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How to Write an Ethics Paper: Guide & Ethical Essay Examples

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An ethics essay is a type of academic writing that explores ethical issues and dilemmas. Students should evaluates them in terms of moral principles and values. The purpose of an ethics essay is to examine the moral implications of a particular issue, and provide a reasoned argument in support of an ethical perspective.

Writing an essay about ethics is a tough task for most students. The process involves creating an outline to guide your arguments about a topic and planning your ideas to convince the reader of your feelings about a difficult issue. If you still need assistance putting together your thoughts in composing a good paper, you have come to the right place. We have provided a series of steps and tips to show how you can achieve success in writing. This guide will tell you how to write an ethics paper using ethical essay examples to understand every step it takes to be proficient. In case you don’t have time for writing, get in touch with our professional essay writers for hire . Our experts work hard to supply students with excellent essays.

What Is an Ethics Essay?

An ethics essay uses moral theories to build arguments on an issue. You describe a controversial problem and examine it to determine how it affects individuals or society. Ethics papers analyze arguments on both sides of a possible dilemma, focusing on right and wrong. The analysis gained can be used to solve real-life cases. Before embarking on writing an ethical essay, keep in mind that most individuals follow moral principles. From a social context perspective, these rules define how a human behaves or acts towards another. Therefore, your theme essay on ethics needs to demonstrate how a person feels about these moral principles. More specifically, your task is to show how significant that issue is and discuss if you value or discredit it.

Purpose of an Essay on Ethics

The primary purpose of an ethics essay is to initiate an argument on a moral issue using reasoning and critical evidence. Instead of providing general information about a problem, you present solid arguments about how you view the moral concern and how it affects you or society. When writing an ethical paper, you demonstrate philosophical competence, using appropriate moral perspectives and principles.

Things to Write an Essay About Ethics On

Before you start to write ethics essays, consider a topic you can easily address. In most cases, an ethical issues essay analyzes right and wrong. This includes discussing ethics and morals and how they contribute to the right behaviors. You can also talk about work ethic, code of conduct, and how employees promote or disregard the need for change. However, you can explore other areas by asking yourself what ethics mean to you. Think about how a recent game you watched with friends started a controversial argument. Or maybe a newspaper that highlighted a story you felt was misunderstood or blown out of proportion. This way, you can come up with an excellent topic that resonates with your personal ethics and beliefs.

Ethics Paper Outline

Sometimes, you will be asked to submit an outline before writing an ethics paper. Creating an outline for an ethics paper is an essential step in creating a good essay. You can use it to arrange your points and supporting evidence before writing. It also helps organize your thoughts, enabling you to fill any gaps in your ideas. The outline for an essay should contain short and numbered sentences to cover the format and outline. Each section is structured to enable you to plan your work and include all sources in writing an ethics paper. An ethics essay outline is as follows:

• Background information
• Thesis statement
• Restate thesis statement
• Summarize key points
• Final thoughts on the topic

Using this outline will improve clarity and focus throughout your writing process.

Ethical Essay Structure

Ethics essays are similar to other essays based on their format, outline, and structure. An ethical essay should have a well-defined introduction, body, and conclusion section as its structure. When planning your ideas, make sure that the introduction and conclusion are around 20 percent of the paper, leaving the rest to the body. We will take a detailed look at what each part entails and give examples that are going to help you understand them better.  Refer to our essay structure examples to find a fitting way of organizing your writing.

Ethics Paper Introduction

An ethics essay introduction gives a synopsis of your main argument. One step on how to write an introduction for an ethics paper is telling about the topic and describing its background information. This paragraph should be brief and straight to the point. It informs readers what your position is on that issue. Start with an essay hook to generate interest from your audience. It can be a question you will address or a misunderstanding that leads up to your main argument. You can also add more perspectives to be discussed; this will inform readers on what to expect in the paper.

Ethics Essay Introduction Example

You can find many ethics essay introduction examples on the internet. In this guide, we have written an excellent extract to demonstrate how it should be structured. As you read, examine how it begins with a hook and then provides background information on an issue. 

Imagine living in a world where people only lie, and honesty is becoming a scarce commodity. Indeed, modern society is facing this reality as truth and deception can no longer be separated. Technology has facilitated a quick transmission of voluminous information, whereas it's hard separating facts from opinions.

In this example, the first sentence of the introduction makes a claim or uses a question to hook the reader.

Ethics Essay Thesis Statement

An ethics paper must contain a thesis statement in the first paragraph. Learning how to write a thesis statement for an ethics paper is necessary as readers often look at it to gauge whether the essay is worth their time.

When you deviate away from the thesis, your whole paper loses meaning. In ethics essays, your thesis statement is a roadmap in writing, stressing your position on the problem and giving reasons for taking that stance. It should focus on a specific element of the issue being discussed. When writing a thesis statement, ensure that you can easily make arguments for or against its stance.

Ethical Paper Thesis Example

Look at this example of an ethics paper thesis statement and examine how well it has been written to state a position and provide reasons for doing so:

The moral implications of dishonesty are far-reaching as they undermine trust, integrity, and other foundations of society, damaging personal and professional relationships. 

The above thesis statement example is clear and concise, indicating that this paper will highlight the effects of dishonesty in society. Moreover, it focuses on aspects of personal and professional relationships.

Ethics Essay Body

The body section is the heart of an ethics paper as it presents the author's main points. In an ethical essay, each body paragraph has several elements that should explain your main idea. These include:

• A topic sentence that is precise and reiterates your stance on the issue.
• Evidence supporting it.
• Examples that illustrate your argument.
• A thorough analysis showing how the evidence and examples relate to that issue.
• A transition sentence that connects one paragraph to another with the help of essay transitions .

When you write an ethics essay, adding relevant examples strengthens your main point and makes it easy for others to understand and comprehend your argument. 

Body Paragraph for Ethics Paper Example

A good body paragraph must have a well-defined topic sentence that makes a claim and includes evidence and examples to support it. Look at part of an example of ethics essay body paragraph below and see how its idea has been developed:

Honesty is an essential component of professional integrity. In many fields, trust and credibility are crucial for professionals to build relationships and success. For example, a doctor who is dishonest about a potential side effect of a medication is not only acting unethically but also putting the health and well-being of their patients at risk. Similarly, a dishonest businessman could achieve short-term benefits but will lose their client’s trust.

Ethics Essay Conclusion

A concluding paragraph shares the summary and overview of the author's main arguments. Many students need clarification on what should be included in the essay conclusion and how best to get a reader's attention. When writing an ethics paper conclusion, consider the following:

• Restate the thesis statement to emphasize your position.
• Summarize its main points and evidence.
• Final thoughts on the issue and any other considerations.

You can also reflect on the topic or acknowledge any possible challenges or questions that have not been answered. A closing statement should present a call to action on the problem based on your position.

Sample Ethics Paper Conclusion

The conclusion paragraph restates the thesis statement and summarizes the arguments presented in that paper. The sample conclusion for an ethical essay example below demonstrates how you should write a concluding statement.  

In conclusion, the implications of dishonesty and the importance of honesty in our lives cannot be overstated. Honesty builds solid relationships, effective communication, and better decision-making. This essay has explored how dishonesty impacts people and that we should value honesty. We hope this essay will help readers assess their behavior and work towards being more honest in their lives.

In the above extract, the writer gives final thoughts on the topic, urging readers to adopt honest behavior.

How to Write an Ethics Paper?

As you learn how to write an ethics essay, it is not advised to immediately choose a topic and begin writing. When you follow this method, you will get stuck or fail to present concrete ideas. A good writer understands the importance of planning. As a fact, you should organize your work and ensure it captures key elements that shed more light on your arguments. Hence, following the essay structure and creating an outline to guide your writing process is the best approach. In the following segment, we have highlighted step-by-step techniques on how to write a good ethics paper.

1. Pick a Topic

Before writing ethical papers, brainstorm to find ideal topics that can be easily debated. For starters, make a list, then select a title that presents a moral issue that may be explained and addressed from opposing sides. Make sure you choose one that interests you. Here are a few ideas to help you search for topics:

• Review current trends affecting people.
• Think about your personal experiences.
• Study different moral theories and principles.
• Examine classical moral dilemmas.

Once you find a suitable topic and are ready, start to write your ethics essay, conduct preliminary research, and ascertain that there are enough sources to support it.

2. Conduct In-Depth Research

Once you choose a topic for your essay, the next step is gathering sufficient information about it. Conducting in-depth research entails looking through scholarly journals to find credible material. Ensure you note down all sources you found helpful to assist you on how to write your ethics paper. Use the following steps to help you conduct your research:

• Clearly state and define a problem you want to discuss.
• This will guide your research process.
• Develop keywords that match the topic.
• Begin searching from a wide perspective. This will allow you to collect more information, then narrow it down by using the identified words above.

3. Develop an Ethics Essay Outline

An outline will ease up your writing process when developing an ethic essay. As you develop a paper on ethics, jot down factual ideas that will build your paragraphs for each section. Include the following steps in your process:

• Review the topic and information gathered to write a thesis statement.
• Identify the main arguments you want to discuss and include their evidence.
• Group them into sections, each presenting a new idea that supports the thesis.
• Write an outline.
• Review and refine it.

Examples can also be included to support your main arguments. The structure should be sequential, coherent, and with a good flow from beginning to end. When you follow all steps, you can create an engaging and organized outline that will help you write a good essay.

4. Write an Ethics Essay

Once you have selected a topic, conducted research, and outlined your main points, you can begin writing an essay . Ensure you adhere to the ethics paper format you have chosen. Start an ethics paper with an overview of your topic to capture the readers' attention. Build upon your paper by avoiding ambiguous arguments and using the outline to help you write your essay on ethics. Finish the introduction paragraph with a thesis statement that explains your main position.  Expand on your thesis statement in all essay paragraphs. Each paragraph should start with a topic sentence and provide evidence plus an example to solidify your argument, strengthen the main point, and let readers see the reasoning behind your stance. Finally, conclude the essay by restating your thesis statement and summarizing all key ideas. Your conclusion should engage the reader, posing questions or urging them to reflect on the issue and how it will impact them.

5. Proofread Your Ethics Essay

Proofreading your essay is the last step as you countercheck any grammatical or structural errors in your essay. When writing your ethic paper, typical mistakes you could encounter include the following:

• Spelling errors: e.g., there, they’re, their.
• Homophone words: such as new vs. knew.
• Inconsistencies: like mixing British and American words, e.g., color vs. color.
• Formatting issues: e.g., double spacing, different font types.

While proofreading your ethical issue essay, read it aloud to detect lexical errors or ambiguous phrases that distort its meaning. Verify your information and ensure it is relevant and up-to-date. You can ask your fellow student to read the essay and give feedback on its structure and quality.

Ethics Essay Examples

Writing an essay is challenging without the right steps. There are so many ethics paper examples on the internet, however, we have provided a list of free ethics essay examples below that are well-structured and have a solid argument to help you write your paper. Click on them and see how each writing step has been integrated. Ethics essay example 1

Ethics essay example 2

Ethics essay example 3

Ethics essay example 4

College ethics essay example 5

Ethics Essay Writing Tips

When writing papers on ethics, here are several tips to help you complete an excellent essay:

• Choose a narrow topic and avoid broad subjects, as it is easy to cover the topic in detail.
• Ensure you have background information. A good understanding of a topic can make it easy to apply all necessary moral theories and principles in writing your paper.
• State your position clearly. It is important to be sure about your stance as it will allow you to draft your arguments accordingly.
• When writing ethics essays, be mindful of your audience. Provide arguments that they can understand.
• Integrate solid examples into your essay. Morality can be hard to understand; therefore, using them will help a reader grasp these concepts.

