what are psychological disorders essay

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List of Documented Psychological Disorders

• Classifications

Anxiety Disorders

• Mood Disorders
• OCD and Related Disorders
• Trauma and Stress Disorders

Personality Disorders

Sleep disorders, eating disorders, substance use disorders.

• Finding Support

Psychological disorders—also called mental health conditions or mental disorders—are when a person has significant disturbances in how they think, feel, or behave. Psychological disorders can affect daily functioning and interpersonal relationships. The most common psychological disorders in the United States are anxiety disorders, major depressive disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder.

Psychological disorders can be temporary or lifelong. Though challenging to live with, these conditions are treatable. In this article, learn more about psychological disorders.

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How Are Psychological Disorders Classified?

There are over 200 different types of psychological disorders. The  Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition  (DSM-5) includes information and diagnostic criteria for all recognized psychological disorders, making it an essential resource for mental health professionals. Classifications within the DSM-5 are collections of multiple psychological disorders that share an overarching theme.

Anxiety disorders are a classification in the DSM-5 and the most common type of psychological disorder, affecting 19.1% of adults each year and 31.1% across their lifetime. For the most part, anxiety disorders are fear- or worry-related conditions.

To be classified as an anxiety disorder, this fear must be disproportionate to the situation and/or affect a person's ability to function normally.

The 12 types of anxiety disorder listed in the DSM-5 are:

• Separation anxiety disorder
• Selective mutism
• Specific phobia
• Social anxiety disorder (social phobia)
• Panic disorder
• Panic attack (specifier)
• Agoraphobia
• Generalized anxiety disorder
• Substance/medication-induced anxiety disorder
• Anxiety disorder due to another medical condition
• Other specified anxiety disorder
• Unspecified anxiety disorder

Treatment typically includes talk therapy (psychotherapy), medication, and lifestyle changes.

Depressive, Bipolar, and Other Mood Disorders

In previous editions of the DSM-5, there was a category called mood disorders . In the fifth edition, however, the title mood disorders was removed, and it was divided into subcategories, including depressive disorders and bipolar disorders.

Depressive Disorders

Depressive disorders are one of the most common psychological disorders, with about 8.3% of adults in the United States experiencing at least one major depressive episode per year. People with depressive disorders experience symptoms such as depressed mood, loss of pleasure, interest, and motivation, and physical symptoms, among others.

Depressive disorders include:

• Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
• Major depressive disorder , single and recurrent episodes
• Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)
• Premenstrual dysphoric disorder
• Substance/medication-induced depressive disorder
• Depressive disorder due to another medical condition
• Other specified depressive disorder
• Unspecified depressive disorder

Treatments for depressive disorders include psychotherapy, antidepressant medications, and lifestyle changes.

Bipolar and Related Disorders

Bipolar disorder affects about 2.8% of adults in the United States each year. People with bipolar and related disorders experience extreme and unusual shifts in their emotions, mood, cognition, and activity levels. These include depressive episodes and manic episodes (extreme excitement or energy) at varying frequencies depending on the specific disorder.

Bipolar and related disorders include:

• Bipolar 1 disorder
• Bipolar 2 disorder
• Cyclothymic disorder
• Substance/medication-induced bipolar and related disorder
• Bipolar and related disorder due to another medical condition
• Other specified bipolar and related disorder
• Unspecified bipolar and related disorder

Treatment for bipolar and related disorders primarily includes psychotherapy and medication (including help adhering to a medication schedule). Additional treatments may consist of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), and light therapy.

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

People with obsessive-compulsive and related disorders experience recurring and unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and/or repetitive behaviors (compulsions). Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is the most common mental disorder in this category and is estimated to affect about 2% to 3% of people in the United States.

Types of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders include:

• Body dysmorphic disorder
• Hoarding disorder
• Trichotillomania (hair-pulling disorder)
• Excoriation (skin-picking) disorder
• Substance/medication-induced obsessive-compulsive and related disorder
• Obsessive-compulsive and related disorder due to another medical condition
• Other specified obsessive-compulsive and related disorder
• Unspecified obsessive-compulsive and related disorder 

Treatment for OCD and related disorders usually includes a combination of psychotherapy and medication with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). In rare cases, treatment may consist of neurosurgical methods like deep brain stimulation.

Schizophrenia and Other Psychoses

Schizophrenia affects less than 1% of adults in the United States each year and is considered a serious mental illness.

People with schizophrenia spectrum or other psychotic disorders may experience three general types of symptoms, including:

• Psychotic symptoms, such as losing touch with reality, delusions, and hallucinations.
• Negative symptoms include loss of emotions, interest, and motivation, blunted affect, and withdrawal from social life. Sometimes, people with schizophrenia will stop talking (alogia) or moving (catatonia).
• Cognitive symptoms, such as issues with concentration, memory, and thinking.

The schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders classification includes eight disorders, which are:

• Schizotypal (personality) disorder
• Delusional disorder
• Brief psychotic disorder
• Schizophreniform disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Schizoaffective disorder
• Substance/medication-induced psychotic disorder
• Psychotic disorder due to another medical condition

Treatment for this type of mental disorder is vital and includes antipsychotic medications, psychotherapy, education and support, and specialty programs such as coordinated specialty care and assertive community treatment.

Trauma- and Stress-Related Disorders

Trauma- and stressor-related disorders is a classification in the DSM-5 that is most well known for including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In the United States, about 1 in 11 people will be diagnosed with PTSD during their lifetime.

The characteristic shared by trauma- and stress-related disorders is that the person has been exposed to—either directly or indirectly—significant trauma or stress leading to their symptoms. Symptoms vary but can include anxiety, intrusions, dissociation, substance use, insomnia, reactivity, and more.

Types of disorders within this classification include:

• Reactive attachment disorder
• Disinhibited social engagement disorder
• Acute stress disorder
• Adjustment disorders
• Other specified trauma- and stressor-related disorder
• Unspecified trauma- and stressor-related disorder

Treatment consists of medications and psychotherapy, specifically cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and exposure therapy , as well as eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy (EMDR).

Personality disorders are when a person's behavior and way of thinking and feeling significantly differ from cultural expectations and cause problems in their day-to-day functioning. People with personality disorders often find it challenging to relate to others. Approximately 9.1% of adults in the United States are diagnosed with a personality disorder in their lifetime.

Personality disorders are divided into three groups, or clusters, based on their symptoms.

Cluster A (odd/eccentric):

• Paranoid personality disorder
• Schizoid personality disorder
• Schizotypal personality disorder

Cluster B (dramatic/erratic):

• Antisocial personality disorder
• Borderline personality disorder
• Histrionic personality disorder
• Narcissistic personality disorder

Cluster C (anxious/inhibited):

• Avoidant personality disorder
• Dependent personality disorder
• Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

Other personality disorders:

• Personality change due to another medical condition
• Other specified personality disorder
• Unspecified personality disorder

Treatment primarily includes various types of psychotherapy, such as dialectical behavior therapy , cognitive behavioral therapy, group therapy, and more. Pyscho-education, lifestyle changes, and community support groups can also help. There are no medications approved to treat personality disorders. However, people living with a personality disorder may take medication to manage co-occurring symptoms like anxiety and/or depression.

Some people may be surprised that sleep disorders are classified in the DSM-5 as mental health conditions. There are many sleep disorders, and they all relate to irregularity in a person's sleep.

Types of sleep disorders include:

• Insomnia disorder
• Hypersomnolence disorder
• Breathing-related sleep disorders
• Circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders
• Parasomnias
• Restless legs syndrome
• Substance/medication-induced sleep disorder

Sleep disorders may be managed by psychiatrists, neurologists, and/or pulmonologists as there is a significant crossover between physical and mental health with these conditions. Treatments include psychotherapy as well as medication, lifestyle changes, and assistive devices such as continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) machines .

Feeding and eating disorders are a group of mental illnesses in which the person has a severe disturbance in eating behaviors, accompanied by distressing thoughts and emotions around food, eating, and body image.

Types of feeding and eating disorders include:

• Rumination disorder
• Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder
• Anorexia nervosa
• Bulimia nervosa
• Binge-eating disorder
• Other specified feeding or eating disorder
• Unspecified feeding or eating disorder

Treatment for these conditions involves psychotherapy and behavioral programs with professionals trained in managing eating disorders. These programs are available either in an inpatient rehabilitation center or within the community. People with eating disorders also see registered dietitians to address nutrition deficiencies and more.

Substance-related and addictive disorders is a classification within the DSM-5 that includes over 50 different conditions, all relating to addiction or misuse of certain substances leading to life-impairing symptoms.

The disorders are categorized based on the type of substance being used. Substances include:

• Hallucinogen
• Sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic
• Other (or unknown)

Treatment for these disorders is a bit different in that it typically includes a detoxification or rehabilitation facility and specialized treatment to help the person safely discontinue the use of the substance, in addition to psychotherapy and/or medication. However, treatment varies based on the substance.

How to Learn More and Find Support

If you or someone you know is struggling with their mental health, consider talking to a trusted healthcare provider. Proper diagnosis and treatment are essential for managing symptoms and returning to your daily life.

National resources for mental health support include:

• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA)
• National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI)
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Mental Health Hotlines

Consider also looking for support groups, charities, and other resources in your community.

