-risk, about drug abuse and its harmful effects can significantly help reduce their consumption.
•  Drugs easily get mixed into our bloodstream, and affect our neural system. 
• Prolonged and excessive consumption of drugs significantly harms our brain functioning.
• In 1985, the Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act came into force.
• The USA has the highest number of drug addicts and also has strict laws against drug consumption.
• Drug addicts consider drugs as a coping mechanism to alleviate emotional or psychological distress.
•  Adolescents and teenagers are the most vulnerable section of our society and are driven by curiosity.

Ans: Drug abuse refers to the excessive and frequent consumption of drugs. Drug abuse can have several harmful effects on our mental and physical health.

Ans: ‘When people consume drugs regularly and become addicted to it, it is known as drug abuse. In medical terminology, drugs means medicines. However, the consumption of drugs is for non-medical purposes. It involves the consumption of substances in illegal and harmful ways, such as swallowing, inhaling, or injecting. When drugs are consumed, they are mixed into our bloodstream, affecting our neural system and brain functioning.

Ans: Drug abuse is known as frequent consumption. In time, these people become dependent on drugs for several reasons. Adolescents and teenagers are the most vulnerable section of our society who are driven by curiosity. Cocaine, marijuana, methamphetamine, heroin, etc. are some of the popular drugs consumed.  The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 (NDPS), prohibits the production, sale, purchase, and consumption of narcotics and other illegal substances, except for scientific and medical purposes.

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Shiva Tyagi

With an experience of over a year, I've developed a passion for writing blogs on wide range of topics. I am mostly inspired from topics related to social and environmental fields, where you come up with a positive outcome.

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