Bottom Line on Writing an Ethics Paper

Creating this essay is a common exercise in academics that allows students to build critical skills. When you begin writing, state your stance on an issue and provide arguments to support your position. This guide gives information on how to write an ethics essay as well as examples of ethics papers. Remember to follow these points in your writing:

• Create an outline highlighting your main points.
• Write an effective introduction and provide background information on an issue.
• Include a thesis statement.
• Develop concrete arguments and their counterarguments, and use examples.
• Sum up all your key points in your conclusion and restate your thesis statement.

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Home Essay Samples Philosophy Ethics in Everyday Life

A Life of Integrity: How to Live an Ethical Life

Table of contents, honesty: upholding truth and integrity, empathy: understanding and compassion, responsibility: actions and consequences, sustainability: caring for the planet, continuous self-reflection: growth and improvement, references:.

• Aristotle. (2011). Nicomachean Ethics. Courier Corporation.
• Buber, M. (2002). I and Thou. Charles Scribner's Sons.
• Gilligan, C. (1982). In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development. Harvard University Press.
• Levinas, E. (2004). Otherwise than Being or Beyond Essence. Duquesne University Press.
• Singer, P. (1993). Practical Ethics. Cambridge University Press.

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• Friedrich Nietzsche
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Ethics and Morality

Morality, Ethics, Evil, Greed

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

To put it simply, ethics represents the moral code that guides a person’s choices and behaviors throughout their life. The idea of a moral code extends beyond the individual to include what is determined to be right, and wrong, for a community or society at large.

Ethics is concerned with rights, responsibilities, use of language, what it means to live an ethical life, and how people make moral decisions. We may think of moralizing as an intellectual exercise, but more frequently it's an attempt to make sense of our gut instincts and reactions. It's a subjective concept, and many people have strong and stubborn beliefs about what's right and wrong that can place them in direct contrast to the moral beliefs of others. Yet even though morals may vary from person to person, religion to religion, and culture to culture, many have been found to be universal, stemming from basic human emotions.

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• The Stages of Moral Development

Those who are considered morally good are said to be virtuous, holding themselves to high ethical standards, while those viewed as morally bad are thought of as wicked, sinful, or even criminal. Morality was a key concern of Aristotle, who first studied questions such as “What is moral responsibility?” and “What does it take for a human being to be virtuous?”

We used to think that people are born with a blank slate, but research has shown that people have an innate sense of morality . Of course, parents and the greater society can certainly nurture and develop morality and ethics in children.

Humans are ethical and moral regardless of religion and God. People are not fundamentally good nor are they fundamentally evil. However, a Pew study found that atheists are much less likely than theists to believe that there are "absolute standards of right and wrong." In effect, atheism does not undermine morality, but the atheist’s conception of morality may depart from that of the traditional theist.

Animals are like humans—and humans are animals, after all. Many studies have been conducted across animal species, and more than 90 percent of their behavior is what can be identified as “prosocial” or positive. Plus, you won’t find mass warfare in animals as you do in humans. Hence, in a way, you can say that animals are more moral than humans.

The examination of moral psychology involves the study of moral philosophy but the field is more concerned with how a person comes to make a right or wrong decision, rather than what sort of decisions he or she should have made. Character, reasoning, responsibility, and altruism , among other areas, also come into play, as does the development of morality.

The seven deadly sins were first enumerated in the sixth century by Pope Gregory I, and represent the sweep of immoral behavior. Also known as the cardinal sins or seven deadly vices, they are vanity, jealousy , anger , laziness, greed, gluttony, and lust. People who demonstrate these immoral behaviors are often said to be flawed in character. Some modern thinkers suggest that virtue often disguises a hidden vice; it just depends on where we tip the scale .

An amoral person has no sense of, or care for, what is right or wrong. There is no regard for either morality or immorality. Conversely, an immoral person knows the difference, yet he does the wrong thing, regardless. The amoral politician, for example, has no conscience and makes choices based on his own personal needs; he is oblivious to whether his actions are right or wrong.

One could argue that the actions of Wells Fargo, for example, were amoral if the bank had no sense of right or wrong. In the 2016 fraud scandal, the bank created fraudulent savings and checking accounts for millions of clients, unbeknownst to them. Of course, if the bank knew what it was doing all along, then the scandal would be labeled immoral.

Everyone tells white lies to a degree, and often the lie is done for the greater good. But the idea that a small percentage of people tell the lion’s share of lies is the Pareto principle, the law of the vital few. It is 20 percent of the population that accounts for 80 percent of a behavior.

We do know what is right from wrong . If you harm and injure another person, that is wrong. However, what is right for one person, may well be wrong for another. A good example of this dichotomy is the religious conservative who thinks that a woman’s right to her body is morally wrong. In this case, one’s ethics are based on one’s values; and the moral divide between values can be vast.

Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg established his stages of moral development in 1958. This framework has led to current research into moral psychology. Kohlberg's work addresses the process of how we think of right and wrong and is based on Jean Piaget's theory of moral judgment for children. His stages include pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional, and what we learn in one stage is integrated into the subsequent stages.

The pre-conventional stage is driven by obedience and punishment . This is a child's view of what is right or wrong. Examples of this thinking: “I hit my brother and I received a time-out.” “How can I avoid punishment?” “What's in it for me?” 

The conventional stage is when we accept societal views on rights and wrongs. In this stage people follow rules with a  good boy  and nice girl  orientation. An example of this thinking: “Do it for me.” This stage also includes law-and-order morality: “Do your duty.”

The post-conventional stage is more abstract: “Your right and wrong is not my right and wrong.” This stage goes beyond social norms and an individual develops his own moral compass, sticking to personal principles of what is ethical or not.

A new study suggests that scientists tend to inflate their own research ethics. One important implication is that this overconfidence may lead to ethical blindspots.

Today we celebrate the 300th birthday of Immanuel Kant. Embrace face-to-face encounters to live up to his motto Dare to Know!

Two award-winning movies about the Holocaust raise questions about whether they contribute to ethical behavior. Some critics say no.

For beauty, we paint our faces, starve ourselves to the bone, feel the burn, suck out our fat, freeze our faces, cut into our skin, and place foreign bodies into our skin.

A popular management philosophy views employees primarily as costs to be minimized.

Do you believe there is a decline in morality in the United States? The reasons you feel that way may surprise you.

Unlike a bystander, who passively watches events unfold without intervening, an upstander takes action to support fairness and respect. Sometimes that means breaking the rules.

Prosecution for war crimes is not only about deterring future crimes, also about preventing anger that continues across the generations.

Review: The film’s carefully mapped-out confusion seems to reflect director Alex Garland’s key point--war, civil or international, ultimately blurs crucial moral distinctions.

Explore vital strategies to drive transparency and ethical leadership in the era of AI.

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2 September 2023

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Crafting a Personal Ethics Statement Essay: A Comprehensive Guide

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• Creating a Personal Ethics Statement Essay

A personal ethics statement is a declaration of your beliefs and values. It serves as a mirror reflecting your personal view of ethics, morals, and the decisions you make daily.

Life experiences, religious beliefs, and family influence all contribute to the formation of your personal ethics. This guide will walk you through the necessary steps to craft an effective personal ethics statement essay and discuss the importance of personal and professional ethics in your life.

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• Components of a Personal Ethics Statement

A personal ethics statement typically encompasses the following components:

• Introduction : This section should introduce your personal ethics, ethical principles, and the values you hold dear. Explain how your upbringing, life experiences, and the people in your life have contributed to your current belief system.
• Body : This section is the heart of your personal ethics essay. Elaborate on your values and ethical issues that are most important to you. Discuss how these ethics and morals guide your decisions and actions in every aspect of your life, both personal and professional.
• Conclusion : Summarize your personal ethics statement, emphasizing the key points and explaining how your ethics will play a role in your future decisions, professional growth, and relationships.

Tips for Crafting Your Personal Ethics Statement Essay

While writing your personal ethics statement essay, keep in mind the following tips:

• Be Authentic : Your ethics statement should reflect your true beliefs and values. Avoid listing ethics you feel you “should” have, and instead focus on the ethical guidelines and moral principles that genuinely resonate with you.
• Be Specific : Provide examples of situations where your ethics have guided your decisions or helped you distinguish between right and wrong. These examples can be from your personal or professional life.
• Reflect : Take time to reflect on your experiences and how they have shaped your ethical code. Consider how your ethics may evolve in the future and the impact they may have on your personal and professional relationships.

Importance of Personal and Professional Ethics

Ethics are fundamental to every aspect of your life. They guide your decisions and actions, affect your relationships with others, and influence your self-respect.

Personal ethics are formed through family influence, religious beliefs, and life experiences. Professional ethics, on the other hand, are the ethical standards and code of conduct that you adhere to in a professional setting. Both personal and professional ethics are crucial for maintaining ethical behavior and a clear understanding of right and wrong.

Interrelation between Personal and Professional Ethics

The interrelation between personal and professional ethics is significant in shaping an individual’s character and conduct. Here are some insightful points:

• Values Alignment: Personal ethics often influence professional ethics. When personal values align with organizational values, it fosters a sense of purpose and commitment in one’s work.
• Trustworthiness: Consistency between personal and professional ethics builds trust. Colleagues and clients are more likely to trust individuals who demonstrate integrity in both spheres.
• Decision-Making: Personal ethics serve as a foundation for ethical decision-making at work. Moral principles developed in personal life guide choices in professional dilemmas.
• Reputation: Personal behavior can impact professional reputation. Unethical actions in personal life can tarnish one’s professional image and credibility.
• Stress Reduction: Harmonizing personal and professional ethics reduces cognitive dissonance and stress. When actions align with beliefs, it enhances well-being.
• Leadership Example: Leaders who exemplify strong personal ethics inspire ethical behavior throughout their organizations, fostering a culture of integrity.
• Conflict Resolution: An individual’s personal ethics can aid in resolving ethical conflicts at work. It provides a framework for addressing disagreements and finding solutions.
• Long-Term Success: Individuals with a strong ethical foundation tend to have more sustainable professional careers. Ethical lapses can lead to setbacks and even legal issues.
• Adaptability: Personal ethics can evolve over time, influencing how one adapts to changing professional environments and ethical standards.
• Legal Implications: Personal ethical breaches can have legal repercussions in professional settings, emphasizing the need for alignment.

In essence, personal and professional ethics are intertwined, and recognizing this connection is crucial for ethical development and success in both personal and professional life.

The Role of Family and Religion in Shaping Personal Ethics

Family and religious beliefs play a significant role in shaping one’s personal ethics. From a young age, families impart values and morals, influencing one’s perception of right and wrong. Religious beliefs often provide a set of ethical guidelines and principles that individuals adhere to in their daily lives.

Family Influence

The family is often the first and most influential socializing agent in one’s life. Parents, siblings, and extended family members contribute to shaping one’s personal ethics in various ways:

• Teaching Values : From a young age, parents teach their children fundamental values such as honesty, kindness, and respect. These values form the foundation of a child’s personal ethics.
• Modeling Behavior : Children often mimic the behavior of their parents and other family members. If parents model ethical behavior, children are more likely to adopt similar ethical standards.
• Discussions and Debates : Family discussions about ethical issues, current events, or hypothetical scenarios can help children develop critical thinking skills and form their own opinions about what is right and wrong.
• Setting Expectations : Families often set expectations for behavior, which can influence a child’s sense of right and wrong. For example, a family that values hard work and perseverance may instill a strong work ethic in their children.

Religious Influence

Religion plays a crucial role in shaping personal ethics for many individuals. Religious teachings often provide a framework for understanding the world and making ethical decisions:

• Ethical Guidelines : Many religions have specific guidelines about what is considered right and wrong. For example, the Ten Commandments in Christianity provide a set of ethical guidelines for followers.
• Moral Stories : Religious texts often contain stories that illustrate moral lessons. These stories can help individuals understand and internalize ethical principles.
• Community Influence : Being part of a religious community can also influence one’s personal ethics. The shared beliefs and values of the community can reinforce one’s personal ethics.
• Spiritual Reflection : Religion often encourages self-reflection and mindfulness, which can help individuals gain a deeper understanding of their values and ethical principles.

