google scholar thesis pdf

Reference management. Clean and simple.

Google Scholar: the ultimate guide

What is Google Scholar?

Why is google scholar better than google for finding research papers, the google scholar search results page, the first two lines: core bibliographic information, quick full text-access options, "cited by" count and other useful links, tips for searching google scholar, 1. google scholar searches are not case sensitive, 2. use keywords instead of full sentences, 3. use quotes to search for an exact match, 3. add the year to the search phrase to get articles published in a particular year, 4. use the side bar controls to adjust your search result, 5. use boolean operator to better control your searches, google scholar advanced search interface, customizing search preferences and options, using the "my library" feature in google scholar, the scope and limitations of google scholar, alternatives to google scholar, country-specific google scholar sites, frequently asked questions about google scholar, related articles.

Google Scholar (GS) is a free academic search engine that can be thought of as the academic version of Google. Rather than searching all of the indexed information on the web, it searches repositories of:

• universities
• scholarly websites

This is generally a smaller subset of the pool that Google searches. It's all done automatically, but most of the search results tend to be reliable scholarly sources.

However, Google is typically less careful about what it includes in search results than more curated, subscription-based academic databases like Scopus and Web of Science . As a result, it is important to take some time to assess the credibility of the resources linked through Google Scholar.

➡️ Take a look at our guide on the best academic databases .

One advantage of using Google Scholar is that the interface is comforting and familiar to anyone who uses Google. This lowers the learning curve of finding scholarly information .

There are a number of useful differences from a regular Google search. Google Scholar allows you to:

• copy a formatted citation in different styles including MLA and APA
• export bibliographic data (BibTeX, RIS) to use with reference management software
• explore other works have cited the listed work
• easily find full text versions of the article

Although it is free to search in Google Scholar, most of the content is not freely available. Google does its best to find copies of restricted articles in public repositories. If you are at an academic or research institution, you can also set up a library connection that allows you to see items that are available through your institution.

The Google Scholar results page differs from the Google results page in a few key ways. The search result page is, however, different and it is worth being familiar with the different pieces of information that are shown. Let's have a look at the results for the search term "machine learning.”

• The first line of each result provides the title of the document (e.g. of an article, book, chapter, or report).
• The second line provides the bibliographic information about the document, in order: the author(s), the journal or book it appears in, the year of publication, and the publisher.

Clicking on the title link will bring you to the publisher’s page where you may be able to access more information about the document. This includes the abstract and options to download the PDF.

To the far right of the entry are more direct options for obtaining the full text of the document. In this example, Google has also located a publicly available PDF of the document hosted at umich.edu . Note, that it's not guaranteed that it is the version of the article that was finally published in the journal.

Below the text snippet/abstract you can find a number of useful links.

• Cited by : the cited by link will show other articles that have cited this resource. That is a super useful feature that can help you in many ways. First, it is a good way to track the more recent research that has referenced this article, and second the fact that other researches cited this document lends greater credibility to it. But be aware that there is a lag in publication type. Therefore, an article published in 2017 will not have an extensive number of cited by results. It takes a minimum of 6 months for most articles to get published, so even if an article was using the source, the more recent article has not been published yet.
• Versions : this link will display other versions of the article or other databases where the article may be found, some of which may offer free access to the article.
• Quotation mark icon : this will display a popup with commonly used citation formats such as MLA, APA, Chicago, Harvard, and Vancouver that may be copied and pasted. Note, however, that the Google Scholar citation data is sometimes incomplete and so it is often a good idea to check this data at the source. The "cite" popup also includes links for exporting the citation data as BibTeX or RIS files that any major reference manager can import.

Pro tip: Use a reference manager like Paperpile to keep track of all your sources. Paperpile integrates with Google Scholar and many popular academic research engines and databases, so you can save references and PDFs directly to your library using the Paperpile buttons and later cite them in thousands of citation styles:

Although Google Scholar limits each search to a maximum of 1,000 results , it's still too much to explore, and you need an effective way of locating the relevant articles. Here’s a list of pro tips that will help you save time and search more effectively.

You don’t need to worry about case sensitivity when you’re using Google scholar. In other words, a search for "Machine Learning" will produce the same results as a search for "machine learning.”

Let's say your research topic is about self driving cars. For a regular Google search we might enter something like " what is the current state of the technology used for self driving cars ". In Google Scholar, you will see less than ideal results for this query .

The trick is to build a list of keywords and perform searches for them like self-driving cars, autonomous vehicles, or driverless cars. Google Scholar will assist you on that: if you start typing in the search field you will see related queries suggested by Scholar!

If you put your search phrase into quotes you can search for exact matches of that phrase in the title and the body text of the document. Without quotes, Google Scholar will treat each word separately.

This means that if you search national parks , the words will not necessarily appear together. Grouped words and exact phrases should be enclosed in quotation marks.

A search using “self-driving cars 2015,” for example, will return articles or books published in 2015.

Using the options in the left hand panel you can further restrict the search results by limiting the years covered by the search, the inclusion or exclude of patents, and you can sort the results by relevance or by date.

Searches are not case sensitive, however, there are a number of Boolean operators you can use to control the search and these must be capitalized.

• AND requires both of the words or phrases on either side to be somewhere in the record.
• NOT can be placed in front of a word or phrases to exclude results which include them.
• OR will give equal weight to results which match just one of the words or phrases on either side.

➡️ Read more about how to efficiently search online databases for academic research .

In case you got overwhelmed by the above options, here’s some illustrative examples:

Tip: Use the advanced search features in Google Scholar to narrow down your search results.

You can gain even more fine-grained control over your search by using the advanced search feature. This feature is available by clicking on the hamburger menu in the upper left and selecting the "Advanced search" menu item.

Adjusting the Google Scholar settings is not necessary for getting good results, but offers some additional customization, including the ability to enable the above-mentioned library integrations.

The settings menu is found in the hamburger menu located in the top left of the Google Scholar page. The settings are divided into five sections:

• Collections to search: by default Google scholar searches articles and includes patents, but this default can be changed if you are not interested in patents or if you wish to search case law instead.
• Bibliographic manager: you can export relevant citation data via the “Bibliography manager” subsection.
• Languages: if you wish for results to return only articles written in a specific subset of languages, you can define that here.
• Library links: as noted, Google Scholar allows you to get the Full Text of articles through your institution’s subscriptions, where available. Search for, and add, your institution here to have the relevant link included in your search results.
• Button: the Scholar Button is a Chrome extension which adds a dropdown search box to your toolbar. This allows you to search Google Scholar from any website. Moreover, if you have any text selected on the page and then click the button it will display results from a search on those words when clicked.

When signed in, Google Scholar adds some simple tools for keeping track of and organizing the articles you find. These can be useful if you are not using a full academic reference manager.

All the search results include a “save” button at the end of the bottom row of links, clicking this will add it to your "My Library".

To help you provide some structure, you can create and apply labels to the items in your library. Appended labels will appear at the end of the article titles. For example, the following article has been assigned a “RNA” label:

Within your Google Scholar library, you can also edit the metadata associated with titles. This will often be necessary as Google Scholar citation data is often faulty.

There is no official statement about how big the Scholar search index is, but unofficial estimates are in the range of about 160 million , and it is supposed to continue to grow by several million each year.

Yet, Google Scholar does not return all resources that you may get in search at you local library catalog. For example, a library database could return podcasts, videos, articles, statistics, or special collections. For now, Google Scholar has only the following publication types:

• Journal articles : articles published in journals. It's a mixture of articles from peer reviewed journals, predatory journals and pre-print archives.
• Books : links to the Google limited version of the text, when possible.
• Book chapters : chapters within a book, sometimes they are also electronically available.
• Book reviews : reviews of books, but it is not always apparent that it is a review from the search result.
• Conference proceedings : papers written as part of a conference, typically used as part of presentation at the conference.
• Court opinions .
• Patents : Google Scholar only searches patents if the option is selected in the search settings described above.

The information in Google Scholar is not cataloged by professionals. The quality of the metadata will depend heavily on the source that Google Scholar is pulling the information from. This is a much different process to how information is collected and indexed in scholarly databases such as Scopus or Web of Science .

➡️ Visit our list of the best academic databases .

Google Scholar is by far the most frequently used academic search engine , but it is not the only one. Other academic search engines include:

• Science.gov
• Semantic Scholar
• scholar.google.fr : Sur les épaules d'un géant
• scholar.google.es (Google Académico): A hombros de gigantes
• scholar.google.pt (Google Académico): Sobre os ombros de gigantes
• scholar.google.de : Auf den Schultern von Riesen

➡️ Once you’ve found some research, it’s time to read it. Take a look at our guide on how to read a scientific paper .

No. Google Scholar is a bibliographic search engine rather than a bibliographic database. In order to qualify as a database Google Scholar would need to have stable identifiers for its records.

No. Google Scholar is an academic search engine, but the records found in Google Scholar are scholarly sources.

No. Google Scholar collects research papers from all over the web, including grey literature and non-peer reviewed papers and reports.

