term paper on organisational structure

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Organization and Structure

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There is no single organizational pattern that works well for all writing across all disciplines; rather, organization depends on what you’re writing, who you’re writing it for, and where your writing will be read. In order to communicate your ideas, you’ll need to use a logical and consistent organizational structure in all of your writing. We can think about organization at the global level (your entire paper or project) as well as at the local level (a chapter, section, or paragraph). For an American academic situation, this means that at all times, the goal of revising for organization and structure is to consciously design your writing projects to make them easy for readers to understand. In this context, you as the writer are always responsible for the reader's ability to understand your work; in other words, American academic writing is writer-responsible. A good goal is to make your writing accessible and comprehensible to someone who just reads sections of your writing rather than the entire piece. This handout provides strategies for revising your writing to help meet this goal.

Note that this resource focuses on writing for an American academic setting, specifically for graduate students. American academic writing is of course not the only standard for academic writing, and researchers around the globe will have different expectations for organization and structure. The OWL has some more resources about writing for American and international audiences here .

Whole-Essay Structure

While organization varies across and within disciplines, usually based on the genre, publication venue, and other rhetorical considerations of the writing, a great deal of academic writing can be described by the acronym IMRAD (or IMRaD): Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. This structure is common across most of the sciences and is often used in the humanities for empirical research. This structure doesn't serve every purpose (for instance, it may be difficult to follow IMRAD in a proposal for a future study or in more exploratory writing in the humanities), and it is often tweaked or changed to fit a particular situation. Still, its wide use as a base for a great deal of scholarly writing makes it worthwhile to break down here.

• Introduction : What is the purpose of the study? What were the research questions? What necessary background information should the reader understand to help contextualize the study? (Some disciplines include their literature review section as part of the introduction; some give the literature review its own heading on the same level as the other sections, i.e., ILMRAD.) Some writers use the CARS model to help craft their introductions more effectively.
• Methods: What methods did the researchers use? How was the study conducted? If the study included participants, who were they, and how were they selected?
• Results : This section lists the data. What did the researchers find as a result of their experiments (or, if the research is not experimental, what did the researchers learn from the study)? How were the research questions answered?
• Discussion : This section places the data within the larger conversation of the field. What might the results mean? Do these results agree or disagree with other literature cited? What should researchers do in the future?

Depending on your discipline, this may be exactly the structure you should use in your writing; or, it may be a base that you can see under the surface of published pieces in your field, which then diverge from the IMRAD structure to meet the expectations of other scholars in the field. However, you should always check to see what's expected of you in a given situation; this might mean talking to the professor for your class, looking at a journal's submission guidelines, reading your field's style manual, examining published examples, or asking a trusted mentor. Every field is a little different.

Outlining & Reverse Outlining

One of the most effective ways to get your ideas organized is to write an outline. A traditional outline comes as the pre-writing or drafting stage of the writing process. As you make your outline, think about all of the concepts, topics, and ideas you will need to include in order to accomplish your goal for the piece of writing. This may also include important citations and key terms. Write down each of these, and then consider what information readers will need to know in order for each point to make sense. Try to arrange your ideas in a way that logically progresses, building from one key idea or point to the next.

Questions for Writing Outlines

• What are the main points I am trying to make in this piece of writing?
• What background information will my readers need to understand each point? What will novice readers vs. experienced readers need to know?
• In what order do I want to present my ideas? Most important to least important, or least important to most important? Chronologically? Most complex to least complex? According to categories? Another order?

Reverse outlining comes at the drafting or revision stage of the writing process. After you have a complete draft of your project (or a section of your project), work alone or with a partner to read your project with the goal of understanding the main points you have made and the relationship of these points to one another. The OWL has another resource about reverse outlining here.

Questions for Writing Reverse Outlines

• What topics are covered in this piece of writing?
• In what order are the ideas presented? Is this order logical for both novice and experienced readers?
• Is adequate background information provided for each point, making it easy to understand how one idea leads to the next?
• What other points might the author include to further develop the writing project?

Organizing at the sentence and paragraph level

Signposting.

Signposting is the practice of using language specifically designed to help orient readers of your text. We call it signposting because this practice is like leaving road signs for a driver — it tells your reader where to go and what to expect up ahead. Signposting includes the use of transitional words and phrasing, and they may be explicit or more subtle. For example, an explicit signpost might say:

This section will cover Topic A­­ and Topic B­­­­­.

A more subtle signpost might look like this:

It's important to consider the impact of Topic A­­ and Topic B­­­­­.

The style of signpost you use will depend on the genre of your paper, the discipline in which you are writing, and your or your readers’ personal preferences. Regardless of the style of signpost you select, it’s important to include signposts regularly. They occur most frequently at the beginnings and endings of sections of your paper. It is often helpful to include signposts at mid-points in your project in order to remind readers of where you are in your argument.

Questions for Identifying and Evaluating Signposts

• How and where does the author include a phrase, sentence, or short group of sentences that explains the purpose and contents of the paper?
• How does each section of the paper provide a brief summary of what was covered earlier in the paper?
• How does each section of the paper explain what will be covered in that section?
• How does the author use transitional words and phrases to guide readers through ideas (e.g. however, in addition, similarly, nevertheless, another, while, because, first, second, next, then etc.)?

WORKS CONSULTED

Clark, I. (2006). Writing the successful thesis and dissertation: Entering the conversation . Prentice Hall Press.

Davis, M., Davis, K. J., & Dunagan, M. (2012). Scientific papers and presentations . Academic press.

Organizational Structures Essay

Functional organizational structure is ideal for the company 1. Its structure should have two functional levels: managerial team at the top level hierarchy while programmers and supporting personnel – under it. Below, there is a chart to illustrate company 1 functional organizational structure:

Each employee in all the levels has a task to perform in relation to their specialization. The company 1 top level hierarchy is headed by managers who have the following roles: they are responsible for planning and making strategic decisions, passing decisions to employees and controlling implementation of these decisions. They also control tasks realization process. Managers’ offices should be located in the company’s main office Ar-Riyad. All the 25 programmers and the supporting personnel are answerable to the management.

Level two of the company’s hierarchy is the programmers and the supporting personnel. Each of this team has specialization in their functional roles. The programmers search for clients, provide technical support to their clients and do programming. The rationale for choosing this type of organizational structure for the company 1 is that each of the workers in this company has a specific task to perform depending on the specialization.

For instance, the programmers have specific tasks to accomplish in addition to searching for clients, providing technical support to company’s client and doing programming. Company managers have responsibility of staffing, controlling and coordinating the company activities. Supporting employees are supposed to facilitate company functions for it to achieve its goal. Also, they are a part of communication link between the management and the other company personnel.

Functional organization structure is suitable for this company because it has bigger software market. For instance, it has ten company clients from Ar-Riyad, two from Damman, one multinational company that specializes in business software and two other clients from Argentina.

In addition, its activity coordination and specialization are centralized. Its managers oversee the company task coordination and specialization. To achieve its goals this company has to divide its operation according to functional areas in addition to possessing various levels of authority.

Command flow is from the top (management) to those below (employees) in hierarchy. This structure will allow economies of scale within all company 1 functional departments. Additionally, it will enable depth knowledge and skill development and company’s accomplishment of its functional goals. It is also bested suited for company with one product like company 1.

Matrix organizational structure is suitable for the company 2 because it can allow this company to address multiple business dimensions using multiple command structure. Below, there is a chart to illustrate the company 2 matrix organizational structure.

In the company 2, management coordinates the activities of all other departments in the company. It is the highest level in the organization hierarchy. Command flows from the management to all other departments in the organization. Company’s managers occupy the highest post in the company’s central administration who are responsible for planning and making strategic decisions. They also pass decision to employees and control implementation of these decisions.

They also control tasks realization process. Managerial team decision is the implementation affect of all products of company which include fertilizer, gardening, and dealers in gardening tools. Employees are supposed to give feed back to management on matters concerning the company operations. The company 2 has many employees working in various departments of the company including production, marketing and sales. Out of the 250 employees, 100 are occupied in the production sector.

Its central offices are suited in Damman. Employees who have similar skills are put together for particular task. For instance, those employees working in production sector should report to a production manager, sales and marketing employee should report to sales and marketing managers respectively.

Rationale for using Matrix organizational structure, it is because Matrix organizational structure encourages innovation and fast action and speed information in the company. Additionally, Matrix organizational structure is suitable for a company which deals with more than one product.

The company 2 is involved in production of fertilizer, manufacturing of gardening tools and dealer in gardening tools for the famous U.S brand. Matrix organizational structure fits this company because its workers are selected according to the task needed. Departmental flexibility is of essential in running this company in various departments.

Matrix organizational structure is able to leverage functional economies of scale while remaining small task focused; it focuses employees on multiple business goals and facilitates innovation solution to complex and technical problems. It improves employees’ companywide focus through increased responsibility and decision making. It also allows a quick and easy transfer of resources and increases information flow through the creation of lateral communication channels and enhances personal communication skills.

In order for a company to attain its objectives, its organization’s structure should have tasks allocation, coordination and supervision. Organizational structure is a key determinant in any organization’s operations and performance. Companies have different organizational structure depending on their goals.

Organization structure enables an organization’s tasks, activities and processes allocation to its personnel, departments or branches. Basically, organizational structure serves two main purposes in an organization. They include forming a basis guide lines in any operations. It also defines company’s workers and departments duties to gear towards achieving it goal.

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IvyPanda. (2024, February 29). Organizational Structures. https://ivypanda.com/essays/organizational-structures/

"Organizational Structures." IvyPanda , 29 Feb. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/organizational-structures/.

IvyPanda . (2024) 'Organizational Structures'. 29 February.

IvyPanda . 2024. "Organizational Structures." February 29, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/organizational-structures/.

1. IvyPanda . "Organizational Structures." February 29, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/organizational-structures/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Organizational Structures." February 29, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/organizational-structures/.

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• Section 1. Organizational Structure: An Overview

Chapter 9 Sections

• Section 2. Creating and Gathering a Group to Guide Your Initiative
• Section 3. Developing Multisector Task Forces or Action Committees for the Initiative
• Section 4. Developing an Ongoing Board of Directors
• Section 5. Welcoming and Training New Members to a Board of Directors
• Section 6. Maintaining a Board of Directors
• Section 7. Writing Bylaws
• Section 8. Including Youth on Your Board, Commission, or Committee
• Section 9. Understanding and Writing Contracts and Memoranda of Agreement
• Main Section

What is organizational structure?

Why should you develop a structure for your organization, when should you develop a structure for your organization.

By structure, we mean the framework around which the group is organized, the underpinnings which keep the coalition functioning. It's the operating manual that tells members how the organization is put together and how it works. More specifically, structure describes how members are accepted, how leadership is chosen, and how decisions are made.

• Structure gives members clear guidelines for how to proceed. A clearly-established structure gives the group a means to maintain order and resolve disagreements.
• Structure binds members together. It gives meaning and identity to the people who join the group, as well as to the group itself.
• Structure in any organization is inevitable -- an organization, by definition , implies a structure. Your group is going to have some structure whether it chooses to or not. It might as well be the structure which best matches up with what kind of organization you have, what kind of people are in it, and what you see yourself doing.

It is important to deal with structure early in the organization's development. Structural development can occur in proportion to other work the organization is doing, so that it does not crowd out that work. And it can occur in parallel with, at the same time as, your organization's growing accomplishments, so they take place in tandem, side by side. This means that you should think about structure from the beginning of your organization's life. As your group grows and changes, so should your thinking on the group's structure.

Elements of Structure

While the need for structure is clear, the best structure for a particular coalition is harder to determine. The best structure for any organization will depend upon who its members are, what the setting is, and how far the organization has come in its development.

Regardless of what type of structure your organization decides upon, three elements will always be there. They are inherent in the very idea of an organizational structure.

• Some kind of governance

Rules by which the organization operates

• A distribution of work

The first element of structure is governance - some person or group has to make the decisions within the organization.

Another important part of structure is having rules by which the organization operates. Many of these rules may be explicitly stated, while others may be implicit and unstated, though not necessarily any less powerful.

Distribution of work

Inherent in any organizational structure also is a distribution of work. The distribution can be formal or informal, temporary or enduring, but every organization will have some type of division of labor.

There are four tasks that are key to any group:

• Envisioning desired changes . The group needs someone who looks at the world in a slightly different way and believes he or she can make others look at things from the same point of view.
• Transforming the community . The group needs people who will go out and do the work that has been envisioned.
• Planning for integration . Someone needs to take the vision and figure out how to accomplish it by breaking it up into strategies and goals.
• Supporting the efforts of those working to promote change . The group needs support from the community to raise money for the organization, champion the initiative in the state legislature, and ensure that they continue working towards their vision.

Common Roles

Every group is different, and so each will have slightly different terms for the roles individuals play in their organization, but below are some common terms, along with definitions and their typical functions.

• An initial steering committee is the group of people who get things started. Often, this group will create plans for funding, and organizational and board development. It may also generate by-laws, and then dissolve. If they continue to meet after approximately the first six months, we might say they have metamorphosed into a coordinating council .
• A coordinating council (also referred to as a coordinating committee, executive committee , and executive council ), modifies broad, organization-wide objectives and strategies in response to input from individuals or committees.
• Often, one person will take the place of the coordinating council, or may serve as its head. Such a person may be known as the Executive Director, Project Coordinator, Program Director, or President . He or she sometimes has a paid position, and may coordinate, manage, inspire, supervise, and support the work of other members of the organization.
• Task forces are made up of members who work together around broad objectives. Task forces integrate the ideas set forward with the community work being done.

For example, from the director of a coalition to reduce violence in a medium-sized city: "Currently, we have three operational task forces. Members of each have an ongoing dialogue with members of the coordinating council, and also with their action committees. The oldest was formed with the goal of eliminating domestic violence about fifteen years ago, when a local woman was killed by her husband. Then, after several outbreaks of violence in the schools a few years back, our group offered to help, and a second task force sprung up around reducing youth violence. We've just started a third, with the goal of increasing gun safety. "All of it is interrelated, and all of it applies to our mission of increasing the safety of residents of South Haven, as well as that of our visitors. But each task force is contributing to that mission in vastly different ways, with different objectives, and using different strategies. 'Cause, you know, the strategies you use to stop a ninth grader from bringing a gun to school just aren't the same as the ones you use to stop a 40-year-old man on unemployment from beating his wife."

•   Action committees bring about specific changes in programs, policies, and practices in the sectors in which they work.

For example, the task force on domestic violence mentioned above has the following action committees: A government and law enforcement committee . Members include police officers, lawyers, a judge, and a state representative. Currently, they are trying to pass laws with stronger penalties for those convicted of domestic violence, especially repeat offenders. They are also training officers to be better able to spot an abusive relationship, and better able to inform a victim of his or her options. A social services committee . Members (who include representatives from most of the service agencies in town) work to assure that staff members know where to send someone for the resources he or she needs. They are also trying to increase the number of trained volunteer counselors who work at the battered women's shelter. A media committee . Members include local journalists, writers, and graphic designers. They keep the project and the issue in the public's minds as much as possible with editorials, articles and news clips of events, as well as advertisements and public service announcements.

•   Support committees are groups that help ensure that action committees or other individuals will have the resources and opportunities necessary to realize their vision. Financial and media committees are examples of committees formed to help support or facilitate your work.
• Community trustees , also known as the board of trustees or as the board of directors , provide overall support, advice, and resources to members of the action groups. They are often either people who are directly affected by the issue or have stature in the community. That way, they are able to make contacts, network with other community leaders, and generally remove or weaken barriers to meeting organizational objectives.
• Grantmakers are another part of the picture. Grantmakers exist on an international, national, state, and local level and may be private companies and foundations, or local, county, state, or federal government organizations (for example, block grants given by the city would fall into this category).
• Support organizations (not to be confused with the support committees listed above) are groups that can give your organization the technical assistance it needs.
• Partner organizations are other groups working on some of the same issues as your organization.

Although this list is pretty extensive, your organization may only use two or three of the above mentioned roles, especially at the beginning. It's not uncommon for a group to start with a steering committee, ask others to serve as board members, and then recruit volunteers who will serve as members of action committees. In this broad spectrum of possibilities, consider: Where does your organization fit in? Where do you want to be?

Examples of Structure

So how can all of these pieces be put together? Again, the form a community group takes should be based on what it does , and not the other way around. The structures given are simply meant to serve as examples that have been found to be effective for some community-based organizations; they can and should be adapted and modified for your own group's purposes.

  A relatively complex structure

Example - The Ste. Genevieve's Children's Coalition The Ste. Genevieve's Children's Coalition is a relatively large community-based group. They have a coordinating council, a media committee, and three task forces, dealing with adolescent pregnancy, immunization, and child hunger. Each of the task forces has action committees as well. For example, the adolescent pregnancy reduction task force has a schools committee that focuses on keeping teen parents in school and modifying the human sexuality curriculum. A health organizations committee focuses on increasing access and use of the youth clinic. The media committee works to keep children's issues in the news, and includes professionals from the local television stations, radio stations, newspaper, and a marketing professional. The coordinating council is composed of the executive director, her assistant, the media committee chair, and the chairs of each of the three task forces. A board of directors has been invaluable in helping keep the coalition financially viable.

In diagram form, a complex organization might look like this:

And in diagram form:

As smaller size means fewer people, these groups are usually less complex, as they have less need for a formal hierarchy and instead have governance that is consensus-based. A diagram of such a small group might look something like this, with each of the circles representing an individual member:

What type of structure should you choose?

First, decide upon the formality your organization will have. The following table, adapted from The Spirit of Coalition Building can help you make this first decision.

Organizational structure is something that is best decided upon internally, through a process of critical thinking and discussion by members of the group.

In your discussions, your answers to the following list of questions may guide your decisions.

• What is your common purpose? How broad is it? Groups with broader purposes often have more complicated structures, complete with many layers and parts, than do groups with more narrow purposes.
• Is your group advocacy oriented or service oriented? Service organizations use "top down," one-person-in-charge structure much more often than do advocacy based groups.
• Is your organization more centralized (e.g., through the work of a specific agency ) or decentralized (e.g., different neighborhoods working independently on the same problem)? A decentralized group might find a "top-down" structure inappropriate, as such a group often has several peers working together on an issue.
• How large is your organization? How large do you envision it becoming? A very small organization may wish to remain relatively informal, while a community-wide group might require a more formal structure. A related question, with similar consequences, is:
• How large is the community in which you work?
• How old is your organization? How long do you envision it lasting? A group formed to resolve a single issue might not need a formal structure at all, while an organization with long-term goals may want something more concrete, with clearer divisional responsibilities and authority.
• Is the organization entirely volunteer, or are there (or will there be) paid staff? How many? An organization with many paid staff members may find it more necessary to have people "in charge," as there are generally more rules and responsibilities for paid staff members, and thus, there must be more supervision in carrying out these roles.
• Should yours be a new organization, or part of an existing structure? Do you really need to form a new structure, or would it be better to work within existing structures? Sometimes, your goals may be better met if you are part of (or linked with) another organization.

Structure is what ensures that your organization will function smoothly and as you intended. You should think about structure early in the development of your organization, but be aware that the type that fits best may change as your organization grows.

Online Resources

How to Develop an Organization Structure , by Tara Duggan, Demand Media, is an informational article on how to develop organization structure with a short step-by-step analysis.

It's All About the Base: A Guide to Building a Grassroots Organizing Program   from Community Catalyst.

Module 2: Organizational Structure , by Pathfinder International, is a concise manual describing pros and cons, together with suggestions for how one might change the organizational structure one has.

Print Resources

Berkowitz, W., & Wolff, T. (1999). The spirit of coalition building. Washington , DC: American Public Health Association.

Unterman, I. & Davis, R. (1984). Strategic management of not-for-profit organizations: From survival to success . New York, NY: Praeger.

10.1 Organizational Structures and Design

• What are mechanistic versus organic organizational structures?

First, an organizational structure is a system for accomplishing and connecting the activities that occur within a work organization. People rely on structures to know what work they should do, how their work supports or relies on other employees, and how these work activities fulfill the purpose of the organization itself.

Second, organizational design is the process of setting up organizational structures to address the needs of an organization and account for the complexity involved in accomplishing business objectives.

Next, organizational change refers to the constant shifts that occur within an organizational system—for example, as people enter or leave the organization, market conditions shift, supply sources change, or adaptations are introduced in the processes for accomplishing work. Through managed change , leaders in an organization can intentionally shape how these shifts occur over time.

Finally, organizational development (OD) is the label for a field that specializes in change management. OD specialists draw on social science to guide change processes that simultaneously help a business achieve its objectives while generating well-being for employees and sustainable benefits for society. An understanding of OD practices is essential for leaders who want to maximize the potential of their organizations over a long period of time.

Together, an understanding of these concepts can help managers know how to create and direct organizations that are positioned to successfully accomplish strategic goals and objectives. 1

To understand the role of organizational structure, consider the experience of Justin, a young manager who worked for a logistics and transportation company. Their success at leading change in the United States gave their leaders the confidence that Justin could handle a challenging assignment: organize a new supply chain and distribution system for a company in Northern Europe. Almost overnight, Justin was responsible for hiring competent people, forming them into a coherent organization, training them, and establishing the needed infrastructure for sustained success in this new market.

If you were given this assignment, what would you do? How would you organize your employees? How would you help them understand the challenge of setting up a new organization and system? These are the kinds of questions that require an understanding of organizational structure, organizational design, organizational change, and organizational development.

One of the first issues Justin will need to address deals with how they will organize the system. “The decisions about the structure of an organization are all related to the concept of organizational design. There are two fundamental forms of structure to remember when designing an organization.

To address these questions, we need to be familiar with two fundamental ways of building an organization.

The formal organization is an officially defined set of relationships, responsibilities, and connections that exist across an organization. The traditional organizational chart, as illustrated in Exhibit 10.2 , is perhaps the most common way of depicting the formal organization. The typical organization has a hierarchical form with clearly defined roles and responsibilities.

When Justin sets up the formal organization, they will need to design the administrative responsibilities and communication structures that should function within an organizational system. The formal systems describe how flow of information and resources should occur within an organization. To establish the formal organization, they will identify the essential functions that need to be part of the system, and they will hire people to fill these functions. They will then need to help employees learn their functions and how these functions should relate to one another.

The informal organization is sometimes referred to as the invisible network of interpersonal relationships that shape how people actually connect with one another to carry out their activities. The informal organization is emergent, meaning that it is formed through the common conversations and relationships that often naturally occur as people interact with one another in their day-to-day relationships. It is usually complex, impossible to control, and has the potential to significantly influence an organization’s success.

As depicted in Exhibit 10.3 , the informal organization can also be mapped, but it is usually very different than the formal organization. The chart you see in this example is called a network map, because it depicts the relationships that exist between different members of a system. Some members are more central than others, and the strength of relationships may vary between any two pairs or groups of individuals. These relationships are constantly in flux, as people interact with new individuals, current relationships evolve, and the organization itself changes over time. 2

The informal organization in Justin’s design will form as people begin interacting with one another to accomplish their work. As this occurs, people will begin connecting with one another as they make sense of their new roles and relationships. Usually, the informal organization closely mirrors the formal organization, but often it is different. People quickly learn who the key influencers are within the system, and they will begin to rely on these individuals to accomplish the work of the organization. The informal organization can either help or hinder an organization’s overall success.