Interplay between Family and Religion

Family and religion often intersect, and their influences on one’s personal ethics can be intertwined. For example, a family’s religious beliefs often influence the values they teach their children. Conversely, an individual’s personal ethics may influence their religious beliefs and practices.

It is important to reflect on how your family and religious beliefs have influenced your personal ethics and how they continue to guide your decisions and actions.

Understanding the role of family and religion in shaping your personal ethics can help you gain a deeper understanding of yourself and the values you hold dear.

Navigating Ethical Dilemmas with Your Personal Ethics

Ethical dilemmas often arise in both personal and professional settings. Having a clear understanding of your personal ethics can help you navigate these dilemmas and make decisions that align with your values and ethical principles. When faced with an ethical dilemma, consider the following:

• Identify the Dilemma : Clearly define the ethical dilemma you are facing. What are the conflicting values or interests at play?
• Consider the Options : Evaluate all possible options and the potential consequences of each. Consider how each option aligns with your personal ethics.
• Make a Decision : Based on your evaluation, make a decision that aligns with your personal ethics and is the most appropriate course of action.
• Reflect : After making a decision, take time to reflect on the outcome. Did it align with your personal ethics? Would you make the same decision again?

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• Being a Role Model through Ethical Behavior

Being a role model means exhibiting ethical behavior in all aspects of your life. Your actions and decisions influence those around you, whether you realize it or not.

By adhering to your personal ethics and making decisions that reflect your values and ethical principles, you can inspire others to do the same. Consider the following tips to be a role model through ethical behavior:

• Lead by Example : Demonstrate ethical behavior in all your actions and decisions. Be consistent in your actions, whether in personal or professional settings.
• Be Accountable : Take responsibility for your actions and decisions. If you make a mistake, acknowledge it, and take steps to rectify it.
• Be Transparent : Be open and honest in your communication with others. Share your thought process and the reasons behind your decisions.
• Encourage Ethical Behavior : Encourage others to act ethically by acknowledging and rewarding ethical behavior.

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• Reflecting and Updating Your Personal Ethics Statement

Your personal ethics may evolve over time due to new experiences, changes in your belief system, or shifts in your perspective on ethical issues.

It is essential to periodically reflect on and update your personal ethics statement. Consider the following steps to reflect on and update your personal ethics statement:

• Reflect on Your Experiences : Take time to reflect on your experiences and how they have influenced your personal ethics. Have you encountered any ethical dilemmas that challenged your beliefs? Have your values or ethical principles evolved?
• Evaluate Your Current Ethics Statement : Review your current personal ethics statement. Does it still accurately reflect your values and ethical principles? Are there any areas that need updating or revising?
• Update Your Ethics Statement : Based on your reflection and evaluation, update your personal ethics statement to accurately reflect your current values and ethical principles.
• Seek Feedback : Share your updated personal ethics statement with a trusted friend, family member, or mentor. Seek feedback on whether your statement accurately reflects your values and ethical principles.
• Implement Your Updated Ethics Statement : Apply your updated personal ethics statement to your daily life and decision-making. Reflect on how your updated ethics influence your actions and decisions.

In conclusion, crafting a personal ethics statement essay is not only an exercise in self-awareness but also a guide that can profoundly influence your decisions and actions, both personally and professionally.

Your personal ethics are a reflection of your character and play a critical role in your interactions, your approach to ethical dilemmas, and your role as a model for others.

Therefore, it is crucial to take time to reflect on your values, consider the influence of family and religion, navigate ethical dilemmas, and continuously update your personal ethics statement.

Remember that your personal ethics are not set in stone; they may evolve and adapt as you grow and learn. Hence, revisiting and revising your personal ethics statement is an essential practice in your journey of self-development and professional growth.

What is a personal ethics statement?

A personal ethics statement is a declaration of your core values and ethical principles that guide your decisions and actions.

Why is a personal ethics statement important?

It helps you gain a clear understanding of your values and ethical guidelines, guiding your decisions and actions in both personal and professional settings.

How do I write a personal ethics statement essay?

Start by reflecting on your values, ethical principles, and life experiences that have shaped your beliefs. Then, organize your thoughts into an introduction, body, and conclusion, elaborating on your values and providing specific examples.

Can my personal ethics evolve over time?

Yes, your personal ethics may evolve due to new experiences, changes in your belief system, or shifts in your perspective on ethical issues. It is essential to periodically reflect on and update your personal ethics statement.

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Table of Contents

• • Creating a Personal Ethics Statement Essay
• • Components of a Personal Ethics Statement
• • Being a Role Model through Ethical Behavior
• • Reflecting and Updating Your Personal Ethics Statement
• • Conclusion

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Essay on Ethics In Life

Students are often asked to write an essay on Ethics In Life in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Ethics In Life

What are ethics.

Ethics are rules about right and wrong that guide us in life. They help us decide how to act in different situations. Think of them as a moral compass that points to good behavior.

Why Ethics Matter

Ethics are important because they create trust and peace in communities. When we follow ethical rules, we show respect for others and ourselves. This makes it easier for people to get along.

Examples of Ethics

Being honest, fair, and kind are all examples of ethical behavior. Not cheating on a test or not bullying someone are ways we practice ethics every day.

Learning About Ethics

We learn ethics from our families, schools, and friends. Books, stories, and discussions in class can also teach us what is right or wrong.

Challenges to Ethics

Sometimes it’s hard to be ethical, especially if it means losing something we want. Yet, staying true to good ethics is rewarding and builds character.

250 Words Essay on Ethics In Life

Ethics are like rules for deciding what is good or bad. They guide us to act in a way that is fair and kind to others. Imagine if you found a lost wallet. Ethics help you choose to return it instead of keeping it for yourself. They are not laws written by a government, but rather personal principles we live by.

Ethics matter because they make us trust each other. When we are honest and caring, we create a happy and safe place for everyone. For example, when we don’t cheat in games or tests, we show that we can be trusted. This trust builds friendships and makes our families, schools, and communities stronger.

Learning Ethics

We start learning ethics from a young age. Our family, teachers, and friends show us how to share, tell the truth, and treat others nicely. These lessons are like seeds that grow into our own sense of right and wrong. As we get older, these seeds become stronger, helping us make good choices even when it’s tough.

Using Ethics Every Day

Every day, we use ethics to make choices. When we see someone being bullied, ethics tell us to speak up or get help. When we have the chance to lie to get out of trouble, ethics remind us that being honest is important. By using ethics, we can be proud of the choices we make.

In life, ethics are our invisible friends, guiding us to be the best we can be. They help us live together in peace and make sure everyone is treated fairly. By following these simple rules, we create a world that is good for all of us.

500 Words Essay on Ethics In Life

Ethics are like invisible rules that guide us to do what is right and good. They are not written down like school rules, but they live in our minds and hearts, telling us how to act with others and even when we are alone. Imagine ethics as a small voice inside you that helps you choose between sharing your toys or keeping them all to yourself.

Why Are Ethics Important?

Ethics are important because they help us live together peacefully. They make sure we treat each other kindly and fairly. For example, when you find a lost wallet, ethics tell you to return it rather than keep it. This makes the person who lost it happy and helps you feel good about doing the right thing.

Learning Ethics at Home

Our first lessons in ethics come from our families. Parents and older family members teach us to say “please” and “thank you,” to share, and not to hit others. These simple lessons are the building blocks of ethics. They help us understand that thinking about others’ feelings is just as important as our own.

Practicing Ethics at School

School is like a playground for ethics. Every day, we get chances to show honesty by doing our own work, kindness by helping a friend, and responsibility by cleaning up after ourselves. When we work in groups, we learn to listen and respect different ideas, which is also a part of being ethical.

Friendship and Ethics

Ethics are super important in friendships. They teach us to be loyal, which means sticking by our friends even when times are tough. They also remind us not to spread rumors or talk behind someone’s back because it can hurt feelings and break trust.

Playing Fair in Sports

In sports, ethics show up as sportsmanship. This means playing by the rules, not cheating, and being a good winner or a brave loser. It’s about respecting the game, the players, and even the referees, no matter if we win or lose.

Using Ethics Online

The internet is a big world where ethics are super important. We must be kind and respectful, just like we are face-to-face. This means not saying mean things or sharing someone’s secrets. Being ethical online keeps everyone safe and happy.

Looking After Our Planet

Ethics also tell us to care for our Earth. We can do this by recycling, saving water, and not littering. When we look after our planet, we make sure it stays beautiful and healthy for all the animals, plants, and people who live on it.

In conclusion, ethics are like a compass that guides us through life. They help us make choices that are good for us and for everyone around us. By following these invisible rules, we build a world that is kinder, fairer, and more beautiful for everyone. Remember, it’s the little choices we make every day that shape our lives and the world we live in.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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The Ethical Principles

• First Online: 21 August 2018

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• Frederick B. Mills 2  

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Chapter 4, on The Ethical Principles , articulates the grounds and content of the material, formal and feasibility ethical principles. The material principle requires that we promote the growth of human life in community and in harmony with nature. The formal principle requires that we use symmetrical procedures to advance the material principle. And the feasibility principle limits decisions and actions to what is achievable. This chapter shows in detail how these three principles mutually condition each other and that an act cannot be considered ethically good unless all three principles are in play.

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We can continue to multiply these principles, by considering their application as critical, transitional and constructive principles, in which case there are nine (see Zúñiga 2016a ). For the sake of brevity and simplicity, however, I usually refer to three main principles throughout this monograph.

Dussel expresses concern about the ecological crisis in several works, including Ethics and Community ( 1986 / 1988 , 196–199 [18.3–18.5]); Philosophy of Liberation ( 1977 / 1985 , 114–117 [4.17–4.18]; Ethics of Liberation ( 1998 / 2013 , 39 [43], 103–104 [110–111]); and 14 Tesis de etica ( 2016 , 69 [5.77]).

Dussel advocates a vitalism that is “critical, rational, universal, ethical, and of the left” and warns against the vitalism of the political right which is often racist, such as the case of Hitler ( 2016 , 58 [5.12]).

By regulative idea I mean the Kantian notion that we ought to strive toward an ultimate goal even if it might never be completely realized. The means of advancing toward the approximation of such a goal, however, ought to be feasible.

I use the term ‘carnality’ here as a translation of carnalidad . I mean to convey Dussel’s interpretation of the Hebrew Basár : “The blood, ears, bones, every organ is a faculty of the living unity that is man. There is not, strictly speaking, a ‘corporeality, but rather a ‘carnality’ of the spiritual existence of man in his radical living unity” (Dussel 1969 , 28).

I believe there is a Spinozist element in Dussel’s concept of human life . For Spinoza , the human mind is the idea of the body and the mind is “conscious of its own endeavor” (Spinoza 1677 / 1955 , 92 [Part II., Prop XIII]); 137 [Part III., Prop. IX]).

“The real things surrounding the human being have real physical properties. The apple has such physical components in its real constitution. Only when the living being, and as such [a being] in need, encounters the apple as a possible satisfier of its needs, only in that moment is the apple now food; that is to say, a mediation to replace the energy and material that life consumes in its very [process of] living, in its metabolism” (Dussel 2018 , 70).

Practical reason, argues Dussel, is “the cunning of life” ( 1998 / 2013 , 56 [57], 69 [73]).

For a discussion of the idea of buen vivir as an important contribution to building a new world, see Acosta ( 2013 ).

See Dussel ( 2016 , 16 [1.12]; 2014a , 326–327 [16.77–16.78]).