Google Scholar does not provide any full text content itself, but links to the full text article on the publisher page, which can either be open access or paywalled content. Google Scholar tries to provide links to free versions, when possible.

The easiest way to access Google scholar is by using The Google Scholar Button. This is a browser extension that allows you easily access Google Scholar from any web page. You can install it from the Chrome Webstore .

Thesis and Dissertation Guide

• Starting your Dissertation/Thesis
• Dissertation/Thesis Resources
• Books That May Help
• Literature Reviews
• Annotated Bibliography
• We Don't Have It? / Interlibrary Loan
• Online Learning Study Tips
• Search Strategy
• Advanced Search Techniques
• Kemp Library Video Tutorials
• Find Articles / Journals / Databases
• What are...
• Database Video Tutorials
• Peer Reviewed
• How to confirm and cite peer review
• Primary/Secondary Sources
• Other Types of Sources (i.e. Newspapers)
• Legal Research Resources
• Evidence Based Practice/Appraisal Resources

Google Scholar

• Website Evaluation
• Internet Searching
• Apps You Didn't Know You Needed
• Who is citing me?
• Questions After Hours
• ESU Thesis Submission
• ESU Dissertation Submission
• How to Integrate
• How to Use It

What is Google Scholar and Why Should You Care?

Google Scholar is a special division of Google that searches for academic content. It is not as robust as Google, and as such it can be harder to search. However, if you are looking for a specific article it is a fantastic resource for finding out if you can access it through your library or if it's available for free.

Below are a few videos on how to use Google Scholar (you can skip the intros if you want) that will show you tips and tricks on how to best use Google Scholar.

Did you know that you can use Google Scholar in addition to Primo to help search Kemp library materials? You just have to add us to your Google Scholar and our results will show up in your searches showing you what you have access to as an ESU community member!

• Go to  Google Scholar 
• Make sure you're logged into your Google Account -  you'll see your initials or your icon in the top right hand corner of the screen if you're logged in. 
• Click on  Settings  (either from the top of the Scholar home page, or from the drop-down on the right hand side of the results page).

Choose  Library Links .

Type ‘East Stroudsburg University’ into the search box.

Click the boxes next to “ESU” and "Kemp Library"

Click  Save .

If you have other institutions you're affilitated with, or ResearchGate, you can add them too!

Getting to Google Scholar Settings:

The Library Link Screen: Search, Select and Save!

What your search results will look like: 

 Add / Reorder  

Databases have more sophisticated search features than Google Scholar , but if you have a one or two word topic Google Scholar can be useful.  You can also try using the Advanced Search in Google Scholar (see the first video below). 

However, if you're having trouble finding something specific, i.e. a specific article, try Google Scholar. For example you want " Game of Thrones and Graffiti" and you don't see it in a database, search the title of the article in Google Scholar (here you'd search "Game of Thrones and Graffiti"). You may find it freely available OR discover it is available through the library, but in a database you didn't look at. 

If we don't have it and you can't access it on Google Scholar, you can always request it via interlibrary loan .

"If Google Scholar isn’t turning up what you need, try an open Google search with the article title in quotes, and type the added filter “filetype:pdf”. This scours the open web for papers hosted somewhere, by someone, in PDF format. Google Books provides limited preview access to many copyrighted books. Other alternate services include  SemanticScholar ,  Microsoft Academic ,  Dimensions , or  GetTheResearch . Here too there are subject-specific portals like  EconBiz  or the  Virtual Health Library , some of which offer multilingual search options." -  Paragraph taken from A Wikipedia Librarian. 

The other services like Microsoft Academic mentioned above are also useful when looking for freely available journal article and research! Don't forget to cite everything you use in your paper/project/presentation/etc. 

Google Scholar Videos

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• Next: Website Evaluation >>
• Last Updated: Mar 29, 2024 3:12 PM
• URL: https://esu.libguides.com/thesis

University Library, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

How to Find Dissertations and Theses

• Finding Dissertations and Theses
• University of Illinois Dissertations

Google Scholar

Proquest dissertations and theses, non-u.s. dissertations.

• Dissertation Tracking

Ask a Librarian

Google Scholar searches specifically for scholarly materials, including Open Access (freely available) dissertations and theses. Many institutions make their dissertations publicly available, making Google Scholar a great place to search.

See the Library's guide on Google for Academic Research for more information.

If the Library does not have a copy of a dissertation or a theses, use ProQuest Dissertations and Theses to obtain a citation for the dissertation. Most American and Canadian universities are represented in this database, as well as selected British and European universities. Dissertations completed at many major U.S. universities during the past 10 years (and sometimes earlier) are available as full-text downloads.

If full text is not available, you can request a dissertation through interlibrary loan.

• ProQuest Dissertations and Theses This link opens in a new window PQDT is a collection of citations to dissertations and theses worldwide from 1861 to the present day. Full-text is available for most of the dissertations added since 1997 and some of the older graduate works. PQDT is also the official digital dissertations archive for the Library of Congress. Also included are the citations to British and Irish dissertations and theses (PQDT: UK & Ireland) since 1761 and abstracts for content since 1986. Note: UIUC masters theses are not in PQDT. They are only found in IDEALS or in the library catalog .

A note on terminology for dissertations and theses: these words are used differently depending on the country (at least in the English speaking world). In the US, dissertations are for doctoral work while a thesis can be a for a bachelor’s or master’s degree. However, it’s often flipped in Europe, e.g., a master’s dissertation and a doctoral thesis.

• The DART-Europe E-theses Portal DART-Europe is a partnership of research libraries in Europe who are working together to improve access to European theses. Several hundred universities link their digital repositories to DART-Europe and link to full text theses.
• EThOS: e-theses online service A project by the British Library Board to provide access to all dissertations from institutions in the UK. This website indexes the dissertations and provides links to full text where available and provide assistance to institutions digitizing dissertations. If available, full text dissertations are free to download.
• Foreign Dissertations at the Center for Research Libraries Try here when looking for a dissertation outside of the United States and Canada. CRL acquires hundreds of non-US, non-Canadian doctoral dissertations a year to add to its 800,000+ collection of dissertations. Acquisitions are primarily through the demand purchase program . Because the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign is a member of CRL, loans to the U of I community are provided free of charge - just fill out a standard interlibrary loan request and put "Item held by CRL" in the notes field.
• Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations This directory provides links to country-specific and international online libraries of electronic theses and dissertations. Many items, including those dating back to the early 1900s, are available in full text for free. For those not available in full text, fill out an interlibrary loan request.
• Theses Canada Portal A searchable catalog of all Canadian theses published since 1965, many of which are available in full-text electronic versions which can be downloaded free by students, scholars, and the public. You can also access and search for free full text electronic versions of Canadian theses and dissertations that were published from the beginning of 1998 to August 31, 2002.
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• Last Updated: Aug 2, 2023 2:14 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.illinois.edu/finddissertationstheses

18 Google Scholar tips all students should know

Dec 13, 2022

[[read-time]] min read

Think of this guide as your personal research assistant.

“It’s hard to pick your favorite kid,” Anurag Acharya says when I ask him to talk about a favorite Google Scholar feature he’s worked on. “I work on product, engineering, operations, partnerships,” he says. He’s been doing it for 18 years, which as of this month, happens to be how long Google Scholar has been around.

Google Scholar is also one of Google’s longest-running services. The comprehensive database of research papers, legal cases and other scholarly publications was the fourth Search service Google launched, Anurag says. In honor of this very important tool’s 18th anniversary, I asked Anurag to share 18 things you can do in Google Scholar that you might have missed.

1. Copy article citations in the style of your choice.

With a simple click of the cite button (which sits below an article entry), Google Scholar will give you a ready-to-use citation for the article in five styles, including APA, MLA and Chicago. You can select and copy the one you prefer.

2. Dig deeper with related searches.

Google Scholar’s related searches can help you pinpoint your research; you’ll see them show up on a page in between article results. Anurag describes it like this: You start with a big topic — like “cancer” — and follow up with a related search like “lung cancer” or “colon cancer” to explore specific kinds of cancer.

Related searches can help you find what you’re looking for.

3. And don’t miss the related articles.

This is another great way to find more papers similar to one you found helpful — you can find this link right below an entry.

4. Read the papers you find.

Scholarly articles have long been available only by subscription. To keep you from having to log in every time you see a paper you’re interested in, Scholar works with libraries and publishers worldwide to integrate their subscriptions directly into its search results. Look for a link marked [PDF] or [HTML]. This also includes preprints and other free-to-read versions of papers.

5. Access Google Scholar tools from anywhere on the web with the Scholar Button browser extension.

The Scholar Button browser extension is sort of like a mini version of Scholar that can move around the web with you. If you’re searching for something, hitting the extension icon will show you studies about that topic, and if you’re reading a study, you can hit that same button to find a version you read, create a citation or to save it to your Scholar library.

Install the Scholar Button Chrome browser extension to access Google Scholar from anywhere on the web.