Mental health conditions affect how a person thinks, feels, and behaves and can make it more difficult for the person to function in their daily life and maintain relationships with themselves and others. The most common psychological disorders are anxiety, depression, and PTSD, but there are over 200 recognized conditions listed in the DSM-5.

National Alliance on Mental Illness. Mental health by the numbers .

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. About mental health.

American Psychiatric Association.  Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.  5th ed. Washington D.C.

National Institute of Mental Health. Any anxiety disorder.

Moreland-Capuia A, Vahabzadeh, A, Gillespie C, Ressler K. Fear-related anxiety disorders and posttraumatic stress disorder .  Neurobiology of Brain Disorders . Published online January 1, 2023:811-824. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-323-85654-6.00005-8

American Psychiatric Association. What are anxiety disorders? .

American Psychiatric Association. Unspecified mood disorder.

World Health Organization. Depressive disorder .

National Institute of Mental Health. Bipolar disorder .

American Psychiatric Association. What is obsessive compulsive disorder? .

National Institute of Mental Health. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) .

National Institute of Mental Health. Schizophrenia.

American Psychiatric Association. What is posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)? .

Park JE, Ahn HN, Jung YE. Prevention and treatment of trauma- and stressor-related disorders : focusing on psychosocial interventions for adult patients . J Korean Neuropsychiatr Assoc . 2016;55(2):89-96. doi:10.4306/jknpa.2016.55.2.89

American Psychiatric Association. What are personality disorders? .

National Institute of Mental Health. Personality disorders.

National Library of Medicine.  Sleep disorders .

American Psychiatric Association. What are eating disorders? .

By Sarah Bence, OTR/L Bence is an occupational therapist with a range of work experience in mental healthcare settings. She is living with celiac disease and endometriosis.

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• v.23(Suppl 1); 2014 Jan

The psychological perspective on mental health and mental disorder research: introduction to the ROAMER work package 5 consensus document

Hans‐ulrich wittchen.

1 Institute of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy & Center for Epidemiology and Longitudinal Studies (CELOS), Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden Germany

Susanne Knappe

Gunter schumann.

2 MRC‐SGDP Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College, London UK

This paper provides an overview of the theoretical framework of the Psychological Sciences' reviews and describes how improved psychological research can foster our understanding of mental health and mental disorders in a complementary way to biomedical research. Core definitions of the field and of psychological interventions and treatment in particular are provided. The work group's consensus regarding strength and weaknesses of European Union (EU) research in critical areas is summarized, highlighting the potential of a broader comprehensive “Behaviour Science programme” in forthcoming programmatic EU funding programmes. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Introduction

Undoubtedly, there is increasing convergence between biomedical and psychological research on mental health and mental disorders. Both fields study the same or similar phenomena with similar approaches and methods. Thus, it is not surprising that appraisals of strength and weaknesses in both fields will often come to the same conclusions (Schumann et al ., 2013 ). Despite this continued trend of growing convergence and synergy, there are important, though sometimes subtle differences due to different traditions, theories, principles, and methods that justify a separate presentation and discussion of biomedical and psychological perspectives, highlighting specific needs and priorities that would have been neglected in a joint presentation. Consistent with this appraisal the work group (ROAMER work package 5, WP5) felt it would be helpful to define the field and arrive at consensus about its scope and definitions.

The contribution of the Psychological Sciences

Psychology can broadly be defined as an academic and applied discipline that involves the scientific study of basic psychological functions like perception, cognition, attention, emotion, motivation, as well as complex psychological processes such as decision‐making, volition and behaviour control, including its neural and biological underpinnings, personality, behaviour and interpersonal relationships. Psychology covers normal mental functions and behaviours and addresses the question when, why and how they can become dysfunctional. Thus, psychology covers mental health and abnormal functions and behaviours, like in mental disorders with the goal of understanding individuals, groups and social systems. Psychology has been described as a “hub science” (Cacioppo, 2007 ) with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the social sciences, natural sciences, medicine, and the humanities, such as philosophy. During the last centuries, the field of psychology has undergone several theoretical paradigm shifts (i.e. structuralism, functionalism, psychoanalysis, behaviourism, cognitivism) and is currently typically structured in subfields of which Biological, Experimental, Developmental and Clinical Psychology have become closest to the biomedical field (Haslam and Lusher, 2011 ). But, depending on the theoretical orientation, methods and psychological fields of interest, psychological institutions and psychological research can be grouped under social sciences, the natural sciences or the biomedical sciences, etc. In fact, terms like behavioural neuroscience or cognitive‐affective neuroscience are used almost synonymously and have given rise to denote the field as Psychological Sciences. Corollaries pertaining to the Psychological Sciences include:

• As compared to the biomedical field, the Psychological Sciences emphasize more explicitly a comprehensive interactional bio‐psycho‐social approach to understand and predict a broad construct of “ behaviour” that refers to neurobiological, cognitive, affective and social‐behavioural units of analyses – and should not be misunderstood as denoting simply open motor behaviour.
• To this end, the relative role of biological, psychological and particularly social‐environmental variables and their dynamic interplay in promoting normal and abnormal behaviour is examined within a “dimensional” rather a “categorical” approach (diagnostic approach).
• Consistent with a broad construct of behaviour, Psychological Science research uses a range of specific experimental and empirical methods (qualitative and quantitative, subjective and objective) and paradigms in human and animal research to observe causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial, environmental, psychological and biological variables.
• Psychological Sciences emphasize environmental variables and a developmental perspective by appreciating the highly dynamic interplay over time, for example in psychological constructs of vulnerability – stress models as well as interactional constructs like resilience and coping to understand behaviour change and its determinants.
• Based on such models, constructs and methods of the science of psychology has also provided a set of unique methods and techniques for psychological interventions (i.e. psychotherapy) with the goal of preventing, treating and rehabilitating dysfunctional behaviour and mental disorders.

Within the context of this appraisal, we define psychological treatments and interventions as clinically relevant, empirically supported interventions of any type that are based on knowledge and expertise of the Psychological Sciences by using psychological methods and means (as opposed to drugs as in psychiatry), typically by communication and/or behavioural exercises (Wittchen and Hoyer, 2011 ).

This definition includes a large group of methods and approaches, developed to address the needs of patients and groups of patients with mental disorders or mental health problems, as well as their networks of support (e.g. partner and family) and covering prevention, treatment and rehabilitation in all ages. Psychological treatments and interventions might range from highly sophisticated psychotherapy, delivered by specialized psychotherapists, to the application of specific behavioural techniques as part of a broader treatment plan (e.g. psychoeducation or motivational interviewing) by any health provider, including web‐based and e‐health applications, whenever the criteria of the earlier definition are met and efficacy and/or effectiveness is established by randomized clinical trials or equivalent designs (van der Feltz‐Cornelis and Adèr, 2000 ).

Because dysfunctional behaviour (also denoted in the literature as abnormal or clinically relevant behaviour) has large and pervasive effects on health outcomes, there is a broad consensus in the scientific community that there is a continued strong need to improve research with the goal to provide a better understanding of (a) the mechanisms underlying adaptive and dysfunctional behaviour, (b) the mechanisms of behaviour change with regard to (c) normal‐adaptive healthy as well as (d) dysfunctional and clinically significant behaviours as in mental disorders. Towards this goal the work group sees the strong need to adopt a comprehensive “Science of Behaviour” programme, in order to make substantial progress in research of mental health, mental disorders also reflected in substantial improvements in public health as well as savings in healthcare costs (NIH, 2009 ).

It should be noted that we did not work specifically on substance use disorders because of the existence of another European research programme dealing exlusively with this topic ( http://www.alicerap.eu ).

Core issues and topics from a Psychological Science perspective

The subsequent papers are position papers by members of the “roadmap for mental health research in Europe” –initiative (ROAMER) work package 5 (Haro et al ., 2014 ). They address selected and interrelated core areas that are considered to be of particular relevance for an improved future research agenda on mental health. Based on their expertise they were invited as part of the ROAMER discussion process to jointly contribute to a birds‐eye view on important issues in mental health and mental disorder research from a Psychological Science perspective. The choice of topics was selective, though based on prior discussions and consensus of the ROAMER expert work group on “Psychological Research and Treatments”. 1 Their accounts should not be regarded as state‐of‐the‐art reviews. Rather, the aim is to highlight the unique contributions of psychology by these position papers, complementing the contributions of the biomedical field, avoiding replication.

In the first contribution (Wittchen et al ., 2014 ) several fundamental barriers to progress in the area of basic and applied research on behaviour and behaviour change are addressed. A general lack of understanding the basic mechanisms of behaviour, behaviour change as well as moderators and mediators of behaviour in the context of interventions is concluded, highlighting the strong need of respective intensified research. Common “health risk behaviours” are taken as examples to specify what type of research is needed to identify mechanisms and determinants of behaviour initiation, maintenance and behaviour change as well as the critical trajectories between them to provide ultimately also a better understanding of the causes and the treatment of mental disorders. The paper also addresses the question to what degree mechanisms relevant for specific disorders or health risk behaviours are the same, or different across disorders and conditions, and to what degree individual variation (genetic, or individual capacities such as “self‐regulation”), stress and emotion play a role. This discussion is linked to the specific context of psychotherapy research, providing examples how this perspective helps to identify core ingredients and mechanisms of behaviour change.