In The Structure of Behavior ( 1942 / 2008 ), Maurice Merleau-Ponty argues that human behavior (as well as other forms of animal life) is not passively shaped by its environmental stimuli but seeks out those mediations that would satisfy its vital interests . “Physical stimuli,” argues Merleau-Ponty , “act upon the organism only by eliciting a global response which will vary qualitatively when the stimuli vary quantitatively; with respect to the organism they play the role of occasions rather than of cause; the reaction depends on their vital significance rather than on the material properties of the stimuli” (161).

Dussel correctly distinguishes a formal logical version of the argument from Hume’s original argument (Dussel 2001 , 87–93; 1998 / 2013 , 68–69 [73]).

Dussel says: “The need to ‘accept’ the passage from the factual to the normative judgment is grounded in an exercise of practical-material reason, which articulates the relationship between the ‘life’ of the living human being, because of the ethical impossibility of suicide , and the unavoidable responsibility of pursuing the reproduction and development of that life: biological-cultural necessity is ‘imposed’ upon us as an ethical obligation ” ( 1998 / 2013 , 530, note 289).

See Zúñiga ( 2017 ). Dussel referred the author to this article by Jorge Zúñiga in an interview, January 10, 2018, Mexico City.

Hinkelammert argues “planning ‘of everything’ is impossible, but planning of society ‘as a whole’ is without a doubt possible, if only it is in approximate and imperfect terms, as everything in this world is imperfect” ( 1984 , 193, 228).

Zúñiga indicates that the term non-circumventability is taken from Karl-Otto Apel’s transcendental pragmatics ( 2017 , 54).

See Zúñiga ( 2016b ) for a discussion of the application of the principles of impossibility to institutions, including communication communities.

We need to be careful here about allotting and denying ethical status. Parts of the earth’s biosphere that are not reflective can still be considered moral patients and therefore have dignity . The requirement for moral agency, however, is the ability to act deliberately in accordance with ethical principles .

Personal communication of the author with Jorge Zúñiga , January 13, 2018.

See also Dussel ( 2016 , 74–76 [6.3]) on “Rawls’s moral formalism.” We will revisit some of the basic features of social contract theory in more detail in Chapter 5 of this monograph.

By using the terms “first” and “second” ethics here I do not mean to imply that the second completely supersedes the first but that it is later and incorporates much of the first into the second.

In Ethics of Liberation , Dussel makes a clear distinction between the point of departure of discourse ethics versus the ethics of liberation: “The essential difference on this point between discourse ethics and the ethics of liberation is found in the very point of departure. While discourse ethics begins with the community of communication, the ethics of liberation departs from the excluded-affected from such a community. These are the victims of noncommunication. As a result, discourse ethics is practically situated in a position where the fundamental moral norms become ‘inapplicable’ … in ‘normal’ situations of asymmetry ( not particularly exceptional situations ). The ethics of liberation, on the other hand, locates itself precisely in the ‘exceptional situation of the excluded,’ that is to say, in the very moment when discourse ethics discovers its limitations” (Dussel 1998 / 2013 , 294–295 [280]).

Dussel argues that recognition of the Other by ethical-preoriginary reason is a condition of accepting the Other as an equal participant in a communication community . “If I am right on this,” remarks Dussel, “it is clear then, that discursive reason is a moment founded upon ‘ethical-preoriginary reason.’” ( 1998 / 2013 , 301 [286]). One cannot receive the Other as an equal interlocutor without recognizing his or her humanity, and one cannot conceive of the Other’s humanity apart from his or her will to live and grow in community.

See J. Zúñiga ( 2016b , 88–90) for a discussion of the life of the human subject and nature as conditions of possibility for social practices, including the deliberations of communication communities. As we discussed in the section on the material principle , Zúñiga explains this situation by formulating two principles of impossibility related to these conditions.

As Schelkshorn points out, “the idea of consensus not becoming a chimera depends entirely on the possibility of understanding the claims of the Other from his own life world” ( 2000 , 104).

“The practical subject cannot act unless it is a living subject . One has to live in order to be able to conceive ends and to undertake them … To live is also a project that has its own conditions of possibility and fails if it does not achieve them … Only that subset of ends that are integrated to a project of life is feasible” (Hinkelammert, cited by Dussel 1998 / 2013 , 184 [187]).

In “Where Do We Go from Here,” M. L. King, Jr. warns about science without morality: “When scientific power outruns moral power, we end up with guided missiles and misguided men. When we foolishly minimize the internal of our lives and maximize the external, we sign the warrant for our own day of doom” (Washington 1986 , 621).

In 14 tesis de ética , Dussel draws attention to the requirement of feasibility for a goodness (or ethical) claim: “ All human acts or community institutions have a goodness claim if, and only if, in addition to affirming life (first principle) and by agreement of those affected (second principle), they are empirically possible according to the diverse fields and systems that enter into their concrete accomplishment ” ( 2016 , 97 [7.51]).

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Mills, F.B. (2018). The Ethical Principles. In: Enrique Dussel’s Ethics of Liberation. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94550-7_4

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Ethical Principles in Research Essay

When a researcher fabricates or falsifies data or uses someone else’s words or ideas without permission, that is considered research misconduct. The act must have been deliberate, and there must be enough proof to support the claim. Infractions of authorship/publication rights and abuses of confidentiality are also included in the definition of misconduct. A thorough examination of an allegation is crucial because researchers who are found guilty of misconduct risk losing federal funds, being limited to supervised research or even losing their jobs (Ayodele et al., 2019). I agree that misconduct in research can result in biased decisions of policymakers. This can be detrimental to society and the development of different spheres. Therefore, researchers should be penalized for misconduct in a strict manner.

A set of rules that direct your study designs and procedures are known as ethical considerations in research. When gathering data from people, scientists and researchers must always abide by a set of ethical principles. Understanding real-world occurrences, researching efficient therapies, examining habits, and enhancing lives in other ways are frequently the objectives of human research. There are essentual ethical considerations in both what a researcher chooses to research and how you conduct that research.

All people acknowledge some universal ethical standards, but they each interpret, apply, and balance them differently in light of their own values and life experiences, which is one reasonable explanation for these disparities. For instance, two persons who have different perspectives on what it means to be a human being might concur that murder is wrong but disagree about the morality of abortion. This is why researchers have a formal code of conduct for completing their research.

Ayodele, F. O., Yao, L., & Haron, H. (2019). Promoting ethics and integrity in management academic research: Retraction initiative. Science and Engineering Ethics , 25 (2), 357-382.

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Principles of Clinical Ethics and Their Application to Practice

An overview of ethics and clinical ethics is presented in this review. The 4 main ethical principles, that is beneficence, nonmaleficence, autonomy, and justice, are defined and explained. Informed consent, truth-telling, and confidentiality spring from the principle of autonomy, and each of them is discussed. In patient care situations, not infrequently, there are conflicts between ethical principles (especially between beneficence and autonomy). A four-pronged systematic approach to ethical problem-solving and several illustrative cases of conflicts are presented. Comments following the cases highlight the ethical principles involved and clarify the resolution of these conflicts. A model for patient care, with caring as its central element, that integrates ethical aspects (intertwined with professionalism) with clinical and technical expertise desired of a physician is illustrated.

Highlights of the Study

• Main principles of ethics, that is beneficence, nonmaleficence, autonomy, and justice, are discussed.
• Autonomy is the basis for informed consent, truth-telling, and confidentiality.
• A model to resolve conflicts when ethical principles collide is presented.
• Cases that highlight ethical issues and their resolution are presented.
• A patient care model that integrates ethics, professionalism, and cognitive and technical expertise is shown.

Introduction

A defining responsibility of a practicing physician is to make decisions on patient care in different settings. These decisions involve more than selecting the appropriate treatment or intervention.

Ethics is an inherent and inseparable part of clinical medicine [ 1 ] as the physician has an ethical obligation (i) to benefit the patient, (ii) to avoid or minimize harm, and to (iii) respect the values and preferences of the patient. Are physicians equipped to fulfill this ethical obligation and can their ethical skills be improved? A goal-oriented educational program [ 2 ] (Table ​ (Table1) 1 ) has been shown to improve learner awareness, attitudes, knowledge, moral reasoning, and confidence [ 3 , 4 ].

Goals of ethics education

Ethics, Morality, and Professional Standards

Ethics is a broad term that covers the study of the nature of morals and the specific moral choices to be made. Normative ethics attempts to answer the question, “Which general moral norms for the guidance and evaluation of conduct should we accept, and why?” [ 5 ]. Some moral norms for right conduct are common to human kind as they transcend cultures, regions, religions, and other group identities and constitute common morality (e.g., not to kill, or harm, or cause suffering to others, not to steal, not to punish the innocent, to be truthful, to obey the law, to nurture the young and dependent, to help the suffering, and rescue those in danger). Particular morality refers to norms that bind groups because of their culture, religion, profession and include responsibilities, ideals, professional standards, and so on. A pertinent example of particular morality is the physician's “accepted role” to provide competent and trustworthy service to their patients. To reduce the vagueness of “accepted role,” physician organizations (local, state, and national) have codified their standards. However, complying with these standards, it should be understood, may not always fulfill the moral norms as the codes have “often appeared to protect the profession's interests more than to offer a broad and impartial moral viewpoint or to address issues of importance to patients and society” [ 6 ].

Bioethics and Clinical (Medical) Ethics

A number of deplorable abuses of human subjects in research, medical interventions without informed consent, experimentation in concentration camps in World War II, along with salutary advances in medicine and medical technology and societal changes, led to the rapid evolution of bioethics from one concerned about professional conduct and codes to its present status with an extensive scope that includes research ethics, public health ethics, organizational ethics, and clinical ethics.

Hereafter, the abbreviated term, ethics, will be used as I discuss the principles of clinical ethics and their application to clinical practice.

The Fundamental Principles of Ethics

Beneficence, nonmaleficence, autonomy, and justice constitute the 4 principles of ethics. The first 2 can be traced back to the time of Hippocrates “to help and do no harm,” while the latter 2 evolved later. Thus, in Percival's book on ethics in early 1800s, the importance of keeping the patient's best interest as a goal is stressed, while autonomy and justice were not discussed. However, with the passage of time, both autonomy and justice gained acceptance as important principles of ethics. In modern times, Beauchamp and Childress' book on Principles of Biomedical Ethics is a classic for its exposition of these 4 principles [ 5 ] and their application, while also discussing alternative approaches.

Beneficence

The principle of beneficence is the obligation of physician to act for the benefit of the patient and supports a number of moral rules to protect and defend the right of others, prevent harm, remove conditions that will cause harm, help persons with disabilities, and rescue persons in danger. It is worth emphasizing that, in distinction to nonmaleficence, the language here is one of positive requirements. The principle calls for not just avoiding harm, but also to benefit patients and to promote their welfare. While physicians' beneficence conforms to moral rules, and is altruistic, it is also true that in many instances it can be considered a payback for the debt to society for education (often subsidized by governments), ranks and privileges, and to the patients themselves (learning and research).

Nonmaleficence

Nonmaleficence is the obligation of a physician not to harm the patient. This simply stated principle supports several moral rules − do not kill, do not cause pain or suffering, do not incapacitate, do not cause offense, and do not deprive others of the goods of life. The practical application of nonmaleficence is for the physician to weigh the benefits against burdens of all interventions and treatments, to eschew those that are inappropriately burdensome, and to choose the best course of action for the patient. This is particularly important and pertinent in difficult end-of-life care decisions on withholding and withdrawing life-sustaining treatment, medically administered nutrition and hydration, and in pain and other symptom control. A physician's obligation and intention to relieve the suffering (e.g., refractory pain or dyspnea) of a patient by the use of appropriate drugs including opioids override the foreseen but unintended harmful effects or outcome (doctrine of double effect) [ 7 , 8 ].