6. Learn more about authors through Scholar profiles.

There are many times when you’ll want to know more about the researchers behind the ideas you’re looking into. You can do this by clicking on an author’s name when it’s hyperlinked in a search result. You’ll find all of their work as well as co-authors, articles they’re cited in and so on. You can also follow authors from their Scholar profile to get email updates about their work, or about when and where their work is cited.

7. Easily find topic experts.

One last thing about author profiles: If there are topics listed below an author’s name on their profile, you can click on these areas of expertise and you’ll see a page of more authors who are researching and publishing on these topics, too.

8. Search for court opinions with the “Case law” button.

Scholar is the largest free database of U.S. court opinions. When you search for something using Google Scholar, you can select the “Case law” button below the search box to see legal cases your keywords are referenced in. You can read the opinions and a summary of what they established.

9. See how those court opinions have been cited.

If you want to better understand the impact of a particular piece of case law, you can select “How Cited,” which is below an entry, to see how and where the document has been cited. For example, here is the How Cited page for Marbury v. Madison , a landmark U.S. Supreme Court ruling that established that courts can strike down unconstitutional laws or statutes.

10. Understand how a legal opinion depends on another.

When you’re looking at how case laws are cited within Google Scholar, click on “Cited by” and check out the horizontal bars next to the different results. They indicate how relevant the cited opinion is in the court decision it’s cited within. You will see zero, one, two or three bars before each result. Those bars indicate the extent to which the new opinion depends on and refers to the cited case.

In the Cited by page for New York Times Company v. Sullivan, court cases with three bars next to their name heavily reference the original case. One bar indicates less reliance.

11. Sign up for Google Scholar alerts.

Want to stay up to date on a specific topic? Create an alert for a Google Scholar search for your topics and you’ll get email updates similar to Google Search alerts. Another way to keep up with research in your area is to follow new articles by leading researchers. Go to their profiles and click “Follow.” If you’re a junior grad student, you may consider following articles related to your advisor’s research topics, for instance.

12. Save interesting articles to your library.

It’s easy to go down fascinating rabbit hole after rabbit hole in Google Scholar. Don’t lose track of your research and use the save option that pops up under search results so articles will be in your library for later reading.

13. Keep your library organized with labels.

Labels aren’t only for Gmail! You can create labels within your Google Scholar library so you can keep your research organized. Click on “My library,” and then the “Manage labels…” option to create a new label.

14. If you’re a researcher, share your research with all your colleagues.

Many research funding agencies around the world now mandate that funded articles should become publicly free to read within a year of publication — or sooner. Scholar profiles list such articles to help researchers keep track of them and open up access to ones that are still locked down. That means you can immediately see what is currently available from researchers you’re interested in and how many of their papers will soon be publicly free to read.

15. Look through Scholar’s annual top publications and papers.

Every year, Google Scholar releases the top publications based on the most-cited papers. That list (available in 11 languages) will also take you to each publication’s top papers — this takes into account the “h index,” which measures how much impact an article has had. It’s an excellent place to start a research journey as well as get an idea about the ideas and discoveries researchers are currently focused on.

16. Get even more specific with Advanced Search.

Click on the hamburger icon on the upper left-hand corner and select Advanced Search to fine-tune your queries. For example, articles with exact words or a particular phrase in the title or articles from a particular journal and so on.

17. Find extra help on Google Scholar’s help page.

It might sound obvious, but there’s a wealth of useful information to be found here — like how often the database is updated, tips on formatting searches and how you can use your library subscriptions when you’re off-campus (looking at you, college students!). Oh, and you’ll even learn the origin of that quote on Google Scholar’s home page.

18. Keep up with Google Scholar news.

Don’t forget to check out the Google Scholar blog for updates on new features and tips for using this tool even better.

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Thomas Vanhoutte

Personal website and blog

Submit academic research paper to Google Scholar

You have worked many months to complete your thesis or academic paper and you have relied on existing knowledge to finalize your research. Now you want to make your work available to the public. Here is how to properly include your academic research (journal article, thesis, book, ) in the Google Scholar search engine.

Create your Google Scholar profile

From this page, you can create your Google Scholar profile page. Include as much information as possible, such as a profile picture, your website, affiliation and areas of interest. I would also recommend you to make your profile public.

Once your profile looks good, we can move on to actually adding your academic writings. From here on, you have two options:

• You have only one or a few documents you want to submit, go for option 1
• You have many articles you want to add and are planning on writing even more in the future, go for option 2

Option 1 – Adding one by one

If you only want to include one document (let’s say, your master’s thesis), you can do so manually. Here are the steps:

• Go to this page to start adding a document manually.
• Choose the type of document (journal, conference, chapter, book, thesis, patent, court case or other).
• Fill in all the details about your article (title, author(s), publication date(s), volume, publisher, institution).

Click save and if you filled in everything correctly, you will see the message ‘Added article to your profile’. Congratulations!

Option 2 – Submit a website with all your work

In case you have an academic career and you have a list of work on your (academic or personal) website, option 2 is more suitable for you.

Google has guidelines to help you index your website that contains your academic work. Here are the steps you should follow to successfully include all of your work at once:

• Go to this page  and pick the type of website you are submitting. In my case, I choose ‘Personal publications’.
• Read and check the check-boxes that apply to you, such as ‘My inclusion request is for my personal publications’.
• Fill in the requested details, whereby the your webpage with academic articles should be filled in by ‘List of publications page’.
• Lastly, you are asked to include one or more article examples. So, paste the direct link to on or more of your PDFs there.

click submit and you are greeted with this message

Thanks for submitting your website to Google Scholar. Our crawl team is working hard to add new content as quickly as possible, and we appreciate your assistance. Please keep in mind that bibliographic data is extracted from your pages by automatic software. If you aren’t satisfied with the accuracy of your listings, please refer to our technical guidelines at http://scholar.google.com/intl/en/scholar/inclusion.html for ways to provide more accurate bibliographic data. An email detailing your submission has been sent to [email protected] . If your content meets our guidelines, you can generally expect to find it included within the Google Scholar results within 4-6 weeks.

Be patient, because as the message says, it can take up to a month or more before your articles are indexed. You will also receive an e-mail from  [email protected] with the data you just submitted.

Follow your own profile

Here is a great tip: follow your own Google Scholar profile!

Go to your own profile and at the top right, choose ‘follow’. Enter your e-mail and create the alert. If Google adds a new article to your profile, or a new citation, you will receive an e-mail alert.

This is an excellent way to receive a heads up if another researcher or student has cited your work in their academic writings. Maybe you can even reach out to the author(s) and talk about their research; a great way to expand your network.

Join the conversation

17 Comments

What are good open alternatives or extensions for Google Scholar and Microsoft Academic Search?

Mate is it equivalent to journal publishings.

Thanks a lot Mr. Thomas. I am much benefited by your informative article. The way and simplicity gave me enourament to read all and actually helped me to solve my problem. God bless you.

I like to add my journal in indexing of google scholar

Thanks Thomas for the link to “Submit a website with all your work”, that was a great tip.

I am genuinely happy to read this webpage posts which carries lots of valuable information, thanks for providing such statistics.

RESPECTED SIR, HOW CAN I UPLOAD MY ARTICLE WHICH IS NOT PUBLISHED ANYWHERE TO GOOGLE SCHOLAR, AS I AM A PHD SCHOLAR, THERE IS NO PROVISION TO UPLOAD AND SAVE OPTION IN MY SCHOLAR ACCOUNT. I JUST OPENED AN ACCOUNT SIR. PLS GUIDE ME IN THIS REGARD. THANK YOU SIR

how to add pdf file to google scholars?

CORPORATE GOVERNANCE

Name Course Professor Institution City and State location The Date  

TABLE OF CONTENT 1. Introduction…………………………………………………..4 1.1 Background Information………………………………….4 1.2 Definition of Corporate Governance……………………4 1.3 Importance of Corporate Governance…………………..4 1.4 Corporate Governance Theories………………………….5 1.5 Corporate Governance Codes……………………………5 2. Corporate Governance Mechanism………………………….6 2.1 Corporate boards………………………………………….7 2.1.1 Corporate board Structure……………………………7 2.1.2 Role of corporate board……………………………..8 2.2 Institutional Investors……………………………………9 2.2.1 Role of Institutional Investors ……………………..9 2.3 Other Corporate Governance Mechanisms……………10 3. Case Studies…………………………………………………10 3.1 Enron…………………………………………………….10 3.1.1 Background………………………………………..10 3.1.2 Enron’s Failure of Corporate Governance………..11 3.2 Reckitt Benckiser………………………………………12 3.2.1 Background………………………………………..12 3.2.2 Failure of Corporate Governance…………………12 3.3 Satyam………………………………………………….13 3.3.1 Background………………………………………..13 3.3.2 Failure of Corporate Governance ………………..13 3.4 WorldCom……………………………………………..14 3.4.1 Background……………………………………….14 3.4.2 Failure of Corporate Governance…………………14