In sum, the formal organization explains how an organization should function, while the informal organization is how the organizational actually functions. Formal organization will come as Justin hires and assigns people to different roles. They can influence the shape of the informal organization by giving people opportunities to build relationships as they work together. Both types of structures shape the patterns of influence, administration, and leadership that may occur through an organizational system.

As we continue our discussion of structure and design, we will next examine different ways of understanding formal structure.

Types of Formal Organizational Structures

Now, Justin will need to choose and implement an administrative system for delegating duties, establishing oversight, and reporting on performance. They will do this by designing a formal structure that defines the responsibilities and accountability that correspond to specific duties throughout an organizational system. In this section, we’ll discuss the factors that any manager should consider when designing an organizational structure.

Bureaucracy

One of the most common frameworks for thinking about these issues is called the bureaucratic model . It was developed by Max Weber, a 19th-century sociologist. Weber’s central assumption was that organizations will find efficiencies when they divide the duties of labor, allow people to specialize, and create structure for coordinating their differentiated efforts, usually within a hierarchy of responsibility. He proposed five elements of bureaucracy that serve as a foundation for determining an appropriate structure: specialization, command-and-control, span of control, centralization, and formalization. 3

Specialization

The degree to which people are organized into subunits according to their expertise is referred to as specialization —for example, human resources, finance, marketing, or manufacturing. It may also include specialization within those functions. For instance, people who work in a manufacturing facility may be well-versed in every part of a manufacturing process, or they may be organized into specialty units that focus on different parts of the manufacturing process, such as procurement, material preparation, assembly, quality control, and the like.

Command-and-Control

The next element to consider is the reporting and oversight structure of the organization. Command-and-control refers to the way in which people report to one another or connect to coordinate their efforts in accomplishing the work of the organization.

Span of Control

Another question addresses the scope of the work that any one person in the organization will be accountable for, referred to as span of control . For instance, top-level leaders are usually responsible for all of the work of their subordinates, mid-level leaders are responsible for a narrower set of responsibilities, and ground-level employees usually perform very specific tasks. Each manager in a hierarchy works within the span of control of another manager at a level of the organization.

Centralization

The next element to consider is how to manage the flows of resources and information in an organization, or its centralization . A highly centralized organization concentrates resources in only one or very few locations, or only a few individuals are authorized to make decisions about the use of resources. In contrast, a diffuse organization distributes resources more broadly throughout an organizational system along with the authority to make decisions about how to use those resources.

Formalization

The last element of bureaucracy, formalization , refers to the degree of definition in the roles that exist throughout an organization. A highly formalized system (e.g., the military) has a very defined organization, a tightly structured system, in which all of the jobs, responsibilities, and accountability structures are very clearly understood. In contrast, a loosely structured system (e.g., a small, volunteer nonprofit) relies heavily on the emergent relationships of informal organization.

Mechanistic and Organic Structures

Using the principles of bureaucracy outlined above, managers like Justin have experimented with many different structures as way to shape the formal organization and potentially to capture some of the advantages of the informal organization. Generally, the application of these principles leads to some combination of the two kinds of structures that can be seen as anchors on a continuum (see Table 10.1 ).

On one end of the continuum is mechanistic bureaucratic structure . This is a strongly hierarchical form of organizing that is designed to generate a high degree of standardization and control. Mechanistic organizations are often characterized by a highly vertical organizational structure , or a “tall” structure, due to the presence of many levels of management. A mechanistic structure tends to dictate roles and procedure through strong routines and standard operating practices.

In contrast, an organic bureaucratic structure relies on the ability of people to self-organize and make decisions without much direction such that they can adapt quickly to changing circumstances. In an organic organization, it is common to see a horizontal organizational structure , in which many individuals across the whole system are empowered to make organizational decision. An organization with a horizontal structure is also known as a flat organization because it often features only a few levels of organizational hierarchy.

The principles of bureaucracy outlined earlier can be applied in different ways, depending on the context of the organization and the managers’ objectives, to create structures that have features of either mechanistic or organic structures.

For example, the degree of specialization required in an organization depends both on the complexity of the activities the organization needs to account for and on the scale of the organization. A more organic organization may encourage employees to be both specialists and generalists so that they are more aware of opportunities for innovation within a system. A mechanistic organization may emphasize a strong degree of specialization so that essential procedures or practices are carried out with consistency and predictable precision. Thus, an organization’s overall objectives drive how specialization should be viewed. For example, an organization that produces innovation needs to be more organic, while an organization that seeks reliability needs to be more mechanistic.

Similarly, the need for a strong environment of command-and-control varies by the circumstances of each organization. An organization that has a strong command-and-control system usually requires a vertical, tall organizational administrative structure. Organizations that exist in loosely defined or ambiguous environments need to distribute decision-making authority to employees, and thus will often feature a flat organizational structure.

The span of control assigned to any specific manager is commonly used to encourage either mechanistic or organic bureaucracy. Any manager’s ability to attend to responsibilities has limits; indeed, the amount of work anyone can accomplish is finite. A manager in an organic structure usually has a broad span of control, forcing her to rely more on subordinates to make decisions. A manager in a mechanistic structure usually has a narrow span of control so that they can provide more oversight. Thus, increasing span of control for a manager tends to flatten the hierarchy while narrowing span of control tends to reinforce the hierarchy.

Centralization addresses assumptions about how an organization can best achieve efficiencies in its operations. In a mechanistic structure, it is assumed that efficiencies will occur in the system if the resources and decisions flow through in a centralized way. In an organic system, it is assumed that greater efficiencies will be seen by distributing those resources and having the resources sorted by the users of the resources. Either perspective may work, depending on the circumstances.

Finally, managers also have discretion in how tightly they choose to define the formal roles and responsibilities of individuals within an organization. Managers who want to encourage organic bureaucracy will resist the idea of writing out and tightly defining roles and responsibilities. They will encourage and empower employees to self-organize and define for themselves the roles they wish to fill. In contrast, managers who wish to encourage more mechanistic bureaucracy will use tools such as standard operating procedures (SOPs) or written policies to set expectations and exercise clear controls around those expectations for employees.

When a bureaucratic structure works well, an organization achieves an appropriate balance across all of these considerations. Employees specialize in and become highly advanced in their ability to perform specific functions while also attending to broader organizational needs. They receive sufficient guidance from managers to stay aligned with overall organizational goals. The span of control given to any one manager encourages them to provide appropriate oversight while also relying on employees to do their part. The resources and decision-making necessary to accomplish the goals of the organization are efficiently managed. There is an appropriate balance between compliance with formal policy and innovative action.

Business Structures

Aside from the considerations outlined above, organizations will often set structures according to the functional needs of the organization. A functional need refers to a feature of the organization or its environment that is necessary for organizational success. A business structure is designed to address these organizational needs. There are two common examples of functional structures illustrated here.

Product structures exist where the business organizes its employees according to product lines or lines of business. For example, employees in a car company might be organized according to the model of the vehicle that they help to support or produce. Employees in a consulting firm might be organized around a particular kind of practice that they work in or support. Where a functional structure exists, employees become highly attuned to their own line of business or their own product.

Geographic structures exist where organizations are set up to deliver a range of products within a geographic area or region. Here, the business is set up based on a territory or region. Managers of a particular unit oversee all of the operations of the business for that geographical area.

In either functional structure, the manager will oversee all the activities that correspond to that function: marketing, manufacturing, delivery, client support systems, and so forth. In some ways, a functional structure is like a smaller version of the larger organization—a smaller version of the bureaucracy that exists within the larger organization.

One common weakness of a bureaucratic structure is that people can become so focused on their own part of the organization that they fail to understand or connect with broader organizational activities. In the extreme, bureaucracy separates and alienates workers from one another. These problems can occur when different parts of an organization fail to communicate effectively with one another.

Some organizations set up a matrix structure to minimize the potential for these problems. A matrix structure describes an organization that has multiple reporting lines of authority. For example, an employee who specializes in a particular product might have both the functional reporting line and a geographic reporting line. This employee has accountability in both directions. The functional responsibility has to do with her specialty as it correlates with the strategy of the company as a whole. However, her geographic accountability is to the manager who is responsible for the region or part of the organization in which she is currently working. The challenge is that an employee may be accountable to two or more managers, and this can create conflict if those managers are not aligned. The potential benefit, however, is that employees may be more inclined to pay attention to the needs of multiple parts of the business simultaneously.

Concept Check

• What is an organizational structure?
• What are different types of organizational structures?
• What is organizational design?
• What concepts should guide decisions about how to design structures?

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• Publication date: Mar 20, 2019
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What is Organizational Structure? Definition, Types, Hierarchy, and Examples

By Nick Jain

Published on: April 12, 2024

What is Organizational Structure?

Organizational structure is defined as the framework of roles, responsibilities, authority relationships, and communication channels within an organization. It defines how tasks are divided, coordinated, and controlled to achieve the organization’s objectives effectively. Organizational structure establishes the hierarchy of decision-making, clarifies reporting relationships, and outlines the flow of authority and communication throughout the organization.

Key components of organizational structure include:

• Hierarchy: Organizational structure typically includes levels of hierarchy, from top management to lower-level employees. This hierarchy establishes reporting relationships and defines the chain of command within the organization.
• Departments and Units: Organizations are often divided into functional departments or units based on specialized functions or areas of expertise, such as finance, marketing, operations, and human resources.
• Roles and Responsibilities: Each position within the organization has defined roles, responsibilities, and authority levels. This clarity helps employees understand their duties and expectations within the organization.
• Centralization vs. Decentralization: Organizational structure may vary in terms of centralization or decentralization of decision-making authority. In centralized structures, decision-making authority is concentrated at the top of the hierarchy, while decentralized structures delegate decision-making to lower levels of the organization.
• Span of Control: The concept of span of control pertains to the number of subordinates or employees that a manager directly oversees. A wide span of control indicates fewer levels of hierarchy and more autonomy for employees, while a narrow span of control involves more layers of management and closer supervision.
• Formalization: Formalization refers to the degree of standardization and codification of rules, procedures, and processes within the organization. Highly formalized structures have strict rules and procedures, while less formalized structures allow for more flexibility and discretion.
• Functional Structure: Organized around specialized functions or departments, such as marketing, finance, and operations.
• Divisional Structure: Organized by product lines, geographic regions, or customer segments.
• Matrix Structure: Combines functional and divisional structures, creating dual lines of authority and reporting relationships.
• Flat Structure: Few levels of hierarchy with a wide span of control, promoting autonomy and collaboration among employees.
• Hierarchical Structure: Traditional pyramid-shaped structure with multiple levels of management and clear reporting relationships.

Overall, organizational structure plays a critical role in shaping how work is organized, coordinated, and managed within an organization. It provides a framework for allocating resources, making decisions, and achieving strategic objectives effectively.

Types of Organizational Structure

There are several types of organizational structures, each with its own advantages, disadvantages, and suitability for different types of organizations and industries. Here are some common types:

Functional Structure:

• Organizes employees into functional departments based on specialized functions, such as marketing, finance, operations, and human resources.
• Advantages: Efficient use of expertise, clear career paths, and economies of scale within each function.
• Disadvantages: Communication barriers between departments, lack of focus on overall organizational goals, and potential for a silo mentality.

Divisional Structure:

• Divide the organization into semi-autonomous divisions or units based on products, geographic regions, customer segments, or markets.
• Each division operates as a separate entity with its own functional departments (e.g., marketing, finance) to support its specific needs.
• Advantages: Allows for focus on specific markets or products, facilitates adaptation to local conditions, and promotes innovation and responsiveness.
• Disadvantages: Duplication of resources and functions across divisions, potential for competition and conflict between divisions, and coordination challenges.

Matrix Structure:

• Combines elements of both functional and divisional structures, creating a dual reporting system where employees report to both functional managers and project or product managers.
• Matrix structures are often used in project-based organizations or industries requiring cross-functional collaboration.
• Advantages: Flexibility to allocate resources based on project needs, enhanced coordination and communication between functions, and efficient use of specialized expertise.
• Disadvantages: Complexity in reporting relationships, potential for power struggles and conflicts, and increased administrative overhead.

Flat Structure:

• Has few levels of hierarchy and a wide span of control, with decentralized decision-making and greater autonomy for employees.
• Flat structures promote collaboration, innovation, and quick decision-making, as there are fewer layers of management.
• Advantages: Faster communication, empowered employees, and reduced bureaucracy.
• Disadvantages: Potential for lack of clear direction or oversight, difficulty in maintaining consistency across functions, and limited career advancement opportunities.

Hierarchical Structure:

• Traditional pyramid-shaped structure with multiple levels of management and clear reporting relationships.
• Each employee reports to a single supervisor, and decision-making authority flows from top management down through the organization.
• Advantages: Clear lines of authority and responsibility, well-defined career paths, and centralized decision-making.
• Disadvantages: Slow communication and decision-making processes, potential for bureaucratic red tape, and limited flexibility to respond to changes in the external environment.

Network Structure:

• Relies on external partnerships, alliances, and outsourcing arrangements to perform key functions or deliver products and services.
• The organization acts as a network of interconnected entities, leveraging external expertise and resources to achieve its objectives.
• Advantages: Access to specialized expertise and resources, flexibility to scale operations up or down, and cost savings through outsourcing.
• Disadvantages: Dependency on external partners, coordination challenges, and potential loss of control over key processes.

These are just a few examples of organizational structures, and organizations often use a combination of structures or adapt their structure over time to meet changing needs and objectives. The choice of organizational structure depends on factors such as the organization’s size, industry, strategy, culture, and external environment.

Hierarchical Organizational Structure

A hierarchical organizational structure is a traditional pyramid-shaped arrangement of authority and responsibility within an organization. In this structure, employees are organized into layers or levels of hierarchy, with each level having a designated level of authority and reporting relationships.

Key features of a hierarchical organizational structure include:

• Clear Chain of Command: Authority flows from top management down through the organization in a clear and well-defined chain of command. Every employee is accountable to a direct supervisor, to whom they submit reports.
• Multiple Levels of Management: The structure consists of multiple levels of management, typically including top-level executives (such as CEOs or presidents), middle managers, and frontline supervisors.
• Specialization of Functions: Different functions or departments within the organization are typically organized into separate levels of the hierarchy, such as finance, marketing, operations, and human resources.
• Centralized Decision-Making: Decision-making authority is concentrated at the top of the hierarchy, with top-level executives making strategic decisions that guide the organization’s direction and objectives.
• Standardized Procedures: Hierarchical organizations often rely on standardized procedures, rules, and policies to maintain consistency and control over operations.
• Vertical Communication: Communication flows primarily up and down the hierarchy, with information and directives passed down from top management to lower levels, and feedback and reports moving upward.

Advantages of a hierarchical organizational structure include:

• Clarity of Roles and Responsibilities: Clear reporting relationships and lines of authority help employees understand their roles and responsibilities within the organization.
• Efficient Decision-Making: Centralized decision-making can lead to quicker decisions, particularly on strategic matters, as top management has the authority to make decisions without needing to consult lower levels of the hierarchy.
• Clear Career Paths: Hierarchical structures often offer clear career advancement paths, with opportunities for promotion as employees move up through the ranks.

Disadvantages of a hierarchical organizational structure include:

• Bureaucracy: Hierarchical structures can be bureaucratic and slow-moving, with decisions and information needing to pass through multiple levels of management before action is taken.
• Limited Flexibility: The rigid nature of hierarchical structures may limit an organization’s ability to adapt quickly to changes in the external environment or respond to customer needs.
• Communication Barriers: Communication may be hindered by the strict hierarchy, with information getting filtered or distorted as it moves up and down the chain of command.
• Potential for Micromanagement: Middle managers may engage in micromanagement as they oversee the work of their subordinates, leading to decreased employee autonomy and motivation.

Despite these disadvantages, hierarchical organizational structures remain common in many organizations, particularly large corporations and government agencies, due to their stability, clarity, and familiarity. However, some organizations may adopt flatter or more decentralized structures to overcome the limitations of hierarchy and promote agility and innovation.

Organizational Structure Example

Here’s an example of a hierarchical organizational structure for a fictional company:

Company Name: XYZ Corporation

1. Top-Level Management:

• CEO (Chief Executive Officer): Responsible for overall strategic direction and leadership of the company. Directly oversees other top executives and reports to the board of directors.
• CFO (Chief Financial Officer): Responsible for financial planning, reporting, and management. Oversees accounting, budgeting, and financial analysis.
• COO (Chief Operating Officer): Responsible for day-to-day operations of the company. Oversees production, logistics, and supply chain management.

2. Middle Management:

• Vice President of Sales and Marketing: Oversees sales, marketing, and customer relations. Manages sales teams, advertising campaigns, and market research.
• Vice President of Operations: Oversees manufacturing, production, and logistics. Manages production schedules, quality control, and inventory management.
• Vice President of Human Resources: Responsible for recruiting, training, and managing personnel. Manages employee relations, performance evaluations, and HR policies.

3. Lower-Level Management:

• Sales Manager (North Region): Manages sales representatives in the northern region. Sets sales targets, monitors performance, and provides training and support.
• Production Manager: Oversees manufacturing operations and production staff. Ensures production schedules are met, monitors quality standards, and implements process improvements.
• Marketing Manager: Leads marketing campaigns and promotional activities. Coordinates with advertising agencies, analyzes market trends, and develops marketing strategies.

4. Non-Managerial Employees:

• Sales Representatives: Responsible for selling company products or services to customers. Develops leads, negotiates contracts, and maintains customer relationships.
• Production Supervisors: Supervises production line workers and ensures adherence to safety and quality standards. Coordinates with production manager to optimize workflow.
• Marketing Assistants: Assists marketing manager in executing marketing campaigns. Prepares promotional materials, manages social media accounts, and analyzes campaign performance.

This hierarchical organizational structure illustrates the division of roles, responsibilities, and reporting relationships within the company. Each level of management has its own set of duties and authority, with clear lines of communication and supervision. While this structure provides stability and clarity, it may also face challenges such as bureaucracy and communication barriers.

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Understanding Organizational Structures

Organizational structure aligns and relates parts of an organization, so it can achieve its maximum performance. The structure chosen affects an organization's success in carrying out its strategy and objectives. Leadership should understand the characteristics, benefits and limitations of various organizational structures to assist in this strategic alignment.

Overview Background Business Case Key Elements of Organizational Structures Types of Organizational Structures

Vertical structures (functional and divisional)

Matrix organizational structures, open boundary structures (hollow, modular virtual and learning).

The Impact of Growth Stages on Organizational Structure Metrics Communications and Technology Global Issues Legal Issues

This article addresses the following topics related to organizational structure:

• The case for aligning organizational structure with the enterprise's business strategy.
• Key elements of organizational structure.
• Types of organizational structures and the possible benefits and limitations of each.
• The impact of an organization's stage of development on its structure.
• Communications, technology, metrics, global and legal issues.

Organizational structure is the method by which work flows through an organization. It allows groups to work together within their individual functions to manage tasks. Traditional organizational structures tend to be more formalized—with employees grouped by function (such as finance or operations), region or product line. Less traditional structures are more loosely woven and flexible, with the ability to respond quickly to changing business environments.

Organizational structures have evolved since the 1800s. In the Industrial Revolution, individuals were organized to add parts to the manufacture of the product moving down the assembly line. Frederick Taylor's scientific management theory optimized the way tasks were performed, so workers performed only one task in the most efficient way. In the 20th century, General Motors pioneered a revolutionary organizational design in which each major division made its own cars.

Today, organizational structures are changing swiftly—from virtual organizations to other flexible structures. As companies continue to evolve and increase their global presence, future organizations may embody a fluid, free-forming organization, member ownership and an entrepreneurial approach among all members. See  Inside Day 1: How Amazon Uses Agile Team Structures and Adaptive Practices to Innovate on Behalf of Customers .

Business Case

A hallmark of a well-aligned organization is its ability to adapt and realign as needed. To ensure long-term viability, an organization must adjust its structure to fit new economic realities without diminishing core capabilities and competitive differentiation. Organizational realignment involves closing the structural gaps impeding organizational performance.

Problems created by a misaligned organizational structure

Rapid reorganization of business units, divisions or functions can lead to ineffective, misaligned organizational structures that do not support the business. Poorly conceived reorganizations may create significant problems, including the following:

• Structural gaps in roles, work processes, accountabilities and critical information flows can occur when companies eliminate middle management levels without eliminating the work, forcing employees to take on additional responsibilities.
• Diminished capacity, capability and agility issues can arise when a) lower-level employees who step in when middle management is eliminated are ill-equipped to perform the required duties and b) when higher-level executives must take on more tactical responsibilities, minimizing the value of their leadership skills.
• Disorganization and improper staffing can affect a company's cost structure, cash flow and ability to deliver goods or services. Agile organizations can rapidly deploy people to address shifting business needs. With resources cut to the bone, however, most organizations' staff members can focus only on their immediate responsibilities, leaving little time, energy or desire to work outside their current job scope. Ultimately, diminished capacity and lagging response times affect an organization's ability to remain competitive.
• Declining workforce engagement can reduce retention, decrease customer loyalty and limit organizational performance and stakeholder value.

The importance of aligning the structure with the business strategy

The key to profitable performance is the extent to which four business elements are aligned:

Leadership. The individuals responsible for developing and deploying the strategy and monitoring results.

Organization. The structure, processes and operations by which the strategy is deployed.

Jobs. The necessary roles and responsibilities.

People. The experience, skills and competencies needed to execute the strategy.

An understanding of the interdependencies of these business elements and the need for them to adapt to change quickly and strategically are essential for success in the high-performance organization. When these four elements are in sync, outstanding performance is more likely.

Achieving alignment and sustaining organizational capacity requires time and critical thinking. Organizations must identify outcomes the new structure or process is intended to produce. This typically requires recalibrating the following:

• Which work is mission-critical, can be scaled back or should be eliminated.
• Existing role requirements, while identifying necessary new or modified roles.
• Key metrics and accountabilities.
• Critical information flows.
• Decision-making authority by organization level.

See  Meeting the Challenges of Developing Collaborative Teams for Future Success.

Key Elements of Organizational Structures

Five elements create an organizational structure: job design, departmentation, delegation, span of control and chain of command. These elements comprise an organizational chart and create the organizational structure itself. "Departmentation" refers to the way an organization structures its jobs to coordinate work. "Span of control" means the number of individuals who report to a manager. "Chain of command" refers to a line of authority.

The company's strategy of managerial centralization or decentralization also influences organizational structures. "Centralization," the degree to which decision-making authority is restricted to higher levels of management, typically leads to a pyramid structure. Centralization is generally recommended when conflicting goals and strategies among operating units create a need for a uniform policy. "Decentralization," the degree to which lower levels of the hierarchy have decision-making authority, typically leads to a leaner, flatter organization. Decentralization is recommended when conflicting strategies, uncertainty or complexity require local adaptability and decision-making.

Types of Organizational Structures

Organizational structures have evolved from rigid, vertically integrated, hierarchical, autocratic structures to relatively boundary-less, empowered, networked organizations designed to respond quickly to customer needs with customized products and services.

Today, organizations are usually structured vertically, vertically and horizontally, or with open boundaries. Specific types of structures within each of these categories are the following:

• Vertical — functional and divisional.
• Vertical and horizontal — matrix.
• Boundary-less (also referred to as "open boundary")—modular, virtual and cellular.

See  What are commonly-used organization structures?

Two main types of vertical structure exist, functional and divisional. The functional structure divides work and employees by specialization. It is a hierarchical, usually vertically integrated, structure. It emphasizes standardization in organization and processes for specialized employees in relatively narrow jobs.