The philosophical underpinning for autonomy, as interpreted by philosophers Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), and accepted as an ethical principle, is that all persons have intrinsic and unconditional worth, and therefore, should have the power to make rational decisions and moral choices, and each should be allowed to exercise his or her capacity for self-determination [ 9 ]. This ethical principle was affirmed in a court decision by Justice Cardozo in 1914 with the epigrammatic dictum, “Every human being of adult years and sound mind has a right to determine what shall be done with his own body” [ 10 ].

Autonomy, as is true for all 4 principles, needs to be weighed against competing moral principles, and in some instances may be overridden; an obvious example would be if the autonomous action of a patient causes harm to another person(s). The principle of autonomy does not extend to persons who lack the capacity (competence) to act autonomously; examples include infants and children and incompetence due to developmental, mental or physical disorder. Health-care institutions and state governments in the US have policies and procedures to assess incompetence. However, a rigid distinction between incapacity to make health-care decisions (assessed by health professionals) and incompetence (determined by court of law) is not of practical use, as a clinician's determination of a patient's lack of decision-making capacity based on physical or mental disorder has the same practical consequences as a legal determination of incompetence [ 11 ].

Detractors of the principle of autonomy question the focus on the individual and propose a broader concept of relational autonomy (shaped by social relationships and complex determinants such as gender, ethnicity and culture) [ 12 ]. Even in an advanced western country such as United States, the culture being inhomogeneous, some minority populations hold views different from that of the majority white population in need for full disclosure, and in decisions about life support (preferring a family-centered approach) [ 13 ].

Resistance to the principle of patient autonomy and its derivatives (informed consent, truth-telling) in non-western cultures is not unexpected. In countries with ancient civilizations, rooted beliefs and traditions, the practice of paternalism ( this term will be used in this article, as it is well-entrenched in ethics literature, although parentalism is the proper term ) by physicians emanates mostly from beneficence. However, culture (a composite of the customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious or social group) is not static and autonomous, and changes with other trends over passing years. It is presumptuous to assume that the patterns and roles in physician-patient relationships that have been in place for a half a century and more still hold true. Therefore, a critical examination of paternalistic medical practice is needed for reasons that include technological and economic progress, improved educational and socioeconomic status of the populace, globalization, and societal movement towards emphasis on the patient as an individual, than as a member of a group. This needed examination can be accomplished by research that includes well-structured surveys on demographics, patient preferences on informed consent, truth-telling, and role in decision-making.

Respecting the principle of autonomy obliges the physician to disclose medical information and treatment options that are necessary for the patient to exercise self-determination and supports informed consent, truth-telling, and confidentiality.

Informed Consent

The requirements of an informed consent for a medical or surgical procedure, or for research, are that the patient or subject (i) must be competent to understand and decide, (ii) receives a full disclosure, (iii) comprehends the disclosure, (iv) acts voluntarily, and (v) consents to the proposed action.

The universal applicability of these requirements, rooted and developed in western culture, has met with some resistance and a suggestion to craft a set of requirements that accommodate the cultural mores of other countries [ 14 ]. In response and in vigorous defense of the 5 requirements of informed consent, Angell wrote, “There must be a core of human rights that we would wish to see honored universally, despite variations in their superficial aspects …The forces of local custom or local law cannot justify abuses of certain fundamental rights, and the right of self-determination on which the doctrine of informed consent is based, is one of them” [ 15 ].

As competence is the first of the requirements for informed consent, one should know how to detect incompetence. Standards (used singly or in combination) that are generally accepted for determining incompetence are based on the patient's inability to state a preference or choice, inability to understand one's situation and its consequences, and inability to reason through a consequential life decision [ 16 ].

In a previously autonomous, but presently incompetent patient, his/her previously expressed preferences (i.e., prior autonomous judgments) are to be respected [ 17 ]. Incompetent (non-autonomous) patients and previously competent (autonomous), but presently incompetent patients would need a surrogate decision-maker. In a non-autonomous patient, the surrogate can use either a substituted judgment standard (i.e., what the patient would wish in this circumstance and not what the surrogate would wish), or a best interests standard (i.e., what would bring the highest net benefit to the patient by weighing risks and benefits). Snyder and Sulmasy [ 18 ], in their thoughtful article, provide a practical and useful option when the surrogate is uncertain of the patient's preference(s), or when patient's preferences have not kept abreast of scientific advances. They suggest the surrogate use “substituted interests,” that is, the patient's authentic values and interests, to base the decision.

Truth-Telling

Truth-telling is a vital component in a physician-patient relationship; without this component, the physician loses the trust of the patient. An autonomous patient has not only the right to know (disclosure) of his/her diagnosis and prognosis, but also has the option to forgo this disclosure. However, the physician must know which of these 2 options the patient prefers.

In the United States, full disclosure to the patient, however grave the disease is, is the norm now, but was not so in the past. Significant resistance to full disclosure was highly prevalent in the US, but a marked shift has occurred in physicians' attitudes on this. In 1961, 88% of physicians surveyed indicated their preference to avoid disclosing a diagnosis [ 19 ]; in 1979, however, 98% of surveyed physicians favored it [ 20 ]. This marked shift is attributable to many factors that include − with no order of importance implied − educational and socioeconomic progress, increased accountability to society, and awareness of previous clinical and research transgressions by the profession.

Importantly, surveys in the US show that patients with cancer and other diseases wish to have been fully informed of their diagnoses and prognoses. Providing full information, with tact and sensitivity, to patients who want to know should be the standard. The sad consequences of not telling the truth regarding a cancer include depriving the patient of an opportunity for completion of important life-tasks: giving advice to, and taking leave of loved ones, putting financial affairs in order, including division of assets, reconciling with estranged family members and friends, attaining spiritual order by reflection, prayer, rituals, and religious sacraments [ 21 , 22 ].

In contrast to the US, full disclosure to the patient is highly variable in other countries [ 23 ]. A continuing pattern in non-western societies is for the physician to disclose the information to the family and not to the patient. The likely reasons for resistance of physicians to convey bad news are concern that it may cause anxiety and loss of hope, some uncertainty on the outcome, or belief that the patient would not be able to understand the information or may not want to know. However, this does not have to be a binary choice, as careful understanding of the principle of autonomy reveals that autonomous choice is a right of a patient, and the patient, in exercising this right, may authorize a family member or members to make decisions for him/her.

Confidentiality

Physicians are obligated not to disclose confidential information given by a patient to another party without the patient's authorization. An obvious exception (with implied patient authorization) is the sharing necessary of medical information for the care of the patient from the primary physician to consultants and other health-care teams. In the present-day modern hospitals with multiple points of tests and consultants, and the use of electronic medical records, there has been an erosion of confidentiality. However, individual physicians must exercise discipline in not discussing patient specifics with their family members or in social gatherings [ 24 ] and social media. There are some noteworthy exceptions to patient confidentiality. These include, among others, legally required reporting of gunshot wounds and sexually transmitted diseases and exceptional situations that may cause major harm to another (e.g., epidemics of infectious diseases, partner notification in HIV disease, relative notification of certain genetic risks, etc.).

Justice is generally interpreted as fair, equitable, and appropriate treatment of persons. Of the several categories of justice, the one that is most pertinent to clinical ethics is distributive justice . Distributive justice refers to the fair, equitable, and appropriate distribution of health-care resources determined by justified norms that structure the terms of social cooperation [ 25 ]. How can this be accomplished? There are different valid principles of distributive justice. These are distribution to each person (i) an equal share, (ii) according to need, (iii) according to effort, (iv) according to contribution, (v) according to merit, and (vi) according to free-market exchanges. Each principle is not exclusive, and can be, and are often combined in application. It is easy to see the difficulty in choosing, balancing, and refining these principles to form a coherent and workable solution to distribute medical resources.

Although this weighty health-care policy discussion exceeds the scope of this review, a few examples on issues of distributive justice encountered in hospital and office practice need to be mentioned. These include allotment of scarce resources (equipment, tests, medications, organ transplants), care of uninsured patients, and allotment of time for outpatient visits (equal time for every patient? based on need or complexity? based on social and or economic status?). Difficult as it may be, and despite the many constraining forces, physicians must accept the requirement of fairness contained in this principle [ 26 ]. Fairness to the patient assumes a role of primary importance when there are conflicts of interests. A flagrant example of violation of this principle would be when a particular option of treatment is chosen over others, or an expensive drug is chosen over an equally effective but less expensive one because it benefits the physician, financially, or otherwise.

Conflicts between Principles

Each one of the 4 principles of ethics is to be taken as a prima facie obligation that must be fulfilled, unless it conflicts, in a specific instance, with another principle. When faced with such a conflict, the physician has to determine the actual obligation to the patient by examining the respective weights of the competing prima facie obligations based on both content and context. Consider an example of a conflict that has an easy resolution: a patient in shock treated with urgent fluid-resuscitation and the placement of an indwelling intravenous catheter caused pain and swelling. Here the principle of beneficence overrides that of nonmaleficence. Many of the conflicts that physicians face, however, are much more complex and difficult. Consider a competent patient's refusal of a potentially life-saving intervention (e.g., instituting mechanical ventilation) or request for a potentially life-ending action (e.g., withdrawing mechanical ventilation). Nowhere in the arena of ethical decision-making is conflict as pronounced as when the principles of beneficence and autonomy collide.

Beneficence has enjoyed a historical role in the traditional practice of medicine. However, giving it primacy over patient autonomy is paternalism that makes a physician-patient relationship analogous to that of a father/mother to a child. A father/mother may refuse a child's wishes, may influence a child by a variety of ways − nondisclosure, manipulation, deception, coercion etc., consistent with his/her thinking of what is best for the child. Paternalism can be further divided into soft and hard .

In soft paternalism, the physician acts on grounds of beneficence (and, at times, nonmaleficence) when the patient is nonautonomous or substantially nonautonomous (e.g., cognitive dysfunction due to severe illness, depression, or drug addiction) [ 27 ]. Soft paternalism is complicated because of the difficulty in determining whether the patient was nonautonomous at the time of decision-making but is ethically defensible as long as the action is in concordance with what the physician believes to be the patient's values. Hard paternalism is action by a physician, intended to benefit a patient, but contrary to the voluntary decision of an autonomous patient who is fully informed and competent, and is ethically indefensible.

On the other end of the scale of hard paternalism is consumerism, a rare and extreme form of patient autonomy, that holds the view that the physician's role is limited to providing all the medical information and the available choices for interventions and treatments while the fully informed patient selects from the available choices. In this model, the physician's role is constrained, and does not permit the full use of his/her knowledge and skills to benefit the patient, and is tantamount to a form of patient abandonment and therefore is ethically indefensible.

Faced with the contrasting paradigms of beneficence and respect for autonomy and the need to reconcile these to find a common ground, Pellegrino and Thomasma [ 28 ] argue that beneficence can be inclusive of patient autonomy as “the best interests of the patients are intimately linked with their preferences” from which “are derived our primary duties to them.”

One of the basic and not infrequent reasons for disagreement between physician and patient on treatment issues is their divergent views on goals of treatment. As goals change in the course of disease (e.g., a chronic neurologic condition worsens to the point of needing ventilator support, or a cancer that has become refractory to treatment), it is imperative that the physician communicates with the patient in clear and straightforward language, without the use of medical jargon, and with the aim of defining the goal(s) of treatment under the changed circumstance. In doing so, the physician should be cognizant of patient factors that compromise decisional capacity, such as anxiety, fear, pain, lack of trust, and different beliefs and values that impair effective communication [ 29 ].

The foregoing theoretical discussion on principles of ethics has practical application in clinical practice in all settings. In the resource book for clinicians, Jonsen et al. [ 30 ] have elucidated a logical and well accepted model (Table ​ (Table2), 2 ), along the lines of the systematic format that practicing physicians have been taught and have practiced for a long time (Chief Complaint, History of Present Illness, Past History, pertinent Family and Social History, Review of Systems, Physical Examination and Laboratory and Imaging studies). This practical approach to problem-solving in ethics involves:

• Clinical assessment (identifying medical problems, treatment options, goals of care)
• Patient (finding and clarifying patient preferences on treatment options and goals of care)
• Quality of life (QOL) (effects of medical problems, interventions and treatments on patient's QOL with awareness of individual biases on what constitutes an acceptable QOL)
• Context (many factors that include family, cultural, spiritual, religious, economic and legal).