4 Recommendations…………………………………………15 5 Conclusion…………………………………………………17 6 References…………………………………………………18   Introduction 1.1 Background Many scholars, economists, and other professions consider 2007- 2009 global financial crisis as the worst financial crisis ever since the great depression of 1930. The period characterized by the collapse of many financial institutions, massive bailouts, the economic downturn and finally the great recession was primarily attributed to the failure of corporate governance. As much as this was a low point in corporate governance, it also showed its importance not only to individual firms but to the world economy as a whole (Tricker & Tricker 2015). Never before has the notion that corporate boards and institutional investors are the most important corporate governance mechanisms in the firms with important implications for the sustainable long-term success of the firm been so vividly seen. From time immemorial as humans, we have always learned from our mistakes and the 2007-2009 was an eye opener especially to corporate governance. Before I can explain further on the notion, it is important to learn the basic aspects of corporate governance. 1.2 Definition of Corporate Governance Corporate governance in simple terms refers to the set of rules, processes, and practice through which a company is controlled and directed with (Solomon 2007). It involves balancing the interests of the organization with the interests of other parties such as the government, investors, lenders, suppliers, the community etc. 1.3 Importance of Corporate Governance When executed properly, corporate governance can help a company avoid certain risks such as lawsuits, fraud, and misappropriation of funds. In addition to that, good corporate governance helps in boosting the organization’s brand and reputation to the media, investors, suppliers, customers and the society as the whole. Furthermore, cooperate governance protects the financial interests of the individuals involved with the company such as the shareholders and the employees as explained by (Vitez, 2017).

1.4 Theories of Corporate Governance Corporate governance can be defined in many ways but when it comes to analyzing it, we do it through a framework of different theories. One of those theories is the agency theory which looks at the shareholders as the principals and the executives that have been hired to run the business as their agents. Another theory is the stewardship theory which looks at the executive as the stewards of the shareholders with both parties sharing the same goals. In addition to that, we have the resource dependent theory which considers the board as to be in existence so as to provide resources to the management with the aim of achieving the overall objectives of the business. Stakeholder theory comes from the assumptions that it is not just the shareholders who have an interest in the company but other parties too such as suppliers, the government, creditors among others (Farrar 2008). This means that this parties too can be affected by the success or failure of the business. Other theories of cooperate governance include transaction cost theory, political theory, and ethical related theories. 1.5 Corporate Governance Codes Introduction The code of governance over the years have originated for various reasons or in response to various circumstances. The first major release was in 1992 by Sir Adrian Cadbury popularly referred to ‘Cadbury Code’ titled “the Financial Aspects of Corporate Governance”. Following serious revisions over the years, the code is nowadays administered by the Financial Reporting Council. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) developed the first internationally influential codes back in 1999 following a business advisory committee that was led by Irra Milstein. Boards that govern companies are influenced by several documents which include but not limited to articles of incorporation, by-laws, corporate governance guidelines, committee charters, and codes of conduct. When it comes to the United States, various federals laws such as the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Act, federal laws as well as federal security laws in addition to regulations, rules, and guidance from SEC are used. These documents are meant to be used for the purpose of best practices and flexible working standards to safeguard the various parties that have an interest in the organization. In short, they basically outline the interaction between the board and management outlining the structure and the behavior of the board. The codes are normally contributed to by various individuals including investors, accounting firms, regulators, banks, corporate governance interest organizations, academics, and stock exchanges, among others.