The position paper by Goschke ( 2014 ) emphasizes the work group's consensus that only improved research of basic and more complex normal and dysfunctional psychological functions and processes, including their neural underpinnings and social contexts, will ultimately allow us to improve our understanding of normative and non‐normative behaviours (i.e. mental disorders), their developmental pathways and processes. This paper describes in greater detail how we might advance in this direction by focusing on “Functions and dysfunctions of cognitive control and decision‐making as transdiagnostic core mechanisms in mental disorders”.

Emmelkamp et al . ( 2014 ) specifically address various domains of clinical research and “state of the art” psychotherapy research in particular. They focus largely on the currently best established, though imperfect, first‐line treatment for many disorders and how to advance research on components, mechanism and effectiveness research. Four topical domains are highlighted in particular that are characterized by partly different research needs. Namely: (a) psychological models and paradigms of mental disorders from a cognitive perspective, (b) methodological issues of improved psychotherapy research, (c) the special needs in psychotherapy of children and adolescents, and (d) the incorporation of e‐health innovations.

The final paper (Fava et al ., 2014 ) provides a methodological framework for improved research on comorbidity and discusses perspectives on the future clinical research agenda within this context.

Conclusions on strengths and weaknesses

Overall, the position papers on psychological perspectives converge on several strengths of the European research field: i.e. a substantial body of expertise and knowledge in both basic and clinical research, strong and increasingly more intimate collaborative ties to the biomedical field, and a broader coverage of mental health issues as opposed to mental disorder research in the biomedical field (Wittchen et al ., 2014 ; Goschke et al ., 2014 ; Emmelkamp et al ., 2014 ; Fava et al ., 2014 ).

At the same time, they also converge on several major general weaknesses, characteristic not only for Europe but worldwide, namely: (a) the fragmentation of research activities in many areas, (b) the lack of coordination and synergy in European research in this field, and (c) the lack of coordinated long‐term programmes with regard to a broader “Science of Behaviour” perspective as the fundamental framework.

On the structural level the work group highlights that there are remarkable gaps in our knowledge regarding the situation of research on psychological treatments and interventions in Europe. In fact – and despite some coordinated EU‐efforts in this domain – it is impossible to determine the degree to which psychological treatments are applied in the EU countries, where and what kind of research and service delivery programmes are in place and how they are integrated into the wider network of mental health care infrastructure. As a result, Europe lacks even the most basic prerequisites for an evidence‐based mental health research policy in this field.

In terms of specific gaps and needs for future research the authors point out marked deficits and provide suggestions on advances needed to meet these research needs. A short summary of these suggestions is given in Table  1 . In sum, the position papers emphasize to varying degrees that a combined approach, appreciating traditional diagnostic classificatory models as well as a facet‐oriented, dimensional multi‐level domain approach by functions and elements of behaviour might be the best way forward. Overall, there seems to be consensus that the field would profit significantly from a concerted programme of the “Science of Behaviour Change”.

Goals and needs for future research in Psychological Science

Declaration of interest statement

The authors have no competing interests.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the European Commission's Seventh Framework Programme Project ROAMER (FP7‐HEALTH‐2011/No 282586).

This paper has been prepared by the authors in the context of the ROAMER project (work package 5, led by Hans‐Ulrich Wittchen). The statements and the position of the paper are made by the authors, based on the work group discussions and thus they reflect an intermediate outcome of the work group. They should not be considered as an official statement of the ROAMER project or as a final outcome or conclusion of the overall programme.

The position papers were generated as part of the activities of a group of leading European experts on psychological research and intervention, in order to provide an assessment of the state‐of‐the‐art of research in different domains, identifying major advances and promising methods and pointing out gaps and problems which ought to be addressed in future research (see Appendix). A similar critical appraisal with partly similar conclusions is concurrently provided elsewhere (Schumann et al ., 2013 ) by the ROAMER work group “Biomedical research”. Experts in both work groups have been selected for their academic excellence and for their competence in the different units of analysis needed to comprehensively characterize particular symptom domains. Their contributions do not aim to be systematic reviews of the field but rather provide a well‐informed opinion of the authors involved. They also do not represent official statements of the ROAMER consortium, but are meant to inform the discussion on psychological research and intervention in mental disorders among interested stakeholders, including researchers, clinicians and funding bodies. Recommendations made in this issue will undergo a discussion and selection process within the ROAMER consortium, and contribute to a final roadmap, which integrates all aspects of mental health research. We thus hope to provide an informed and comprehensive overview of the current state of psychological research in mental health, as well as the challenges and advances ahead of us.

Table A1 ROAMER work package 5 authors and experts (in alphabetical order by last name)

1 Core experts of the ROAMER work package on Psychological Research and Treatments are Drs Arnoud Arntz, Francesc Colom, Pim Cuijpers, Tim Dalgleish, Daniel David, Giovanni A. Fava, Arne Holte, Uwe Koch‐Gromus, Ilse Kryspin‐Exner, Wolfgang Lutz, and Hans‐Ulrich Wittchen. They were supported by dozens of advisors and consultants.

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What Is Mental Disorder? An Essay in Philosophy, Science, and Values

• KENNETH S. KENDLER M.D. ,

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Imagine you are a member of the admissions committee for DSM-V. Your set of applications include night-eating syndrome, hoarding, racism, and Internet addiction. It is your job to decide if these are “real” psychiatric disorders worthy of inclusion in DSM-V. By what criteria would you decide if these applications represent a true mental disorder versus a non-disordered “problem of living” or social deviance?

In this thought-provoking book, clinical psychologist and philosopher Derek Bolton asks whether it is possible to develop a single clear definition of mental disorder to which such a committee could refer. Perhaps surprisingly, he reaches a negative conclusion, writing, “there is no natural, principled boundary between normal and abnormal conditions of suffering” (p. 194).

Much of Bolton’s book critiques the naturalist approach to mental illness. This idea—probably a comfortable one to many readers of this journal—is that there exists in the real world a clear distinction between mental health and disorder. All we have to do is be smart enough to find it and define it clearly. He evaluates several approaches to naturalist definitions of psychiatric disorders. However, he spends the most time on the influential work of Jerry Wakefield, which emphasizes an objective dysfunction of an evolved mental process, the consequences of which cause harm to the individual. At the risk of oversimplification, Bolton suggests that in principle it is just too hard to know what represents a dysfunction of an evolved mental system. Since Homo sapiens evolved in a social milieu, and many of our mental functions develop in an intertwined manner from both genetic and environmental factors, trying to distinguish social from evolutionary dysfunction may be inherently impossible. Problems could also arise when an evolved system is not really dysfunctional, but the environment has changed so dramatically that its impact has become harmful (perhaps an underlying explanation for the obesity epidemic). He argues that Wakefield, rather than trying to make the difficult determination of what functions have evolved for what purpose, actually uses a rough “understandability” measure when, for example, he argues that conduct disorder should not be applied to children growing up in some inner-city neighborhoods where gang membership might be adaptive or that depression should not be diagnosed when it occurs after a major loss. Bolton also examines and rejects the concept that mental disorders represent the breakdown of meaningful connections. With regard to the important issue of the abuse of psychiatry, as occurred in the former Soviet Union, he concludes that is more a task for governments and judicial systems than for psychiatric diagnostic manuals.

Ultimately, Bolton opts for a harm-based approach to defining what should go into our diagnostic manuals. That is the point of greatest consensus for all stakeholders in the business of mental health. He dislikes the term “disorder,” because in many of these syndromes, mental life remains ordered and meaningful.

I suspect most readers, like myself, will find this book a bit disturbing. We would much prefer a comfortable and neat and tidy solution to this boundary problem. Given the current ascendancy of the biological psychiatric paradigm, many of us want to ground ourselves in our physician identity and see ourselves as treating “real” biological disorders that can be cleanly and decisively separated from problems of living and social deviance. Bolton tries hard to puncture this comfortable belief system.

Bolton writes well, with only a modest amount of “philosophy-speak.” My main gripe is the book is not concise. Many of his well-developed arguments are repeated several times in different forms. I also think he underestimates the striking differences across disorders in seeking generic solutions to definitional questions about mental disorders.

I began this book with only a modest knowledge of the relevant literature and a rather naive sense that with a bit of “hard thinking,” we could come up with a clear, defensible definition of mental disorders. Upon completion, I no longer believed as such and have a much deeper appreciation of the subtlety and complexity of this definitional question. Did Bolton convince me the problem is intractable? Not quite, but my naiveté has surely been laid to rest.

Who should read this book? This book will be of most value to those who, because of their clinical or research work (or because they are contributing to current revisions of DSM and ICD manuals), are really interested in the problem of defining the boundaries of psychiatric illness. While it is not the easiest of reads, such individuals will be amply rewarded for their efforts. This book might be of interest to a wider group of individuals, from the fields of both mental health and philosophy, who want to see a good example of analytic philosophy being applied with skill and scholarship to a difficult real-world problem that really matters.

Book review accepted for publication July 2008 (doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08060944).

Reprints are not available; however, Book Forum reviews can be downloaded at http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org.