Application of principles of ethics in patient care

Using this model, the physician can identify the principles that are in conflict, ascertain by weighing and balancing what should prevail, and when in doubt, turn to ethics literature and expert opinion.

Illustrative Cases

There is a wide gamut of clinical patient encounters with ethical issues, and some, especially those involving end-of-life care decisions, are complex. A few cases (Case 1 is modified from resource book [ 30 ]) are presented below as they highlight the importance of understanding and weighing the ethical principles involved to arrive at an ethically right solution. Case 6 was added during the revision phase of this article as it coincided with the outbreak of Coronavirus Infectious Disease-2019 (COVID-19) that became a pandemic rendering a discussion of its ethical challenges necessary and important.

A 20-year old college student living in the college hostel is brought by a friend to the Emergency Department (ED) because of unrelenting headache and fever. He appeared drowsy but was responsive and had fever (40°C), and neck rigidity on examination. Lumbar puncture was done, and spinal fluid appeared cloudy and showed increased white cells; Gram stain showed Gram-positive diplococci. Based on the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis, appropriate antibiotics were begun, and hospitalization was instituted. Although initial consent for diagnosis was implicit, and consent for lumbar puncture was explicit, at this point, the patient refuses treatment without giving any reason, and insists to return to his hostel. Even after explanation by the physician as to the seriousness of his diagnosis, and the absolute need for prompt treatment (i.e., danger to life without treatment), the patient is adamant in his refusal.

Comment . Because of this refusal, the medical indications and patient preferences (see Table ​ Table2) 2 ) are at odds. Is it ethically right to treat against his will a patient who is making a choice that has dire consequences (disability, death) who gives no reason for this decision, and in whom a clear determination of mental incapacity cannot be made (although altered mental status may be presumed)? Here the principle of beneficence and principle of autonomy are in conflict. The weighing of factors: (1) patient may not be making a reasoned decision in his best interest because of temporary mental incapacity; and (2) the severity of life-threatening illness and the urgency to treat to save his life supports the decision in favor of beneficence (i.e., to treat).

A 56-year old male lawyer and current cigarette smoker with a pack-a-day habit for more than 30 years, is found to have a solitary right upper lobe pulmonary mass 5 cm in size on a chest radiograph done as part of an insurance application. The mass has no calcification, and there are no other pulmonary abnormalities. He has no symptoms, and his examination is normal. Tuberculosis skin test is negative, and he has no history of travel to an endemic area of fungal infection. As lung cancer is the most probable and significant diagnosis to consider, and early surgical resection provides the best prospects for cure, the physician, in consultation with the thoracic surgeon, recommends bronchoscopic biopsy and subsequent resection. The patient understands the treatment plan, and the significance of not delaying the treatment. However, he refuses, and states that he does not think he has cancer; and is fearful that the surgery would kill him. Even after further explanations on the low mortality of surgery and the importance of removing the mass before it spreads, he continues to refuse treatment.

Comment . Even though the physician's prescribed treatment, that is, removal of the mass that is probably cancer, affords the best chance of cure, and delay in its removal increases its chance of metastases and reaching an incurable stage − the choice by this well informed and mentally competent patient should be respected. Here, autonomy prevails over beneficence. The physician, however, may not abandon the patient and is obligated to offer continued outpatient visits with advice against making decision based on fear, examinations, periodic tests, and encouragement to seek a second opinion.

A 71-year-old man with very severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) with pneumonia, sepsis, and respiratory failure. He is intubated and mechanically ventilated. For the past 2 years, he has been on continuous oxygen treatment and was short of breath on minimal exertion. In the past 1 year, he had 2 admissions to the ICU; on both occasions he required intubation and mechanical ventilation. Presently, even with multiple antibiotics, intravenous fluid hydration, and vasopressors, his systolic blood pressure remains below 60 mm Hg, and with high flow oxygen supplementation, his oxygen saturation stays below 80%; his arterial blood pH is 7.0. His liver enzymes are elevated. He is anuric, and over next 8 h his creatinine has risen to 5 mg/dL and continues to rise. He has drifted into a comatose state. The intensivist suggests discontinuation of vasopressors and mechanical ventilation as their continued use is futile. The patient has no advance care directives or a designated health-care proxy.

Comment . The term “futility” is open to different definitions [ 31 ] and is often controversial, and therefore, some experts suggest the alternate term, “clinically non-beneficial interventions” [ 32 ]. However, in this case the term futility is appropriate to indicate that there is evidence of physiological futility (multisystem organ failure in the setting of preexisting end stage COPD, and medical interventions would not reverse the decline). It is appropriate then to discuss the patient's condition with his family with the goal of discontinuing life-sustaining interventions. These discussions should be done with sensitivity, compassion and empathy. Palliative care should be provided to alleviate his symptoms and to support the family until his death and beyond in their bereavement.

A 67-year old widow, an immigrant from southern India, is living with her son and his family in Wisconsin, USA. She was experiencing nausea, lack of appetite and weight loss for a few months. During the past week, she also had dark yellow urine, and yellow coloration of her skin. She has basic knowledge of English. She was brought to a multi-specialty teaching hospital by her son, who informed the doctor that his mother has “jaundice,” and instructed that, if any serious life-threatening disease was found, not to inform her. He asked that all information should come to him, and if there is any cancer not to treat it, since she is older and frail. Investigations in the hospital reveals that she has pancreatic cancer, and chemotherapy, while not likely to cure, would prolong her life.

Comment . In some ancient cultures, authority is given to members of the family (especially senior men) to make decisions that involve other members on marriage, job, and health care. The woman in this case is a dependent of her son, and given this cultural perspective, the son can rightfully claim to have the authority to make health-care decisions for her. Thus, the physician is faced with multiple tasks that may not be consonant. To respect cultural values [ 33 ], to directly learn the patient's preferences, to comply with the American norm of full disclosure to the patient, and to refuse the son's demands.

The principle of autonomy provides the patient the option to delegate decision-making authority to another person. Therefore, the appropriate course would be to take the tactful approach of directly informing the patient (with a translator if needed), that the diagnosed disease would require decisions for appropriate treatment. The physician should ascertain whether she would prefer to make these decisions herself, or whether she would prefer all information to be given to her son, and all decisions to be made by him.

A 45-year-old woman had laparotomy and cholecystectomy for abdominal pain and multiple gall stones. Three weeks after discharge from the hospital, she returned with fever, abdominal pain, and tenderness. She was given antibiotics, and as her fever continued, laparotomy and exploration were undertaken; a sponge left behind during the recent cholecystectomy was found. It was removed, the area cleansed, and incision closed. Antibiotics were continued, and she recovered without further incident and was discharged. Should the surgeon inform the patient of his error?

Comment . Truth-telling, a part of patient autonomy is very much applicable in this situation and disclosure to patient is required [ 34 , 35 , 36 ]. The mistake caused harm to the patient (morbidity and readmission, and a second surgery and monetary loss). Although the end result remedied the harm, the surgeon is obligated to inform the patient of the error and its consequences and offer an apology. Such errors are always reported to the Operating Room Committees and Surgical Quality Improvement Committees of US Hospitals. Hospital-based risk reduction mechanisms (e.g., Risk Management Department) present in most US hospitals would investigate the incident and come up with specific recommendations to mitigate the error and eliminate them in the future. Many institutions usually make financial settlements to obviate liability litigation (fees and hospital charges waived, and/or monetary compensation made to the patient). Elsewhere, if such mechanisms do not exist, it should be reported to the hospital. Acknowledgment from the hospital, apologies from the institution and compensation for the patient are called for. Whether in US or elsewhere, a malpractice suit is very possible in this situation, but a climate of honesty substantially reduces the threat of legal claims as most patients trust their physicians and are not vindictive.

The following scenario is at a city hospital during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic: A 74-year-old woman, residing in an assisted living facility, is brought to the ED with shortness of breath and malaise. Over the past 4 days she had been experiencing dry cough, lack of appetite, and tiredness; 2 days earlier, she stopped eating and started having a low-grade fever. A test for COVID-19 undertaken by the assisted living facility was returned positive on the morning of the ED visit.

She, a retired nurse, is a widow; both of her grown children live out-of-state. She has had hypertension for many years, controlled with daily medications. Following 2 strokes, she was moved to an assisted living facility 3 years ago. She recovered most of her functions after the strokes and required help only for bathing and dressing. She is able to answer questions appropriately but haltingly, because of respiratory distress. She has tachypnea (34/min), tachycardia (120/min), temperature of 101°F, BP 100/60 and 90% O 2 saturation (on supplemental O 2 of 4 L/min). She has dry mouth and tongue and rhonchi on lung auscultation. Her respiratory rate is increasing on observation and she is visibly tiring.

Another patient is now brought in by ambulance; this is a 22-year-old man living in an apartment and has had symptoms of “flu” for a week. Because of the pandemic, he was observing the recommended self-distancing, and had no known exposure to coronavirus. He used saline gargles, acetaminophen, and cough syrup to alleviate his sore throat, cough, and fever. In the past 2 days, his symptoms worsened, and he drove himself to a virus testing station and got tested for COVID-19; he was told that he would be notified of the results. He returned to his apartment and after a sleepless night with fever, sweats, and persistent cough, he woke up and felt drained of all strength. The test result confirmed COVID-19. He then called for an ambulance.

He has been previously healthy. He is a non-smoker and uses alcohol rarely. He is a second-year medical student. He is single, and his parents and sibling live hundreds of miles away.

On examination, he has marked tachypnea (>40/min), shallow breathing, heart rate of 128/min, temperature of 103°F and O 2 saturation of 88 on pulse oximetry. He appears drowsy and is slow to respond to questions. He is propped up to a sitting position as it is uncomfortable for him to be supine. Accessory muscles of neck and intercostals are contracting with each breath, and on auscultation, he has basilar crackles and scattered rhonchi. His O 2 saturation drops to 85 and he is in respiratory distress despite nebulized bronchodilator treatment.

Both of these patients are in respiratory failure, clinically and confirmed by arterial blood gases, and are in urgent need of intubation and mechanical ventilation. However, only one ventilator is available; who gets it?

Comment . The decision to allocate a scarce and potentially life-saving equipment (ventilator) is very difficult as it directly addresses the question “Who shall live when not everyone can live? [ 5 ]. This decision cannot be emotion-driven or arbitrary; nor should it be based on a person's wealth or social standing. Priorities need to be established ethically and must be applied consistently in the same institution and ideally throughout the state and the country. The general social norm to treat all equally or to treat on a first come, first saved basis is not the appropriate choice here. There is a consensus among clinical ethics scholars, that in this situation, maximizing benefits is the dominant value in making a decision [ 37 ]. Maximizing benefits can be viewed in 2 different ways; in lives saved or in life-years saved; they differ in that the first is non-utilitarian while the second is utilitarian. A subordinate consideration is giving priority to patients who have a better chance of survival and a reasonable life expectancy. The other 2 considerations are promoting and rewarding instrumental value (benefit to others) and the acuity of illness. Health-care workers (physicians, nurses, therapists etc.) and research participants have instrumental value as their work benefits others; among them those actively contributing are of more value than those who have made their contributions. The need to prioritize the sickest and the youngest is also a recognized value when these are aligned with the dominant value of maximizing benefits. In the context of COVID-19 pandemic, Emanuel et al. [ 37 ] weighed and analyzed these values and offered some recommendations. Some ethics scholars opine that in times of a pandemic, the burden of making a decision as to who gets a ventilator and who does not (often a life or death choice) should not be on the front-line physicians, as it may cause a severe and life-long emotional toll on them [ 35 , 36 ]. The toll can be severe for nurses and other front-line health-care providers as well. As a safeguard, they propose that the decision should rest on a select committee that excludes doctors, nurses and others who are caring for the patient(s) under consideration [ 38 ].