This traditional type of organization forms departments such as production, sales, research and development, accounting, HR, and marketing. Each department has a separate function and specializes in that area. For example, all HR professionals are part of the same function and report to a senior leader of HR. The same reporting process would be true for other functions, such as finance or operations.

In functional structures, employees report directly to managers within their functional areas who in turn report to a chief officer of the organization. Management from above must centrally coordinate the specialized departments. 

A functional organizational chart might look something like this: 

Advantages of a functional structure include the following:

• The organization develops experts in its respective areas.
• Individuals perform only tasks in which they are most proficient.
• This form is logical and easy to understand.

Disadvantages center on coordination or lack thereof:

• People are in specialized "silos" and often fail to coordinate or communicate with other departments.
• Cross-functional activity is more difficult to promote.
• The structure tends to be resistant to change.

This structure works best for organizations that remain centralized (i.e., a majority of the decision-making occurs at higher levels of the organization) because there are few shared concerns or objectives between functional areas (e.g., marketing, production, purchasing, IT). Given the centralized decision-making, the organization can take advantage of economies of scale in that there are likely centralized purchasing functions.

An appropriate management system to coordinate the departments is essential. The management system may be a special leader, like a vice president, a computer system or some other format.

Also a vertical arrangement, a divisional structure most often divides work and employees by output, although a divisional structure could be divided by another variable such as market or region. For example, a business that sells men's, women's and children's clothing through retail, e-commerce and catalog sales in the Northeast, Southeast and Southwest could be using a divisional structure in one of three ways:

• Product—men's wear, women's wear and children's clothing.
• Market—retail store, e-commerce and catalog.
• Region—Northeast, Southeast and Southwest.

A divisional organizational structure might look like this:

The advantages of this type of structure are the following:

• It provides more focus and flexibility on each division's core competency.
• It allows the divisions to focus on producing specialized products while also using knowledge gained from related divisions.
• It allows for more coordination than the functional structure.
• Decision-making authority pushed to lower levels of the organization enables faster, customized decisions.

The disadvantages of this structure include the following:

• It can result in a loss of efficiency and a duplication of effort because each division needs to acquire the same resources.
• Each division often has its own research and development, marketing, and other units that could otherwise be helping each other.
• Employees with similar technical career paths have less interaction.
• Divisions may be competing for the same customers.
• Each division often buys similar supplies in smaller quantities and may pay more per item.

This type of structure is helpful when the product base expands in quantity or complexity. But when competition among divisions becomes significant, the organization is not adapting quickly enough, or when economies of scale are lacking, the organization may require a more sophisticated matrix structure.

A matrix structure combines the functional and divisional structures to create a dual-command situation. In a matrix structure, an employee reports to two managers who are jointly responsible for the employee's performance. Typically, one manager works in an administrative function, such as finance, HR, information technology, sales or marketing, and the other works in a business unit related to a product, service, customer or geography.

A typical matrix organizational structure might look like this:

Advantages of the matrix structure include the following:

• It creates a functional and divisional partnership and focuses on the work more than on the people.
• It minimizes costs by sharing key people.
• It creates a better balance between time of completion and cost.
• It provides a better overview of a product that is manufactured in several areas or sold by various subsidiaries in different markets.

Disadvantages of matrix organizations include the following:

• Responsibilities may be unclear, thus complicating governance and control.
• Reporting to more than one manager at a time can be confusing for the employee and supervisors.
• The dual chain of command requires cooperation between two direct supervisors to determine an employee's work priorities, work assignments and performance standards.
• When the function leader and the product leader make conflicting demands on the employee, the employee's stress level increases, and performance may decrease.
• Employees spend more time in meetings and coordinating with other employees.

These disadvantages can be exacerbated if the matrix goes beyond two-dimensional (e.g., employees report to two managers) to multidimensional (e.g., employees report to three or more managers).

Matrix structures are common in heavily project-driven organizations, such as construction companies. These structures have grown out of project structures in which employees from different functions formed teams until completing a project, and then reverted to their own functions. In a matrix organization, each project manager reports directly to the vice president and the general manager. Each project is, in essence, a mini profit center, and therefore, general managers usually make business decisions.

The matrix-structured organization also provides greater visibility, stronger governance and more control in large, complex companies. It is also well suited for development of business areas and coordination of complex processes with strong dependencies.

Matrix structures pose difficult challenges for professionals charged with ensuring equity and fairness across the organization. Managers working in matrix structures should be prepared to intervene via communication and training if the structure compromises these objectives. Furthermore, leadership should monitor relationships between managers who share direct reports. These relationships between an employee's managers are crucial to the success of a matrix structure.

More recent trends in structural forms remove the traditional boundaries of an organization. Typical internal and external barriers and organizational boxes are eliminated, and all organizational units are effectively and flexibly connected. Teams replace departments, and the organization and suppliers work as closely together as parts of one company. The hierarchy is flat; status and rank are minimal. Everyone—including top management, managers and employees—participates in the decision-making process. The use of 360-degree feedback performance appraisals is common as well.

Advantages of boundary-less organizations include the following:

• Ability to leverage all employees' talents.
• Faster response to market changes.
• Enhanced cooperation and information sharing among functions, divisions and staff.

Disadvantages include the following:

• Difficulty in overcoming silos inside the organization.
• Lack of strong leadership and common vision.
• Time-consuming processes.
• The possibility of employees being adversely affected by efficiency efforts.
• The possibility of organizations abandoning change if restructuring does not improve effectiveness quickly.

Boundary-less organizational structures can be created in varied forms, including hollow, modular and virtual organizations.

Hollow organizations. Hollow structures divide work and employees by core and noncore competencies. Hollow structures are an outsourcing model in which the organization maintains its core processes internally but outsources noncore processes. Hollow structures are most effective when the industry is price competitive and choices for outsourcing exist. An example of a hollow structure is a sports organization that has its HR functions (e.g., payroll and benefits) handled by outside organizations.

Advantages of this type of structure include the following:

• Minimizing overhead.
• Enabling the organization to focus on its core product and eliminating the need to develop expertise in noncore functions.

Disadvantages include:

• Loss of control over functions that affect employees regularly.
• Restriction by certain industries (e.g., health care) on the extent of outsourcing.
• Lack of competitive outsourcing options.

Modular organizations. Modular structures differ from hollow organizations in that components of a product are outsourced. Modular structures may keep a core part of the product in-house and outsource noncore portions of the product. Networks are added or subtracted as needs change. For a modular structure to be an option, the product must be able to be broken into chunks. For example, computer manufacturer Dell buys parts from various suppliers and assembles them at one central location. Suppliers at one end and customers at the other become part of the organization; the organization shares information and innovations with all. Customization of products and services results from flexibility, creativity, teamwork and responsiveness. Business decisions are made at corporate, divisional, project and individual team member levels.

Advantages include the following:

• Minimizing the specialization and specialists needed.
• Enabling the company to outsource parts supply and coordinate the assembly of quality products.

Disadvantages include concerns about the actions of suppliers outside the control of the core management company. Risk occurs if the partner organization removes itself form the quality check on the end product or if the outsourced organization uses a second outsourced organization. Examples of supplier concerns include the following:

• Suppliers, or subcontractors, must have access to—and safeguard—most, if not all, of the core company's data and trade secrets.
• Suppliers could suddenly raise prices on or cease production of key parts.
• Knowing where one organization ends and another begins may become difficult.

Virtual organizations. A virtual organization (sometimes called a network structure) is cooperation among companies, institutions or individuals delivering a product or service under a common business understanding. Organizations form partnerships with others—often competitors—that complement each other. The collaborating units present themselves as a unified organization.

The advantages of virtual structures include the following:

• Contributions from each part of the unit.
• Elimination of physical boundaries.
• Responsiveness to a rapidly changing environment.
• Lower or nonexistent organizational overhead.
• Allows companies to be more flexible and agile.
• Give more power to all employees to collaborate, take initiative, and make decisions.
• Helps employees and stakeholders understand workflows and processes.

The disadvantages of virtual organizations include the following:

• Potential lack of trust between organizations.
• Potential lack of organizational identification among employees.
• Need for increased communication.
• Can quickly become overly complex when dealing with lots of offsite processes.
• Can make it more difficult for employees to know who has final say.

Virtual structures are collaborative and created to respond to an exceptional and often temporary marketing opportunity. An example of a virtual structure is an environmental conservancy in which multiple organizations supply a virtual organization with employees to save, for example, a historic site, possibly with the intent of economic gain for the partners.

Understanding the organizational environment is crucial in open boundary models. For example, some industries cannot outsource noncore processes due to government regulation. (For example, health insurance organizations may be unable to outsource Medicare processes). Or, in some cases, outsourcing may have to be negotiated with a union.

The key to effective boundary-less organizations is placing adaptable employees at all levels. Management must give up traditional autocratic control to coach employees toward creativity and the achievement of organizational goals. Employees must apply initiative and creativity to benefit the organization, and reward systems should recognize such employees.

Learning organizations. A learning organization is one whose design actively seeks to acquire knowledge and change behavior as a result of the newly acquired knowledge. In learning organizations, experimenting, learning new things, and reflecting on new knowledge are the norms. At the same time, there are many procedures and systems in place that facilitate learning at all organization levels.

The advantages of learning organizations include the following:

• Open communication and information sharing.
• Innovativeness
• Ability to adapt to rapid change.
• Strong organizational performance.
• Competitive advantage.

The disadvantages of learning organizations include the following:

• Power difference is ignored.
• Process of implementing will be complicated and take longer.
• Fear of employee participation in organizational decisions.
• Breaking of existing organizational rules.

The Impact of Growth Stages on Organizational Structure

Organizations typically mature in a consistent and predictable manner. As they move through various stages of growth, they must address various problems. This process creates the need for different structures, management skills and priorities.

The four stages of development in an organization's life cycle include the following:

The beginning stage of development is characterized by an inconsistent growth rate, a simple structure and informal systems. At this stage the organization is typically highly centralized. "Dotcom" companies are a good example of startup companies.

The expansion stage is evidenced by rapid, positive growth and the emergence of formal systems. Organizations at this stage typically focus on centralization with limited delegation.

Consolidation

The consolidation stage is characterized by slower growth, departmentalization, formalized systems and moderate centralization.

Diversification

The diversification stage occurs when older, larger organizations experience rapid growth, bureaucracy and decentralization.

As an organization grows or passes from one stage of development to another, carefully planned and well-conceived changes in practices and strategies may be necessary to maximize effectiveness. There are no guarantees that an organization will make it from one stage to the next. In fact, a key opportunity for leadership is to recognize indicators that suggest an organization is in a risky or unhealthy stage and to make appropriate structural adjustments.

The art of organizational design is assessing the environment's essential aspects and their meaning for the organization's future. Translating those characteristics into the right structure is critical to increasing efficiency and controlling costs. When selecting the best structure for the organization, company leaders should examine and evaluate current key structural dimensions and contextual factors. See  How do I determine which HR metrics to measure and report?

Structural dimensions

Leaders can develop an understanding of the organization's internal environment through measurement and analysis of its structural dimensions. Key dimensions, which are usually measured through a survey, include:

Specialization. The extent to which an organization's activities are divided into specialized roles.

Standardization. The degree to which an organization operates under standard rules or procedures.

Formalization. The extent to which instructions and procedures are documented.

Centralization. The degree to which leaders at the top of the management hierarchy have authority to make certain decisions.

Configuration. The shape of the organization's role structure, which includes:

• Chain of command. The number of vertical levels or layers on the organizational chart.
• Span of control. The number of direct reports per manager or the number of horizontal levels or layers on the organizational chart.

Contextual factors

A review of contextual factors will provide a better understanding of the external environment and the relationship between the internal and external environment. Some of the significant contextual factors to consider in this review include:

Origin and history. Was the organization privately founded? What changes have occurred in ownership or location?

Ownership and control. Is the organization private or public? Is control divided among a few individuals or many?

Size. How many employees does the organization have? What are its net assets? What is its market position?

Location. How many operating sites does the organization maintain?

Productsand services. What types of goods and services does the organization manufacture and provide?

Technology. Are the organization's work processes effectively integrated?

Interdependence. What is the degree to which the organization depends on customers, suppliers, trade unions or other related entities?

After examining the structural dimensions and contextual factors and developing an understanding of the connection between an organization's structure and strategy, organization leaders can consider alternative structures. They may use diagnostic models and tools to guide the design process.

Communications and Technology

The last few years have seen an unprecedented expansion and improvement of online communication. Software has pushed the boundaries of workplace communication beyond e-mail into collaborative social media platforms and innovative intranets. The decline in traditional communication methods and the dramatic increase in cyber communication has had a major impact on the workplace and is leading to restructuring.

As organizations continue to restructure to remain competitive, communications can drive the transition to an effective new organizational structure. Research suggests that companies can positively affect their credibility with employees through various organizational communication programs.

In establishing internal communication channels, leadership must be aware of the advantages and shortcomings of communication technologies and match them to the organization's needs, strategic goals and structure. Employers should also be cognizant of, and be prepared to deal with, the common communication challenges in various organizational structures. For example, communications technology has enabled organizations to create virtual workplaces and teams. In a virtual team, members from various geographical locations work together on a task, communicating via e-mail, instant messaging, teleconferencing, videoconferencing and web-based workspaces. Although virtual teams have significant advantages—most notably reduced travel costs and flexibility in staffing and work schedules—they also pose challenges. Virtual teams often find coordinating team logistics and mastering new technologies difficult. Communication is also a major challenge because of the absence of visual (body language) and verbal (intonation) clues. Research suggests that organizations can overcome these challenges through effective support and training.

Global Issues

Organizational structures often need to change as companies expand around the globe. An organization's leaders should plan carefully before opening offices in another country.

Many issues arise when an employer plans to open an international branch, hire international workers and formulate a globalized strategy. Among the questions that must be answered are:

• How do human resource legal requirements and practices vary from country to country?
• Should HR officials at headquarters do the work, or should a company open HR offices in the other country?
• Should an organization hire consultants to handle local hiring and personnel services?

Unless employers have a sound HR strategy ready before leaping into another country, they could fail.

When an organization opens international offices, HR professionals and other business leaders should be able to communicate as effectively with workers across the globe as around the corner. That can be a challenge. Having a robust intranet and using videoconferencing are alternatives to face-to-face communication.

As rapid changes in technology affect global communication, employees must be aware of linguistic, cultural, religious and social differences among colleagues and business contacts. The organization should train all employees (not just managers and CEOs who travel) in cultural literacy.

Moreover, employers should be aware that language difficulties, time‐and‐distance challenges, the absence of face‐to‐face contact, and, above all, the barriers posed by cultural differences and personal communication styles make global virtual work far more complex than local structures. These practices can enhance global virtual team relationships:

• Using online chats, video- and audioconferencing in addition to one-on-one conversations and e-mail.
• Posting profiles of team members that outline their expertise and roles in the organization.
• Being sensitive to the level of engagement team members are likely to deliver if they must meet at inconvenient hours across multiple time zones.

Legal Issues

Regardless of the type of structure, employers must ensure compliance with legal requirements in the countries where their organizations operate. Some of those requirements will be quite extensive (for example, public companies must ensure compliance with the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, and most organizations must ensure compliance with the Fair Labor Standards Act and its related state laws). When organizational structures change, or if the chain of command is weak or fails to keep up-to-date with changes in the business, a company may have compliance problems because the structure has not been evaluated with regard to these laws. Imagine, for example, a restructuring that reduces the number of direct reports for an entire layer of management, which perhaps leads to those individuals no longer being exempt.

As an organization moves internationally, laws in the host countries must also be evaluated and a plan put in place for compliance before the expansion occurs. Employers must anticipate and plan for laws affecting all aspects of the employee experience, including hiring, benefits, leaves and termination.

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Term Paper on Organisation Structure | Management

Here is a term paper on ‘Organisation Structure’ for class 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short term papers on ‘Organisation Structure’ especially written for school and college students.

Term Paper on Organisation Structure

One of the important components of organisation process is the creation of appropriate organisation structure. This refers to the hierarchical arrangement of various position of the enterprise. If defines the relationship between various positions, department and persons. It facilitates in allocating authority formally and decides who is to report to whom and who is to direct to whom. It also lays down the pattern of communication and co-ordination in the enterprise.

Organisation structure differs from organisation to organisation. No one form of organisation is suitable for all organisations at all times. Every organisation has to evolve its own structure based on its activities, requirements competence of personnel and the philosophy of management. Organisation structure defines the formal relationship into managerial hierarchy.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

The common forms of organisation structure are:

1. Line organisation

2. Functional organisation.

3. Line and staff organisation

Recently, authorities have developed project organisation, Matrix organisation and committees.

Term Paper on Organisation Structure # 1. Line Organisation :

Other names: Scalar organisation, Military organisation, Vertical organisation, Departmental organisation:

It is the simplest form of organisation structure. It represents the structure in a direct vertical relationship through which authority flows. In this structure line of authority flows vertically downward from top to bottom throughout the organisation.

The quantum of authority is highest at the top and reduces at each successive level down the hierarchy. The line of authority consists of an uninterrupted series of authority steps and forms a hierarchical arrangement. It is not only the avenue of command to operating personnel but also provides the channel of communication, coordination and accountability in enterprise.

Advantages:

The advantages of line organisation are:

(1) Simplicity:

This is simple to understand and easy to establish. It can be easily defined and explained to workers.

(2) Fixed Responsibility:

There is fixed responsibility in the organisation at each level. Everyone at each level knows to whom he is responsible and who is responsible to him. There is no possibility for shirking responsibility.

(3) Flexibility:

The organisation can be more dynamic in its approach as it can accommodate adjustments and changes.

(4) Prompt Decisions:

Unification of authority, unified control and fixed responsibility ensure quick and prompt decision. It is economical also.

(5) Minimum Conflict:

The chances for conflict are very limited as the authority of various personnel is well-defined.

(6) Effective Discipline:

Discipline is to be instilled in the organisation and this is possible by keeping each position under the direct control of a superior authority. So it is easy to maintain discipline among the people.

(7) Orderly Communication:

The communication between superiors and subordinates flows in a vertical line so the flow of communication is orderly in nature.

The line organisation suffers from the following disadvantages:

(1) Unitary Administration:

Unity of command is the main advantage as well as the disadvantage. All important decisions are taken by the top executives. The success or failure depends on the decisions taken and potentials of the individuals.

(2) Overloading:

Centralisation of authority at the top is the important feature of the organisation. The superiors at top level are overloaded with work. He has to supervise the performance of jobs of various nature and to take vital decisions. This affects the efficiency and the superiors may not be able to direct the efforts of subordinates in the right direction.

(3) Lack of Specialization:

Business in the present is of complex nature and needs specialisation. The executives at various levels are to supervise and control too many jobs of diverse nature and it is physically not possible for him to acquire the skills of all these jobs. So this affects the operating efficiency and the executives are not specialists.

(4) Lack of Effective Communication:

Subordinates are to follow the decisions taken by the top executive. The subordinates are to implement the decisions taken by the top executive. They lack the courage to point out the weakness of decisions. There is lack of upward communication completely.

(5) Problem of Succession:

At the top level of management there is centralisation of authority. If a competent top manager retires he is to be replaced by another manager with same potentials. Otherwise the organisation will suffer.

(6) Lack of Conceptual Thinking:

The overloading of work presents managers from concentrating on organised thinking which is necessary for growth and development. Further they do not have time to concentrate on long term problems of the organisation.

(7) Scope for Favouritism:

Centralisation of authority at the top leads to favoritism and nepotism as the judgement of people and problems will have personal bias.

(8) Problem of Co-Ordination:

Line organisation stresses on vertical relationship and not on horizontal relationship. This creates problem in large organisations regarding co-ordination. Co-ordination becomes tougher as departments feel independent.

Evaluation:

In spite of its limitations the organisation is suitable for:

(a) Small organisations with limited subordinates.

(b) The methods of operations of organisations are straight and simple and the work is largely routine nature.

(c) Suitable for continuous processes organisations or where automatic machines are used.

Term Paper on Organisation Structure # 2. Functional Organisation :

Under functional organisation activities of the enterprise are classified according to certain functions like production, marketing, finance, personnel etc. and placed under the change of functional specialists. A functional in-charge directs the subordinates throughout the organisations in his area of operation. In this case the subordinate is receiving orders from not only from one superior but from several functional specialists. The subordinates are accountable to different functional specialists for performance.

Functional organisation was evolved by F.W. Taylor who advocated the planning and controlling of manufacturing organisations on the basis of specialisation. It means the introduction of division of labour in management wherein thinking functions are separated. It means putting the specialists in top positions throughout the organisation. It confers upon the holder of a functional position a limited power of command over the people of various department concerning their function.

This organisation is based on the principles of separation of planning and execution and specialisation in management at all levels. On the production front the Time and cost clerk, Instruction card clerk, Route clerk and disciplinarian perform the planning function while the execution is attended by the Gang boss, Speed boss, Repair boss and Inspector. So in this structure the work is planned by a batch of specialists and it has got to be executed by another group of specialists.

The features of this system are:

(a) The entire organisational activities are divided into specified functions.

(b) Each functional area is under the charge of a functional specialist. The specialist has the authority to give orders regarding his function where so ever that function is performed.

(c) If anybody in the enterprise has to take any decision relating to a particular function, it has to be in consultation with the functional specialist.

The advantages of functional organisation are:

(a) Specialisation:

This structure helps in achieving the benefits of specialisation of work. The functional in-charge as a specialist helps to improve the performance of subordinates.

(b) Executive Development:

This helps the organisation to develop executives with the functional specialists.

(c) Work Load:

This reduces the workload of the top executives. The functional specialists share the supervision function and he concentrates only on his area.

(d) Functional Organisation:

It offers a greater scope for expansion when compared to the line organisation. The introduction of specialists facilitates the line managers to overcome the problem of their limited capabilities.

(e) Functional Managers:

The functional managers facilitate better control and supervision in the organisation.

Disadvantages:

The disadvantages of functional organisation are:

Functional organisation suffers from the following drawbacks:

(a) It violates the principle of unity of command since an employee is accountable to a number of superiors.

(b) The operation of functional organisation is too complicated to be easily understood by the workers. They are supervised by a number of losses. This creates confusion in the organisation.

(c) This structure develops specialists rather than generalists. This may create problem in succession of top executives.

(d) It reduces the outlook of the managers by narrowing it down to the department and it creates boundaries. This results in loss of overall perspective in dealing with business problems.

(e) Co-ordination becomes difficult among functional executives and there is delay in decision making due to the involvement of specialists.

(f) Because of absence of unity of command it is difficult to locate responsibility. The tendency for back-passing, side-tracking of responsibility.

(g) Cost of operations increase due multiplicity of specialists. This may even over-weigh the economies of specialisation.

(h) This is not suitable for non-manufacturing activities like marketing, purchasing accounts etc.

Conclusion:

In reality functional organisation as developed by Taylor cannot be entirely adopted for management. In the present day context this structure refers to classification of activities of the firm according to functions and placing each function under the change of an expert executive. All related works of one kind are grouped together under functional departments like manufacturing, marketing personnel, finance etc. These departmental heads are to function under a single coordinating head known as the Chief Executive Officer.

Differences between Line Organisation and Functional Organization :

(a) Line of Authority:

In Line organisation the line of authority is vertical in its flow as it follows the principle of scalar chain. In functional organisation the line of authority is functional or diagonal. The functional authority has authority over his function where ever it is performed.