• Cited by None

15.3 Perspectives on Psychological Disorders

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Discuss supernatural perspectives on the origin of psychological disorders, in their historical context
• Describe modern biological and psychological perspectives on the origin of psychological disorders
• Identify which disorders generally show the highest degree of heritability
• Describe the diathesis-stress model and its importance to the study of psychopathology

Scientists, mental health professionals, and cultural healers may adopt different perspectives in attempting to understand or explain the underlying mechanisms that contribute to the development of a psychological disorder. The specific perspective used in explaining a psychological disorder is extremely important. Each perspective explains psychological disorders, their causes or etiology, and effective treatments from a different viewpoint. Different perspectives provide alternate ways for how to think about the nature of psychopathology.

Supernatural Perspectives of Psychological Disorders

For centuries, psychological disorders were viewed from a supernatural perspective: attributed to a force beyond scientific understanding. Those afflicted were thought to be practitioners of black magic or possessed by spirits ( Figure 15.6 ) (Maher & Maher, 1985). For example, convents throughout Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries reported hundreds of nuns falling into a state of frenzy in which the afflicted foamed at the mouth, screamed and convulsed, sexually propositioned priests, and confessed to having carnal relations with devils or Christ. Although, today, these cases would suggest serious mental illness; at the time, these events were routinely explained as possession by devilish forces (Waller, 2009a). Similarly, grievous fits by young girls are believed to have precipitated the witch panic in New England late in the 17th century (Demos, 1983). Such beliefs in supernatural causes of mental illness are still held in some societies today; for example, beliefs that supernatural forces cause mental illness are common in some cultures in modern-day Nigeria (Aghukwa, 2012).

Dancing Mania

Between the 11th and 17th centuries, a curious epidemic swept across Western Europe. Groups of people would suddenly begin to dance with wild abandon. This compulsion to dance—referred to as dancing mania —sometimes gripped thousands of people at a time ( Figure 15.7 ). Historical accounts indicate that those afflicted would sometimes dance with bruised and bloody feet for days or weeks, screaming of terrible visions and begging priests and monks to save their souls (Waller, 2009b). What caused dancing mania is not known, but several explanations have been proposed, including spider venom and ergot poisoning (“Dancing Mania,” 2011).

Historian John Waller (2009a, 2009b) has provided a comprehensive and convincing explanation of dancing mania that suggests the phenomenon was attributable to a combination of three factors: psychological distress, social contagion, and belief in supernatural forces. Waller argued that various disasters of the time (such as famine, plagues, and floods) produced high levels of psychological distress that could increase the likelihood of succumbing to an involuntary trance state. Waller indicated that anthropological studies and accounts of possession rituals show that people are more likely to enter a trance state if they expect it to happen, and that entranced individuals behave in a ritualistic manner, their thoughts and behavior shaped by the spiritual beliefs of their culture. Thus, during periods of extreme physical and mental distress, all it took were a few people—believing themselves to have been afflicted with a dancing curse—to slip into a spontaneous trance and then act out the part of one who is cursed by dancing for days on end.

Biological Perspectives of Psychological Disorders

The biological perspective views psychological disorders as linked to biological phenomena, such as genetic factors, chemical imbalances, and brain abnormalities; it has gained considerable attention and acceptance in recent decades (Wyatt & Midkiff, 2006). Evidence from many sources indicates that most psychological disorders have a genetic component; in fact, there is little dispute that some disorders are largely due to genetic factors. The graph in Figure 15.8 shows heritability estimates for schizophrenia.

Findings such as these have led many of today’s researchers to search for specific genes and genetic mutations that contribute to mental disorders. Also, sophisticated neural imaging technology in recent decades has revealed how abnormalities in brain structure and function might be directly involved in many disorders, and advances in our understanding of neurotransmitters and hormones have yielded insights into their possible connections. The biological perspective is currently thriving in the study of psychological disorders.

The Diathesis-Stress Model of Psychological Disorders

Despite advances in understanding the biological basis of psychological disorders, the psychosocial perspective is still very important. This perspective emphasizes the importance of learning, stress, faulty and self-defeating thinking patterns, and environmental factors. Perhaps the best way to think about psychological disorders, then, is to view them as originating from a combination of biological and psychological processes. Many develop not from a single cause, but from a delicate fusion between partly biological and partly psychosocial factors.

The diathesis-stress model (Zuckerman, 1999) integrates biological and psychosocial factors to predict the likelihood of a disorder. This diathesis-stress model suggests that people with an underlying predisposition for a disorder (i.e., a diathesis) are more likely than others to develop a disorder when faced with adverse environmental or psychological events (i.e., stress), such as childhood maltreatment, negative life events, trauma, and so on. A diathesis is not always a biological vulnerability to an illness; some diatheses may be psychological (e.g., a tendency to think about life events in a pessimistic, self-defeating way).

The key assumption of the diathesis-stress model is that both factors, diathesis and stress, are necessary in the development of a disorder. Different models explore the relationship between the two factors: the level of stress needed to produce the disorder is inversely proportional to the level of diathesis.

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A Comprehensive Essay Sample on Mental Illnesses

Mental illnesses refer to a wide range of disorders affecting a person’s cognitive abilities, mood, and behaviors. Many people admit to having mental disorders or, at least, concerns from time, though most of them manage to overcome them and improve in the longer perspective. Yet, the rest must request psychological help to recover and improve their health conditions. To better understand the disorders faced by these people, it is necessary to cover key mental disorders, diagnosis and treatment options.

Diagnosing mental illnesses is performed using physical examinations, laboratory tests and psychological evaluation. At first, the person usually applies for help to the primary care facilities and consults with the doctor on the options for ruling out revealed psychological problems. Then, laboratory tests might be involved and include, for instance, checking thyroid function or screening for alcohol or drug abuse. Eventually, the psychological evaluation might greatly contribute to the enumeration of the symptoms and their synchronization with one of the mental diseases.

The person might suffer from some mental illnesses and disorders, and they all are grouped by symptoms or the cause that leads to their development. Bipolar and related disorders include alternating disorders and episodes of mania, changing periods of depression and increased excitement (APA, 2018). Depressive disorders generally involve the disorders that significantly affect one’s emotional state, happiness, and sadness. These include dysphoric disorders, depression, anxiety and others. Neurodevelopmental disorders encompass a wide range of psychological problems that usually become evident in childhood, such as autism, attention deficit, and learning disorders (APA, 2018). Anxiety disorders are related to the worries and negative feelings associated with the future and various fears and excessive nervousness. Obsessive-compulsive disorders include obsessions or preoccupations with a profession, person, certain item or idea (APA, 2018). Examples of these include hoarding disorder and hair-pulling disorders. Dissociative disorders cause the person to sense oneself disrupted due to dissociative amnesia and dissociative identity disorder (APA, 2018). Sleep-wake disorders, such as insomnia, sleep apnea, and restless legs syndrome, significantly affect the sleeping capabilities of the person (APA, 2018). Gender dysphoria refers to disorders associated with the stress caused by a person’s desire to be another gender.

Patients who suffer from mental illnesses and disorders are open to some treatment options. Usually, the treatment plan includes consultations with family or primary care doctors, nurse practitioners, physicians or psychologists. The person might be prescribed medications, which compensate for some of the needed substances that are not developed by the person’s organism (APA, 2018). Antidepressants are used to treat depression, anxiety and other psychological conditions. They improve symptoms such as sadness, lack of energy, and difficulties with concentration. They are not addictive, so their consumption does not lead to dependency. Mood-stabilizing medications help patients to cope with various mood disorders and swings. Psychotherapy usually provides for talking about the problems and hardships experienced by the patient and related issues (APA, 2018). During psychotherapy, the patient reveals and learns more about his other mental problems, which eventually helps to cope with the stress and disorder by practicing coping and stress management skills. Brain stimulation treatment deals with depression and other mental health illnesses (APA, 2018). They are used in case psychotherapy, and medications are not effective. These might include electroconvulsive therapy, experimental treatments, magnetic stimulation and others. Hospital and residential programs are prescribed for those needing prolonged treatment and supervised by the professionals provided constantly.

📎 References:

1. APA. (2018). Psychology help center. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/topics/mental-health/help-emotional-crisis

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Understanding Bipolar Disorder: An In-Depth Essay

Imagine living in a world where emotions oscillate between exhilarating highs and crippling lows. Where one moment, you feel invincible, and the next, you are engulfed in a darkness so profound it seems suffocating. Welcome to the complex and enigmatic realm of bipolar disorder.

At some point in our lives, we all experience fluctuations in our moods. However, for individuals with bipolar disorder, these mood swings are extreme, unpredictable, and can have devastating consequences. It is a mental health condition that possesses the power to disrupt lives, strain relationships, and challenge society’s understanding.

In this in-depth essay, we will delve into the intricate facets of bipolar disorder, unraveling its definition, prevalence, and impact. We will explore the different types of the disorder and investigate the causes and risk factors that contribute to its development.

Furthermore, we will examine the symptoms associated with bipolar disorder and the diagnostic criteria used to identify it. We will highlight the challenges faced by individuals with bipolar disorder and the effects this condition can have on personal relationships. Additionally, we will confront the societal stigma and misunderstandings that permeate the public’s perception of bipolar disorder.

Treatment and management play a critical role in the lives of those with bipolar disorder, and we will explore the medication options, therapeutic approaches, and lifestyle changes that can provide support and stability.