Corporate Governance Mechanism Policies, control, and guidelines are vital for an adequate corporate governance mechanisms. An effective corporate governance mechanism will consist of a number of various mechanisms. The first level consists of internal mechanisms which monitor the business from within and take corrective measures when the business stray away from its set objectives. They include reporting lines that are clearly defined, systems that measure performance and systems for the smooth operation of the business. The next level is the external mechanisms which are controlled by those outside the business and serve the objectives of outsiders such as the regulators, government, financial institutions, and trade unions among others. The objectives of the external mechanism include proper debt management and legal compliance by the company in question. The last level consists of an audit of the entity’s financial statements by an independent auditor who generally works to serve both the internal and external parties that are involved with an organization to ensure that their interests are guided and that the management is doing everything properly. They also act as a second opinion to back up what the management is saying. 2.1 Corporate Boards The board generally consist of groups of individuals elected or nominated by shareholders in the annual general meeting. The board of directors normally act as a bridge between the company and the shareholders -it decides as a fiduciary with the aim of protecting the latter’s interests. This is the norm with a Public company even though nowadays most non-profit making organizations and private companies also have a board. Their main mandate is to make policies for corporate management and also to make decisions on major issues that affect the company. 2.1.1 Corporate Board Structure The structure of the board of directors is mainly guided by the company’s bylaws which sets out the structure, number of members, how often they meet etc. The most important element is that it should be able to balance both the interests of the management and Shareholders. The duties are regulated by the statutory laws, federal statutory laws, listing standards, common law and shareholder activism and litigation. The membership of the board normally constitutes independent directors, senior company executives, non-independent directors such as former senior executives of the company among others. Nasdaq rules require the majority of the board members to be independent and in they constitute up to 75% or more of the boards in 93 of the top 100 US companies. Most boards consist of 8 to 15 members. There are no age and nationality restrictions although in recent years gender balance has been emphasized. 2.1.2 Roles of the Corporate Boards The board’s primary role as discussed earlier is the fiduciary duty to safeguard the finances and the legal requirements of the entity. They do this by ensuring that the entity in questions does all that is required of it by the law, and the funds are properly used. Another role of the board of directors is setting up the mission and vision of the organization. In addition to that, they ensure that the management adheres and work towards achieving them. Over sighting the activities of members of the organization such as executives is another role of the corporate board. The board ensures that the management adheres to rules and regulations and do their work as prescribed. Other roles of the board of directors come up in the annual meetings where-by, they announce the annual dividends, oversee the appointment of key executives and amend the by-laws where it is necessary (Dimopoulos & Wagner, 2016). Other roles of the corporate board include setting up the strategy for the company for long-term survival, short-term gains and future exploration of opportunities that are likely to arise. This might also include setting up the structure of the company to ensure efficiency. The board, however, does not take part in the day to day running of the organization and thus serve another role of delegating the duties to the management. The board should also monitor, control functions and set up compensation plans for the executives. Last but definitely not least, the board helps in acquiring resources for the organization while ensuring continuity. With great power comes great responsibilities. The board must always use their powers for the right reason and do what is required of them by the shareholders of the company. The board must always carry out whatever they do in the full interest of the company, and in case there is a conflict of interest then the interests of the company should always come first. They must also carry out their task with due care minding the interests of both the shareholders and that of the employees. Other responsibilities of the board include acting as the court of appeal in case there are disputes, accessing the performance of the firm and enhancing the organization’s overall public image and brand name. 2.2 Institutional Investors An institutional investor is a person, persons or organization that pools money or provides funds to purchase securities, other investment assets, property or originate loans. They include financial institutions such as banks, Insurance companies, pension and hedge firms, investment advisors, commercial trusts and mutual funds. For a firm to grow, it requires resources inform of money which is provided by these institutional investors who get profits and interests as compensation for their troubles in taking the risk. The returns should exceed the fees and expenses of the investments and is compared against treasury bills which are considered to be risk-free. 2.2.1 Roles and Responsibilities of Institutional investors The best thing about institutional investors is the fact that they have expertise and knowledge to monitor the health and progress of the business. With this knowledge, they can provide the best advice the organization and also control the tendency of the management to put their interests first as opposed to the interests of the company. This active monitoring helps reduce misappropriation of funds and other forms of fraud (Gillan & Starks 2002, pp. 275-305) The institutional investors can act as a source of stability in hard times as was the case in the coal crisis in India recently. By offering additional funds, the institutional investors increase their stake and say in the company thus can push for better corporate governance. Another aspect related to this is the fact the institutional investors have a louder voice compared to minority investors. Most of the time when minority shareholders raise their concerns on corporate governance, they will rarely get addressed or at times get thwarted by the minorities which are not the case with institutional investors. 2.3 Other Corporate Governance Mechanism Other parties that are involved in corporate governance include the shareholders themselves who have the biggest interests as the main contributors of capital, the employees who get their incomes and job security from the good governance of the company, the government which gets taxes from the organization and the society as a whole which benefits from job creation, income distribution, corporate social responsibility activities of the firm among other benefits. Case Studies 3.1 Enron 3.1.1 Background The story of Enron was not only the largest bankruptcy case at the time but also the biggest audit failure. This was cited by many as the biggest corporate governance failure especially on the part of corporate boards and institutional investors. Enron was founded in 1985 by Kenneth Lay who also triples up as the chairman and chief executive officer. This was after merging Houston Natural gas and Intermonth. Other key people involved with Enron included: Jeffrey Skiing who was the C.O.O, Andrew Fastow who was the CFO and Rebecca Mark-Jusbasche who was the once a vice chairman. From 1995 to 2000 Enron was in fact named America most innovative company by Fortune. In the mid-2000s at its peak, the shares of Enron were trading at $90.75 per share. By the end of November 2001, they were trading at less than $1 per share. This was when the shareholders filed a $40 billion lawsuit. Enron filed for bankruptcy on December second, 2001 with assets worth $63.4 billion making it the biggest bankruptcy scandal ever in American history at the time. At this stage, the shares were going at $0.26 per share. 3.1.2 Failure of Corporate Governance in Enron Lack of due care and skill from the board was one of the reasons why Enron failed. As submitted by S.Watkins, Kenneth Lay who was Enron’s chair, could not get what was being said to him in regards to the company having questionable accounting practices. This also showed lack of proper communication between the board and the executives. This was further elaborated by Jeffrey McMahon, the new Enron’s president who said it was virtually impossible to challenge the authorities at Enron. A culture of intimidation had also developed at the company with the likes of Ms. Watkins fearing to lose their jobs. The board literally failed in its role of directing. This showed some sort of conflict of interests where they were more than happy to receive high compensations without asking serious questions which would have led to a decrease in their personal bonuses. The management who carried out the day to running of the Enron misrepresented information by allocating Enron’s debts to its dubious partners. This also showed the lack of proper internal controls at Enron (Carberry & Zajac 2017, p.15134). The corporate investors also failed to properly supervise the company and advice accordingly. For example, according to an economist at Enron, it was important it was all mind games as it was important for the employees, investors, and analysts to believe that the stock will bounce back. Other corporate investors such as the two trustees of Enron’s 401(k) plan failed in their duties as they did not warn the plan participants despite a memo detailing the accounting malpractices. The institutional investors also had all the knowledge and expertise but failed to utilize them- they just sat back and believed whatever they were told. 3.2 Reckitt Benckiser 3.2.1 Background Reckitt Benckiser is a British multinational that produces consumer goods to do with hygien, health, and home products. The name comes from the merging of a United Kingdom company Reckitt & Coleman and Benckiser NV that was based in the Netherlands back in 1999. The most well-known products worldwide include Dettol and Strepsil. Reckitt Benckiser acquired Korean Oxy brand in 2001 which had been using polyhexamethathylene guanidine (PHMG) in a product since 1996. In 2011, PHMG was banned by the Korea Centers for Disease Control and prevention after a published report showed a link to lung damage and report. Several reports also came out supporting the Korean report, and at the height of this in 2016 a coalition of consumer groups came out for the total boycott of Reckitt Benckiser products after it had been linked to more than 500 deaths from a BBC report. 3.2.1 Failure of Corporate Governance Mechanism in Reckitt Benckiser In the case of corporate governance, the management and directors fail as a whole in doing their duty of due care and skill when acquiring the Korean Oxy brand. They had a duty to investigate and know what is in the product. They put the company’s financial interests before the safety of the consumers. In addition to that, several attempts were made by the board and management to suppress investigations instead of taking corrective measures. Even though this was mostly a failure by the management and board, institutional investors also had the power to ask questions. Despite the various reports, they were silent till there was outrage in the mass media. 3.3 Satyam 3.3.1 Background Satyam was India’s fourth largest computer service company in India which has a population of over 1 billion. It was even listed on New York Stock exchange in 2001 with revenues exceeding $1 billion. The founder, M. Raju Ramalinga who was also the chair was a highly regarded person in the business often gracing all the major corporate events. In 2008 Satyam won the coveted prize of the Golden Peacock Award for compliance issues and Risk Management in corporate governance. In 2009, M. Raju confessed that the company’s accounts had been falsified by a massive $1.47 billion (Bhasin 2005). In the same year, Satyam stock was banned from trading on the New York Stock Exchange, and the Golden Peacock Award stripped off. Mr. Raju was later convicted together with other senior members. 3.3.2 Failure of Corporate Governance Mechanisms The board at Satyam failed in their primary duty of due care and monitoring the activity of the business as they did not notice the discrepancy. This was so evident that the first order was to appoint a temporary board. The board also put their interests first at the expense of the company for financial gains as confessed by their chairman. Despite the amount that falsified being that large, the auditors who were Price Water House Coopers failed in their auditing duties as they did not report anything amiss despite having all the expertise and experience. They were even fined $6 million by the US stock exchange for not following the code of conduct and auditing standards in when offering their services to Satyam. Institutional investors also failed to raise questions or properly examine the financial statements. Furthermore, with their expertise, they should have pushed for compliance with the corporate code of governance. 3.4 Worldcom 3.4.1 Background Before filing for bankruptcy protection in 2002, WorldCom was the second largest long distance phone company in the United States. With assets totaling over $104 billion, $30 billion in revenues and over 60,000 employees WorldCom filed for bankruptcy protection on July 1, 2002. The company later wrote down more than 75% of the total assets with over 17,000 of the workers losing their jobs. Over the period between 1999-2002, WorldCom had deliberately overstated their income before tax by over $7 billion which was the main reason behind the falling from grace to grass. It is currently known as Verizon business or Verizon enterprise solution after being acquired by Verizon Communications and is slowly rebuilding and being integrated into the parent company. 3.4.2 Failure of corporate Mechanism in WorldCom The biggest failure of WorldCom was the fact that the board had failed in its structuring role. Over the years, it had acquired a lot of companies with even one accountant confessing that they would get calls from people they did not even know existed. The departments were also not even properly structured for efficient working and were very decentralized. For example, the finance department was in Mississippi; the network operations were in Texas, the human resource in Florida and the legal department in Washington DC. This provided a challenge of communication as each department developed their ways of doing things. Apart from that, the difference in management style and the culture that was developed of not questioning seniors was a discouragement for employees who wanted to correct any issues that arose. In fact, there was a deliberate attempt by the management to hide vital financial issues as explained by Buddy Yates, the director of general accounting who was told he would be thrown outside the window in case he had shown the numbers to the auditors by Gene Morse, a senior manager. The employees also put their self-interests above the interest of the company as loyal employees were often compensated above the company’s approved salaries and bonus packages by Ebbers and Sullivan. The biggest failure was the board however as they failed terribly in all their roles and responsibilities including due care, supervision, bridging the gap between management and shareholder among others. In the case of institutional investors, they also failed terribly. No one raised a question on the structure of the firm or why the firm was highly decentralized. The increase in the salaries and compensation for the ‘loyal’ employees in the finance and accounting department should also have raised questions. Institutional investors should have also used their expertise to confirm the information that was being provided to them. Recommendations on Improving the Quality Of Corporate Governance Corporates Boards Should Meet Regularly: The corporates boards do not take part in the day to day running of the business, but they have a supervisory role. To carry out the tasks effectively, they need to meet more often (Christensen et al 2015, pp.133-164) Division of Responsibilities: The duties and responsibilities of a firm should be properly defined and allocated within an organization. This will help in reducing conflicts and also knowing who is liable and for what. This will also help enhance effective communication within an organization. Stronger Internal Controls: Controls in an organization should start from within for effective corporate governance. The controls include the supervision of seniors, physical controls, controls among others. Transparency: Corporate governance is all about transparency. Transparency does not mean revealing the companies but being honest in its activities. In case there is a loss it should be stated and corrective measures to correct it taken, Proper succession planning: One of the best attributes is that its life is not limited to that of the owners or directors. A proper succession plan should, therefore, be set in place to ensure that the values of the company that encourages proper corporate governance are passed from one generation to the other within the company Proper training of directors: The directors of the company are the eyes of the society and shareholders in the business. They need to be properly trained to carry out their tasks effectively as is required of them. Another option is to select a board of directors that is highly qualified in the different fields that the business is engaged in. Independent members increase: Any organization that is interested in improving its corporate governance should try as much as possible to increase the list of independent parties in its running. The independent parties with no direct relation can view the business from a better neutral point (Klapper & Love 2002, pp.703-728) Conclusion It is crystal clear from the discussions above that the corporate governance mechanisms such as corporate boards and institutional boards are the backbone for the survival of any company. From the cases discussed above, we can see the consequences of bad corporate governance and the fact that it does not matter how big the company is. In addition to that, there is a failure the many bodies that are meant to supervise corporate governance. Corporate governance board needs to do more than just take the words of corporations. It is an understatement to say that corporate governance should be a priority, it should actually be a prerequisite (Lebedeva et al 2016). 

References Bhasin, M.L., 2015. Corporate accounting fraud: A case study of Satyam Computers Limited. Carberry, E. and Zajac, E., 2017, January. How US Corporations Changed Executive Compensation after Enron: Substance and Symbol. In Academy of Management Proceedings (Vol. 2017, No. 1, p. 15134). Academy of Management Christensen, J., Kent, P., Routledge, J. and Stewart, J., 2015. Do corporate governance recommendations improve the performance and accountability of small listed companies?. Accounting & Finance, 55(1), pp.133-164. Dimopoulos, T. and Wagner, H.F., 2016. Corporate Governance and CEO Turnover Decisions. Farrar, J., 2008. Corporate governance: theories, principles and practice. Oxford University Press Gillan, S.L. and Starks, L.T., 2000. Corporate governance proposals and shareholder activism: The role of institutional investors. Journal of financial Economics, 57(2), pp.275-305. Ilya, P., 2015. inc. [Online] Available at: http://www.inc.com/ilya-pozin/14-highly-effective-ways-to-motivate-employees.html [Accessed 27 January 2018].