Both patients described in the case summaries have comparable acuity of illness and both are in need of mechanical ventilator support. However, in the dominant value of maximizing benefits the two patients differ; in terms of life-years saved, the second patient (22-year-old man) is ahead as his life expectancy is longer. Additionally, he is more likely than the older woman, to survive mechanical ventilation, infection, and possible complications. Another supporting factor in favor of the second patient is his potential instrumental value (benefit to others) as a future physician.

Unlike the other illustrative cases, the scenario of these 2 cases, does not lend itself to a peaceful and fully satisfactory resolution. The fairness of allocating a scarce and potentially life-saving resource based on maximizing benefits and preference to instrumental value (benefit to others) is open to question. The American College of Physicians has stated that allocation decisions during resource scarcity should be made “based on patient need, prognosis (determined by objective scientific measure and informed clinical judgment) and effectiveness (i.e., likelihood that the therapy will help the patient to recover), … to maximize the number of patients who will recover” [ 39 ].

This review has covered basics of ethics founded on morality and ethical principles with illustrative examples. In the following segment, professionalism is defined, its alignment with ethics depicted, and virtues desired of a physician (inclusive term for medical doctor regardless of type of practice) are elucidated. It concludes with my vision of an integrated model for patient care.

The core of professionalism is a therapeutic relationship built on competent and compassionate care by a physician that meets the expectation and benefits a patient. In this relationship, which is rooted in the ethical principles of beneficence and nonmaleficence, the physician fulfills the elements shown in Table ​ Table3. 3 . Professionalism “demands placing the interest of patients above those of the physician, setting and maintaining standards of competence and integrity, and providing expert advice to society on matters of health” [ 26 , 40 ].

Physicians obligations

Drawing on several decades of experience in teaching and mentoring, I envisage physicians with qualities of both “heart” and “head.” Ethical and humanistic values shape the former, while knowledge (e.g., by study, research, practice) and technical skills (e.g., medical and surgical procedures) form the latter. Figure ​ Figure1 1 is a representation of this model. Morality that forms the base of the model and ethical principles that rest on it were previously explained. Virtues are linked, some more tightly than others, to the principles of ethics. Compassion, a prelude to caring, presupposes sympathy, is expressed in beneficence. Discernment is especially valuable in decision-making when principles of ethics collide. Trustworthiness leads to trust, and is a needed virtue when patients, at their most vulnerable time, place themselves in the hands of physicians. Integrity involves the coherent integration of emotions, knowledge and aspirations while maintaining moral values. Physicians need both professional integrity and personal integrity, as the former may not cover all scenarios (e.g., prescribing ineffective drugs or expensive drugs when effective inexpensive drugs are available, performing invasive treatments or experimental research modalities without fully informed consent, any situation where personal monetary gain is placed over patient's welfare). Conscientiousness is required to determine what is right by critical reflection on good versus bad, better versus good, logical versus emotional, and right versus wrong.

Integrated model of patient care.

In my conceptualized model of patient care (Fig. ​ (Fig.1), 1 ), medical knowledge, skills to apply that knowledge, technical skills, practice-based learning, and communication skills are partnered with ethical principles and professional virtues. The virtues of compassion, discernment, trustworthiness, integrity, and conscientiousness are the necessary building blocks for the virtue of caring. Caring is the defining virtue for all health-care professions. In all interactions with patients, besides the technical expertise of a physician, the human element of caring (one human to another) is needed. In different situations, caring can be expressed verbally and non-verbally (e.g., the manner of communication with both physician and patient closely seated, and with unhurried, softly spoken words); a gentle touch especially when conveying “bad news”; a firmer touch or grip to convey reassurance to a patient facing a difficult treatment choice; to hold the hand of a patient dying alone). Thus, “caring” is in the center of the depicted integrated model, and as Peabody succinctly expressed it nearly a hundred years ago, “The secret of the care of the patient is caring for the patient” [ 41 ].

Conflict of Interest Statement

The author declares that he has no conflicts of interest.

What is Ethical Leadership and Why is it Important?

Ethical leadership is not only the right thing to do, it is key to driving an organization's success.

Valerie Kirk

Errors, bad behavior, and poor judgment in leadership can negatively impact a company’s brand and reputation. For business success, it’s critical for organizations to fill their C-suite with ethical leaders.

Ethical leadership involves leaders and managers making decisions based on the right thing to do for the common good, not just based on what is best for themselves or for the bottom line. While profits are important, ethical leaders take into consideration the needs of customers, communities, and employees in addition to company growth and revenue when making business decisions. 

Ethical leaders encourage their team members to model this behavior, too. They help to build a workplace culture that values transparency, collaboration and inclusion, and where everyone feels safe to share their voice.

They can also help organizations recruit and retain top talent. Professionals are increasingly seeking out companies whose leaders strive to do the right thing. Generation Z, who will make up 25 percent of the workforce by 2025, demands leadership ethics more than generations that came before them. 

“Gen Z is not going to negotiate. They have really strong values and ethics, and they don’t bend them because of intimidation or because they are just getting a paycheck,” said Michael McCarthy, instructor at Harvard Division of Continuing Education’s Professional & Executive Development and host of the “ Happy at Work ” podcast. “The idea of letting harmful or hurtful behavior slide is not acceptable.”

Leaders who weigh ethical considerations before making key business decisions drive a company’s long-term success. 

The 6 Main Principles of Ethical Leadership

Having ethical leaders isn’t as simple as hiring “good” people. Companies should strive to fill their leadership ranks with people who embody the principles of ethical leadership. The six main principles include: 

Respect includes valuing others’ skills and contributions. While historically respect in the workplace may have been one-way (leaders demanding respect from employees), in an ethical work environment, respect is mutual. 

Mutual respect leads to healthier workplace relationships where both sides appreciate and support what the other is doing and feel secure in talking through issues and challenges. Healthy relationships create positive work environments, which drives increased productivity.

Current and upcoming business leaders should take mutual respect into account as workforce expectations continue to shift.  

“I tell current leadership to respect Gen Z. They have values and morals, and you’re going to have a better organization because of them,” McCarthy said. “They aren’t going to put up with the old hierarchy that doesn’t offer mutual respect.” 

2. Accountability

Ethical leaders hold themselves accountable for their actions. They make decisions based on integrity and stand behind their work. They also lead by example, communicate openly about challenges, and don’t look to place blame on others for any shortfalls.

Leaders make ethical decisions based on doing what is right for employees, customers, and the community. Because these constituents are always top of mind for ethical leaders, they often have a strong sense of service. They engage in activities such as charitable giving and volunteer work to give  back to their communities — and encourage their teams to do the same. 

Leaders who are transparent build trust amongst their organizations and amongst customers. 

To build and maintain trust, leaders must be good communicators who speak openly and honestly about issues. Regardless of the issue’s severity or unpopularity, leaders’ responsibility to be clear and candid  empowers others to make the right decisions with the information they have. 

Honesty and transparency also help to build a brand’s reputation, leading to long-term customer loyalty.

Justice is not just about following the law, but about ensuring that everyone is getting what they deserve. Ethical leaders approach situations with a focus on treating everyone fairly, and they expect their teams to treat each other and customers the same way. Through their actions, they build equitable work environments where everyone feels respected. 

6. Community

Ethical leaders view their companies as communities and consider everyone involved when evaluating situations and making decisions. By viewing their organizations this way, they build equity and inclusion into their decision-making process and create work environments that encourage collaboration across teams. 

Learn more about Harvard DCE’s Ethical Leadership program

Examples of Positive and Negative Ethical Leadership

The following three examples are of companies that were faced with ethical dilemmas and how different leadership styles led to vastly different outcomes. 

Johnson & Johnson

One of the most famous examples of ethical leadership was the case of the Tylenol cyanide poisonings in the early 1980s. Seven people died of cyanide poisoning, and the only connecting factor was that they had all taken extra-strength Tylenol. During investigation, it was discovered that the tablets were laced with cyanide.

Johnson & Johnson’s leaders acted quickly and pulled all Tylenol products off the shelves — 31 million bottles, worth over $100 million — and stopped all production and advertising. The swiftness of their decision, although costly, put customers’ well-being first and saved lives.

They partnered with law enforcement to find the perpetrator and subsequently developed the first-ever tamper-resistant packaging. They were transparent with the public about what they were doing to ensure this tragedy never happened again. 

The Tylenol brand recovered from the incident, largely because of Johnson & Johnson’s ethical leadership team’s swift action and transparent care for customers.

In 2008, JetBlue left passengers stranded on the tarmac at the John F. Kennedy International Airport for more than five hours during a snowstorm. The delay had a ripple effect — JetBlue had to cancel more than 1,000 flights over the following five days.

In response, JetBlue’s CEO wrote a letter of apology to customers. He also directed his team to draft a customer bill of rights, which outlined customers’ rights to information about flights and information about compensation in the event of delays or cancellations.

The CEO also participated in a public apology tour, taking full responsibility for the incident rather than blaming it on the weather.

His transparency and accountability created trust with customers, who stayed loyal to the airline.

Wells Fargo

In September 2016 , it was revealed that employees of Wells Fargo, one of the largest banks in the United States, opened millions of unauthorized accounts in order to meet aggressive sales targets. This widespread fraudulent activity was the result of a work culture that prioritized quantity over quality and pushed employees to engage in unethical practices.

Company leaders denied knowledge of fraudulent practices. The bank was hit with significant financial penalties, but because of the lack of accountability, they damaged the trust of their customers and investors. They reported a 50 percent profit loss in the quarter following the scandal.

Meeting the Ethical Challenges of Leadership

Companies cannot underestimate the power of different leadership styles on their growth and long term success. Those who practice ethical leadership have positive corporate cultures where employees are engaged, motivated, and feel good about coming to work. Companies without ethical leadership face lower productivity and high turnover rates, impacting the organization’s bottom line.

Ethical leaders aren’t just born with these skills — they develop them over years of experience and training. 

Harvard DCE Professional & Executive Development offers a two-day Ethical Leadership program that helps leaders develop skills to make ethical choices and lead companies through challenging dilemmas. 

Topics covered include: 

• Making ethical decisions with conflicting responsibilities 
• Building a moral framework within yourself and the organization
• Understanding the role of employees in both their professional and personal lives 
• Navigating a slippery slope when seemingly good people do bad things
• Building a corporate culture that values moral behavior

Learn more about the ethical leadership program, including how to register.  

Leaders looking to expand their ethical leadership skills should also consider the two-day Authentic Leadership program , where they will learn how to develop mindfulness and authenticity to build trust, create engagement, and promote productivity. 

Explore all Executive Leadership and Management courses

About the Author

Valerie Kirk is a freelance writer and corporate storyteller specializing in customer and community outreach and topics and trends in education, technology, and healthcare. Based in Maryland near the Chesapeake Bay, she spends her free time exploring nature by bike, paddle board, or on long hikes with her family.

How to Successfully Negotiate a Salary Increase

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Harvard Division of Continuing Education

The Division of Continuing Education (DCE) at Harvard University is dedicated to bringing rigorous academics and innovative teaching capabilities to those seeking to improve their lives through education. We make Harvard education accessible to lifelong learners from high school to retirement.

Ethics Definition

This essay about the practical application of ethics in daily life highlights how ethical considerations influence both monumental decisions and everyday choices. It discusses the philosophical underpinnings of ethics, referencing theories from Aristotle and Kant, which advocate for virtues and duty-based actions, respectively. The essay then explores how these philosophical principles manifest in the modern world, such as in corporate ethics, where businesses strive for transparency and fairness. Additionally, it looks at personal ethics in everyday scenarios, like making purchasing decisions or interacting with others, emphasizing how these actions shape personal character and societal norms. Furthermore, it touches on the evolving nature of ethics in response to technological advancements and global challenges, pointing out the importance of adapting ethical standards to current realities. The essay underscores ethics as a guiding force in making balanced, considerate decisions that promote a just society.