To navigate such a vast and complex topic, it is important to understand how to approach writing an essay on bipolar disorder. We will discuss strategies for choosing a focus, structuring your essay, addressing controversial topics, and providing reliable sources.

This essay aims to shed light on the intricacies of bipolar disorder, debunk myths, and promote understanding and empathy. By gaining knowledge and insights into this often-misunderstood condition, we can facilitate a more inclusive and compassionate society. Join us on this journey of discovery as we strive to comprehend the multifaceted nature of bipolar disorder.

Overview of Bipolar Disorder

Bipolar disorder, also known as manic-depressive illness, is a chronic mental health condition that affects a person’s mood, energy levels, and ability to function effectively. It is characterized by extreme shifts in mood, ranging from manic episodes, where individuals experience heightened euphoria and energy, to depressive episodes, where they feel overwhelming sadness, hopelessness, and a lack of interest in activities.

What is Bipolar Disorder?

Bipolar disorder is a complex condition that involves various biological, genetic, and environmental factors. It affects approximately 2.8% of U.S. adults, according to the National Institute of Mental Health. The onset of bipolar disorder usually occurs in late adolescence or early adulthood, although it can manifest at any age.

During manic episodes, individuals may exhibit symptoms such as increased talkativeness, racing thoughts, impulsivity, inflated self-esteem, and a decreased need for sleep. They may engage in risky behaviors, such as excessive spending or substance abuse. On the other hand, depressive episodes are characterized by symptoms like persistent sadness, fatigue, sleep disturbances, difficulty concentrating, and thoughts of death or suicide.

Types of Bipolar Disorder

Bipolar disorder is further categorized into several subtypes:

1. Bipolar I Disorder: This is the most severe form of the illness, involving manic episodes lasting for at least seven days or requiring hospitalization. Depressive episodes lasting for two weeks or more often accompany these manic episodes.

2. Bipolar II Disorder: In this type, individuals experience recurring depressive episodes but have hypomanic episodes that are less severe than full-blown mania. These hypomanic episodes do not usually lead to significant impairment in functioning.

3. Cyclothymic Disorder: Cyclothymic disorder is a milder form of bipolar disorder where individuals have frequent, but less intense, mood swings. They experience hypomanic symptoms and depressive symptoms that persist for at least two years, with brief periods of stability.

Causes and Risk Factors

The exact cause of bipolar disorder is not fully understood. However, research suggests that a combination of genetic, biological, and environmental factors contribute to its development. Individuals with a family history of bipolar disorder or other mood disorders are at a higher risk.

Other factors that may influence the development of bipolar disorder include abnormal brain structure and function, neurotransmitter imbalances, hormonal imbalances, and high levels of stress. Substance abuse or traumatic experiences may also trigger the onset or exacerbation of symptoms.

Understanding the different types of bipolar disorder and the contributing factors can help demystify this complex condition. By recognizing the signs and seeking appropriate diagnosis and treatment, individuals with bipolar disorder can lead fulfilling lives and manage their symptoms effectively.

Symptoms and Diagnosis of Bipolar Disorder

Bipolar disorder is a complex mental health condition characterized by distinct symptoms that significantly impact an individual’s daily life. Accurate diagnosis of bipolar disorder is crucial to ensure appropriate treatment and support. In this section, we will explore common symptoms of bipolar disorder, the diagnostic criteria used for its identification, and how it is distinguished from other mental health conditions.

Common Symptoms of Bipolar Disorder

The symptoms of bipolar disorder can vary depending on the specific episode and its severity. During manic episodes, individuals often experience an intense euphoria, increased energy levels, and a heightened sense of self-esteem. They may engage in risky behavior, such as excessive spending or engaging in dangerous activities. Rapid speech, racing thoughts, and impulsivity are also commonly observed.

Conversely, depressive episodes are characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and a loss of interest in previously enjoyed activities. Individuals may experience changes in appetite and sleep patterns, difficulties concentrating, and thoughts of self-harm or suicide. Fatigue, a lack of motivation, and a general feeling of emptiness are also common symptoms.

Diagnostic Criteria for Bipolar Disorder

To diagnose bipolar disorder, healthcare professionals refer to the criteria outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). According to the DSM-5, the presence of manic, hypomanic, and depressive episodes is necessary for a bipolar disorder diagnosis.

For a diagnosis of bipolar I disorder, an individual must have experienced at least one manic episode, lasting for a minimum of seven days or requiring immediate hospitalization. Depressive episodes may or may not occur alongside the manic episodes.

In bipolar II disorder, individuals experience at least one major depressive episode and at least one hypomanic episode, which is characterized by milder manic symptoms that do not cause significant impairment in functioning.

Cyclothymic disorder, a milder form of bipolar disorder, is diagnosed when an individual experiences numerous periods of hypomanic symptoms and depressive symptoms over a two-year period.

Distinguishing Bipolar Disorder from other Mental Health Conditions

Differentiating bipolar disorder from other mental health conditions can be challenging due to overlapping symptoms. Depression alone, for example, may resemble the depressive episodes experienced by individuals with bipolar disorder. However, bipolar disorder is distinguished by the presence of manic or hypomanic episodes, which are not present in unipolar depression.

Other conditions such as borderline personality disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may exhibit symptoms similar to bipolar disorder, further complicating the diagnostic process. Thorough evaluation by a mental health professional is essential to accurately differentiate bipolar disorder from other conditions and develop an appropriate treatment plan.

Understanding the symptoms and diagnostic criteria of bipolar disorder helps in early identification and intervention, leading to improved outcomes for individuals living with this complex condition. Seeking professional help and support is crucial for accurate diagnosis and developing an effective management plan to mitigate the impact of bipolar disorder on daily life.

Impact of Bipolar Disorder on Individuals and Society

Bipolar disorder not only affects the lives of individuals diagnosed with the condition but also has a significant impact on their personal relationships, daily functioning, and society as a whole. In this section, we will explore the effects of bipolar disorder on personal relationships, the challenges faced by individuals with the condition, and societal stigma and misunderstandings surrounding bipolar disorder.

Effects of Bipolar Disorder on Personal Relationships

Living with bipolar disorder can strain personal relationships. The extreme mood swings, impulsivity, and erratic behavior exhibited during manic episodes can be confusing and distressing for partners, family members, and friends. Loved ones may struggle to understand the sudden changes in mood and energy levels, leading to strained communication and emotional instability within the relationship.

During depressive episodes, individuals with bipolar disorder may withdraw from social interactions, isolate themselves, and have difficulty expressing their needs and emotions. This can result in feelings of loneliness and isolation, further impacting the dynamics of personal relationships.

Challenges Faced by Individuals with Bipolar Disorder

Individuals with bipolar disorder face numerous challenges that affect their daily lives. The unpredictability of mood swings can make it difficult to maintain stable employment or pursue educational goals. Managing relationships, parenting responsibilities, and financial stability may also become more challenging due to the episodic nature of the condition.

Additionally, the presence of comorbid conditions, such as anxiety disorders or substance abuse, further compounds the difficulties faced by individuals with bipolar disorder. The stigma associated with mental illness may also create barriers in accessing proper treatment and support, exacerbating the challenges they encounter.

Societal Stigma and Misunderstandings

Despite growing awareness and understanding of mental health, societal stigma and misunderstandings surrounding bipolar disorder still persist. Many people hold misconceptions that individuals with bipolar disorder are simply “moody” or “unstable.” Such stigmatization can lead to social exclusion, discrimination, and a reluctance to seek help.

Moreover, the portrayal of bipolar disorder in popular culture and media often exaggerates the extreme behaviors associated with the condition, further perpetuating misconceptions and reinforcing stereotypes. This portrayal not only contributes to societal misunderstandings but also hinders individuals with bipolar disorder from openly discussing their experiences and seeking support.

Reducing stigma and promoting understanding are crucial steps towards creating a compassionate society that supports individuals with bipolar disorder. Educating the public about the true nature of bipolar disorder, highlighting the strengths and resilience of individuals living with the condition, and providing resources for support and education can help combat these misconceptions.

By acknowledging the impact of bipolar disorder on personal relationships, understanding the challenges faced by individuals with the condition, and challenging societal stigma, we can foster an environment that promotes empathy, acceptance, and support for those affected by bipolar disorder.

Treatment and Management of Bipolar Disorder

Effective management of bipolar disorder is essential for individuals to lead stable and fulfilling lives. Treatment typically involves a combination of medication, therapeutic approaches, and lifestyle changes. In this section, we will explore the different options available for treating bipolar disorder.

Medication Options for Bipolar Disorder

Medication plays a crucial role in managing bipolar disorder and stabilizing mood swings. Mood-stabilizing medications are commonly prescribed, such as lithium, which has proven efficacy in reducing the frequency and severity of manic and depressive episodes. Other mood stabilizers, such as valproate or lamotrigine, may also be prescribed.

Antipsychotic medications can be used to manage acute manic or depressive symptoms. They help regulate neurotransmitters in the brain, reducing the intensity of mood episodes. Antidepressant medications may be prescribed cautiously in combination with mood stabilizers to address depressive symptoms, considering the risk of triggering manic episodes.