(b) Use of Managers :

The line organisation makes use of only line managers who are generalists. They make use of functional managers who are specialists in their respective areas.

(c) Unity of Command:

In Line organisation there is unity of command. Each subordinate receives orders from one boss only. In functional organisation unity of command is not followed as each subordinate gets instructions from his line boss and functional boss.

(d) Discipline:

In Line organisation strict discipline is maintained. But it cannot be maintained in functional organisation.

(e) Suitability:

Line organisation is suitable for small scale operations. Functional organisation is suitable for large scale operations only.

Term Paper on Organisation Structure # 3. Line and Staff Organization :

The Line organisation insists on too much on the unity of command while functional organisation emphasised on decentralisation of control. To strike a happy balance between the two the line and staff organisation was evolved.

In line and staff orgainisation the structure is basically that of the line organisation but staff officers who are functional experts used to advise line authorities in the performance of their duties. The staff officers used renders advisory aids to the departmental heads but they have no power to enforce it as enforcement was done by the line officers.

This system implies the combined role of line and staff officers in achieving the business objectives. It consists of line officers who have authority to take decisions, enforce them, control the personnel, regulate performance of the job and who are accountable to their superiors in the line for results realised.

In the present day set up the organisational ramifications necessitates the assistance of the experts who has to advise the line authority in connection with problems of decision-making, organising, controlling etc. So in this organisational set-up line connotes authority to take action, authority to decide, staff supplies facts and information that will enable the line manager to make the best decisions.

So in line and staff organisation directness of authority is maintained along with induction of specialists with no executive authority and they are required to advise and assist the authorities to attain their objectives. Line authorities wield power whereas staff officers have no direct authority but tender advice to the line officers on matters of policy suited to fulfil the objectives.

The advantages of line and staff organisation are:

(a) Specialised Knowledge:

Line managers get the benefit of specialised knowledge of staff specialists at various levels.

(b) Reduction of Workload:

There is workload reduction to line managers as their burden in shared by staff authorities to present data for decision making.

(c) Proper Weightage:

All the problems will receive proper consideration from both line and staff authority.

(d) Better Decisions:

The staff authorities will help the line executives in taking better decisions by providing them with adequate information of right type at the right moment.

(e) Flexibility:

Line and staff organisation is more flexible compared to line organisation. General staff can be employed to help line managers at various levels.

(f) Unity of Command:

In this system unity of command is maintained without jettisoning the principle of specialisation. So the experts provide special guidance without giving orders and the line manager has the right to give orders.

The disadvantages of line and staff organisation are:

(a) There is generally a conflict between the line and staff executives. There is a danger that the staff encroach on the line authority. Line authority is of the opinion that staff is not giving proper and right type of advice and staff generally complains that their advice is not properly attended to.

(b) The allocation of duties between the line and staff executives is not generally very clear. This may hamper the coordination in the organisation.

(c) Staff men are not accountable for results so they may not be performing their duties properly.

(d) There is a wide variation in the orientation of the line and staff men. Line executives are problem shooters while staff officials who are specialists in their fields tend to be more theoretical.

Differences between Line Organisation and Line and Staff Organization :

(a) Nature:

Line organisation have only line authority to perform/execute whereas in Line and staff organisation staff refers to those positions who advice and provide service, to the line in the attainment of organisational objectives in addition to the line authority.

(b) Experts:

No experts in line organisation. There are experts in Line and staff organisation.

(c) Discipline:

In Line organisation there is strict discipline. There is loose discipline in Line and staff.

(d) Friction:

No friction in Line organisation but there is always scope of friction between line and staff.

(e) Specialisation:

Line organisation is not based on planned specialisation while Line and staff organisation is based on planned specialisation.

(f) Popularity:

In Line organisation certain line men may become key men as they occupy those positions on which the survival organisation depends. This is not in the case of Line and staff organisation.

Term Paper on Organisation Structure # 4. Project Organisation:

In this type of organisation a separate division or project unit is created for each project. As and when the project is completed the project unit is dismantled. The principle of use of throw is used in this organisation.

The project units have temporary character. The idea behind this is that with the changes in environment the organisation is altered. It is a separate type of organisation like line or functional type. It is set up within an organisation for the purpose of completing a project or accomplishing assigned objectives in time and within cost and profit goals.

The features of a project organisation are:

(a) A project manager is appointed to take up the responsibility to complete the project.

(b) The employees of the project are drawn from various functional departments.

(c) Normally the project manager has no vertical authority over personnel drawn from various functional departments.

(d) A project coordinator is appointed to coordinate the activities of the project team.

(e) He is responsible for the completion of the project.

The merits of project organisation are:

(a) It facilitates the maximum use of specialized knowledge and skill which is available to each project. The project employees are drawn from various functional departments. There is easy transferability of knowledge and experience from one project to another.

(b) Project people have a functional home once the project is completed they sent back to the parent department. While in service they are provided with stimulating opportunities to participate in the decision process.

(c) Project structures are promoting and maintaining flexibility. Specialisation is achieved through projects to achieve a particular objective for which the project is created.

(d) It develops the sense of dynamism in organisations when environmental factors are fast changing.

(e) It provides a tailor made approach to complex projects and provides the concentrated attention it needs.

(f) It provides greater check over the project work and facilitates fixation of individual responsibility for results. It makes control more meaningful.

The disadvantages of project organisation are:

(a) There is dual loyalty to specialists attached to the project organisation. This creates anxiety and tension. Their relationship with functional managers is unclear. This creates a feeling of insecurity and uncertainty among members.

(b) Project structure is an ad-hoc arrangement and it has limited life. Once the project is completed the project team is disbanded. So the persons attached with the project feel insecure. They feel the completion of the project means the end of their job. So they may indulge in project slowdowns.

(c) Normally project organisation suffers from authority gap for project managers because responsibility out-weighs authority. The projects are not self-sufficient. Functional co-operation and co-ordination is difficult to achieve. So the project performance is affected.

(d) In project organisations the major problems are lack of clearly defined responsibility, lack of clear communication and lack of performance standards for various professionals.

(e) In project organisations decision making is very difficult due to unusual pressure from specialists. Further they are to be completed on time bound basis. This again prevents proper performance.

Evaluation :

Project organisation is not a separate type of organisation. It is an organisation within the organisation. It has an independent character of drawing personnel from different departments of the main organisation.

Its features are:

(a) It is characterised by exceptionally strong horizontal working relationship.

(b) It cuts horizontally the normal organisation structure and forms a semi-autonomous body.

(c) It usually requires prompt decisions and actions from a number of functional areas.

(d) Flow of information is usually internal and not vertical.

(e) To make the project organisation more effective the status of the project manager should be the same in the managerial hierarchy as it is in the case of managers.

(f) Project management has an ad hoc character. This is disbanded and the personnel are sent back to the parent department.

So based on the features the project organisation is suitable to the following cases:

(a) This is suitable for one time tasks which is definable in terms of single specific goal. So it is suitable for jobs of temporary character.

(b) This is more suitable to assignments to be completed within a given period of time. The time factor is critical because if the project is not completed within the stipulated period of time it invoke penalty provisions.

(c) It is complex in nature and it calls for a high degree of interdependence among tasks. So it is suitable for tasks of this type.

Term Paper on Organisation Structure # 5. Matrix Organisation:

This is the latest organisational design which facilitates flexible structure to achieve a series of project objectives. This was first developed in aerospace industry. The initial impetus was a government demand for a single contact manager for each programme or project who would be responsible to the government for the project’s progress and performance.

To meet this need, a project leader was appointed to share authority with the leaders of the preexisting technical or functional departments. This temporary arrangement then evolved into formal matrix organisations.

In mathematics, a matrix is an array of vertical and horizontal rows. Matrix organisational structure is one in which the employee reports to both a functional or divisional manager and to a project or group manager. It is a structure wherein pure project organisation is superimposed on the formal organisation. It is created by merging the two structures — the project and functional.

According to Davis and Lawrence a matrix organisation is “any organisation that employees a multiple command system that includes not only the multiple command structure but also related support mechanism and an associated organisational culture and behaviour pattern.”

In matrix organisation personnel to any project are drawn from functional departments. As and when the project is completed they return to original functional departments. Their activities on the project are controlled and co­ordinated by the project manager.

While on project they are under dual authority. The main chain of command is functional or divisional. The second line of command is shown horizontally. This lateral chain depicts a project or a business team, led by a project or group manager who is an expert in the team’s assigned area of specialisation. That is why matrix structure is often referred to as “multiple command system.”

Salient Features:

The following are the salient features of Matrix organisation:

(a) Matrix organisation is the mix of two organisations i.e. project and the functional organisation. Project organisation is also a part of the functional organisation.

(b) Project manager is in-charge of the specified project and draws personnel from functional departments. After the completion of the project the employees return to their parent departments for reassignment to other projects. This is also applicable to the project manager.

(c) In matrix organisation the project manager is the general manager of the project. Each functional manager is responsible for maintaining the integrity of this function.

(d) Management by project objective is paramount to the way of thinking in a matrix organisation.

The advantages of matrix organisation are as follows:

(a) Efficiency:

A matrix organisation facilitates better planning and control as this structure focuses attention and resources on a single project specialised knowledge is available to all project products on an equal basis. Knowledge and experience can be transferred from one project to another. This improves the operating efficiency of the organisation.

(b) Flexibility:

This is more flexible than the traditional functional organisation. This encourages constant interaction between project unit and functional department members. As and when the projects are completed function services are released with ease and flexibility. Prompt and quick decisions can be taken and organisation can accommodate the changing and uncertain environment with effortless ease.

(c) Motivation:

The project personnel are motivated as it helps the employees to grow and develop. It enlarges their experience and widens their outlook. The job rotation process helps them to learn something of other specialties.

(D) Focus on Authority of Knowledge:

Matrix organisation stresses on authority of knowledge rather than status of an individual in the organisational hierarchy. So it results in better utilisation of resources. Employees can contribute more towards organisational objectives and can have greater say in important decisions.

(e) Work Load:

Reduces the work load of the top management as most of the decisions are taken at the lower levels. So the top managements work load is getting reduced.

(f) Checks and Balances:

In matrix organisation, a better balance between cost, time and performance can be obtained through the built-in checks and balance and the continuous negotiations carried on between the project and functional organisation.

Disadvantages :

Matrix organisation is subject to the following limitations:

(a) Power Struggle:

This encourages power struggle between project and functional managers. Further it violates the principle of unity of command as the employees receive orders from both functional bosses and project manager.

(b) Complexity:

The organisational relationship gets complicated as there is confusion among personnel. Many informal relationships between employees may develop and their personal objectives can come into conflict with project objectives. This may result in lack of commitment to project objectives. So project managers may find it difficult to control its functioning.

(c) Delayed Decisions:

In matrix orgnisation there are chances for delaying of decisions due to lack of understanding and accommodation among functional and project managers. So matrix organisation has been reported as costly, cumbersome and bureaucratic. The complication demotivates people and it is detrimental to their development. 

Term Paper on Organisation Structure # 6. Committee:

Committee means a group of persons especially designed to take decisions or make recommendations on certain matters referred to it. It is a device which is used as supplementary to or in addition to any of the types of organisation.

Thus, committee may be formed in any type of organisation to take a decision on matters referred to it by the management, committees in organisations are extensively used to solve multifaceted problems of large and complex business units. It may be constituted at any level of management. It is only a device within an organisation to deal with a specific problem.

Committee organisation implies that instead of a single staff officer acting in advisory capacity, a group of experts will examine the problems collectively and approach it scientifically and make suitable suggestions for effective functioning. It is a group of persons to whom certain managerial functions are assigned or from whom some advisory and exploratory services are expected. It is described as a method of collective thinking, corporate judgement and common decision.

Definition :

Koontz and O’Donnell “Committee is a group of persons to whom as a group some matter is committed.”

Louis. A. Allen defines a committee as “a body of persons appointed unelected to meet on an organised basis for consideration of matters brought before it.”

W.H. Newman defines a committee as “a group of persons specifically designed to perform some administrative act. It functions only as a group and requires a free interchange of ideas among members.”

It is also defined as a group of competent and interested persons pooling their thoughts and actions to facilitate decision making. Decisions on administrative actions are taken as per consensus arrived at as a result of exchange of views and opinions expressed by the group of people comprising a committee. Varied lines of thinking are blended together through deliberations and arrive at widely acceptable decision for crystallizing any course of action in the process of managing any undertaking.

Characteristics:

The characteristics of committees are:

(a) A committee is a group of two or more persons either appointed or elected. It functions as a group.

(b) Committees functions well within the well-defined jurisdictions and they deal with the specific problems referred to it.

(c) The members are at liberty to deal with problems in detail and they discuss each and every aspect of the problem in greater detail.

(d) A committee may have the authority either to take final decisions or to recommend the action in the matter referred to it.

(e) A committee may be constituted at any level of organisation. The members of the committee may be drawn from different levels but they enjoy equal authority.

Committees are constituted at different levels and with varied terms of reference and with diversified functions. Some committees perform managerial function and some may be only recommendatory bodies.

They are classified in the following ways:

(a) Power as the Basis of Classification:

Committees have full power to decide and act. As against this committees have limited power and whose decisions are subject to approval or veto by higher authorities.

(b) Based on Permanence:

Committees are classified as standing and ad hoc committees. A standing committee has permanent existence and its members change depending on their terms in the committee. An ad hoc committee is constituted for a specific purpose. It is of temporary in nature and it stands dissolved as and when the purpose for which it is constituted is achieved.

(c) Advisory or Executive Committee:

An advisory committee is authorized to make recommendations to the line executives. They may or may not accept the recommendations or they may go in modifications also.

The main functions of advisory committee are:

(i) Arranging facts from different sources and arranging them in a classified way.

(ii) Make an intelligent study of the data and go in for analytical and critical appraisal of the facts and problems presented.

(iii) After analysis, frame conclusions and formulate suggestions.

(iv) Compiling detailed reports with recommendations and guidelines for the perusal of line officers.

(v) Evolving standards for evaluating performance.

(vi) Co-ordination of activities of various departments.

So they function as reviewing and recommending units. An executive committee has the authority to undertake decision or action which may be binding on the subordinates. It may be delegated authority to take a final decision.

(d) Based on Authority:

They may be classified into line or staff authority. A Line committee is charged with the authority of decision making. This decision will bind the subordinates. Line committees are also called as Executive committee or plural executives.

The functions of these committees are:

(i) To decide on matters of their domain.

(ii) To frame policies and programmes and take steps for their implementation.

(iii) To plan the operations in terms of objectives, schedules, operational methods etc.

(iv) Organising the efforts in aiming at fulfillment of plants.

(v) Appoint suitable staff, assign them work, motivate them and to extract work from them.

(vi) Directing and controlling the efforts of subordinates.

Normally committees are appointed for advisory purposes. Very rarely committees are formed with full or partial managerial powers. A group may be entrusted with the authority to take decisions and follow-up actions in management. This is known as group management or plural executives.

Regarding managerial functions plural executive is useful in planning and broader aspects of control. Functions like leadership, organisation and execution requires more of individual drive and action rather than committee decision. The plural executives are responsible for overall results.

The staff committee is purely advisory in nature.

(e) Formal and Informal Committees:

Formal committees are those which have been established under organisation rules, regulations and with specific authority spelling out its duties and authority. Most of the committees are formal ones.

An informal committee is organised without specific delegation of authority. It does not form part of organisation. A manager has some difficulty in dealing with a problem. He call for a meeting of departmental heads to discuss and to find out remedial suggestions. This may be an informal organisation.

Advantages :

(a) Group Decisions:

The decisions taken by a committee are group and not individual decisions. This eliminates the channels of biased and prejudiced decisions by looking at problems from different angles. Committees provide an opportunity for pooling of ideas and lead to integrated group deliberations and judgements. So the decisions taken by the committee are more balanced.

(b) Co-Ordination:

Committee can play an effective role in co-ordinating various parts of the organisation. They can integrate and unify various viewpoints of persons from different departments. Group deliberations can facilitate the pursuing of a common cause of action.

Committees facilitate the seeming of co-operation of employees. The executives participate in the development of plans he naturally acquires interest in its execution. This increases the motivation of employees. The qualities of the decisions also improve.

(d) Representation of Interest Groups:

Committees are a useful device to be given representation to various interest groups with the object of ensuring a sense of loyalty and interest in the decisions made.

(e) Facilitates Easy Flow of Communication:

Committees are useful means of communication. It is a detailed and easy mode of communication. There is scope for the easy flow of communication.

(f) No Concentration of Power:

When a single individual is vested with power of decision making there are possibilities for concentration of too much power. Power corrupts man. So committees are appointed to check the evil of concentration of power in the hands of single individual.

(g) Develops Management:

The members of the group learn a lot by getting an opportunity to enrich their experience by participating in various committees. This will enable them to develop an integrating view in developing solution to various organisational problems. This develops a positive attitude and managerial potentials of the individuals.

(h) Consolidation of Authority:

Management can solve some special problems by consulting other authorities. Committee facilitates management to consolidate authority that is spread over the organisation in various departments. In this way prompt and effective decisions can be taken.

The demerits of committees are:

(a) Decision Making:

The process of decision-making in committees are said to be slow. Because to take decisions the committee meeting is to be called for, the issues are to be debated and decisions are to be taken.

This is a detailed procedure. In meetings every speaker is to be heard patiently. So it takes a long time to get the result for action. At times, due to conflicting viewpoints of members and poor leadership no decision may be taken. So it involves in delaying of decisions.

(b) Divided Responsibility:

No fixing of responsibility is possible in the case of committees. No member can be held responsible for the committee decisions, if there is something wrong.

(c) Tyranny of Minority:

Committees are often dominated by some aggressive individuals who forcibly carry the majority with their view which may not be suited to the broad interests of the organisation. There are possibilities for coercion by majority and tyranny of minority through the process of group judgement.

(d) Dominance of a Few:

The chairman or any strong member of the committee prevails on others. They start dominating others. This leads to groupism and committee actions are sabotaged. Stronger personality overshadows and manipulation game starts resulting in spoiling mutual respect and co-operation. Dominance by a few results into bitterness, discontent and frustration.

(e) Compromise Decisions:

The decisions of committees are merely compromises unrelated to the facts of the situation. There arises a tendency to reach a patch work decision in an attempt to iron out differences between committee members. Compromise decisions are unhelpful for dynamic management if the}’ are not scientifically conceived. The decisions of a committee are generally the result of joint thinking and group judgement but that of compromise which is acceptable to all.

(f) Lack of Initiative:

Members of a committee may not show independent initiative and enthusiasm because of their own ignorance or predominance by the chairman or any other leading or aggressive member. Thus the representative character of its decision is lost.

(g) Misuse of Committer:

Committees are used to avoid action or delay decisions or to take unpleasant decisions. At times committees may be constituted to cool off agitation, to overcome resistance, to gain time or to avoid individual responsibility.

(h) Expensive:

This system will also prove to be highly expensive. The monetary cost of a meeting may not be justified by the worth of the decision taken at the meeting. Overhead costs arising from delay and indecision can be regarded as its weakness.

The reasons for constituting committees are:

(i) To give a democratic touch to managerial activities.

(ii) To secure common judgement on administrative matters.

(iii) To bring about comprehensive thinking by different individuals and to arrive at consensus decisions.

(iv) To gain advantage of group deliberation and judgement.

(v) To check the excessive granting of authority to individuals.

(vi) To give representation to interested groups in decision making.

(vii) To bring about co-ordination of plans and policies.

(viii) To use the organisation for motivating the officials to take initiative in implementing decisions or undertaking similar executive actions.

Related Articles:

• Designing the Project Organisation Structure: 2 Forms
• Matrix Organisation: Concept, Advantages and Limitations
• Term Paper on Organisation Manual | Tools | Management
• Policies in an Organisation | Term Paper | Decision Making | Management

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Essay on Organizational Structures

Introduction

The existence of various internal and external factors shape organizations in the corporate world. These factors determine the strengths and weaknesses of an organization. The organization’s success is also based on strategies used to develop and sustain a good relationship among organizational stakeholders. When starting a company, choosing a relevant structure that suits the organization is the best idea, although these structures present some challenges. This paper explores various concepts, theories, and frameworks, which form part of organizational structures.

Factors Determining Stability and Uncertainty in an Organization

Organizational success or failures are based on various factors that determine stability and uncertainty in an organizational setting. Factors include socio-cultural differences, organization legal frameworks, technological aspects, political environment, shareholders, and economic base influence organization stability and uncertainty. Madinda (2014) classified four environmental forces: competitive environment, internal environment, external environment, and general environment, as forces that influence the organizational environment. Below is descriptions of these forces.

Technological Factor

Technology is an emerging trend in the organizational setting and the entire corporate world. Technology involved processes in which various kinds of work in an organization are conducted. It comprises machines, devices, operating systems, hardware, or software. Technology improves access and provision of organizational services to benefit customers, employees, and business associates. Technology enhances the organization’s stability by producing high-quality products and services, allowing the organization to remain competitive in the market. In contrast, technology leads to uncertainty, especially to administrators, when deciding on technological choices due to dynamic and ever-changing technology (Madinda, 2014).

Legal Factor

Madinda (2014) explores legal factors by demonstrating the significance of employment laws that regulate employee’s lives at the organization. These laws safeguard employees from exploitation, including financial, unfair dismissal, discrimination, safety environment, and unbiased decision. These laws protect the welfare of employees, thus increasing their productivity in the workplace. However, these laws present uncertainties to the organization since they are not fixed. The laws subject to amendments over and again based on the employee’s well-being. Besides, these laws are characterized by concerns like inequalities in employment relationship between employers and employees.

Socio-Cultural Factor

Social factors, including leadership approaches and attitudes towards work, are attributed as leading factors to environmental uncertainty. Also, the issues of gender sensitivity and equality pose a challenge to policymakers and administrators. In the workplace, there is a challenge in maintaining an optimum balance between men and women in a leadership position (Madinda, 2014).

Political Factor

The introduction of political systems and reforms has significantly influenced the organizational environment. For example, the introduction of deregulation policies and privatization has negatively undermined various organizations. For example, privatization has given the private sector more freedom to venture into productions initially controlled by the government. As a result, this has motivated investors to impose a high cost of products and services, thus undermining some organizations’ operations and existence, leading to uncertainties (Madinda, 2014).

Comparisons between Open and Closed Systems

As open or closed, the classification of systems in organization is based on systems capacity to interrelate with the environment. An open system can describe as a system that interrelates with its environment and exchanges resources and information with the environment. An open system can be ascribed a ‘self-organizing,’ since the system changes the organization according to changing situations. In contrast, a closed system is one that does not correlate with its environment (Allen & Sawhney, 2015).

From the humanistic management perspective, an open system depicts workers as a team of work organizations that contribute to external influences through values and behaviors, which positively reinforce internal organizational functioning. At the heart of this system, an organization forms part of the external environment. The models of open systems are entrenched on human relations theory, whose characteristics differentiate the open system models from models of closed systems, such as mutual respect, human dignity, motivation, and individual difference. In contrast, the closed system models assume that the external environment, including technological advancement, legal decisions, and demographic features, does not affect the organization’s functioning. As such, models of close systems do not rely on the external environment to solve managerial issues or provide any other explanations. The strategies of central management are believed to be key to solving any issue. In open systems, the external environment contributes significantly to solving organizations’ issues (Allen & Sawhney, 2015).