Klapper, L.F. and Love, I., 2004. Corporate governance, investor protection, and performance in emerging markets. Journal of corporate Finance, 10(5), pp.703-728. Lebedeva, T.E., Akhmetshin, E.M., Dzagoyeva, M.R., Kobersy, I.S. and Ikoev, S.K., 2016. Corporate governance issues and control in conditions of unstable capital risk. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 6(1S). Solomon, J., 2007. Corporate governance and accountability. John Wiley & Sons. Tricker, R.B. and Tricker, R.I., 2015. Corporate governance: Principles, policies, and practices. Oxford University Press, USA. Vitez, O., 2017. Bizfluent. [Online] Available at: https://bizfluent.com/facts-6884459-importance-corporate governance.html [Accessed 21 February 2018].

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• © 2018

Thesis Writing for Master's and Ph.D. Program

• Subhash Chandra Parija 0 ,
• Vikram Kate 1

Sri Balaji Vidyapeeth (Deemed University), Pondicherry, India

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Department of Surgery, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research (JIPMER), Pondicherry, India

The book covers all aspects of writing a thesis and dissertation in detail

Chapters are easy to understand with essential contents for writing thesis presented in a lucid manner.

Easy to follow algorithms, key points and case scenarios in each chapter to enhance the understanding of the topics.

The chapters are arranged in a manner that the reader will understand the importance of each section of the thesis writing and will be able to write the protocol, register with clinical trial registry, conduct the research and write the final dissertation.

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Table of contents (28 chapters)

Front matter, deciding on the topic/area of research/approval, thesis, dissertation and project.

• Subhash Chandra Parija, Vikram Kate

Objectives of Writing Thesis

• Meena A. Pangarkar, Nitin V. Pangarkar, Anand V. Pangarkar

Choosing a Suitable Research Area and Supervisor

• Prashant Joshi

Assessing Availability of Facilities, Infrastructure and Resources

• Puneet Dhar, Johns Shaji Mathew

Obtaining Support and Grants for Research

• William Y. Shi, Julian A. Smith

How to Write a Protocol

• Mukta Wyawahare, Raja Kalayarasan, Anahita Kate

Approval of the Institute Review Board, Ethics Committee and Registering with the Clinical Trial Registry

• Zile Singh, P. Stalin

Conduct of Research and Analysis

Plan and conduct of research: observational and interventional study designs.

• Vikram Kate, Sathasivam Sureshkumar, Mohsina Subair

Data Management in Clinical Research

• Karthik Balachandran, Sadishkumar Kamalanathan

Preparing and Decoding the Master Chart

• Meenakshi Girish, Senthil Amudhan

Statistical Analysis: Data Presentation and Statistical Tests

• Mahalakshmy Thulasingam, Kariyarath Cheriyath Premarajan

Structuring the Material and Writing the Thesis

Preparing a title page, abstract and table of contents page.

• Kiruthika Sivasubramanian, Rajive Mathew Jose, Stuart Enoch

Methods and Materials in a Thesis

• Sanjay Gupta

Writing the Review of Literature in a Thesis

• A. M. Quraishi

Drawing Observations from Data and Making Conclusions

• Rajesh Panwar, Peush Sahni

Preparing Figures and Tables

• Sudhir Kumar Jain, Rohit Kaushik

This book on Thesis Writing for Master’s and Ph.D. program focuses on the difficulties students encounter with regard to choosing a guide; selecting an appropriate research title considering the available resources; conducting research; and ways to overcome the hardships they face while researching, writing and preparing their dissertation for submission. 

Thesis writing is an essential skill that medical and other postgraduates are expected to learn during their academic career as a mandatory partial requirement in order to receive the Master’s degree. However, at the majority of medical schools, writing a thesis is largely based on self-learning, which adds to the burden on students due to the tremendous amount of time spent learning the writing skills in addition to their exhausting clinical and academic work.  Due to the difficulties faced during the early grooming years and lack of adequate guidance, acquiring writing skills continues to be a daunting task for most students.

This book addresses these difficulties and deficiencies and provides comprehensive guidance, from selecting the research title to publishing in a scientific journal.

• Thesis writing for masters and doctoral programme
• Choosing a suitable research area
• Preparing a content list, title Page and abstract
• Obtaining ethics committee approval for scientific research
• Presentation of dissertation work in scientific conferences
• Publishing the thesis work in scientific journal
• Obtaining support and grants for thesis work
• Plagiarism software

Subhash Chandra Parija

Vikram Kate

Subhash Chandra Parija  is the Former Director and Senior Professor, Department of Microbiology of the Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education & Research (JIPMER), Pondicherry, India, and has nearly three and a half decades of teaching and research experience in Medical Microbiology. Prof. Parija is a Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) expert, and has been consulted to draft guidelines on food safety for parasites. Prof. Parija was on the Board of MD Examination at Colombo University, Sri Lanka, Sultan Quaboos University, Oman, University of Malaya, Malaysia. He was conferred a D.Sc. for his contributions in the field of Medical Parasitology by Madras University. The author of ten books including the “ Text Book of Medical Parasitology, ” he has published more than 300 papers in prominent national and international journals.

Prof. Parija  has been honored with more than 25 awards including the Medical Council of India’s Dr. BC Roy National Award and the National Academy of Medical Sciences’ Dr. PN Chuttani Oration Award. Prof. Parija founded the Indian Academy of Tropical Parasitology (IATP), the only professional organization of Medical Parasitologists in India, and initiated the journal Tropical Parasitology . Professor Parija in collaboration with Prof. Vikram Kate edited a book on Writing and Publishing a Scientific Paper , which was published by Springer Nature in 2017.

Vikram Kate  is currently the Senior Professor and Head of the Department of the Surgery and Senior Consultant General and Gastrointestinal Surgeon at Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education & Research (JIPMER), Puducherry. He has contributed more than 25 chapters in prominent surgical gastroenterology and surgery textbooks, and has more than 140 papers to his credit. He is a Past President of the Indian Association of Surgical Gastroenterology. He was awarded the Membership Diploma of the Faculty of Surgical Trainers by the Royal College of Surgeons, Edinburgh. Further, he currently serves as Editor-in-Chief of  The International Journal of Advanced Medical and Health Research , the official journal of JIPMER.

Professor Kate is an Examiner for the M.S./M.Ch./DNB and Ph.D. program for Surgery, Surgical Gastroenterology and Intercollegiate Membership of the Royal College of Surgeons, Edinburgh. He is a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, Edinburgh and Glasgow (FRCS, FRCS Ed., FRCS Glasg.), and of the American College of Surgeons (FACS) and the American College of Gastroenterology (FACG). He has been honored with many awards, including the Dr. Mathias Oration (2010) and Prof. N. Rangabashyam Oration (2015) by the Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry Chapter of the Association of Surgeons of India, and the Dr. S.K. Bhansali Memorial Oration (2017) of the Association of Surgeons of India.

Book Title : Thesis Writing for Master's and Ph.D. Program

Editors : Subhash Chandra Parija, Vikram Kate

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0890-1

Publisher : Springer Singapore

eBook Packages : Medicine , Medicine (R0)

Copyright Information : Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018

Hardcover ISBN : 978-981-13-0889-5 Published: 13 November 2018

eBook ISBN : 978-981-13-0890-1 Published: 03 November 2018

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XX, 317

Number of Illustrations : 13 b/w illustrations, 70 illustrations in colour

Topics : Medicine/Public Health, general

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Search for EMU Dissertations in Esearch

This search finds theses and dissertations completed at EMU:

Finding EMU Dissertations and Theses

In addition to the Esearch search above, there are two places to look for dissertations and theses by EMU students: EMU's Digital Commons and a database from the company Proquest.

There are three links to Digital Commons below: two links show a list of dissertations by specific COE departments and the 3rd link goes to the full EMU Digital Commons which will also include Masters Theses from all three COE departments.

The fourth (last) link goes to a ProQuest database of EMU theses. Although there is overlap coverage between Digital Commons and ProQuest, each will have unique theses not found in the other. 

• Leadership & Counseling Dissertations in Digital Commons
• Teacher Education Dissertations in Digital Commons
• Digital Commons @ EMU This link opens in a new window Digital showcase of scholarly and creative works by EMU students, faculty, and staff Subjects : Covers most subjects Info type : scholarly articles, theses, dissertations
• Eastern Michigan University Theses and Dissertations This link opens in a new window This has full text of EMU dissertations and theses. For years prior to 2011, it isn't possible to search by department in this database; however you can search by keyword or by advisor. To do this use the pulldown menu to change the search from "Anywhere except fulltext -- ALL" to "Advisor -- ADV".