It is important for individuals to work closely with healthcare professionals to find the most suitable medication regimen, as each individual’s response to medication varies. Regular monitoring and adjustments may be necessary to achieve optimal symptom management.

Therapeutic Approaches for Bipolar Disorder

Therapeutic interventions, such as psychotherapy, play an integral role in the treatment of bipolar disorder. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) can help individuals identify and modify negative thought patterns and behaviors associated with the disorder. Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy (IPSRT) focuses on stabilizing daily routines and addressing interpersonal issues that may trigger mood episodes.

Family-focused therapy involves educating and involving family members in the treatment process, enhancing communication, and providing support to both the individual with bipolar disorder and their loved ones. For those experiencing difficulties with medication adherence, psychoeducation can be beneficial in promoting understanding about the disorder and the importance of treatment.

Lifestyle Changes to Support Mental Health

In addition to medication and therapy, adopting certain lifestyle changes can be beneficial in managing bipolar disorder. Regular exercise has been shown to improve overall mood, reduce stress, and promote better sleep patterns. A balanced and nutritious diet can also contribute to physical and mental well-being.

Establishing a consistent sleep schedule is crucial, as disrupted sleep patterns can trigger mood episodes. Practicing good sleep hygiene, such as creating a calming bedtime routine and maintaining a comfortable sleep environment, is recommended.

Avoiding or minimizing the use of alcohol and recreational drugs is important, as these substances can negatively interact with medication and exacerbate mood symptoms. Building a strong support system, including seeking support from support groups or engaging in individual counseling, can provide valuable emotional support.

While bipolar disorder presents unique challenges, it is a treatable condition. By finding the right combination of medication, therapeutic approaches, and lifestyle changes, individuals with bipolar disorder can stabilize their moods, reduce the severity and frequency of episodes, and lead fulfilling lives. A comprehensive treatment approach that addresses the complex biological, psychological, and social aspects of the disorder is key to managing and mitigating the impact of bipolar disorder on daily functioning. Collaborating with healthcare professionals and accessing necessary support systems are vital steps towards successful management of this condition.

Writing an Essay on Bipolar Disorder

Writing an essay on bipolar disorder allows for a deeper exploration of this complex topic. However, it is important to approach the subject with sensitivity, accuracy, and a focus on providing valuable information. In this section, we will discuss key considerations when writing an essay on bipolar disorder.

Choosing a Focus for the Essay

Bipolar disorder encompasses a wide range of topics, so it is essential to narrow down your focus based on your interests and the scope of your essay. Consider exploring specific aspects of bipolar disorder, such as its impact on creativity, the relationship between bipolar disorder and substance abuse, or the experiences of individuals living with bipolar disorder.

Structuring the Essay

Organizing your essay in a logical manner is crucial for conveying information effectively. Consider using the introduction to provide an overview of bipolar disorder and set the context for the essay. Each subsequent section can delve deeper into specific aspects, such as symptoms, diagnosis, impact on relationships, treatment options, and societal understanding. Conclude your essay by summarizing key points and highlighting the significance of promoting awareness and support for individuals with bipolar disorder.

Addressing Controversial Topics

Bipolar disorder is a complex and multifaceted subject that may touch upon controversial areas. When discussing topics such as medication use, alternative therapies, or the link between creativity and bipolar disorder, it is important to present balanced viewpoints supported by credible sources. Acknowledge differing perspectives and engage in evidence-based discussions while considering potential biases or limitations in existing research.

Providing Reliable Sources

To ensure the credibility and accuracy of your essay, consult reputable sources that provide evidence-based information on bipolar disorder. Peer-reviewed academic journals, government health websites, and renowned mental health organizations are reliable sources of information. Remember to properly cite your sources using a recognized citation style, such as APA or MLA, to give credit to the original authors and avoid plagiarism.

Writing an essay on bipolar disorder provides an opportunity to educate and inform readers about this complex condition. By selecting a focused topic, structuring your essay logically, addressing controversies with balanced viewpoints, and using reliable sources, you can create an informative and compelling piece that contributes to understanding and promoting empathy for those with bipolar disorder. It is imperative to approach the topic with sensitivity and respect, recognizing the impact it has on individuals, their relationships, and society as a whole.In conclusion, bipolar disorder is a complex and multifaceted mental health condition that significantly impacts individuals and society as a whole. This in-depth essay has provided a comprehensive understanding of bipolar disorder, covering various aspects such as its definition, prevalence, and impact on personal relationships. We explored the different types of bipolar disorder and the causes and risk factors associated with its development.

Furthermore, we delved into the symptoms and diagnostic criteria used for identifying bipolar disorder while highlighting the importance of distinguishing it from other mental health conditions. The essay also shed light on the challenges faced by individuals with bipolar disorder, including the strain on personal relationships and the societal stigma surrounding the condition.

The treatment and management of bipolar disorder were extensively discussed, emphasizing the significance of medication options, therapeutic approaches, and lifestyle changes to support mental health. By adopting a comprehensive treatment approach, individuals with bipolar disorder can stabilize their moods and lead fulfilling lives.

Moreover, this essay provided insights into writing an essay on bipolar disorder, guiding readers on choosing a focus, structuring the essay effectively, addressing controversial topics, and providing reliable sources. By following these principles, writers can effectively promote awareness and understanding of bipolar disorder.

It is crucial to recognize the impact of bipolar disorder and combat societal misunderstandings and stigmas. By fostering empathy, educating the public, and providing support systems, we can create an inclusive and compassionate society that supports and empowers individuals living with bipolar disorder.

In conclusion, understanding bipolar disorder is integral to promoting mental health and fostering a more informed and accepting society. By spreading knowledge, reducing stigma, and advocating for appropriate support and resources, we can work towards creating a world where individuals with bipolar disorder can lead fulfilling and meaningful lives.

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The Identification and Treatment of Psychological Disorders

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Treating Psychological Disorders

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Psychology of Behavior: Anxiety Disorders Essay (Critical Writing)

Cognitive behavioural therapy, alcohol abuse and violence, positive and negative reinforcement, reference list.

Anxiety disorders continue to affect millions of people around the world annually. In America, an estimated 41 million adults are affected making them live in fear and uncertainty (American Psychiatric Association, 1994, p. 34). Anxiety disorders manifest themselves for lengthy periods which may last up to six months (National Institute of Mental Health, 2010, para. 5-10).

For instance, post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) manifests itself in an injured person or a close relative after a terrifying act. Symptoms generally include becoming emotionally numb, startling easily, loss in interest, aggressiveness and lack of affectionate behaviour.

Manifestation of flashbacks through nightmares and daydreams occurs within six months after experiencing the accident (Schacter, 2009, p. 34). While symptoms of PTSD are common in other anxiety and depression disorders, their onset in PTSD mainly occurs after a terrifying act (Davidson, 2000, p. 12; Margolin & Gordis, 2000, p. 456). In addition, they must last for more than a month and their onset is occasioned by certain triggers such as loud bangs (Regier et al, 1998, p. 34; Yehuda, 1999, p. 65).

Many treatment approaches exist in the management of PTSD. The efficacy of treatment is bolstered through the combination of two or more approaches. In this case, cognitive behavioural therapy brings about better outcomes in patient care. Although its efficacy may require the incorporation of medication, high levels of success have still been observed.

Making the affected individuals to understand the real causes of their disorders is imperative in this approach (Bandura, 1986, p. 23). Willingness and desire to cooperate is important to enhance the individual recover from the condition. Individuals should be ready to undergo several weeks of behavioural therapy that entails talking to a therapist (Schacter, 2009, p. 47).

The affected individual is assisted in recalling the traumatic events through an enhancing environment that serves to lessen the fear produced by the situation. In addition, the patient is also taught simple physical exercises that enhance the patient relieve stress thus bringing serenity and relaxation. Recurrence of the symptoms is managed through the same procedure (Gurman & Messer, 2003, p. 12; Guerin, 1993).

Significant relationship exists between alcohol abuse and occurrence of violent behaviours in the society (Gustafson, Roland & Källmèn, 1996, p. 54). In fact, several research approaches have denoted mixed results, although majority depict an increased relationship across all age groups (Andrews & Bonta, 1998, p. 54; Heider, 1958, p. 54).

However, the success of each of the methodology is dependent on applying stringent procedures to reduce the occurrence of bias (White, Hansell & Brick, 1993, p. 32). Owing to the dynamic nature of the association between the two variables, it becomes imperative to utilise a method that can generate a broad range of results (Schacter, 2009, p. 65). In this case, a survey research would play a major role in enhancing the achievement of the objectives.

A survey entailing the collection of data from a selected population would produce incredible information useful in informing future treatment approaches and policy formulation. The study would target youths and middle aged adults due to the increased propensity of indulging in alcohol abuse. Systematic sampling would be conducted to ensure the appropriate representation of the target group. Furthermore, data collections such as administer questionnaires and observations would be applied in the study (Sapsford, 2006, p. 12).

Open ended questionnaires would be applied to ensure much information is collected from the respondents. In addition, survey research brings increased reliability owing to the fact that each respondent is provided with a standardised stimulus that enhances the researcher to make informed inferences on the subject. Utilisation of the same format in wording and content of questionnaire reduces the extent of unreliability in the subject.