Additionally, unlike closed systems, open systems are very difficult to understand because of complexities and dynamic interrelationships from external factors. Moreover, employees in an open system are driven by the desire to achieve more for the organization. In case of any issue, every employee expresses commitment to the solution to the issue. However, employees in a closed system do not participate actively in development and providing a solution to problems. This model states that organizational problems shall be addressed only by the management; hence employees have no role. Lastly, a closed system is associated with Max Weber’s bureaucratic model. This model emphasized that highly rational bureaucracy is important in attaining the objectives of the society. In a closed system, bureaucracy gives departments and those in authority to developed mentality that departments and management are more important than the organization. In contrast, open system theorists have a different perception of organizational structure and its role in society. To them, models of open systems perceive organization roles in society to be interrelating and interlocking (Allen & Sawhney, 2015).

Strategies for Enhancing Inter-Organizational Relationships

Building and maintaining a good relationship are at the heart of every organization. Strong inter-organizational relationships among employers, employees, and other stakeholders is key to attaining or organizational goals. The strength of an organization is anchored on the power of connections among organizational stakeholders. Below are ways of building and sustaining the inter-organizational relationship.

A good relationship is based on understanding and learning about other people’s cultures. Knowing one another could lead to increase concern and caring for each other. This will minimize cases of oppression or discrimination in the workplace. A strong relationship is built when employees act boldly on behalf of one another. Besides, establishing collaboration enhance good relations. Collaboration fosters good relations in which individuals communicate effectively and share their thoughts and emotions without any concerns or fear. Likewise, collaboration allows workers to make more informed and profitable decisions. Also, establishing trust among workers is key to creating a healthy setting where relationship-building can be nurtured. Trust builds transparency by enabling employees to understand organizations’ strategies, goals, expectations, and paths for individual development (University of Kansas, 2018).

These relationships can be sustained through various approaches. For example, paying attention to another and helping each other in accomplishing the organizational task. Also, communicating openly encourages good relations by avoiding misunderstandings that could build tensions among workers. Also, scheduling regular meetings sessions brings together workers to share their ideas, perspectives, and suggestions to improve operations within the organization. Regular meetings allows organization stakeholders to read from the same script and provide a win-win relationship among them. Lastly, loyalty is an important value that sustains a healthy relationship. Regardless of the disagreement, with loyalty, workers would respect each other’s opinions (University of Kansas, 2018).

Implications of Organizational Structures

The four basic organizational structures include functional, divisional, matrix, and flatarchy structures. Each organizational structure has different advantages and disadvantages, as discuss below;

This structure is based on an organization being subdivided into smaller units with certain roles and responsibilities. For instance, an organization may have a unit working in finance, another in information technology, and another in public relations. Each unit has a manager or supervisor who reports to an executive. One of the advantages of a functional structure is that employees are clustered according to their skills and experience, thus allowing them to concentrate and contribute their competencies. Also, workers are dedicated and committed to a single role. However, one of the challenges presented by this structure is the lack of inter-departmental communication, whereby decision-making only occurs in the managerial position (Point Park University, 2019).

Many larger corporate institutions use this structure. The divisional structure offers more autonomy to employees within the organization. Also, every unit functions by controlling its financers and resources, thus providing more flexibility to the organization. Under this structure, sub-division can be established geographically, with many units in various parts of the world. This structure is disadvantageous on issues to do with high tax implication and accounting practices.

Matrix structure comprises the functional structure blending with the projected structure. Employees can report to more than one boss, including project managers and department managers. Also, this structure has a lot of flexibility and well-adjusted to decision-making. Employees can also share their expertise across various divisions, leading to the widening of their professional development. However, reporting to various managers lead to confusion. Failure to establish clear functions causes employees to get confused about their duties (Point Park University, 2019).

Flatarchy structure works well with startups or small organizations. This structure provide foundation for more decision making process since there is no bureaucracies or hierarchies involved. Also, this structure encourages innovation since employees are constantly motivated to suggest ideas. Just like other structures, flatarchy could be confusing and inconvenient, especially when everybody is involved in decision-making disagree (Point Park University, 2019).

Various structures influence modern businesses or companies in an organization. Factors including technology, social-cultural factors, among others, determine the company’s stability and uncertainty. The company’s success is also based on developing strategies that create and maintain a good inter-organizational relationship. Based on the basics of organizational structures, each structure has benefits and limitations, as discussed in the paper.

Allen, J. M., & Sawhney, R. (2015). Chapter 2: Open Versus Closed Systems.  SAGE Publications, Inc ,  9781483350707/ , 27–43.  https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/33001_2.pdf

Madinda, A. S. (2014). THE UNCERTAINTY OF ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.  International Journal of Emerging Trends in Science and Technology ,  1 (5), 774–782.  https://doi.org/ISSN 2348-9480

Point Park University. (2019, January 28).  4 Types of Organizational Structures . Point Park University Online.  https://online.pointpark.edu/business/types-of-organizational-structures/

The University of Kansas. (2018).  Chapter 14. Core Functions in Leadership | Section 7. Building and Sustaining Relationships | Main Section | Community Tool Box . Ku.Edu.  https://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/leadership/leadership-functions/build-sustain-relationships/main

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What is organizational structure and why is it important?

Many company organizational structures are pretty linear — or, more accurately, pretty triangular. The traditional “org chart” images of a pyramid depict companies with a few powerful individuals at the top of the company. Under that is a slightly wider level that reports to them. Each subsequent level gets wider and wider, with a large base of entry-level employees at the “bottom.”

However, just because many organizations are structured in this way doesn’t mean that yours should be. Depending on the size of your team and how your workflows are structured, you may benefit from any number of alternative organizational structures. It can also give you some insight into areas of fraction and possible opportunities for development. If your teams are not delivering the outcomes you need, the organizational structure is one possible culprit. Outcomes are the way to assess whether your systems and structures are working as intended. 

Choosing the right structure for your team requires you to think about how your team currently works and where you’re going. Before you draw up that org chart or start proposing new headcount, read on. We’ll dig into the various types of organizational structures, what they are, and ways to implement them.

What is an organizational structure?

An organizational structure is the way that a company, organization, or team is set up. It can be hierarchical, with different levels of management. Or it can be divisional, with different product lines and divisions. Sometimes, there’s little to no hierarchy at all. Every company and team has an organizational structure, even if it’s not formally defined.

An organizational structure defines how job titles, roles, and responsibilities are assigned within a company. It helps determine who reports to whom, and who makes decisions about what.

Startups often have a matrix organizational structure, with different departments working together on projects. Large organizations usually have a hierarchical structure with a clear chain of command. 

Most people only think of organizational structure as it relates to entire companies. But the same structural concepts also apply to how teams get organized within a function, department, or business unit. Organizational structures and restructuring are largely about decision-making authority, information flows, priorities, and allocating resources. 

Each organization is unique (and has unique needs). Even so, each organizational structure will have a few key components in common.

Key elements of an organizational structure

No matter the organization’s size, certain aspects of workplace decision-making and processes need to be clear. Many small businesses handle these designations informally. As a company grows, though, it’s helpful to revisit and clarify these hierarchies (or lack thereof). At the minimum, each organization needs to designate:

Work specialization

Work specializations are less formally known as roles or job descriptions. They outline what a person is responsible for within an organization or on a smaller team. Clear work specializations allow you to make the best use of talent. They make it clear what an individual person’s responsibilities and measures of success are, and help safeguard against a thinning of resources..

Chain of command

If your organization, like many, relies on a mix of people managers and individual contributors , you need to establish a chain of command. This gives people clear direction on who they should reach out to for support. When people from other departments need to check on the status of cross-functional projects, it makes it easy to find out who’s driving them.

Departmentalization and compartmentalization

Compartmentalizing people into departments creates teams of people whose jobs are organized around a specific type of work. A department could be human resources, sales, marketing, or IT. People in these departments often share common skill sets and work together frequently on projects. Each department is typically led by an executive.

Span of control

The number of team members that report to a given manager is formally referred to as “span of control.” If a manager has a large number of direct reports , the team is often subdivided into smaller departments. This happens often at large companies, where multiple people may fill a similar job function.

Centralization and decentralization

Better thought of as “ top-down vs. bottom-up management ,” the terms centralization and decentralization refer to how much influence upper-level leaders have over an organization. Of course, all leaders have power over their organizations. But decentralized management structures tend to have more agile decision making happening at all levels. Employees are empowered to perform their roles and make decisions as they see fit.

Formalization

Formalization determines how much standardizing there is across the organization. It may affect functions, systems, job descriptions, and the flow of information. Organizations with high formalization are often more mature and highly systematized. Done well, this kind of structure should boost innovation, not stifle it.

The importance of organizational structures

Organizational structures are important because they help businesses implement efficient decision-making processes. By assigning specialized roles to lower-level employees, businesses can make better decisions faster. 

Additionally, organizational structures provide a clear org chart that helps businesses keep track of their human resources. When your company is small, it’s hard to imagine that you’d ever lose track of what everyone is doing. After all, in startups and small businesses, it often feels like everyone is doing everything .

As you grow, these silos become more distinct from each other. At that point, an organizational structure helps you identify gaps in skills and support within your business. People’s roles become more specialized and individual teams grow bigger. Revisiting the allocation of work prevents the duplication of effort and reflects business priorities.

Keep in mind, however, that behind these flowcharts are real people. The leaders and employees represented in an organizational chart each work best under different circumstances and with different leadership styles. If you don’t keep them included in the what and why of your organizational shifts, they’re more likely to resist changes when they occur.

Since change is inevitable, it’s a good idea to communicate early and often as things shift. Strive for as much transparency in the workplace as possible. And if you do make changes in your organization, make time to check in with the people being affected. You can try to minimize the impact to them and help create a transition plan if need be.

Types of organizational structures

There are several different types of organizational structures, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. The most common are functional , divisional , matrix , project team , flat , and network .

Functional organizational structures are best for small businesses because they allow for clear decision-making hierarchies. Each team operates as an individual “silo.” Once teams grow, they benefit from making these functional structures less rigid. Teams often move faster and collaborate better with more overlap.

Divisional structures are best for large businesses because they allow for more specialization. For example, a global company might divide their business into regions (such as EMEA/APAC), or broad service categories (like B2B/D2C).

In the matrix structure , employees work in both functional and project teams which may be structured differently. Employees then typically report to two bosses: one who oversees their day-to-day work, as well as another boss that oversees larger projects or tasks.

A project team approach would include any number of functions working together on a specific project without a permanent hierarchy. Employees report up through their individual bosses. But they also contribute to team efforts led by managers from other departments on the team as needed.

Flat organizations have as little hierarchical structure as possible. Middle managers are largely absent from staff. Instead, the workforce often reports directly to managers or leaders at the “highest” level. Highly-autonomous employees often thrive in these environments. The lack of hierarchy motivates people to make decisions, take ownership, and facilitates problem-solving.

In a network structure , individual freelancers, groups, or associations work together. They each work as separate functional teams, but may share an overarching entity. Professional associations often have this type of structure.

Choosing the best organizational structure for your company

When it comes to organizational structures, there is no one-size-fits-all solution. The best way to choose an organizational structure for your company is to first assess your business needs and goals. From there, you can match those needs with one of the common organizational structures. 

Although there isn’t a “right” answer, some organization structures are a better fit for your team than others. And while we normally advocate for trying several solutions until you find what works, that doesn’t work as well with organizational development . 

Company reorganizations (especially repeated ones) tend to destroy employee morale . Even when handled well, reorgs create uncertainty and stress on employees. Since they’re often a precursor to layoffs, people tend to fear losing their jobs — even when the changes are generally positive. And if there’s a pattern of other major changes rapidly coming down the line? That’s a recipe for cynicism and workplace burnout .

When deciding on an organizational structure, it’s important to keep these four factors in mind:

The structure you choose will depend on the type of company you run. For example, companies that rely on a number of front-line employees are structured a lot differently than nonprofit organizations. Each will have a different organizational chart based on what they do and where they need to prioritize their efforts. 

To build an effective organization , you need to know which team members are there to facilitate the work of the people in the field and which employees support the leaders. For example, C-suite executives often have a team dedicated to supporting their efforts. But the customer service team exists to support the end user. Some roles, like marketing or product development, sit squarely in the middle. Your allocation of resources needs to reflect a balance between these two sets of needs.

Company size is critical to consider when determining a formal organizational structure. Smaller companies often have a high deree of overlap in roles. They have less formalized structures. This lack of standardization can present some challenges, but it frees teams to grow rapidly. 

On the other hand, larger organizations tend to grow faster with a more centralized, formal structure. Why? It makes it easier for people to know where to find information, who to talk to in order to get things done, and avoid duplicating efforts needlessly. The challenges and unique strengths of each differently sized organization help inform the best type of arrangement.

3. Stage 

In order to create standardized systems, there (usually) needs to be something to systematize. It’s pretty hard — or deceptively easy — to develop systems for a business that has no clients, no services, and no employees.

In the early stages, not only do small companies benefit from a less formalized structure — they don’t need one. Once workflows emerge, patterns arise, and problems occur, they can reflect those learnings as a formal process. The need for reporting relationships and divisional structure arises as the need for systems does.

4. Systems 

Organizations at every stage — even with just one person — tend to organize their work by function. There’s accounting, marketing, and service right from day one. When this work is handled by a single person, there’s no need to articulate systems. More people means more need to define how, when, and why teamwork happens. 

Both the existing and desired systems play a role in organization structure. If you need or want faster collaboration and communication across teams, you’ll want to design a “flatter” structure. If leaders need to be removed from day-to-day activities, it will help to have a structure that delegates authority and accountability to others .

Building a healthy organization means more than just functioning well — although that is important. It means creating plans to support your employees and the workplace in their growth. Giving some thought to the types of authority that currently exist can help you choose the right organizational structure. But knowing where you want to go and the outcomes you want to achieve in the future will help you get there.

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Allaya Cooks-Campbell

With over 15 years of content experience, Allaya Cooks Campbell has written for outlets such as ScaryMommy, HRzone, and HuffPost. She holds a B.A. in Psychology and is a certified yoga instructor as well as a certified Integrative Wellness & Life Coach. Allaya is passionate about whole-person wellness, yoga, and mental health.

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9.3 Organizing Your Writing

Learning objectives.

• Understand how and why organizational techniques help writers and readers stay focused.
• Assess how and when to use chronological order to organize an essay.
• Recognize how and when to use order of importance to organize an essay.
• Determine how and when to use spatial order to organize an essay.

The method of organization you choose for your essay is just as important as its content. Without a clear organizational pattern, your reader could become confused and lose interest. The way you structure your essay helps your readers draw connections between the body and the thesis, and the structure also keeps you focused as you plan and write the essay. Choosing your organizational pattern before you outline ensures that each body paragraph works to support and develop your thesis.

This section covers three ways to organize body paragraphs:

• Chronological order
• Order of importance
• Spatial order

When you begin to draft your essay, your ideas may seem to flow from your mind in a seemingly random manner. Your readers, who bring to the table different backgrounds, viewpoints, and ideas, need you to clearly organize these ideas in order to help process and accept them.

A solid organizational pattern gives your ideas a path that you can follow as you develop your draft. Knowing how you will organize your paragraphs allows you to better express and analyze your thoughts. Planning the structure of your essay before you choose supporting evidence helps you conduct more effective and targeted research.

Chronological Order

In Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , you learned that chronological arrangement has the following purposes:

• To explain the history of an event or a topic
• To tell a story or relate an experience
• To explain how to do or to make something
• To explain the steps in a process

Chronological order is mostly used in expository writing , which is a form of writing that narrates, describes, informs, or explains a process. When using chronological order, arrange the events in the order that they actually happened, or will happen if you are giving instructions. This method requires you to use words such as first , second , then , after that , later , and finally . These transition words guide you and your reader through the paper as you expand your thesis.

For example, if you are writing an essay about the history of the airline industry, you would begin with its conception and detail the essential timeline events up until present day. You would follow the chain of events using words such as first , then , next , and so on.

Writing at Work

At some point in your career you may have to file a complaint with your human resources department. Using chronological order is a useful tool in describing the events that led up to your filing the grievance. You would logically lay out the events in the order that they occurred using the key transition words. The more logical your complaint, the more likely you will be well received and helped.

Choose an accomplishment you have achieved in your life. The important moment could be in sports, schooling, or extracurricular activities. On your own sheet of paper, list the steps you took to reach your goal. Try to be as specific as possible with the steps you took. Pay attention to using transition words to focus your writing.

Keep in mind that chronological order is most appropriate for the following purposes:

• Writing essays containing heavy research
• Writing essays with the aim of listing, explaining, or narrating
• Writing essays that analyze literary works such as poems, plays, or books

When using chronological order, your introduction should indicate the information you will cover and in what order, and the introduction should also establish the relevance of the information. Your body paragraphs should then provide clear divisions or steps in chronology. You can divide your paragraphs by time (such as decades, wars, or other historical events) or by the same structure of the work you are examining (such as a line-by-line explication of a poem).

On a separate sheet of paper, write a paragraph that describes a process you are familiar with and can do well. Assume that your reader is unfamiliar with the procedure. Remember to use the chronological key words, such as first , second , then , and finally .

Order of Importance

Recall from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” that order of importance is best used for the following purposes:

• Persuading and convincing
• Ranking items by their importance, benefit, or significance
• Illustrating a situation, problem, or solution

Most essays move from the least to the most important point, and the paragraphs are arranged in an effort to build the essay’s strength. Sometimes, however, it is necessary to begin with your most important supporting point, such as in an essay that contains a thesis that is highly debatable. When writing a persuasive essay, it is best to begin with the most important point because it immediately captivates your readers and compels them to continue reading.

For example, if you were supporting your thesis that homework is detrimental to the education of high school students, you would want to present your most convincing argument first, and then move on to the less important points for your case.

Some key transitional words you should use with this method of organization are most importantly , almost as importantly , just as importantly , and finally .

During your career, you may be required to work on a team that devises a strategy for a specific goal of your company, such as increasing profits. When planning your strategy you should organize your steps in order of importance. This demonstrates the ability to prioritize and plan. Using the order of importance technique also shows that you can create a resolution with logical steps for accomplishing a common goal.

On a separate sheet of paper, write a paragraph that discusses a passion of yours. Your passion could be music, a particular sport, filmmaking, and so on. Your paragraph should be built upon the reasons why you feel so strongly. Briefly discuss your reasons in the order of least to greatest importance.

Spatial Order

As stated in Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , spatial order is best used for the following purposes:

• Helping readers visualize something as you want them to see it
• Evoking a scene using the senses (sight, touch, taste, smell, and sound)
• Writing a descriptive essay

Spatial order means that you explain or describe objects as they are arranged around you in your space, for example in a bedroom. As the writer, you create a picture for your reader, and their perspective is the viewpoint from which you describe what is around you.

The view must move in an orderly, logical progression, giving the reader clear directional signals to follow from place to place. The key to using this method is to choose a specific starting point and then guide the reader to follow your eye as it moves in an orderly trajectory from your starting point.

Pay attention to the following student’s description of her bedroom and how she guides the reader through the viewing process, foot by foot.

Attached to my bedroom wall is a small wooden rack dangling with red and turquoise necklaces that shimmer as you enter. Just to the right of the rack is my window, framed by billowy white curtains. The peace of such an image is a stark contrast to my desk, which sits to the right of the window, layered in textbooks, crumpled papers, coffee cups, and an overflowing ashtray. Turning my head to the right, I see a set of two bare windows that frame the trees outside the glass like a 3D painting. Below the windows is an oak chest from which blankets and scarves are protruding. Against the wall opposite the billowy curtains is an antique dresser, on top of which sits a jewelry box and a few picture frames. A tall mirror attached to the dresser takes up most of the wall, which is the color of lavender.

The paragraph incorporates two objectives you have learned in this chapter: using an implied topic sentence and applying spatial order. Often in a descriptive essay, the two work together.

The following are possible transition words to include when using spatial order:

• Just to the left or just to the right
• On the left or on the right
• Across from
• A little further down
• To the south, to the east, and so on
• A few yards away
• Turning left or turning right

On a separate sheet of paper, write a paragraph using spatial order that describes your commute to work, school, or another location you visit often.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

Key Takeaways

• The way you organize your body paragraphs ensures you and your readers stay focused on and draw connections to, your thesis statement.
• A strong organizational pattern allows you to articulate, analyze, and clarify your thoughts.
• Planning the organizational structure for your essay before you begin to search for supporting evidence helps you conduct more effective and directed research.
• Chronological order is most commonly used in expository writing. It is useful for explaining the history of your subject, for telling a story, or for explaining a process.
• Order of importance is most appropriate in a persuasion paper as well as for essays in which you rank things, people, or events by their significance.
• Spatial order describes things as they are arranged in space and is best for helping readers visualize something as you want them to see it; it creates a dominant impression.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Organizing Your Writing

Learning objectives.

• Understand how and why organizational techniques help writers and readers stay focused.
• Assess how and when to use chronological order to organize an essay.
• Recognize how and when to use order of importance to organize an essay.
• Determine how and when to use spatial order to organize an essay.

The method of organization you choose for your essay is just as important as its content. Without a clear organizational pattern, your reader could become confused and lose interest. The way you structure your essay helps your readers draw connections between the body and the thesis, and the structure also keeps you focused as you plan and write the essay. Choosing your organizational pattern before you outline ensures that each body paragraph works to support and develop your thesis.

This section covers three ways to organize body paragraphs:

• Chronological order
• Order of importance
• Spatial order

When you begin to draft your essay, your ideas may seem to flow from your mind in a seemingly random manner. Your readers, who bring to the table different backgrounds, viewpoints, and ideas, need you to clearly organize these ideas in order to help process and accept them.

A solid organizational pattern gives your ideas a path that you can follow as you develop your draft. Knowing how you will organize your paragraphs allows you to better express and analyze your thoughts. Planning the structure of your essay before you choose supporting evidence helps you conduct more effective and targeted research.

Chronological Order

In Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?”, you learned that chronological arrangement has the following purposes:

• To explain the history of an event or a topic
• To tell a story or relate an experience
• To explain how to do or to make something
• To explain the steps in a process

Chronological order is mostly used in expository writing , which is a form of writing that narrates, describes, informs, or explains a process. When using chronological order, arrange the events in the order that they actually happened, or will happen if you are giving instructions. This method requires you to use words such as first , second , then , after that , later , and finally . These transition words guide you and your reader through the paper as you expand your thesis.

For example, if you are writing an essay about the history of the airline industry, you would begin with its conception and detail the essential timeline events up until present day. You would follow the chain of events using words such as first , then , next , and so on.

Writing at Work

Choose an accomplishment you have achieved in your life. The important moment could be in sports, schooling, or extracurricular activities. On your own sheet of paper, list the steps you took to reach your goal. Try to be as specific as possible with the steps you took. Pay attention to using transition words to focus your writing.

Keep in mind that chronological order is most appropriate for the following purposes:

• Writing essays containing heavy research
• Writing essays with the aim of listing, explaining, or narrating
• Writing essays that analyze literary works such as poems, plays, or books

When using chronological order, your introduction should indicate the information you will cover and in what order, and the introduction should also establish the relevance of the information. Your body paragraphs should then provide clear divisions or steps in chronology. You can divide your paragraphs by time (such as decades, wars, or other historical events) or by the same structure of the work you are examining (such as a line-by-line explication of a poem).

On a separate sheet of paper, write a paragraph that describes a process you are familiar with and can do well. Assume that your reader is unfamiliar with the procedure. Remember to use the chronological key words, such as first , second , then , and finally .