How it works

Ethics is often envisioned as a lofty collection of principles that govern major life decisions and professional conduct. However, it’s also deeply woven into the fabric of everyday life, influencing choices in subtle yet profound ways. This exploration sheds light on how ethical considerations are not just academic concepts but practical guides that shape our daily interactions and personal growth.

The foundation of ethics lies in the age-old debate about what constitutes right and wrong. Philosophical giants from various eras have tackled this, proposing theories that still resonate today.

For example, Aristotle’s notion of virtue ethics centers on developing moral virtues through habitual actions, suggesting that living well involves cultivating attributes such as kindness and prudence. On the other hand, Immanuel Kant introduced a framework based on duty and the adherence to universal laws, advocating for actions that can be universally applied as moral laws, irrespective of personal gain.

In the modern world, these philosophical principles translate into real-world applications that impact both individuals and organizations. For instance, corporate ethics govern business practices, influencing how companies manage everything from environmental responsibilities to consumer relations. An ethically-run business not only adheres to regulations but also operates transparently and treats its stakeholders with fairness. These practices build trust and sustain the business in the long term.

On a personal level, ethics molds our everyday decisions. It plays a role when we choose products at the grocery store, considering if they are sustainably sourced, or when we interact with others, deciding how to respond to conflict or temptation. These decisions might seem small, but they cumulatively define our character and the quality of our relationships.

Furthermore, the evolution of ethical standards reflects societal changes. As new technologies and global challenges emerge, ethical norms are reevaluated to fit new contexts. Digital ethics, for example, now questions how we protect personal privacy online, manage artificial intelligence, and ensure that technological advancements benefit society without causing harm.

In essence, ethics is a dynamic, omnipresent force that shapes how we navigate the world. It informs both monumental life choices and the minutiae of everyday actions, guiding us toward a balanced and considered existence. By continuously engaging with ethical questions, we ensure that our decisions are grounded in a consideration of fairness, respect, and responsibility.

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Ethical Principles, Essay Example

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The ethical principles involved in this case relate to the 17 year old’s right to privacy and nurse’s responsibility to hold information shared in confidence. However, the nurse has an added responsibility for reporting all cases of abuse. She can choose to do so to the police or a provider who can intervene and make conditions safer for the client (American Nurses Association, 2015). The client does not want her father to get into any trouble. Hence, it would appear that the nurse is faced with an ethical dilemma

While it appears that the nurse has no options since the 17 year old seems to be in an abusive dilemma and chooses the lesser two evils, the nurse ought to act in the best interest of the child. In my opinion, the nurse’s obligation to report the incident overrides the obligation to maintain confidentiality. As such, I believe based on the prevailing circumstances of the child not wanting to be in foster care a social worker should be contacted to visit and counsel the family in the presence of Lora.

Depending on the abuse severity Lora could be removed from the home into temporary DCF custody. The matter could be taken to court and a judge makes a decision for her to be moved to the residence of a grandparent or another close relative who is willing to take responsibility for her safety (Health and Human Services, 2015). Lora’s autonomy does not outweigh the nurse’s responsibility to report the abusive situation.  I would not report it to the police, but an agency that would look at the pros and con and make the best decision for Lora’s safety.

American Nurses Association (2015).Code of Ethics for Nurses. Retrieved on November 12 th , 2015 from http://www.nursingworld.org/CodeofEthics

Health and Human Services (2015) Department of Children and Families: Child Abuse. Retrieved on November 12 th , 2015 from  http://www.mass.gov/eohhs/gov/departments/dcf/

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Two Principles of Academic Ethics

Some time ago, while I was advising a doctoral student regarding her search for an academic position, she showed me her graduate school transcript. I noted that she had been awarded an A in every course but one; in that single instance, she had received a B. When I asked about that anomaly, she replied, “I knew what view the professor wanted me to defend in my paper. But I disagreed with his position and wouldn’t adopt it even though I realized that as a result he would lower my grade.”

Assuming this student’s account was accurate, and I have every reason to believe it was, the professor in question violated two fundamental principles of academic ethics. The first is that the aim of teaching is education, not indoctrination. For a teacher to defend personal beliefs is appropriate, but regarding any disputed issue, students should be provided with the strongest reasons behind opposing positions, then encouraged to develop their own views. Forcing anyone to accept the teacher’s opinion regarding a debatable matter is professorial malpractice.

For instance, the teacher may be a materialist but students should be made aware of the arguments for dualism; the teacher may be a liberal, but students should be made aware of the arguments for a conservative position; the teacher may support abortion rights, but students should be made aware of the arguments for a right to life. Teachers who don’t know how to explain the reasoning used by their opponents are not fully prepared to guide others. As John Stuart Mill wrote in On Liberty , “He who knows only his own side of the case knows little of that.”

The second fundamental principle of academic ethics violated by the professor is to award grades fairly. A grade represents an expert’s judgment of the quality of a student’s work in a specific course and is not supposed to be affected by considerations of gender, race, nationality, physical appearance, dress, personality, attitudes, innate capacities, or previous academic record. Nor is a grade supposed to reflect whether the student agrees with the professor on any controversial issue or even on the grade itself.   

If an A in political philosophy is awarded because the student tries hard, comes from an impoverished community, displays an ingratiating personality, passionately defends the professor’s opinions, or is proud of the work done, then the A is hopelessly ambiguous and serves no useful purpose. If, on the other hand, the grade suggests that the student has a firm grasp of a range of issues in political philosophy, then the meaning is clear.

These two principles were exemplified for me on an occasion when I taught a graduate seminar in philosophy of religion. The class included a gentleman from India who frequently contributed insights about Hinduism. I assumed he was a Hindu and welcomed his insightful comments regarding that religious tradition. When the course ended, he told me that he had greatly enjoyed the class. When I thanked him for enriching our discussion by providing the perspective of a Hindu, he disclosed that he was not a Hindu; rather, he was a Catholic priest from a Christian community in the south of India. He explained that he had not revealed his religious identity because he didn’t want to inhibit members of the class from expressing skepticism about Christianity.

I was surprised by this news, but he told me that while he knew that I was not a Christian, he believed I had done justice to those who were and had demonstrated that my assessment of anyone’s work did not depend on whatever religious beliefs the author might defend or oppose. I was gratified by this assurance.

In sum, professors in every course should present the material in a balanced way and not penalize any students because they do not share the teacher’s viewpoint. Admittedly, whether a presentation or practice is appropriate may be contested . Nevertheless, an instructor is well-advised to imagine that intellectual opponents are in the classroom. Would they recognize the instructor’s version of their position? Would they agree that at least some of their arguments had been adequately explained? Would they recognize that the evaluations of student work were justifiable? If not, the instructor should consider making greater effort to achieve fairness.

Steven M. Cahn

Steven M. Cahn is Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York. The most recent books he has authored are Religion Within Reason (Columbia University Press, 2017); Teaching Philosophy: A Guide (Routledge, 2018); Inside Academia: Professors, Politics, and Policies (Rutgers University Press, 2019); The Road Traveled and Other Essays (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2019); Philosophical Adventures (Broadview Press, 2019); A Philosopher’s Journey: Essays from Six Decades ( Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2020), and Navigating Academic Life (Routledge, 2021).

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Ethical principles essay

All hospitals are governed by the ethical decisions that are made by a body of individuals constituting the ethical committee, and it is these decisions that are taken into consideration whenever there is a conflict within the hospital. However, it is an unavoidable fact that very often, patients and their families ask this committee to either take action, or remain silent and inactive. One must remember the important fact that even the bets hospital in the world may not have all the resources available on demand at any given time, and this, more than anything lese, gives rise to conflict in a typical decision making process.

The ethics of the decision, the moral principles behind it, and the questions of who exactly would benefit from the decision; is it really essential to resuscitate a patient who is near death for example, and thereby spend precious resources on the patient who could never hope to have a life of quality anyway? (Hospital ethics board sharpen decision making 2005) In recent years, a typical hospital has become encumbered with making the ‘end of life’ ethical decision whenever needed.

In other words, the decision of whether to continue treatment for a loved one, or to withdraw it and therefore end his life peacefully is one that families, patients, and more importantly, medical personnel within a hospital are faced with. Medical personnel, especially, would be forced to keep in mind the ethical principles behind the medical profession when making this major decision, without giving way to conflict of any kind. In recent times, a program was organized jointly by the Division of the United States Studies and the Global Health Initiative so that discussions on the ethics behind the end of life decision could be discussed.

A conclusion was reached, that one must keep in mind who the decision maker is, how he had been appointed as the decision maker, and by whom, how to prevent the conflicts that may arise form his decision, and how to resolve them, should they arise. In most cases, the experts found that the patient, if he was mentally capable, could play the role of the decision maker, and in case he was mentally incapacitated, then he could appoint a surrogate decision maker in his place, an individual who is close to the patient, and who has absolutely no vested interest in any particular outcome of the decision being taken.

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Raphael Cohen-Almagor, one of the participants in the program, stated that it was important that medical personnel recognize the fears of the patient and his family, and also that they undergo training in ethics before they complete their studies. This would help in convincing the patient or his family that the decision they were attempting to make was the right one, and on that would serve the patient well. (Reed, Acacia 2008) As mentioned earlier, a hospital would have to maintain a perfect balance between the resources that it has available, and the demand for the available resources.

A hospital would have to keep in mind, at all times, the fact that its decisions must be ethically appropriate, with no compromises. Maintaining an ethical framework upon which to base all major decisions would help, and one could consider these issues for the purpose: on what must the ethical standards be based, and, how must one apply these ethical standards that one makes? Experts state that there may be several kinds of ethical standards: a utilitarian approach, a rights approach, fairness and justice approach, the common good approach, and the virtue approach.

While the utilitarian approach emphasizes on the principle that come what may, an ethical decisions must prevail to bring in balance of good over harm, the rights approach considers the rights of the patient, based on basic human dignity, so that he may be able to choose freely and make his decision. The fairness approach considers Aristotle’s ideal that all human beings must be treated equally, and that they must be treated fairly based on accepted standards, while the common good approach states that since life in community is good, one’s actions must contribute towards the fact.

The virtue approach keeps in mind certain time tested dogmas that state that ethical actions must remain consistent with certain ideal virtues. (Velasquez, Manuel, Moberg, Dennis et al 1988) To conclude, it must be said that in the making of any decision, one may take any of the approaches detailed above to make what is known as an ‘ethical decision’, a decision that would help one to decide what is ethical, and what is not, even if it may be true that not everyone would agree with the principles upon which the decision is based.

All the facts involving the ethical decision must be considered, including the persons involved, their stakes in the decision, and so on. Nevertheless, if one keeps in mind the principle that no matter what the decision, it must be based on bringing the greatest balance of good over harm for the individual, then the decision would be an ethically and a morally right one.

Reed, Acacia (2008) Ethical decision making at the end of life United States Studies retrieved August 26, 2008 from http://www. wilsoncenter.org/index. cfm? topic_id=1427&fuseaction=topics. event_summary&event_id=303954 Manuel Velasquez, Dennis Moberg, Michael J. Meyer, Thomas Shanks, Margaret R. McLean, David DeCosse, Claire Andre, and Kirk O. Hanson (1988) Framework for ethical decision making Markkula Center for applied ethics. Retrieved on August 26, 2008 from http://www. scu. edu/ethics/practicing/decision/framework. html Hospital ethics board sharpen decision making (2005) Religion link Retrieved August 26, 2008 from http://www. religionlink. org/tip_050822. php