Validity is also achieved in the content through application of appropriate criteria and ensuring the research displays proper attitudes when dealing the respondents (Sapsford, 2006, p. 5). However, survey research has lower validity levels when compared to other approaches such as case studies. Surveys are inexpensive, provide large quantities of information, large samples are feasible, offers flexibility and provides accurate information due to utilisation of standardised stimulus (Margolin, & Gordis, 2000, P. 65).

The generalisation of research questions and lack of mechanism to deal with context issues may affect the results. In order to address the ethical considerations, the researcher has to borrow permission from the relevant school authorities and ethical bodies. More importantly, informed consent will be sought from all the respondents after offering adequate briefing on the importance of the study. The subjects should be informed of their liberty to participate in the study (Sapsford, 2006, p. 15).

Reinforcement is a term mostly utilised to refer to the application of stimulus in encouraging or discouraging the occurrence of certain behaviours in individuals thereby resulting in the adoption of certain behaviours (Skinner, 1938, p.15). Positive reinforcement entails the introduction of a stimulus with a view of strengthening the response in an individual. On the other hand, negative reinforcement encompasses the integration of certain stimulus in order to prevent the occurrence of unwanted responses.

Offering of rewards is an example of positive reinforcement while spanking can explain some from of negative reinforcement (Schacter, 2009, p. 78; Hull, 1943). The two forms of reinforcement occur frequently throughout the life of an individual especially in the early stages. In my situation, positive reinforcement occurred with regard to closing of water taps (Kohlberg, 1973, p. 76).

Owing to my errant nature of wasting water, my mother started praising me every time i closed the water tap after using the water. The continued praise and reminder of the importance of conserving water was imperative in reinforcing the behaviour (Lilienfeld, Lynn & Lohr, 2000, p. 65). At first, my mother would praise me until a time when the behaviour was fully reinforced.

The regular and continued praise provided the needed encouragement and motivation that brought about the reinforcement into later life. However, negative reinforcement also occurred with regard to crossing the road. During my early years, I used to haphazardly cross the road without regard of my safety. Episodes of spanking from my mother helped me reform this behaviour.

The spanking provided me with the lessons that enhanced my road crossing behaviour (Forgas, 1992, p. 12). Relating the spanking episodes to my safety, I was able to be careful and patient when crossing the road. In view of the above, negative reinforcement occurred. While reinforcement offers the greatest opportunity in bringing behavioural change, appropriate care should be taken when dealing with children thus bringing the need to observe ethical considerations (Ferster, & Skinner, 1957, p. 65).

The utilised stimulus should not bring about harm or injury to the individual. Respect for the dignity of humanity should take precedence before the researcher implements any behavioural approach in an individual. Persistence and adherence to the laid-down procedures are imperative in order to achieve efficiency in reinforcement (Ferster & Skinner, 1957, p. 43).

American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: APA.

Andrews, D. & Bonta, J. (1998). The Psychology of Criminal Conduct . 2nd ed. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Davidson, J. (2000). Trauma: the impact of post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 14(2 Suppl 1): S5-S12.

Ferster, C. B. & Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement . New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Forgas, J. P. (1992). Mood and the perception of unusual people: Affective asymmetry in memory and social judgments. European Journal of Social Psychology , 22, 531-547.

Guerin, B. (1993). Social Facilitation . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Gurman, A. S., & Messer, S. B. (Eds.) (2003). Essential psychotherapies, 2nd ed . New York: Guilford Press.

Gustafson, J., Roland, K. & Källmèn, S. (1996). Alcohol and the disinhibition of social assertive behaviors, European Addiction Research , 2: 73-77.

Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relationships . New York: Wiley.

Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior . New York: Appleton.

Kohlberg, L. (1973). Continuities in childhood and adult moral development revisited. In P. Baltes & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Life-span development psychology: Personality and socialization . San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Kushner, M., Sher, K. & Beitman, B. (1990). The relation between alcohol problems and the anxiety disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry , 147(6), 685-95.

Lilienfeld, S. O., Lynn, S. J., & Lohr, J. M. (Eds.) (2003). Science and pseudoscience in clinical psychology. New York: Guilford Press.

Margolin, G. & Gordis, E. (2000). The effects of family and community violence on children. Annual Review of Psychology , 51, 445-79.

National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). (2010). Anxiety Disorders . Web.

Regier, D., Rae, D., Narrow, W., Andrews, D. & Bonta, J. (1998). Prevalence of anxiety disorders and their co-morbidity with mood and addictive disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry Supplement, 34, 24-8.

Sapsford, R. (2006). Survey Research. New York: Sage Publications Ltd.

Schacter, G. (2009). Psychology . New York: Worth Publishers.

Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behaviour of organisms: An experimental analysi s. Upper Saddle River, NJ; Prentice Hall.

White, H. R., Hansell, S. & Brick, J. (1993). Alcohol Use and Aggression Among Youth. Alcohol Health and Research World, 17:144–50.

Yehuda, R. (1999). Biological factors associated with susceptibility to posttraumatic stress disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry , 1999; 44(1): 34-9.

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Transforming the understanding and treatment of mental illnesses.

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Revolutionizing the Study of Mental Disorders

March 27, 2024 • Feature Story • 75th Anniversary

At a Glance:

• The Research Domain Criteria framework (RDoC) was created in 2010 by the National Institute of Mental Health.
• The framework encourages researchers to examine functional processes that are implemented by the brain on a continuum from normal to abnormal.
• This way of researching mental disorders can help overcome inherent limitations in using all-or-nothing diagnostic systems for research.
• Researchers worldwide have taken up the principles of RDoC.
• The framework continues to evolve and update as new information becomes available.

President George H. W. Bush proclaimed  the 1990s “ The Decade of the Brain  ,” urging the National Institutes of Health, the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), and others to raise awareness about the benefits of brain research.

“Over the years, our understanding of the brain—how it works, what goes wrong when it is injured or diseased—has increased dramatically. However, we still have much more to learn,” read the president’s proclamation. “The need for continued study of the brain is compelling: millions of Americans are affected each year by disorders of the brain…Today, these individuals and their families are justifiably hopeful, for a new era of discovery is dawning in brain research.”

Still, despite the explosion of new techniques and tools for studying the brain, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), many mental health researchers were growing frustrated that their field was not progressing as quickly as they had hoped.

For decades, researchers have studied mental disorders using diagnoses based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)—a handbook that lists the symptoms of mental disorders and the criteria for diagnosing a person with a disorder. But, among many researchers, suspicion was growing that the system used to diagnose mental disorders may not be the best way to study them.

“There are many benefits to using the DSM in medical settings—it provides reliability and ease of diagnosis. It also provides a clear-cut diagnosis for patients, which can be necessary to request insurance-based coverage of healthcare or job- or school-based accommodations,” said Bruce Cuthbert, Ph.D., who headed the workgroup that developed NIMH’s Research Domain Criteria Initiative. “However, when used in research, this approach is not always ideal.”

Researchers would often test people with a specific diagnosed DSM disorder against those with a different disorder or with no disorder and see how the groups differed. However, different mental disorders can have similar symptoms, and people can be diagnosed with several different disorders simultaneously. In addition, a diagnosis using the DSM is all or none—patients either qualify for the disorder based on their number of symptoms, or they don’t. This black-and-white approach means there may be people who experience symptoms of a mental disorder but just miss the cutoff for diagnosis.

Dr. Cuthbert, who is now the senior member of the RDoC Unit which orchestrates RDoC work, stated that “Diagnostic systems are based on clinical signs and symptoms, but signs and symptoms can’t really tell us much about what is going on in the brain or the underlying causes of a disorder. With modern neuroscience, we were seeing that information on genetic, pathophysiological, and psychological causes of mental disorders did not line up well with the current diagnostic disorder categories, suggesting that there were central processes that relate to mental disorders that were not being reflected in DMS-based research.”

Road to evolution

Concerned about the limits of using the DSM for research, Dr. Cuthbert, a professor of clinical psychology at the University of Minnesota at the time, approached Dr. Thomas Insel (then NIMH director) during a conference in the autumn of 2008. Dr. Cuthbert recalled saying, “I think it’s really important that we start looking at dimensions of functions related to mental disorders such as fear, working memory, and reward systems because we know that these dimensions cut across various disorders. I think NIMH really needs to think about mental disorders in this new way.”

Dr. Cuthbert didn’t know it then, but he was suggesting something similar to ideas that NIMH was considering. Just months earlier, Dr. Insel had spearheaded the inclusion of a goal in NIMH’s 2008 Strategic Plan for Research to “develop, for research purposes, new ways of classifying mental disorders based on dimensions of observable behavior and neurobiological measures.”

Unaware of the new strategic goal, Dr. Cuthbert was surprised when Dr. Insel's senior advisor, Marlene Guzman, called a few weeks later to ask if he’d be interested in taking a sabbatical to help lead this new effort. Dr. Cuthbert soon transitioned into a full-time NIMH employee, joining the Institute at an exciting time to lead the development of what became known as the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) Framework. The effort began in 2009 with the creation of an internal working group of interdisciplinary NIMH staff who identified core functional areas that could be used as examples of what research using this new conceptual framework looked like.

The workgroup members conceived a bold change in how investigators studied mental disorders.