Finding Dissertations and Theses Worldwide

If you know the name of a dissertation, one of the quickest ways to locate it might be to search the title in quotes in Google Scholar.

• Google Scholar with EMU Full Text This link opens in a new window Search for scholarly materials on any topic Info type: scholarly articles, books, research reports, theses, working papers, cited sources Access Tips: Use link above to get access to EMU subscriptions with Findtext+ links. If this link does not work and you receive an error message from Google then use this alternate link to Google Scholar and also set your Google Scholar preferences to show EMU library access links. Search Instruction: Google Scholar Video
• Dissertations & Theses Global Full Text This link opens in a new window Info type: full text dissertations and theses (1997- ), descriptions of dissertations and theses (1861- ).
• Open Access Theses and Dissertations - OATD This link opens in a new window Full text theses and dissertations from 600+ universities.
• NDLTD - Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations A very large free database of dissertations and masters theses worldwide. Often there is a link to the full text.
• EBSCOhost OpenDissertations (formerly American Doctoral Dissertations) This link opens in a new window Citations for theses and dissertations from 1902 to the present, sometimes with links to full text in repositories.
• EThOS "EThOS is the UK’s national thesis service which aims to maximise the visibility and availability of the UK’s doctoral research theses."
• DART-Europe E-theses Portal DART (Digital Archive of Research Theses)-Europe allows you to easily search over 360,000 dissertations from over 500 European universities.

Article Databases that include Dissertations

• ERIC This link opens in a new window Key source for Education articles and reports Info type: scholarly articles, professional articles, dissertations, ERIC documents Brief how to video: ERIC Basics Look up Subject terms: Thesaurus on ERIC.gov
• PsycINFO This link opens in a new window Subjects: Psychology, Education, Business, Communication, Linguistics, Social Work Info type: scholarly articles, book info, conference papers, dissertations How To: ProQuest Basics Locating Quantitative and Qualitative Articles in PsycINFO PsycINFO Quick Reference Guide
• ProQuest One Business This link opens in a new window Key source for business articles. Subjects: Accounting, Auditing, Business, Communications, Economics, Ed Leadership, Entrepreneurship, Finance, Health Admin, Hotel Restaurant Mgmt, Management, Public Admin, Technology Info type: scholarly articles, professional articles, magazine articles, news, reports, dissertations Brief Instruction Video: ProQuest Basics

Getting the Full Dissertation

Try first to look in Google Scholar and Dissertations & Theses Global Full Text  (above) for digital fulltext of a dissertation. Many universities are now posting dissertations in repositories (like Digital Commons). Google Scholar includes Digital Commons and other repositories in its search. If that doesn't work, you might also try a regular Google search.

An effective way to search for the dissertation in Google Scholar or Google is to place the title in quotes, followed by the author last name. Example search: "Self-Efficacy and Instructional Leadership" Helber

For older dissertations, you may need to try to interlibrary loan the dissertation. You can get an idea of whether the dissertation is at a library by searching OCLC WorldCat . Or go to the web site for the library of the university where the author did the dissertation. Unfortunately, sometimes dissertations are not available via interlibrary loan. As a last resort, you may be able to purchase dissertations from ProQuest--see DissertationExpress  link below.

• WorldCat (via FirstSearch) This link opens in a new window Search for materials in libraries worldwide Info type: book info, library holdings
• Interlibrary Loan
• Dissertation Express For buying dissertations.
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The Role of Google Scholar in Evidence Reviews and Its Applicability to Grey Literature Searching

Neal robert haddaway.

1 MISTRA EviEM, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden

Alexandra Mary Collins

2 Centre for Environmental Policy, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom

3 Department for Environmental, Food and Rural Affairs, London, United Kingdom

Deborah Coughlin

4 Department for Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom

Stuart Kirk

5 Environment Agency, London, United Kingdom

Conceived and designed the experiments: NH. Performed the experiments: NH AC. Analyzed the data: NH. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: NH. Wrote the paper: NH AC DC SK.

Associated Data

All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

Google Scholar (GS), a commonly used web-based academic search engine, catalogues between 2 and 100 million records of both academic and grey literature (articles not formally published by commercial academic publishers). Google Scholar collates results from across the internet and is free to use. As a result it has received considerable attention as a method for searching for literature, particularly in searches for grey literature, as required by systematic reviews. The reliance on GS as a standalone resource has been greatly debated, however, and its efficacy in grey literature searching has not yet been investigated. Using systematic review case studies from environmental science, we investigated the utility of GS in systematic reviews and in searches for grey literature. Our findings show that GS results contain moderate amounts of grey literature, with the majority found on average at page 80. We also found that, when searched for specifically, the majority of literature identified using Web of Science was also found using GS. However, our findings showed moderate/poor overlap in results when similar search strings were used in Web of Science and GS (10–67%), and that GS missed some important literature in five of six case studies. Furthermore, a general GS search failed to find any grey literature from a case study that involved manual searching of organisations’ websites. If used in systematic reviews for grey literature, we recommend that searches of article titles focus on the first 200 to 300 results. We conclude that whilst Google Scholar can find much grey literature and specific, known studies, it should not be used alone for systematic review searches. Rather, it forms a powerful addition to other traditional search methods. In addition, we advocate the use of tools to transparently document and catalogue GS search results to maintain high levels of transparency and the ability to be updated, critical to systematic reviews.

Introduction

Searching for information is an integral part of research. Over 11,500 journals are catalogued by Journal Citation Reports ( http://thomsonreuters.com/journal-citation-reports/ ), and the volume of published scientific research is growing at an ever-increasing rate [ 1 , 2 ]. Scientists must sift through this information to find relevant research, and do so today most commonly by using online citation databases (e.g. Web of Science) and search engines (e.g. Google Scholar). Just as the number of academic articles and journals is steadily increasing, so too are the number of citation databases.

A citation database is a set of citations that can be searched using an online tool, for example Web of Science ( https://webofknowledge.com/ ). These databases typically charge subscription fees for access to the database that do not cover the cost of access to the full text of the research articles themselves. Generally these databases selectively catalogue citations according to a predefined list of journals, publishers or subject areas. Several free-to-use services have recently appeared that search for citations on the internet, most notably Google Scholar and Microsoft Academic Search. These search engines do not store citations within a specific database, instead they regularly ‘crawl’ the internet for information that appears to be a citation. Some key characteristics of databases and search engines are compared in Table 1 .

According to Thomson Reuters, the Web of Science Core Collections citation database contains almost 50 million research records ( http://wokinfo.com/citationconnection/realfacts/ ; February 2015), with Microsoft Academic Search reporting to catalogue in excess of 45 million records as of January 2013 ( http://academic.research.microsoft.com/About/help.htm#9 ). Google Scholar does not report the volume of citations identifiable via their search facility, although attempts have been made to estimate this that suggest between 1.8 million [ 3 ] and 100 million records [ 4 ] are identifiable.

“Grey literature” is the term given to describe documents not published by commercial publishers, and it may form a vital component of evidence reviews such as systematic reviews and systematic maps [ 5 ], rapid evidence assessments [ 6 ] and synopses [ 7 ]. Grey literature includes academic theses, organisation reports, government papers, etc. and may prove highly influential in syntheses, despite not being formally published in the same way as traditional academic literature e.g. [ 8 ]. Considerable efforts are typically required within systematic reviews to search for grey literature in an attempt to include practitioner-held data and also account for possible publication bias [ 5 , 9 ]. Publication bias is the tendency for significant, positive research to be more likely to be published than non-significant or negative research, leading to an increased likelihood of overestimating effect sizes in meta-analyses and other syntheses [ 10 ]. The inclusion of grey literature is a central tenet of systematic review methodology, which aims to include all available documented evidence and reduce susceptibility to bias.

Academic citation databases are often the first port of call for researchers looking for information. However, access to databases is often expensive; some costing c. £100,000 per annum for organisations of up to 100 employees. Increasingly, researchers are using academic citation search engines to find information (Haddaway, unpublished data). Academic citation search engines appear to represent an attractive alternative to costly citation databases, cataloguing research almost immediately and not restricting results to certain journals, publishers or subject categories. Search engines are particularly attractive to systematic reviewers, since they have the potential to be used to search for grey literature quickly and simply using one search facility rather than a plethora of individual websites [ 5 ].

There is on-going debate regarding the utility of Google Scholar as an academic resource e.g. [ 11 , 12 ], but also as a replacement for traditional academic citation databases and in searches for grey literature in systematic reviews [ 13 , 14 ]. Google Scholar represents an attractive resource for researchers, since it is free-to-use, appears to catalogue vast numbers of academic articles, allows citations to be exported individually, and also provides citation tracking (although see criticism of citation tracking by Delgado Lopez-Cozar et al. [ 15 ]). Google Scholar is also potentially useful in systematic reviews, since reliance on just one such platform for searches would: i) offer resource efficiency, ii) offer cost efficiency, iii) allow rapid linking to full texts, iv) provide access to a substantial body of grey literature as well as academic literature, and v) be compatible with new methods for downloading citations in bulk that would allow for a very transparent approach to searching [ 16 ].