Order of Importance

Recall from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” that order of importance is best used for the following purposes:

• Persuading and convincing
• Ranking items by their importance, benefit, or significance
• Illustrating a situation, problem, or solution

Most essays move from the least to the most important point, and the paragraphs are arranged in an effort to build the essay’s strength. Sometimes, however, it is necessary to begin with your most important supporting point, such as in an essay that contains a thesis that is highly debatable. When writing a persuasive essay, it is best to begin with the most important point because it immediately captivates your readers and compels them to continue reading.

For example, if you were supporting your thesis that homework is detrimental to the education of high school students, you would want to present your most convincing argument first, and then move on to the less important points for your case.

Some key transitional words you should use with this method of organization are most importantly , almost as importantly , just as importantly , and finally .

On a separate sheet of paper, write a paragraph that discusses a passion of yours. Your passion could be music, a particular sport, filmmaking, and so on. Your paragraph should be built upon the reasons why you feel so strongly. Briefly discuss your reasons in the order of least to greatest importance.

Spatial Order

As stated in Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?”, spatial order is best used for the following purposes:

• Helping readers visualize something as you want them to see it
• Evoking a scene using the senses (sight, touch, taste, smell, and sound)
• Writing a descriptive essay

Spatial order means that you explain or describe objects as they are arranged around you in your space, for example in a bedroom. As the writer, you create a picture for your reader, and their perspective is the viewpoint from which you describe what is around you.

The view must move in an orderly, logical progression, giving the reader clear directional signals to follow from place to place. The key to using this method is to choose a specific starting point and then guide the reader to follow your eye as it moves in an orderly trajectory from your starting point.

Pay attention to the following student’s description of her bedroom and how she guides the reader through the viewing process, foot by foot.

Click Image to Enlarge

The paragraph incorporates two objectives you have learned in this chapter: using an implied topic sentence and applying spatial order. Often in a descriptive essay, the two work together.

The following are possible transition words to include when using spatial order:

• Just to the left or just to the right
• On the left or on the right
• Across from
• A little further down
• To the south, to the east, and so on
• A few yards away
• Turning left or turning right

Key Takeaways

• The way you organize your body paragraphs ensures you and your readers stay focused on and draw connections to, your thesis statement.
• A strong organizational pattern allows you to articulate, analyze, and clarify your thoughts.
• Planning the organizational structure for your essay before you begin to search for supporting evidence helps you conduct more effective and directed research.
• Chronological order is most commonly used in expository writing. It is useful for explaining the history of your subject, for telling a story, or for explaining a process.
• Order of importance is most appropriate in a persuasion paper as well as for essays in which you rank things, people, or events by their significance.
• Spatial order describes things as they are arranged in space and is best for helping readers visualize something as you want them to see it; it creates a dominant impression.
• Successful Writing. Authored by : Anonymous. Provided by : Anonymous. Located at : http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/successful-writing/ . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

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College Term Paper

🖋 best way to write a great college term paper, term paper on organizational structure.

Organizational Structure Term Paper:

Organizational structure is the set of norms and types of behavior which are a characteristic feature of the organization and every its member possesses them. Every organization of any kind and activity has its own set of norms which make this organization unique. For example, military organizations are structured in a common way. There is always a leader who is the strongest and skillful one. Every member of an organization has to obey and do his work and fulfill his duties.

Every organization has its own symbol, sort of activity, kind of staff, rituals and tabu. Organization should possess strict structure, in which every member should know and have his place and duties. Speaking about business, organizational structure is an effective tool which help the boss unite the employees and make them work to reach the single common goal – prosperity of the business.

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Organizational structure finds its roots in the middle ages, when the workers started to unite into special organizations to work more effectively and to gain protection of other members. According to this scheme, formed the military organizations and gangs, who required protection and gained special privilege of their guild or organization members.

Today organizational structure is still important for the proper functioning of every team, company and any union of people. A good term paper is expected to clear up the definition of the term, present the historical background and interesting facts connected with the development of organizational structure, define different types of structure, advantages and disadvantages of organizational structure and show the problems it faces now. The paper should be logical and interesting analyzing the problem from all possible sides and offering wise solutions to any existing problems. Besides, a student is able to share his point of view about the topic and prove it with reliable facts (various cases from the real life found in periodicals, the web, etc.).

A student who plans to complete a successful term paper should broaden his knowledge on the topic with the help of trustworthy literary sources, which describe the topic in detail. Then, it is quite helpful to read free example term papers on organizational structure and leadership to improve knowledge of the problem, to collect some interesting facts which will be valuable for your research. Furthermore, a good free sample term paper on organizational structure is a good source of writing tips, helpful for professional paper writing. Every online example is helpful to understand the way a good paper can be written, the proper format for the paper, its composition, effective manner of presentation of data and proper methods of analysis.

Related Term Papers:

• Term Paper on Organizational Behavior
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• Organizational Structure and Size – Term Paper
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Organisational Structure

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Introduction Organisations are structured in a variety of ways, dependant on their objectives and culture. The structure of an organisation will determine the manner in which it operates and it’s performance. Structure allows the responsibilities for different functions and processes to be clearly allocated to different departments and employees. The wrong organisation structure will hinder the success of the business. Organisational structures should aim to maximize the efficiency and success of the Organisation. An effective organisational structure will facilitate working relationships between various sections of the organisation. It will retain order and command whilst promoting flexibility and creativity. Internal factors such as size, product and skills of the workforce influence the organizational structure. As a business expands the chain of command will lengthen and the spans of control will widen. The higher the level of skill each employee has the more the business will make use of the matrix structure to maximize these skills across the organization. Span of Control This term is used to describe the number of employees that each manager/supervisor is responsible for. The span of control is said to be wide if a superior is in charge of many employees and narrow if the superior is in charge of a few employees. Different Structures The most common organisation structures are: TALL STRUCTURE In its simplest form a tall organisation has many levels of management and supervision. There is a “long chain of command” running from the top of the organisation eg Chief Executive down to the bottom of the organisation eg shop floor worker. The diagram below neatly captures the concept of a tall structure. Diagram: Tall Structure However, tall structures rarely exceed 8 levels of management. This is firstly because the number of layers (i.e.

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Oticon Organisational Structure

.............................................................................. 2 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 3 History of the Company ......................................................................................................... 4 Turning Point ...................................................................................................................... 4 Structure of the Company ...................................................................................................... 6 Functional Structure ........................................................................................................... 6 New Organisational Structure............................................................................................. 7 Structure and Performance: Correlation ................................................................................ 9 Oticon’s Organic Structure.................................................................................................. 9 Business Contingencies .................................................................................................... 10 Results ................................................................................................................................. 12 Problems in the Long-Term and Limiting Risks ..................................................................... 12...

Words: 2184 - Pages: 9

...Organizational structure refers to the way that an organization arranges people and jobs so that its work can be performed and its goals can be met. When a work group is very small and face-to-face communication is frequent, formal structure may be unnecessary, but in a larger organization decisions have to be made about the delegation of various tasks. Thus, procedures are established that assign responsibilities for various functions. It is these decisions that determine the organizational structure. In an organization of any size or complexity, employees' responsibilities typically are defined by what they do, who they report to, and for managers, who reports to them. Over time these definitions are assigned to positions in the organization rather than to specific individuals. The relationships among these positions are illustrated graphically in an organizational chart (see Figures 1a and 1b). The best organizational structure for any organization depends on many factors including the work it does; its size in terms of employees, revenue, and the geographic dispersion of its facilities; and the range of its businesses (the degree to which it is diversified across markets). There are multiple structural variations that organizations can take on, but there are a few basic principles that apply and a small number of common patterns. The following sections explain these patterns and provide the historical context from which some of them arose. The first section addresses organizational...

Words: 3537 - Pages: 15

Effectiveness of Organisational Structure

...Organizational structure can be underlying cause of workplace issues By Joan Lloyd Organizational structure, much like a human skeletal structure, determines what shape an organization will take. We don't spend much time thinking about our skeletal structure until something breaks, and so it goes with organizations. How an organization is structured basically means how the reporting relationships and work teams are organized. It reveals a great deal about the culture, function and leadership of a company. When I work with an organization, structure is one of the components I examine, since it can be an underlying cause of problems. Perhaps it is a cause of problems where you work. Here are a few examples I've come across: Too many levels of hierarchy slow decision-making and are a barrier to empowerment. One of the best examples of the impact structure has on operations is the transformation that began in the 1970's and is still going on today: flattening. In the early part of this century, companies had many levels between the worker in the shop or office and the President. Decisions had to pass through many levels of approval before anything got done. Organizations grew larger and the bureaucracies ballooned until some of them were crushed under their own weight. Roughly fifteen years ago, Fortune Magazine ran a cover story about the huge reorganization efforts in GM and IBM, in which one executive was quoted as saying, "Trying to get a decision made was like swimming...

Words: 802 - Pages: 4

Organisational Structures- Tesco & Oxfam

...Organisational Structures- Tesco & Oxfam Organisational Structures- Tesco Tesco has a tall and traditional organisational structure. Because Tesco is a big company, its hierarchical structure offers many layers of management, giving everyone their individual place in the business. Hierarchical structures also ensure that management runs smoothly and that all of their employees know their roles and responsibilities so they can work more efficiently. Also, Tesco have several people in charge of each department so their span of control is quite thin, which divides up the workload and responsibility for those people in charge, so they can manage fewer members of staff. However, this type of structure also has its disadvantages. Even though it is clear to the employees where they have to report to, a tall structure can cause some communication problems. For example, if there are problems in one of the lower departments in Tesco, it can take a long time to be fixed because of the many levels of hierarchy that it has to travel through in order to be resolved, which could make some branches feel they are slightly isolated. Organisational Structures- Oxfam On the other hand, Oxfam has a flatter structure because they don’t need as many employees as Tesco does. Because they don’t have as many paid staff, their costs would be much lower. It would also mean that there would be a smaller number of managers, so they would have the responsibility of a large number of workers...

Words: 369 - Pages: 2

D3 Organisational Structure

...those aims and objectives. Within this essay I will be analyzing two contrasting business and their organizational structures, strategic plans, aims and objectives and the specific actions both organizations intend to take in order to ensure these targets or aims are met. The two organizations which will evaluated are Tesco plc which is a profitable national organization and Mid Kent college which is a national not for profit organization. In order for employees working within Tesco's to be aware of what authority to answer to or what position they are in, there is a organization structure placed. An organizational structure is a visual presentation that shows how each of the workers within a business are organized and relate to each other as well as, who has authority over each division of work and the role that each worker has. There are various types of organizational structures such as: * Hierarchal Structure: A hierarchal structure has a layer format where people in the higher layers have more authority than those in the lower layers. * Horizontal/flat structure: A flat structure has fewer layers and more people are allocated to each layer, decision making is mainly done in groups. * Matrix structure: collects groups of people with certain skills for specific projects. Tesco has a Hierarchal structure, below is Tesco's organizational structure: Below is a list of Tesco's functional areas and jobs within each division: * Head Office * Customer Service ...

Words: 571 - Pages: 3

Organisational Structure and Culture

...the world according to retail industry analysts in London. Organizational behavior is about the impact of individuals, groups, culture and structure on the business. It relates to expected behaviors of individuals within the organization as every single individual is different. And people tend to behave differently in a same situation. As people are the one who work in the organization, the performance of organization depend on the performances by employees so managers should make the list of expected behaviours of employees within organization and it is necessary to know how to deal with it. The value system, emotional intelligence, organizational culture, structure, job design and the work environment are important in determining human behavior. An appropriate culture can change the behavior of individuals. Organizational structures Organizational structure is a system used to define a hierarchy within an organization. It identifies each job, its function and where it reports to within the organization. (Lucy Friend, N.D) There are several organizational structures; however, the type of structure in an organization depends on aim, size of the business, and industry. Carefully chosen structures will improve the communication throughout the organization. Types of Organizational Structures Line Structures This is a structure, where authority...

Words: 1123 - Pages: 5

Organisational Structure Haven Hospice

...Organisational structure Organizational structure refers to both the formal and informal frameworks that shape how a business is operated. An organization structure determines how employees are grouped together and plays a large role in a firm’s success. Choosing a structure is not a one-size-fits-all decision, and business owners must select the model that best suits the needs of their organization. Traditionally, many organisations have been in the form of a Pyramid structure. Most responsibility lies at the top and there is more staff at the bottom with less responsibility. There is a hierarchy, and staffs know their position within the organisation. Hierarchies have tall and flat structure Tall organisation Tall organizational structure is one which has many levels of hierarchy. In these organizations, there are usually many managers, and each manager has a narrow span of control, they are in charge of only a small group of people. Tall structures tend to be more complicated and complex, and may be slower to respond to market changes than organizations where managers have a larger span of control. Employee satisfaction may be lower in a tall organization because of the many layers of bureaucracy and rigid rules. Tall organizations may face higher costs than in other types of business structures. One reason for this is the large number of managers and supervisors required in a tall structure. Advantages: There are various advantages of tall organizations. *...

Words: 2029 - Pages: 9

Why Does Organisational Structure Matter?

...119SAM Organising for Business Coursework 1 1. Why does organisational structure matter? Illustrate your answer using appropriate examples ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. This essay will look thoroughly at organisational structure and its importance to businesses. How an organisation is structured determines the way it operates and performs. An organisational structure is the way in which a business divides and uses its resources to complete a variety of task to ensure that objectives are met. It clearly allocates responsibilities to employees and departments. The way an organisation is structures will be dependent on the objectives they hope to achieve. An effective organisational structure should be suited to the business which will maximise efficiency and success. If a business uses an inappropriate organisational structure it will hinder the success of the business. “Good organization structure does not by itself produce good performance ... But a poor organization structure makes good performance impossible, no matter how good the individual managers may be”(Drucker1989). This statement shows the importance of a good organisational structure and how performance in restricted without it. Furthermore organisational structure is importance for a number of reasons. One benefit is that it provides a framework which the organisation can be organised which will allow the firm to achieve key objectives and aims. Also Tasks are able to be broken...

Words: 2533 - Pages: 11

Camparison and Contrats Between Different Organisational Structures and Culture:

...CAMPARISON AND CONTRASTS BETWEEN DIFFERENT ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURES AND CULTURE: Organizational Structure: Organizational structure can take many forms; it’s affected by size, the difficulty the task it performs, including the environment and the culture. The structure you choose for your company is what will determine how your company will perform. It will determine the negative and positive effect in your company. It allows the owner of a business to have a glimpse of the grounding and structural choices, so he can have knowledge of competitors, and also organize his employees to the best advantage of his company. Some organizations have bureaucratic structures, these are hierarchical. These types of structures have long chain command, from the top layer to the bottom. The hierarchical structures were much popular during the 20th century. With this type of structure, it will ensure a smooth command structure, because of the narrow span control (The number of people that report to manger or supervisor). In contrast hierarchical structure is the Flat structure, which has few layers are on layer of management. The chain of command is short and span of control is wide. Command and communications will be short, fast and effective. It’s basically used for project work within an organization. People with special skills makes up the team of the structure, these people include the HR and other skillful people. Long command structure will not work smoothly with entrepreneurs’...

Words: 470 - Pages: 2

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Many types of writing follow some version of the basic shape described above. This shape is most obvious in the form of the traditional five-paragraph essay: a model for college writing in which the writer argues his or her viewpoint (thesis) on a topic and uses three reasons or subtopics to support that position. In the five-paragraph model, as illustrated below, the introductory paragraph mentions the three main points or subtopics, and each body paragraph begins with a topic sentence dealing with one of those main points.

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How to Organize and Structure a Customer Service Team

One company maintains a small customer support team of 100 people and still manages great resolution times, amazing customer satisfaction, and consistent collaboration across all members, boosting customer loyalty and customer retention.

Another company might have a much smaller customer service team of only 50 agents, handling a much lower volume of cases.

And yet, they have disjointed processes and unclear priorities, leading to frustrated customers and prolonged resolution times.

The difference between the two — more often than not — is the customer service structure of their customer service team.

What is the typical customer service team structure?

A customer service organizational structure outlines how the team is set up, including the different roles, responsibilities, and hierarchy within a functional organizational structure .

Typical customer service teams consist of the following roles:

• A director (often fulfilling the role of chief customer officer ) overseeing the development of the department and long-term strategy.
• A manager or team leader responsible for managing team performance and ensuring smooth day-to-day operations.
• Some teams might also have supervisors who handle escalated issues or manage specific shifts.
• Customer service representatives are the frontline agents responsible for daily customer interaction with customers.
• Some teams have dedicated quality assurance specialists who review interactions to ensure quality standards are met and provide feedback, training, or coaching to agents.
• As teams grow, they often introduce a support operations role for process improvement and managing customer service tools .
• Some might even have dedicated analysts to identify trends and patterns in customer service metrics .
• This is still a fairly specialized role but is becoming increasingly common, especially as a result of AI improvements. More and more companies have dedicated knowledge managers who maintain and update customer-facing documentation .
• Larger customer experience (CX) teams might include customer success managers or even an account manager . Since the types of challenges CSMs face often have a lot in common with customer service, keeping these under the same umbrella along with the sales team can have a massive impact on the customer experience.

Each of these roles should work holistically to ensure that customers experience the brand exactly how you want them to.

Customers with a Net Promoter Score (NPS) Promoter score have a customer lifetime value that’s 600%-1,400% higher than Detractors. When every member of the team plays their part effectively, they each contribute to those higher scores.

The challenge is in identifying the right times to introduce these roles and in choosing the right organizational structure that helps them all collaborate productively.

⭐️ Recommended: What is customer service anyway?

The benefits of an effective team structure in customer service

Badly structured teams often feel overwhelmed and struggle to perform at their best level consistently.

You’ll know you’ve found the right structure for your team if you’re seeing:

• Enhanced customer satisfaction . It should empower the team to deliver consistent and excellent customer service , whether it’s by proactively identifying issues and tackling them, ensuring clear communication across your organization, or simply providing clarity and direction.
• High levels of efficiency. A well-organized team structure ensures that responsibilities are clearly defined, leading to smoother workflows. When everyone knows what they need to focus on when, they’ll be able to respond to a higher volume of requests or customer inquiries without compromising quality.
• Regular collaboration. Ideally, your team structure should create an environment where everyone understands their role, how they contribute to the overall success of your company, and how they communicate with each other to enable that.
• High employee satisfaction. Employees should have a sense of purpose and opportunities to grow in responsibilities throughout their tenure.
• Effective training and development. A structured team should make implementing training programs and professional development opportunities tailored to employees’ roles and career aspirations easier.

7 ways to organize a customer service team

There are seven (yes, seven!) very common ways to organize a support team. 

1. Tiered support team structure

Tiered support involves organizing the customer service team into multiple levels based on the complexity of inquiries.

The most common way of splitting this up is to have Tier 1 agents handling basic inquiries and providing initial troubleshooting, while Tier 2 and Tier 3 agents handle more complex issues that require specialized knowledge or expertise.

Here’s how Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3 support are generally defined:

• This is the first line of support and typically involves handling basic customer inquiries and issues. Tier 1 support agents are usually equipped to handle common problems that have predefined solutions, such as password resets, user account problems, or basic technical questions. If the issue can’t be resolved at this level, it is escalated to Tier 2.
• Tier 2 is more specialized and deals with more complex issues that Tier 1 is unable to resolve. Support personnel at this level have deeper knowledge and more access to the company’s products or services. They can perform advanced troubleshooting, including deeper technical issues, configuration problems, and software discrepancies. When solutions at this level are not sufficient, issues are escalated to Tier 3.
• This level of support handles the most complex problems that require expert skills and knowledge. Tier 3 support often involves the development team, engineers, or product specialists who have the expertise to develop custom solutions, handle software bugs, and provide detailed technical support. This tier deals with problem resolution and innovative solutions, and often works on problem fixes that might be included in future product updates.

This structure works well for companies that want to maximize the productivity of Tier 1 agents, so it’s ideal if there’s a big bulk of Tier 1 tickets. It’s also great because it creates a structure that enables escalation. 

2. Functional support team structure

In this case, the customer service team is organized based on functions. Those can be defined by channel (e.g., separate teams for chat and email support) or based on types of inquiries, like billing. 

It only makes sense for larger organizations with diverse customer service needs, where this level of specialization leads to an improved experience across functions. 

3. Product or service-based team structure

Companies that provide multiple products or services might structure their service team around that.

This is ideal if you aim to provide a specialized service (like a Professional Services team) for specific customers. It also works well if you have multiple products, and maintaining a good depth of knowledge across all of them is challenging for your agents. 

4. Customer segment team structure

The most common way to split based on customer demographics or segments is to have a dedicated team for VIP customers. If your business offers B2B and B2C packages, you might also split the team along those lines.

Customer-segment structures are great when you want to provide a tailored experience for a particular segment. 

For example, your business customers might need a more personalized, in-depth style of service than your consumer customers, who might be more interested in fast, tech-touch responses that resolve their issues. 

5. Based on stages of the customer journey

Customer journey splits are most common in customer success team structures or large enterprise organizations that try to optimize each stage of the customer journey. 

One team might be responsible for presales support, one for onboarding, another for existing customers, and a separate team for long-term retention and engagement. This is a structure that’s heavily dependent on how well communication flows in your organization to be successful. 

6. Location-based team structure

Another extremely common split, especially in global companies, is based on market, geography, or language. Each region or country has its own customer service team responsible for serving customers in that area, taking into account language, culture, and local regulations.

This structure ensures localized support and efficient communication with customers in different regions. It can introduce some challenges with the team dynamics, however, because it’s hard to maintain consistent policies across all teams. 

7. A hybrid team structure

A hybrid structure combines elements of different organizational approaches to meet the company’s specific needs. While each of the above structures have strengths, it’s very common for companies to opt for a mixture of structures. Organizations are constantly evolving and changing, and customer service teams will adapt and restructure as their requirements change.

For example, a company might use a functional structure for handling inquiries across different channels (phone, email, chat) and a product-based structure for providing specialized support for different product lines. 

A hybrid structure can be the best option for delivering a great customer experience, but it’s important to ensure that the structure doesn’t become too complex for agents or customers to navigate easily. 

How To Build Customer Service Teams For Different Company Sizes

There are two key points at which you have to consider how your team is organized and whether it’s holding you back from achieving your goals:

• As you scale, it’s easy to recognize that you need more staff, but it’s a little harder to judge when to split into multiple teams, introduce specialization, or even roll back specializations. 
• When you introduce big changes across the company, like a new product or market launch. The challenge in support is that there’s often a lag between big company changes and when they require structural changes in support. For example, it takes time for a new product to gain enough traction and needs a dedicated team to support it.

Here are some tips that will help across all situations. 

1. Customer service team structure in a startup

Startups and scale-ups have very different needs from an established enterprise company. 

Resources are typically limited in a startup, so having agents who can handle various tasks is crucial. These generalists should be able to handle inquiries across different channels (email, phone, chat, social media). Establishing close communication lines with product teams at this early stage is important to ensure customer feedback is shared.

While a lot of people might start investing in self-service or AI solutions at a later stage, doing this early can actually make a lot of sense for your business. 

2. Customer service team structure in an SMB 

Small and medium-sized businesses might have support teams that start to specialize. They might also consider implementing a tier support system. With a slightly larger team, SMBs can invest more in training and development programs. 

When working across multiple teams, a CRM or ticketing system is essential for tracking interactions across various touchpoints. 

3. Customer service team structure in an enterprise company

Enterprise companies often have the resources and the need to divide the customer service team into specialized departments, like technical support, finance, and customer success. They’re also a bit more likely to try to go for 24/7 coverage.