“We wanted researchers to transition from looking at mental disorders as all or none diagnoses based on groups of symptoms. Instead, we wanted to encourage researchers to understand how basic core functions of the brain—like fear processing and reward processing—work at a biological and behavioral level and how these core functions contribute to mental disorders,” said Dr. Cuthbert.

This approach would incorporate biological and behavioral measures of mental disorders and examine processes that cut across and apply to all mental disorders. From Dr. Cuthbert’s standpoint, this could help remedy some of the frustrations mental health researchers were experiencing.

Around the same time the workgroup was sharing its plans and organizing the first steps, Sarah Morris, Ph.D., was a researcher focusing on schizophrenia at the University of Maryland School of Medicine in Baltimore. When she first read these papers, she wondered what this new approach would mean for her research, her grants, and her lab.

She also remembered feeling that this new approach reflected what she was seeing in her data.

“When I grouped my participants by those with and without schizophrenia, there was a lot of overlap, and there was a lot of variability across the board, and so it felt like RDoC provided the pathway forward to dissect that and sort it out,” said Dr. Morris.

Later that year, Dr. Morris joined NIMH and the RDoC workgroup, saying, “I was bumping up against a wall every day in my own work and in the data in front of me. And the idea that someone would give the field permission to try something new—that was super exciting.”

The five original RDoC domains of functioning were introduced to the broader scientific community in a series of articles published in 2010  .

To establish the new framework, the RDoC workgroup (including Drs. Cuthbert and Morris) began a series of workshops in 2011 to collect feedback from experts in various areas from the larger scientific community. Five workshops were held over the next two years, each with a different broad domain of functioning based upon prior basic behavioral neuroscience. The five domains were called:

• Negative valence (which included processes related to things like fear, threat, and loss)
• Positive valence (which included processes related to working for rewards and appreciating rewards)
• Cognitive processes
• Social processes
• Arousal and regulation processes (including arousal systems for the body and sleep).

At each workshop, experts defined several specific functions, termed constructs, that fell within the domain of interest. For instance, constructs in the cognitive processes domain included attention, memory, cognitive control, and others.

The result of these feedback sessions was a framework that described mental disorders as the interaction between different functional processes—processes that could occur on a continuum from normal to abnormal. Researchers could measure these functional processes in a variety of complementary ways—for example, by looking at genes associated with these processes, the brain circuits that implement these processes, tests or observations of behaviors that represent these functional processes, and what patients report about their concerns. Also included in the framework was an understanding that functional processes associated with mental disorders are impacted and altered by the environment and a person’s developmental stage.

Preserving momentum

Over time, the Framework continued evolving and adapting to the changing science. In 2018, a sixth functional area called sensorimotor processes was added to the Framework, and in 2019, a workshop was held to better incorporate developmental and environmental processes into the framework.;

Since its creation, the use of RDoC principles in mental health research has spread across the U.S. and the rest of the world. For example, the Psychiatric Ratings using Intermediate Stratified Markers project (PRISM)   , which receives funding from the European Union’s Innovative Medicines Initiative, is seeking to link biological markers of social withdrawal with clinical diagnoses using RDoC-style principles. Similarly, the Roadmap for Mental Health Research in Europe (ROAMER)   project by the European Commission sought to integrate mental health research across Europe using principles similar to those in the RDoC Framework.;

Dr. Morris, who has acceded to the Head of the RDoC Unit, commented: “The fact that investigators and science funders outside the United States are also pursuing similar approaches gives me confidence that we’ve been on the right pathway. I just think that this has got to be how nature works and that we are in better alignment with the basic fundamental processes that are of interest to understanding mental disorders.”

The RDoC framework will continue to adapt and change with emerging science to remain relevant as a resource for researchers now and in the future. For instance, NIMH continues to work toward the development and optimization of tools to assess RDoC constructs and supports data-driven efforts to measure function within and across domains.

“For the millions of people impacted by mental disorders, research means hope. The RDoC framework helps us study mental disorders in a different way and has already driven considerable change in the field over the past decade,” said Joshua A. Gordon, M.D., Ph.D., director of NIMH. “We hope this and other innovative approaches will continue to accelerate research progress, paving the way for prevention, recovery, and cure.”

Publications

Cuthbert, B. N., & Insel, T. R. (2013). Toward the future of psychiatric diagnosis: The seven pillars of RDoC. BMC Medicine , 11 , 126. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-11-126  

Cuthbert B. N. (2014). Translating intermediate phenotypes to psychopathology: The NIMH Research Domain Criteria. Psychophysiology , 51 (12), 1205–1206. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12342  

Cuthbert, B., & Insel, T. (2010). The data of diagnosis: New approaches to psychiatric classification. Psychiatry , 73 (4), 311–314. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.2010.73.4.311  

Cuthbert, B. N., & Kozak, M. J. (2013). Constructing constructs for psychopathology: The NIMH research domain criteria. Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 122 (3), 928–937. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034028  

Garvey, M. A., & Cuthbert, B. N. (2017). Developing a motor systems domain for the NIMH RDoC program.  Schizophrenia Bulletin , 43 (5), 935–936. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbx095  

Insel, T. (2013). Transforming diagnosis . http://www.nimh.nih.gov/about/director/2013/transforming-diagnosis.shtml

Kozak, M. J., & Cuthbert, B. N. (2016). The NIMH Research Domain Criteria initiative: Background, issues, and pragmatics. Psychophysiology , 53 (3), 286–297. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12518  

Morris, S. E., & Cuthbert, B. N. (2012). Research Domain Criteria: Cognitive systems, neural circuits, and dimensions of behavior. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience , 14 (1), 29–37. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2012.14.1/smorris  

Sanislow, C. A., Pine, D. S., Quinn, K. J., Kozak, M. J., Garvey, M. A., Heinssen, R. K., Wang, P. S., & Cuthbert, B. N. (2010). Developing constructs for psychopathology research: Research domain criteria. Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 119 (4), 631–639. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020909  

• Presidential Proclamation 6158 (The Decade of the Brain) 
• Research Domain Criteria Initiative website
• Psychiatric Ratings using Intermediate Stratified Markers (PRISM)  
• Roadmap for Mental Health Research in Europe (ROAMER)  

The Global Prevalence of Problem and Pathological Gambling and Its Associated Factors Among Individuals with Substance Use Disorders: A Meta-analysis

• Original Article
• Published: 12 October 2023

Cite this article

• Bahram Armoon   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5467-9889 1 ,
• Mark D. Griffiths 2 ,
• Marie-Josée Fleury 3 , 4 ,
• Rasool Mohammadi 5 &
• Amir-Hossien Bayat 6 , 1  

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The present systematic review and meta-analysis assessed the prevalence, sociodemographic factors, mental health disorders, and type of drug use disorders associated with problem/pathological gambling among individuals with substance use disorders (SUDs). Published studies before January 1, 2023, were reviewed. Out of 8351 papers initially identified, 61 studies remained for meta-analysis. The findings indicated that among individuals with SUDs there was a lifetime pooled prevalence rate of 23% for at-risk gambling disorder (GD), 19% for problem gambling, and 17% for pathological gambling. The pooled lifetime prevalence of SUDs among individuals with problem/pathological gambling was 18%. The findings indicated that individuals with SUDs who were male, had depressive and mood disorders, and had alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis use disorders were more likely to report problem and/or pathological gambling. Consideration of type of substance use and individuals’ mental health disorders during primary treatment could be useful for reducing GD among individuals with SUDs.

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Data Availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Confidence intervals

Gambling disorder

Problem Gambling Severity Index

Medical Subject Headings

Newcastle-Ottawa Scale

Odds ratios

Population, exposures, comparison, outcome, and study design

Protocols of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

The National Opinion Research Center DSM Screen for Gambling Problems

The South Oaks Gambling Screen

Substance use disorders (SUDs)

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Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Saveh University of Medical Sciences, Saveh, Iran

Bahram Armoon & Amir-Hossien Bayat

International Gaming Research Unit, Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK

Mark D. Griffiths

Douglas Hospital Research Centre, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, QC, Canada

Marie-Josée Fleury

Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada

Social Determinants of Health Research Center, School of Health and Nutrition, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran

Rasool Mohammadi

Department of Neuroscience, School of Sciences and Advanced Technology in Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Science, Hamadan, Iran

Amir-Hossien Bayat

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BA conceived the study. BA collected all data. RM and BA analyzed and interpreted the data. BA and AHB drafted the manuscript. BA, MJF, and MDG contributed to the revised paper, and MDG was responsible for all final editing. All authors commented on the drafts of the manuscript and approved the final copy of the paper for submission.

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The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest except MDG. MDG has received research funding from Norsk Tipping (the gambling operator owned by the Norwegian government). MDG has received funding for a number of research projects in the area of gambling education for young people, social responsibility in gambling, and gambling treatment from GambleAware (formerly the Responsibility in Gambling Trust ), a charitable body which funds its research program based on donations from the gambling industry. MDG undertakes consultancy for various gambling companies in the area of social responsibility in gambling.

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Armoon, B., Griffiths, M.D., Fleury, MJ. et al. The Global Prevalence of Problem and Pathological Gambling and Its Associated Factors Among Individuals with Substance Use Disorders: A Meta-analysis. Int J Ment Health Addiction (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-023-01167-y

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Accepted : 17 September 2023

Published : 12 October 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-023-01167-y

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