Many tools for customer feedback tend to have enterprise-level pricing–as you’re handling a massive volume of inquiries, it takes a lot more analytics effort to analyze, monitor, and improve customer service metrics. 

More tips for building a good customer service team structure

1. have clear leadership for your customer service team.

Good leadership makes a massive difference, especially if you’re managing your team through a restructuring or any other change.

A well-designed team hierarchy creates a better team by providing defined areas of responsibility and oversight, ensuring that each team member knows their role and how it contributes to the overall objectives of the department. 

It takes a lot of empathy, open communication, and problem-solving skills to maintain this over time. 

2. Enable collaboration between different support teams

One of the biggest challenges with introducing specialized teams is avoiding silos. Miscommunication will obviously result in longer queues and an increased time-to-resolution for customer issues–which is ultimately a worse customer experience.

The trick is to identify where the bottleneck is happening and try to improve that. Collaboration will enable your teams to leverage each other’s expertise and resources, so look for ways to enable that with the tools you already have. Invest in great handoffs both internally within the support organization and across the broader company. 

Great knowledge management as the foundation of growing support organizations (Add Tettra)

Figuring out a team structure that works (and noticing when it stops working) is one piece of a larger puzzle.

The good news is that you can empower your team with tools that support them through all transitions. 

Great knowledge management is the perfect example.

Tettra is a cutting-edge knowledge management and collaboration tool designed specifically to streamline internal communication within customer service and support teams.

By leveraging its integrated AI bot , teams can efficiently manage and access collective knowledge, enabling quicker resolution of customer queries and enhancing the overall support experience. The platform excels in centralizing information, making it easily searchable and accessible, thus reducing response times and increasing the accuracy of information provided to customers.

• AI-Powered Assistance: The AI bot offers real-time suggestions and automations, helping teams access the right information swiftly.
• Easy Knowledge Sharing: Simplifies the process of documenting and retrieving internal knowledge, crucial for consistent customer support.
• Enhanced Collaboration: Facilitates better teamwork by integrating seamlessly with tools like Slack and Microsoft Teams.

At Tettra , we’ve developed an AI-powered knowledge management system that will help your team consolidate and manage all of that internal knowledge.

Start your free 30-day trial of Tettra.

Start building your knowledge base today.

Fewer repetitive questions for you and faster answers for your team.

We guarantee you’ll be hooked.

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• Published: 08 May 2024

Accurate structure prediction of biomolecular interactions with AlphaFold 3

• Josh Abramson   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0000-3496-6952 1   na1 ,
• Jonas Adler   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9928-3407 1   na1 ,
• Jack Dunger 1   na1 ,
• Richard Evans   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4675-8469 1   na1 ,
• Tim Green   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3227-1505 1   na1 ,
• Alexander Pritzel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4233-9040 1   na1 ,
• Olaf Ronneberger   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4266-1515 1   na1 ,
• Lindsay Willmore   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4314-0778 1   na1 ,
• Andrew J. Ballard   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4956-5304 1 ,
• Joshua Bambrick   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0003-3908-0722 2 ,
• Sebastian W. Bodenstein 1 ,
• David A. Evans 1 ,
• Chia-Chun Hung   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5264-9165 2 ,
• Michael O’Neill 1 ,
• David Reiman   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1605-7197 1 ,
• Kathryn Tunyasuvunakool   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8594-1074 1 ,
• Zachary Wu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2429-9812 1 ,
• Akvilė Žemgulytė 1 ,
• Eirini Arvaniti 3 ,
• Charles Beattie   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1840-054X 3 ,
• Ottavia Bertolli   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8578-3216 3 ,
• Alex Bridgland 3 ,
• Alexey Cherepanov   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5227-0622 4 ,
• Miles Congreve 4 ,
• Alexander I. Cowen-Rivers 3 ,
• Andrew Cowie   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4491-1434 3 ,
• Michael Figurnov   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1386-8741 3 ,
• Fabian B. Fuchs 3 ,
• Hannah Gladman 3 ,
• Rishub Jain 3 ,
• Yousuf A. Khan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0201-2796 3 ,
• Caroline M. R. Low 4 ,
• Kuba Perlin 3 ,
• Anna Potapenko 3 ,
• Pascal Savy 4 ,
• Sukhdeep Singh 3 ,
• Adrian Stecula   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6914-6743 4 ,
• Ashok Thillaisundaram 3 ,
• Catherine Tong   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7570-4801 4 ,
• Sergei Yakneen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7827-9839 4 ,
• Ellen D. Zhong   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6345-1907 3 ,
• Michal Zielinski 3 ,
• Augustin Žídek   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0748-9684 3 ,
• Victor Bapst 1   na2 ,
• Pushmeet Kohli   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7466-7997 1   na2 ,
• Max Jaderberg   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9033-2695 2   na2 ,
• Demis Hassabis   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2812-9917 1 , 2   na2 &
• John M. Jumper   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6169-6580 1   na2  

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We are providing an unedited version of this manuscript to give early access to its findings. Before final publication, the manuscript will undergo further editing. Please note there may be errors present which affect the content, and all legal disclaimers apply.

• Drug discovery
• Machine learning
• Protein structure predictions
• Structural biology

The introduction of AlphaFold 2 1 has spurred a revolution in modelling the structure of proteins and their interactions, enabling a huge range of applications in protein modelling and design 2–6 . In this paper, we describe our AlphaFold 3 model with a substantially updated diffusion-based architecture, which is capable of joint structure prediction of complexes including proteins, nucleic acids, small molecules, ions, and modified residues. The new AlphaFold model demonstrates significantly improved accuracy over many previous specialised tools: far greater accuracy on protein-ligand interactions than state of the art docking tools, much higher accuracy on protein-nucleic acid interactions than nucleic-acid-specific predictors, and significantly higher antibody-antigen prediction accuracy than AlphaFold-Multimer v2.3 7,8 . Together these results show that high accuracy modelling across biomolecular space is possible within a single unified deep learning framework.

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Author information.

These authors contributed equally: Josh Abramson, Jonas Adler, Jack Dunger, Richard Evans, Tim Green, Alexander Pritzel, Olaf Ronneberger, Lindsay Willmore

These authors jointly supervised this work: Victor Bapst, Pushmeet Kohli, Max Jaderberg, Demis Hassabis, John M. Jumper

Authors and Affiliations

Core Contributor, Google DeepMind, London, UK

Josh Abramson, Jonas Adler, Jack Dunger, Richard Evans, Tim Green, Alexander Pritzel, Olaf Ronneberger, Lindsay Willmore, Andrew J. Ballard, Sebastian W. Bodenstein, David A. Evans, Michael O’Neill, David Reiman, Kathryn Tunyasuvunakool, Zachary Wu, Akvilė Žemgulytė, Victor Bapst, Pushmeet Kohli, Demis Hassabis & John M. Jumper

Core Contributor, Isomorphic Labs, London, UK

Joshua Bambrick, Chia-Chun Hung, Max Jaderberg & Demis Hassabis

Google DeepMind, London, UK

Eirini Arvaniti, Charles Beattie, Ottavia Bertolli, Alex Bridgland, Alexander I. Cowen-Rivers, Andrew Cowie, Michael Figurnov, Fabian B. Fuchs, Hannah Gladman, Rishub Jain, Yousuf A. Khan, Kuba Perlin, Anna Potapenko, Sukhdeep Singh, Ashok Thillaisundaram, Ellen D. Zhong, Michal Zielinski & Augustin Žídek

Isomorphic Labs, London, UK

Alexey Cherepanov, Miles Congreve, Caroline M. R. Low, Pascal Savy, Adrian Stecula, Catherine Tong & Sergei Yakneen

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Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Max Jaderberg , Demis Hassabis or John M. Jumper .

Supplementary information

Supplementary information.

This Supplementary Information file contains the following 9 sections: (1) Notation; (2) Data pipeline; (3) Model architecture; (4) Auxiliary heads; (5) Training and inference; (6) Evaluation; (7) Differences to AlphaFold2 and AlphaFold-Multimer; (8) Supplemental Results; and (9) Appendix: CCD Code and PDB ID tables.

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Abramson, J., Adler, J., Dunger, J. et al. Accurate structure prediction of biomolecular interactions with AlphaFold 3. Nature (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07487-w

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Published : 08 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07487-w

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Comparing mouse and human cingulate cortex organization using functional connectivity

• Original Article
• Open access
• Published: 13 May 2024

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• Aran T. B. van Hout 1 ,
• Sabrina van Heukelum 1 ,
• Matthew F. S. Rushworth 2 , 3 ,
• Joanes Grandjean 1 , 4   na1 &
• Rogier B. Mars 1 , 2   na1  

The subdivisions of the extended cingulate cortex of the human brain are implicated in a number of high-level behaviors and affected by a range of neuropsychiatric disorders. Its anatomy, function, and response to therapeutics are often studied using non-human animals, including the mouse. However, the similarity of human and mouse frontal cortex, including cingulate areas, is still not fully understood. Some accounts emphasize resemblances between mouse cingulate cortex and human cingulate cortex while others emphasize similarities with human granular prefrontal cortex. We use comparative neuroimaging to study the connectivity of the cingulate cortex in the mouse and human, allowing comparisons between mouse ‘gold standard’ tracer and imaging data, and, in addition, comparison between the mouse and the human using comparable imaging data. We find overall similarities in organization of the cingulate between species, including anterior and midcingulate areas and a retrosplenial area. However, human cingulate contains subareas with a more fine-grained organization than is apparent in the mouse and it has connections to prefrontal areas not present in the mouse. Results such as these help formally address between-species brain organization and aim to improve the translation from preclinical to human results.

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Introduction

Much of our knowledge about the human brain is based on knowledge obtained in other species. While numerous species have been used to model the human brain, the mouse has emerged as the most prominent of these, due to its rapid life cycle, straightforward husbandry, and amenability to genetic engineering (Dietrich et al. 2014 ). The overall assumption in this work is that the knowledge obtained in the mouse ‘model species’ is translatable to the human, due to overall similarities in biological properties of the two species. However, the success rate of such translations have sometimes been disappointing, especially in the case of neuropsychopharmacology (Hay et al. 2014 ). This is due, in part, to assumptions of between-species similarities not holding (Striedter 2022 ). As such, it is becoming increasingly apparent that these assumption should be subjected to explicit empirical validation.

The various divisions of cingulate cortex have repeatedly been shown to be important in many aspects of emotional processing, decision making, and cognitive control (Behrens et al. 2013 ; Leech and Sharp 2014 ; Kolling et al. 2016 ) and alterations in cingulate morphology (Goodkind et al. 2015 ; Opel et al. 2020 ) and functional connectivity (Marusak et al. 2016 ) are a common observation across a range of psychiatric disorders. Cingulate cortex is thought to be an evolutionary conserved region in mammals. Indeed, an analysis of common areas across six major mammalian clades suggests that cingulate cortex is present in all and that it could have been part of a limited set of neocortical regions present in early mammals (Kaas 2011 ). The combination of common alterations in disease and apparent evolutionary conservation make cingulate cortex an important target for translational neuroscience research.

However, the similarity of rodent and human cingulate has been called into question on a number of grounds. First, it has been argued by some authors that rodent cingulate cortex has organizational features similar to those of primate dorsolateral prefrontal cortex or that at least it performs homologous functions (Brown and Bowman 2002 ; Uylings et al. 2003 ; Carlén, 2017 ). Second, among researchers who reject these claims, there still is some debate about how rodent cingulate should be subdivided and how its organization relates to that of the primate (Laubach et al. 2018 ; van Heukelum et al. 2020 ). Third, even if cingulate cortex were found to be fully homologous in mouse and human it would be embedded within the larger prefrontal network within the human brain compared to other species (Schaeffer et al. 2020 ). These arguments continue to be reassessed with the appearance of new data types that enable better and more complete comparisons across species.

One way to explore similarities and differences in brain organization across species is by studying connectivity. The connections of brain areas constitute a unique ‘fingerprint’ and provide information about the area’s incoming information and the influence it exerts on other parts of the brain (Passingham et al. 2002 ; Mars et al. 2018 ). We have previously employed functional connectivity as assessed using resting state fMRI to compare connectivity across humans and non-human primates (Mars et al. 2011 , 2016 ) and humans and mice (Balsters et al. 2020 ). Cingulate connectivity has been studied using neuroimaging in a number of studies using both diffusion MRI tractography (Beckmann et al. 2009 ; Smith et al. 2018 ) and functional connectivity (Margulies et al. 2007 ; Hutchison et al. 2012 ; Schaeffer et al. 2020 ). Even if the species studied have diverged such a long time ago that assessing homology purely by means of connectivity is likely to be difficult, studying the patterns of connectivity across cingulate cortex is likely to provide insight in the similarities and differences in cortical organization (cf. Van Heukelum et al. ( 2020 )). Here, we study mouse cingulate functional connectivity, assessing it against the ‘gold standard’ of tracer-based structural connectivity, and compare it with similar data from the human. The goal of the study is to assess to what extent the general organizational principles of cingulate organization are comparable across the two species.

Materials and methods

Data-driven analysis of mouse tracer data.

We first performed a data-driven parcellation of the rodent cingulate cortex based on structural connectivity as established using tracers following the strategy of Mandino et al. ( 2022 ). This serves as a baseline for the subsequent analyses using functional MRI data.

We downloaded data from 498 tracer experiments from the independent tracer-based connectivity dataset of the Allen Institute (Oh et al. 2014 ) using a custom interface ( https://github.com/neuroecology/allen-tracer-download ). In these experiments C57BL/6 male mice received a viral anterograde tracer injection in various subcortical and cortical sites of the right hemisphere. This viral tracer initiates the coding of a fluorescent protein which accumulates in the axons of neurons. Through visualising this fluorescence, a detailed description of the structural connections between the site of injection and the rest of the brain can be created.

After downloading these tracer experiments, 2000 seeds were placed at even intervals along a region of interest spanning the left hemisphere anterior cingulate area, infralimbic area, prelimbic area, and retrosplenial area (hence referred to as the ‘cingulate ROI’) according to the nomenclature of the Allen mouse brain reference atlas (Wang et al. 2020 ). Where possible, we will use the terminology of Vogt and Paxinos ( 2014 ) for the cingulate and Paxinos and Franklin ( 2019 ) for the rest of the brain when discussing our results.

Subsequently, we extracted the tracer density in these seeds and correlated these with the tracer density recorded in the rest of the brain, thus resulting in a seeds by whole-brain correlation map. The left hemisphere was selected for the seed locations to extract axonal projections, as opposed to cell body-related tracer density. This allowed us to generate connectivity maps based on axonal projection similarity.

Having created the correlation maps, we grouped seed voxels together as a function of their connectivity profiles by performing an independent component analysis (ICA) on the correlations maps using FSL’s melodic (Beckmann and Smith 2005 ). An independent component provides a spatial map of voxels that have similar correlations to the cingulate seed voxels. Thus, ICA essentially divides the brain, including the cingulate cortex itself, into components based upon their connections with the cingulate cortex. We ran ICA multiple times, each time requesting a different number of components, ranging from four to nine. In general, the components remained stable for the different amount levels of granularity. However more subtle effects become apparent at greater granularities.

Mouse structural connectivity fingerprints

To summarize the connectivity of the different parts of the cingulate ROI with the rest of the brain, we describe the correlation of connectivity of seed areas in the cingulate with target areas in the rest of the brain as ‘connectivity fingerprints’ (cf. Passingham et al. 2002 ; Mars et al. 2018 ). To this end, we placed ten seeds in the cingulate ROI at even intervals along the rostral-caudal axis. Anteriorly, one seed was placed in area 25 and another one in area 32. More caudally, four seeds were placed in area 24 and 24′ of the mid-cingulate. Finally, we placed an additional four seeds in the retrosplenial area; one of which was placed in the most posterior-lateral part of RSA, just above the post-subiculum.

We chose target regions on the basis of multiple criteria. Firstly, regions were selected that receive projections from, or project to, the cingulate according to existing literature. Importantly, the target areas should have a connectivity profile that is able to dissociate different parts of cingulate cortex, to illustrate the principles of connectivity across this part of cortex. For instance, regions involved in control of arousal (e.g., hypothalamus, anterior insula) and reward processing (e.g., amygdala, anterior insula, nucleus accubens, and orbitofrontal cortex) are expected to show connectivity to anterior and, in humans, subgenual cingulate cortex (Medford and Critchley 2010 ; Alexander et al. 2019 ); areas involved in motor control (e.g., caudoputamen, premotor cortex, and parietal cortex) to mid-cingulate areas involved in motor control (Beckmann et al. 2009 ; Vogt 2016 ); and medial temporal areas (e.g., hippocampus) to posterior areas (Margulies et al. 2009 ). Secondly, the results from the ICA were used to ensure that the target regions would be able to differentiate between the seeds. For instance, a nucleus of the thalamus that projects strongly to the entire cingulate ROI is of little use for distinguishing between the different cingulate subregions. Finally, target regions were only considered if their homology across mouse and human brains is well established. By these criteria, the following 9 target regions were selected for the mouse connectivity fingerprints: (1) hippocampal formation, (2) amygdala, (3) nucleus accumbens, (4) hypothalamus, (5) caudoputamen, (6) secondary motor area, (7) medial parietal association cortex, (8) dorsal agranular insular cortex, (9) ventral orbital cortex.

Mouse resting state fMRI data

To compare the organization of the cingulate across species, it is preferable to use the same type of data (Mars et al. 2021 ). We obtained publicly available resting state functional MRI data from both mice and humans. We used these data to estimate ‘functional connectivity’, i.e., similarity in time courses of spontaneous blood oxygenation level dependant contrast fluctuations across voxels.

Mouse resting state fMRI scans were downloaded from an existing pre-processed dataset collection ( https://doi.org/10.34973/1he1-5c70 ) (Grandjean 2020 ). For these datasets, mouse functional MRI acquisitions were conducted in accordance with the Swiss federal guidelines and under a license from the Zurich Cantonal Veterinary Office (149/2015) as well as the ethical standards of the Institutional Animal care and use Committee (A*STAR Biological Resource Centre, Singapore). Scans from 182 (111 male, 71 female) healthy wild-type mice (C57BL/6 strain) were downloaded. These scans, in turn, belong to different sub-datasets (Table  1 ).

In all these sub-datasets, the mice were anesthetised with isoflurane (see Grandjean et al. ( 2014 ) for a detailed protocol). Subsequently, the mice were mechanically ventilated and placed on an MRI-compatible cradle. During the scanning, the anaesthesia was maintained with a combination of isoflurane (0.5%) and medetomidine infusion (0.1 mg/kg/h). Different scanner settings were used for each of the datasets.

The mouse scans were preprocessed as described in Huntenburg et al. ( 2020 ). Briefly, the anatomical scans were corrected for the B1-field inhomogeneity (ANTs, N4BiasFieldCorrection), denoised (ANTs, DenoiseImage), brain-masked (ANTs, antsBrainExtraction.sh) and, via the study template, registered to the Allen reference template (resampled to a 0.2 mm 3 resolution, ANTs, antsRegistration). The functional scans were despiked (AFNI, 3dDespike), motion corrected (AFNI, 3dvolreg), corrected for the B1 field, denoised, brain masked and registered to their anatomical images. Finally, they were bandpass filtered (0.01–0.25 Hz, AFNI, 3dBandpass) and an ICA was applied to determine nuisance components which were subsequently filtered out ( https://github.com/grandjeanlab/MouseMRIPrep , FSL, FIX).

The mean timeseries were extracted from the seed and target locations for each scan using fslmeants and correlations between the timeseries was calculated for each subject using 1ddot . Finally, the correlations were averaged over the subjects and visualised into a fingerprint which indicates how a single target regions connects to the different cingulate seeds.

Human resting state fMRI data

To study human functional connectivity, we used the S1200 7 T rs-fMRI dataset of the Human Connectome Project (HCP, available at https://db.humanconnectome.org ) (Van Essen et al. 2013 ). The precise parameters for both the data acquisition and preprocessing have been described elsewhere (Glasser et al. 2013 ; Smith et al. 2013 ). In short, rs-fMRI was acquired using a gradient-echo EPI sequence at 7 T with the following parameters: TR = 1000 ms, TE = 22.2 ms, multiband-factor = 5, isotropic resolution = 1.6 mm, field-of-view = 208 × 208 mm, bandwidth = 1924 Hz/px, Image Acceleration factor = 2. Subjects were scanned four times, each session lasted approximately 16 min during which 900 volumes were acquired. For the current research, only the first of these scanning sessions with posterior-anterior phase encoding was used.

We carried out quality control based on functional connectivity specificity in the S1200 7 T dataset (Grandjean et al. 2023 ). We define functional connectivity using strong ( r  > 0.1) homotopic interhemispheric correlation within sensory networks, and absence or anti-correlations ( r  < 0.1) between task-positive (sensory) and task-negative networks (default-mode). To do so practically, we estimated seed-based connectivity maps relative to a seed in the sensory cortex. We selected scans with strong homotopic correlations with a contralateral seed and weak correlation with a seed in the anterior cingulate. The code to achieve this is available at: https://github.com/grandjeanlab/MultiRat . In the end, 127 scans were downloaded from the HCP (39 male, 88 female). The scans were already preprocessed with the HCP pipeline (Griffanti et al. 2014 ; Salimi-Khorshidi et al. 2014 ) and were further preprocessed by smoothing and bandpass filtering (0.01–0.1 Hz) the scans using AFNI 3dTproject. The mean timeseries were extracted for the seed and target locations and correlated to each other using fslmeants and AFNI’s 1ddot , respectively, for each subject. As for the mouse, the correlations were averaged over the subjects and visualised as a single fingerprint for each target region.

To create the human connectivity fingerprints analogous to those in the mouse, seeds were placed in the cingulate along the rostral–caudal axis at even intervals. We used the atlases of Neubert et al. ( 2015 ) and Beckmann et al. ( 2009 ) to assign approximate area names for anterior and midcingulate and for posterior cingulate and retrosplenial cortex, respectively. Twelve seeds were placed at the following MNI [ x y z ] coordinates: seed 1 [4 18 − 10] (area 25), seed 2 [4 30 − 6] (ventral border of area 24 and dorsal border of area 14 m), seed 3 [4 40 0] in area 24, seed 4 [4 38 12] (area 24), seed 5 [4 30 22] (area 24), seed 6 [4 16 32] (border of area 24 and RCZa), seed 7 [4 0 38] (area 23ab/RCZp), seed 8 [4 − 14 36] (area 23ab/RCZp), seed 9 [4 − 30 38] (area 23ab/RCZp), seed 10 [4 -40 32] (area 31/23ab), seed 11 [4 − 48 16] (area 23ab), seed 12 [10 − 46 8] (area 23ab).

Subsequently, nine target regions were selected which are considered to be homologues to the mouse target regions, namely: the hippocampal formation [26 − 16 − 20] (according to Amunts et al. ( 2000 ), the amygdala [22 − 6 − 16] (Amunts et al. 2005 ), the nucleus accumbens [10 16 − 4], the hypothalamus [4 − 6 − 8], the caudate nucleus [12 16 4], the supplementary motor area [8 − 4 60] (Neubert et al. 2015 ), the superior parietal lobule [30 − 56 62] (SPLC; Mars et al. ( 2011 )), anterior insula [42 12 − 6], and orbitofrontal cortex [6 30 − 20] (area 14 m; Neubert et al. ( 2015 )).

For a follow-up analysis to investigate connectivity of the cingulate seeds with human granular prefrontal areas, we placed additional seeds in granular orbitofrontal cortex [4 46 − 12] (area 11 m; Neubert et al. ( 2015 ), medial frontal pole [6 62 4] (FPm; Neubert et al. ( 2015 )), lateral frontal pole [25 57 5] (FPl; Neubert et al. ( 2014 )), medial frontal gyrus [28 40 32] (area 9/46D; Sallet et al. ( 2013 ), and area 9 m [8 58 28] (Neubert et al. 2015 ).

To determine whether cingulate seeds possessed characteristic patterns of connectivity probability from the target areas considered, we carried out repeated-measures analyses of variance on the data, with factors for seed and target area. Huyhn-Feldt adjustment was applied where necessary.

Ethics statement

Mouse functional MRI acquisitions were conducted in accordance with the Swiss federal guidelines and under a license from the Zurich Cantonal Veterinary Office (149/2015) as well as the ethical standards of the Institutional Animal care and use Committee (A*STAR Biolocial Resource Centre, Singapore, IACUC £171203). Mouse viral tracer experiments were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the Allen Institute for Brain Science, in accordance with NIH guidelines. Human functional MRI data are publicly available and described in the core literature referenced here.

Mouse tracer data

We set out to examine the structural networks of the cingulate area in the mouse. Earlier studies demonstrated that projection similarity across a viral tracer dataset can be used to examine the projectome of seed regions (Mandino et al. 2022 ). Here, we applied the same method by sampling 2000 seeds across the cingulate cortex. To summarize the outcomes of the seed-based maps, we applied an independent component analysis. In general, the components of the ICA remained stable for the different levels of granularity, although more subtle effects become apparent at greater granularities. We here present the solution for six components, to provide a balance between granularity and coarseness. Cluster solutions for n  = 4 and 9 components are presented in the Supplementary Material.

The first component overlapped with the anterior part of our ROI, in the territory delineated as area 25 and partly as area 32 by Vogt and Paxinos ( 2014 ) (Fig.  1 A). Outside the cingulate this component overlapped with limbic structures such as the hippocampal formation, amygdala, and the nucleus accumbens. Another, weaker, orbitofrontal component (Fig.  1 F) was mostly associated with the anterior cingulate areas, but did not show much association outside the ROI.

Independent component analysis of mouse structural connectivity from viral anterograde tracer injection studies relative to the cingulate area. Six component solution depicting the spatial maps (hot colors) and the cingulate area seeds associated with the component (blue to red) projected onto the outline of the cingulate area

At the posterior end of the ROI, a component overlapped with the retrosplenial area (Fig.  1 B). This component was relatively self-contained and did not extend to as many structures apart from the superior colliculus and the midbrain. In addition, there was a component that overlapper with parts of the retrosplenial area and with visual regions such as the primary visual areas, the lateral geniculate complex, and the superior colliculus (Fig.  1 C).

Two components showed strong overlap with the mid part of the cingulate, overlapping with the territory of areas 24 and 24′ (Fig.  1 D/E). The first of these components also overlapped with the periaqueductal grey, the pons, the cerebral peduncles, and various nuclei of the thalamus. The other component also overlapped with parts of the caudoputamen, periaqueductal grey, the thalamus and pons (nucleus raphe).

In sum, the data-driven decomposition from the tracer studies identified components mostly organized along the anterior–posterior axis. Anterior components showed overlap with amygdala and nucleus accumbens, among other areas. Mid-cingulate areas overlapped with caudate and secondary motor cortex, posterior areas overlapped with visual and hippocampal structures. To confirm these results and allow more direct comparisons across the length of the ROI, we placed ten seeds spread across the anterior to posterior dimension. For each seed, we established the whole-brain tracer connectivity and correlated that with the connectivity of a series of target areas. This allows a more direct comparison across different parts of the cingulate as well as a comparison with the resting state fMRI data described below.

The connectivity fingerprints recapitulated the observations from the ICA. Specifically, anterior seeds tended to show high connectivity with amygdala and nucleus accumbens targets. Orbitofrontal cortex connectivity was also mostly associated with anterior cingulate seeds, but more widespread. Hippocampus and hypothalamus both reach the most anterior seed, with the hippocampus also showing strong connectivity with the most posterior seed in the retrosplenial area.

Again in accordance with the ICA decomposition results, caudoputamen and secondary motor cortex showed strong connectivity with mid-cingulate seeds, with caudoputamen connectivity a bit more widespread than that of secondary motor cortex. The medial parietal association area followed a pattern similar to that of secondary motor cortex. Finally, we looked at the connectivity of the anterior insula. This showed a quite confined connectivity with the two most anterior seeds.

Mouse and human resting state fMRI data

To enable comparison of cingulate connectivity across the mouse and the human, we analysed resting state functional MRI data. This allows us to assess the similarity in the time courses of spontaneous activation of all areas of the brain. Such ‘functional connectivity’ is not the same as the anatomical connectivity assessed using tracers, but the two have been shown to correlate (Grandjean et al. 2017 ). Using functional connectivity allows us to compare human and mouse brain organization using the same method. We examined functional connectivity, using MRI data, of the mouse seed areas in cingulate cortex with the same targets examined in the tracer data set. We then compared the MRI-based estimates of cingulate connectivity in the mouse to connectivity of twelve seeds placed in anterior-to-posterior locations and the homologous target areas in the human. For both the mouse ( F (72, 12,240) = 59.409, p  < 0.001) and the human ( F (88, 10,912 = 53.050, p  < 0.001), functional connectivity showed a seed by target interaction, indicating that the target areas can be used to distinguish between different cingulate seeds.

Functional connectivity of mouse amygdala, nucleus accumbens, and orbitofrontal cortex followed a pattern very similar to that of the tracer data, with connectivity mostly restricted to the anterior seeds (Fig.  2 ). The same was true for human amygdala and to a lesser extent orbitofrontal cortex, which also showed some more posterior connectivity. Nucleus accumbens, in contrast, has a more widespread connectivity pattern in the human. As was the case in the mouse tracer data set, human hippocampus showed functional connectivity with the anterior and posterior, but not mid, cingulate seeds, although the human pattern is more widespread than the mouse tracer. Mouse hippocampal functional connectivity, in contrast, showed a very widespread pattern of functional connectivity. Hypothalamic connectivity was also more widespread in functional data than in tracer data.

Connectivity of subcortical and orbitofrontal target areas with cingulate seed areas in all modalities and species. Error bars indicate ± SEM

We next investigated a number of target areas that in the human are known to show connectivity mostly with the mid part of the cingulate, including the territory of the cingulate motor areas (Fig.  3 ). Mouse caudoputamen and human caudate both showed a widespread connectivity with the cingulate seeds, but mostly peaking in midcingulate areas. The pattern was much more clear-cut in the cases of connectivity with the human supplementary motor area and posterior parietal cortex; these areas had a clear peak of connectivity with midcingulate areas. We also observed a higher functional connectivity of the mouse secondary motor area and parietal association area with midcingulate areas, although the patterns was much less clear than in the human and the peaks of the two target areas did not overlap. This difference in pattern was apparent in both the mouse tracer and resting state functional MRI data. The biggest difference between mouse and human was observed in connectivity with the insular target area. In the human, insula showed a clear affinity with the midcingulate seeds, but in the mouse both the tracer and functional data showed strongest connectivity with anterior, and to a lesser extent posterior, cingulate seed areas.

Connectivity of caudate, motor and parietal, and insula target areas with cingulate seed areas in all modalities and species. Error bars indicate ± SEM

To further illustrate the division of labor between anterior and mid-cingulate seeds for the mouse, we created whole-brain functional connectivity maps of Seed 1 (the most anterior seed) and Seed 5 (a mid-cingulate seed). As shown in Fig.  4 , these maps replicate the data shown in the bar graphs of Figs.  2 and 3 . Seed 2 shows preferential connectivity with the amygdala and nucleus accumbens, while seed 5 shows preferential connectivity with caudoputamen and parietal association cortex. Additional seeds’ connectivity maps are shown in the Supplementary Material.

Connectivity of mouse anterior and midcingulate seeds. Color strength indicate z-statistics

Human prefrontal connectivity

As a follow-up, we investigated the connectivity of human prefrontal areas with the cingulate seeds. Granular tissue of the sort found in human prefrontal cortex is not found in rodents (Preuss and Wise 2022 ). It is therefore important to quantify how our region of interest, the cingulate cortex, is connected to it in order to understand any claims of similarity or difference across species. In addition to the agranular area 14m described above, we quantified functional connectivity of the cingulate seeds with granular orbital area 11m, medial area 9, dorsolateral area 9/46D, and the medial (FPm) and lateral frontal pole (FPl).

All of these regions showed at least some functional connectivity to at least some of the cingulate regions, although there were marked differences in the profile of connections ( F (50, 6250) = 25.130, p  < 0.001) (Fig.  5 ). Medial prefrontal areas tended to show stronger connectivity with the most anterior and posterior cingulate seeds. In contrast, lateral 9/46D shows strongest connectivity with the mid part of the cingulate. The lateral frontal pole provided a mixture, with strongest connectivity with anterior and posterior cingulate cortex, but noticeably also with mid-level cingulate cortex. In sum, all frontal areas tested showed a positive functional connectivity with human cingulate cortex.

Human functional connectivity of all cingulate seed areas with six prefrontal areas. Error bars indicate ± SEM

We set out to investigate whether the mouse and human cingulate cortex are organized according to similar principles in terms of their connectivity to other parts of the brain. Overall, we show that the two species’ cingulate cortices follow broadly similar principles, with anterior areas mostly interacting with amygdala, nucleus accumbens, and orbitofrontal cortex; a midcingulate territory interacting with premotor and posterior parietal cortex; and a retrosplenial zone interacting with hippocampus. The similarity of these patterns is inconsistent with theories ascribing homology of rodent anterior cingulate with primate granular prefrontal cortex (Krettek and Price 1977 ; Eichenbaum et al. 1983 ) or that suggest rodent cingulate contains a mixture of primate cingulate and granular prefrontal features (Uylings et al. 2003 ). Rather, it is consistent with notions that infralimbic cortex in the mouse is similar to primate area 25 (Alexander et al. 2019 ), that there is a midcingulate zone with parietal and premotor connections in both species (Vogt 2016 ), and a generally similar anterior–posterior organization in both species (cf. Van Heukelum et al. ( 2020 )).

These similarities between species notwithstanding, some differences are apparent. Overall, many human cingulate areas have connectivity profiles that seem more distinct from one another that do those of the mouse cingulate cortex. Earlier work suggested parietal connectivity in the mouse is with both midcingulate and retrosplenial cortex (Zingg et al. 2014 ) and we indeed see rather widespread parietal connectivity in the mouse. Premotor and parietal connectivity are more restricted to the mid-cingulate cortex in the human. Human midcingulate cortex is thought to contain distinct anterior and posterior subdivisions (Vogt 2016 ), the first of which is not present in the mouse (Vogt and Paxinos 2014 ). In the human, parietal connectivity is stronger in the posterior part of midcingulate.

Mouse connectivity as assessed using tracers and using resting state functional MRI were overall in agreement, but some differences were noticeable. Hypothalamic connectivity as assessed using tracers was very strong in the most anterior parts of the cingulate, consistent with earlier reports (van Heukelum et al. 2020 ), but functional connectivity was more broadly distributed in both species. Human hippocampal functional connectivity resembled that of mouse tracers, but not mouse functional connectivity. This could be due to the effect of anaesthesia on the resting state fMRI of the mouse, but this awaits systematic comparison. Hippocampal and hypothalamic connectivity to posterior seeds was much stronger in the human than in the mouse. This is potentially due to the presence of a large posterior cingulate in the human (Bzdok et al. 2015 ), whereas in the mouse, this area only contains a retrosplenial cortex (Vogt and Paxinos 2014 ).

The clearest dissociation between the mouse and human data was in the connectivity of the insula. This is true even though we seeded in territory commonly described as agranular anterior insula in both species. In the mouse, the insula seed showed connectivity with anterior parts of the cingulate in both tracer and rs-fMRI data, while in the human, the insula seed showed strong functional connectivity with midcingulate areas. The human results are in accordance with models of dorsal anterior cingulate function in cognitive control and the participation of the two regions in a so-called salience network (Seeley et al. 2007 ; Menon 2011 ). Previous work has shown that the salience network, although present in both species, has different associations with the serotonergic network across human and mouse (Mandino et al. 2022 ), suggesting that the area has changed substantially since the last common ancestor of mice and humans. Alternatively, the insula seed areas we selected in human and mouse are not homologous. We have taken a region commonly used in neuroimaging studies as our human anterior insula (Cieslik et al. 2015 ; Molnar-Szakacs and Uddin 2022 ), but Öngür and Price ( 2000 ) describe a number of insular regions more anteriorly, on the caudal orbital surface. Whether the anatomical similarity between these human caudal orbital areas and mouse insular areas is greater than that between our human insula seed and the mouse is a topic for further investigation.

It is important to emphasize that we here compare principles of cingulate connectivity across species, rather than matching cingulate areas across the human and mouse brain one by one. We have previously used connectivity fingerprints to make more explicit, quantitative comparisons between regions of the human and macaque monkey brain (Mars et al. 2013 ; Sallet et al. 2013 ; Neubert et al. 2014 ); we developed a formal framework to do so (Mars et al. 2016 ) which has been used by a number of other groups since (Thompkins et al. 2018 ; Wang et al. 2019 ; Schaeffer et al. 2020 ). However, humans and mice share a common ancestor about 87 millions years ago, which is much more than the 29 million years of humans and macaques (Kumar et al. 2022 ). This means that changes in how connections relate to other aspects of brain organization, such as gene expression, receptor architecture, and cytoarchitecture, might have occurred (cf. Krubitzer and Kaas 2005 ). Testing hypotheses of similarity between distinct cortical areas in the two species should, therefore, ideally use a multi-modal approach. The current study is a first test of similarity in principles of connectivity, ongoing and future work will supplement this work by investigations in other modalities, after which a more detailed areal comparisons across species can be achieved.

In general, it is important that the target areas used are homologous when comparing connectivity across species. Here, we have taken care to use regions that are identified as such, but some discussion is in order especially when in case of targets in the neocortex. The approach used here can be used to ascertain the degree of similarity/difference between any areas in human and mouse. With respect to premotor cortex, the human brain contains areas that have no homolog in the rodent (Wise 2006 ), but the two brains’ premotor cortices do follow largely similar organizational principles (Lazari et al. 2023 ). The human ventral frontal cortex contains agranular, dysgranular, and granular areas, but rodent prefrontal cortex contains only agranular areas (Wise 2008 ; Rudebeck and Izquierdo 2022 ). We here used human area 14m as defined by Neubert et al. ( 2015 ), which is posterior to the granular areas, as our orbitofrontal cortex seed. We do note that similar results could we obtained using targets in granular area 11 m. Posterior parietal cortex is dramatically expanded in primates compared to other mammals (Krubitzer and Padberg 2009 ), but a mouse parietal association area that is homologous to primate posterior parietal cortex has been identified (Lyamzin and Benucci 2019 ). The current human parietal results are similar for targets overlapping with human MIP or 7A (Mars et al. 2011 ).

Apart from these differences described earlier, it should be taken into account that the human cingulate is embedded within a much larger and more elaborate neocortical network than that of the mouse. This means that, even if the overall organization of the two species’ cingulate with homologous areas is comparable, connectivity with non-homologous areas mean that the overall connectivity profile can still be quite distinct. This was previously shown to be the case for the human dorsal caudate, although striatal connectivity follows similar organisational principles in both species, connectivity of the dorsal caudate with the human frontal pole means that its connectivity profile is distinct from any found in the mouse (Balsters et al. 2020 ). Connectivity between the human medial frontal gyrus and human cingulate is evident in the present data, in particular area 9/46D as defined by Sallet et al. ( 2013 ), and in previous studies (Sallet et al. 2013 ; Loh et al. 2018 ). In the striatum, areas with a distinct human connectivity profile were associated with higher order cognitive processes, including executive control and language. It remains to be seen whether functional differences are found between the two species’ cingulate regions.

Model species are an essential part of research in biology and by extension neuroscience (Striedter 2022 ). Differences between the model and the species of ultimate interest, i.e., the human, are to be expected and do not necessarily present a problem for translational neuroscience, as long as these differences are properly understood. Whole-brain, high-throughput data are now increasingly available and allow us to gain a much more systematic understanding of such differences than ever before (Mars et al. 2014 ). The present work contributes to this effort by comparing a major target area for clinical research across species by means of connectivity. Future work will focus on comparing these results obtained using comparative connectivity with those obtained using other modalities, such as spatial patterns of gene expression, tissue properties, and receptor densities (Vogt et al. 2013 ; Beauchamp et al. 2022 ).

In sum, this work shows the feasibility of extending existing approaches of comparing frontal cortical organization across species using functional MRI to rodent-human comparisons. The results show a generally conserved macro-level organization, although there are important differences in both regional specialization and embedding within larger cortical networks. Such differences are important to take into account when performing between-species translations in the context of clinically relevant research.

Data availability

The Allen Institute tracer data are available for non-commercial purpose ( http://connectivity.brain-map.org/ ). The mouse resting-state fMRI data are available under the terms of the CC-BY-4.0 licence ( https://doi.org/10.34973/1he1-5c70 ). The human resting-state fMRI data are available under the terms of the HCP Data Use terms ( https://humanconnectome.org/ ). Mouse resting state fMRI pipelines are available at https://github.com/grandjeanlab/MouseMRIPrep .

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The work of RBM was supported by the EPA Cephalosporin Fund and the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) UK [BB/X013227/1]. The Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging is supported by core funding from the Wellcome Trust [201319/Z/16/Z]. For the purpose of open access, the authors have applied a CC BY public copyright licence to any Author Accepted Manuscript version arising from this submission.

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Joanes Grandjean and Rogier B. Mars shared last authors.

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Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

Aran T. B. van Hout, Sabrina van Heukelum, Joanes Grandjean & Rogier B. Mars

Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Matthew F. S. Rushworth & Rogier B. Mars

Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

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ATBvH: conceived experiment, data analysis, data interpretation, writing—first draft; SvH: data interpretation, writing—review and editing; MFSR: data interpretation, writing—review and editing; JG: conceived experiment, data analysis, data interpretation, writing—review and editing, project supervision; RBM: conceived experiment, data analysis, data interpretation, writing—first draft.

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van Hout, A.T.B., van Heukelum, S., Rushworth, M.F.S. et al. Comparing mouse and human cingulate cortex organization using functional connectivity. Brain Struct Funct (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-024-02773-9

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The Structure and Cultural Significance of the Teepee

This essay about the cultural significance and architectural ingenuity of the Indigenous teepee, particularly among North American Plains tribes. It explores how the teepee’s design, materials, and communal construction reflect Indigenous ethos and adaptation to their environment. The teepee symbolizes more than just a dwelling; it embodies spiritual beliefs, communal collaboration, and resilience. Despite historical changes, including government policies and societal shifts, the teepee remains a potent emblem of Native American heritage, fostering unity, reverence for nature, and cultural connection among Indigenous communities today.

How it works

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In summation, the Indigenous teepee serves as a testament to the resourcefulness and adaptability of Plains tribes. Its architectural configuration, conceived for practicality and mobility, facilitated the sustenance of a migratory lifestyle while embodying profound spiritual and communal import. Despite historical vicissitudes and sociocultural transformations, the teepee remains a potent emblem of Native American legacy and ethos, furnishing a glimpse into the opulent traditions and principles that have molded Indigenous cultures across North America.

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Guest Essay

Daniel Barenboim: What Beethoven’s Ninth Teaches Us

By Daniel Barenboim

Mr. Barenboim is a pianist and conductor.

Ludwig van Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony was first performed exactly 200 years ago Tuesday and has since become probably the work most likely to be embraced for political purposes.

It was played at the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin; it was performed in that city again on Christmas 1989 after the fall of the Berlin Wall, when Leonard Bernstein replaced the word “Joy” in the choral finale with “Freedom”; the European Union adopted the symphony’s “Ode to Joy” theme as its anthem. (These days the Ninth is being played in concert halls worldwide in commemoration of the premiere. The classical music world loves anniversaries.)

Beethoven might have been surprised at the political allure of his masterpiece.

He was interested in politics, but only because he was deeply interested in humanity. The story goes that he originally wanted to dedicate his “Eroica” symphony to Napoleon — it was to be called “Bonaparte” — but he changed his mind after Napoleon abandoned the ideals of the French Revolution and was crowned emperor.

I don’t believe, however, that Beethoven was interested in everyday politics. He was not an activist.

Instead, he was a deeply political man in the broadest sense of the word. He was concerned with moral behavior and the larger questions of right and wrong affecting all of society. Especially significant for him was freedom of thought and of personal expression, which he associated with the rights and responsibilities of the individual. He would have had no sympathy with the now widely held view of freedom as essentially economic, necessary for the workings of the markets.

The closest he comes to a political statement in the Ninth is a sentence at the heart of the last movement, in which voices were heard for the first time in a symphony: “All men become brothers.” We understand that now more as an expression of hope than a confident statement, given the many exceptions to the sentiment, including the Jews under the Nazis and members of minorities in many parts of the world. The quantity and scope of the crises facing humankind severely test that hope. We have seen many crises before, but we do not appear to learn any lessons from them.

I also see the Ninth in another way. Music on its own does not stand for anything except itself. The greatness of music, and the Ninth Symphony, lies in the richness of its contrasts. Music never just laughs or cries; it always laughs and cries at the same time. Creating unity out of contradictions — that is Beethoven for me.

Music, if you study it properly, is a lesson for life. There is much we can learn from Beethoven, who was, of course, one of the strongest personalities in the history of music. He is the master of bringing emotion and intellect together. With Beethoven, you must be able to structure your feelings and feel the structure emotionally — a fantastic lesson for life! When we are in love, we lose all sense of discipline. Music doesn’t allow for that.

But music means different things to different people and sometimes even different things to the same person at different moments. It might be poetic, philosophical, sensual or mathematical, but it must have something to do with the soul.

Therefore, it is metaphysical — but the means of expression is purely and exclusively physical: sound. It is precisely this permanent coexistence of metaphysical message through physical means that is the strength of music. It is also the reason that when we try to describe music with words, all we can do is articulate our reactions to it, and not grasp music itself.

The Ninth Symphony is one of the most important artworks in Western culture. Some experts call it the greatest symphony ever written, and many commentators praise its visionary message. It is also one of the most revolutionary works by a composer mainly defined by the revolutionary nature of his works. Beethoven freed music from prevailing conventions of harmony and structure. Sometimes I feel in his late works a will to break all signs of continuity.

The Italian philosopher Antonio Gramsci said a wonderful thing in 1929, when Benito Mussolini had Italy under his thumb. “My mind is pessimistic, but my will is optimistic,” he wrote to a friend from prison. I think he meant that as long as we are alive, we have hope. I try to take Gramsci’s words to heart still today, even if not always successfully.

By all accounts, Beethoven was courageous, and I find courage an essential quality for the understanding, let alone the performance, of the Ninth. One could paraphrase much of the work of Beethoven in the spirit of Gramsci by saying that suffering is inevitable, but the courage to overcome it renders life worth living.

Daniel Barenboim is a pianist and conductor, co-founder of the West-Eastern Divan Orchestra and founder of the Barenboim-Said Academy in Berlin.

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