Previous research has shown that articles identified within systematic reviews are identifiable using Google Scholar [ 13 ]. However, other authors have suggested that this does not make Google Scholar an appropriate replacement for academic citation databases, as, in practice, there are considerable limitations in the search facility relative to those of academic databases [ 11 ], and there is on-going debate about Google Scholar’s place in research [ 12 ]. Shultz [ 17 ] listed many limitations that have been attributed to Google Scholar, including that the service permits use of only basic Boolean operators in search strings, which are limited to 256 characters, and that users cannot sort results (although some of the other cited disadvantages have been corrected in recent updates). Two further limitations to the use of Google Scholar in academic searches are the inability to directly export results in bulk as citations (although a limited number of individual citations can be extracted within a set time period) and the display of only the first 1,000 search records with no details of the means by which they are ordered.

Web-based academic search engines, such as Google Scholar, are often used within secondary syntheses (i.e. literature reviews, meta-analyses and systematic reviews). Systematic reviews typically screen the first 50 to 100 search records within Google Scholar e.g. [ 18 , 19 , 20 ], sometimes restricting searches to title rather than full-text searches e.g. [ 21 ]. Such activities are not themselves evidence-based, however. Little is known about how these results are ordered, or what proportion of search results are traditional academic relative to grey literature. Furthermore, this small degree of screening (50 to 100 records) is a very small proportion of the volume of literature found through other sources (often 10s of thousands of records).

Google Scholar has improved greatly in recent iterations; evident from early critiques of the service relative to academic citation databases that cite problems that no longer exist e.g. [ 22 , 23 ]. Whilst the debate on the usefulness of Google Scholar in academic activities has continued in recent years, some improvements to the service offer unequivocal utility; for example, Shariff et al. [ 24 ] found that Google Scholar provided access to almost three times as many articles free of charge than PubMed (14 and 5%, respectively).

Any recommendations in systematic review guidance that are made regarding the allocation of greater resources to the use of academic search engines, such as Google Scholar, should be based on knowledge that such resources are worthwhile, and that academic search engines provide meaningful sources of evidence, and do not correspond to wasted effort.

Here, we describe a study investigating the use of Google Scholar as a source of research literature to help answer the following questions:

• What proportion of Google Scholar search results is academic literature and what proportion grey literature, and how does this vary between different topics?
• How much overlap is there between the results obtained from Google Scholar and those obtained from Web of Science?
• What proportion of Google Scholar and Web of Science search results are duplicates and what causes this duplication ?
• Are articles included in previous environmental systematic reviews identifiable by using Google Scholar alone?
• Is Google Scholar an effective means of finding grey literature relative to that identified from hand searches of organisational websites?

Seven published systematic reviews were used as case studies [ 20 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ] (see Table 2 ). These reviews were chosen as they covered a diverse range of topics in environmental management and conservation, and included interdisciplinary elements relevant to public health, social sciences and molecular biology. The importance and types of grey literature vary between subjects, and a diversity of topics is necessary for any assessment of the utility of a grey literature search tool. The search strings used herein were either taken directly from the string used in Google Scholar in each systematic review’s methods or were based on the review’s academic search string where Google Scholar was not originally searched. Search results in Google Scholar were performed both at “full text” (i.e. the entire full text of each document was searched for the specified terms) and “title” (i.e. only the title of each document was searched for the specified terms) level using the advanced search facility (see https://scholar.google.se/intl/en/scholar/help.html#searching for further details). Searches included patents and citations. Since Google Scholar displays a maximum of 1,000 search results this was the maximum number of citations that could be extracted using the specially developed method described below.

Searches were performed on 06/02/15. Web of Science includes the following databases as part of the MISTRA EviEM subscription; KCI-Korean Journal Database, SciELO Citation Index and Web of Sciences Core Collection.

1. What proportion of Google Scholar search results is grey literature?

A download manager (DownThemAll!; http://www.downthemall.net ) and web-scraping programme (Import.io; http://www.import.io ) were used to download each page of search results (to a maximum of 100 pages; 1000 results) and then extract citations as patterned data from the locally stored HTML files into a database. Two databases (one for the title only search and one for the full text search) for each of the 7 systematic reviews were created, each holding up to 1,000 Google Scholar citations (see S1 File ).

Exported citations were assessed and categorised by NRH and AMC as one of the following types of literature:

• ‘Black’–peer-reviewed articles published in academic journals
• ‘Book’–monographs or complete books produced by commercial publishers
• ‘Book chapter’–chapters within books produced by commercial publishers
• ‘Patent’–registered patents and patent applications with the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO)
• ‘Thesis’–dissertations from postgraduate degrees (master’s and doctorates)
• ‘Conference’–presentations, abstracts, posters and proceedings from conferences, workshops, meetings, congresses, symposia and colloquia
• ‘Other’–all other literature that may or may not be peer-reviewed, including; reports, working papers, self-published books, etc.
• ‘Unclear’–any search record that could not be categorised according to the above classification (ambiguous citations were discussed by the reviewers and classed as ‘unclear’ if no consensus could be reached due to limited information).

Book chapters are a subcategory of books but have been separated for additional clarity. These categories have been chosen because they reflect the type of information returned by Web of Science (‘black’ literature) and Google Scholar (all literature). The categories also reflect the emergent classifications that were possible based on information in the citations and any associated descriptions.

For each search type (title or full text) the proportion of literature types across the search results was summarised per page of results to assess the relative location of the types within the results.

2. How much overlap is there between Google Scholar and Web of Science?

For each of the 7 systematic review case studies title and full text searches were performed in Google Scholar and Web of Science (25/01/2015) and citation records extracted (all records for Web of Science or the first 1,000 for Google Scholar). Full text search results were not extracted for SR4 since over 47,000 records were returned, which was deemed too expansive for this assessment. The search results were then compared using the fuzzy duplicate identification add-in for Excel described below to investigate the degree of overlap between Web of Science and the first 1,000 Google Scholar search results.

3. What proportion of Google Scholar and Web of Science search results are duplicates and what causes this duplication?

Duplicate records are multiple citations that refer to the same article. They are disadvantageous in search results since they do not represent truly unique records and require time and resources for processing. Duplicates also lead to a false estimation of the size of search results: depending on the level of duplication there may be a significant deviation from the true size of search results. The fourteen databases from the 7 case study systematic reviews described above were screened for Google Scholar duplicates using the Excel Fuzzy Duplicate Finder add-in ( https://www.ablebits.com/excel-find-similar/ ) set to find up to 10 character differences between record titles. Potential duplicates were then manually assessed and reasons for duplication (e.g. spelling mistakes or grammatical differences) were recorded.

Searches were performed using Web of Science (using Bangor University’s subscription consisting of Biological Abstracts, MEDLINE, SciELO, Web of Science Core Collections and Zoological Record) using the same 7 search strings used with the above case studies in Google Scholar for topic words. The first 1,000 search results were extracted and assessed for duplicates on title using the Fuzzy Duplicate Finder as described above. Search results were extracted for records ordered both by relevance and by publication date (newest first), with the exception of SR2, SR5 and SR7, where totals of 230, 1,058 and 1,071 records respectively (all returned) were obtained and extracted in full.

4. Are articles included in previous environmental systematic reviews identifiable using Google Scholar?

In order to examine the coverage of Google Scholar in relation to studies included in environmental management systematic reviews, the lists of included articles following full text assessment were extracted from six reviews (four SRs described in Table 2 ; SR1, SR4, SR5, SR6 and two additional reviews; [ 8 , 31 ]) and each record’s title was searched for using Google Scholar. The option in Google Scholar to include citations was selected. Where titles were not found immediately, quotation marks were used, followed by partial removal of the title where possible typographical errors or punctuation variations might cause a record not to be found. Where records were identified as citations (i.e. Google Scholar found a reference within the reference list of another article) this was also recorded. In addition, references from the final lists of included article for three systematic reviews (SR1, SR4, SR6) were searched for in Web of Science as described for Google Scholar, above.

5. Is Google Scholar an effective means of finding grey literature identified from hand searches of organisational websites?

For another systematic review search string (SR5, Table 2 ) the 84 articles that were identified during searches for grey literature in the published review [ 28 ] from 16 organisational web sites (see S1 Table ) were used to test the ability of Google Scholar to find relevant grey literature using a single search string. The 84 articles were checked against the exported search results for both title and full text searches in Google Scholar (see Methods Section 1 above). The 84 articles were then screened in Google Scholar individually to assess whether they were included in the search engine’s coverage.

1. What proportion of Google Scholar search results is grey literature

Between 8 and 39% of full text search results from Google Scholar were classed as grey literature (mean ± SD: 19% ± 11), and between 8 and 64% of title search results (40% ± 17). Fig 1 displays search results by grey literature category, showing a greater percentage of grey literature than academic literature in title search results (43.0%) than full text results (18.9%). Conference proceedings, theses and “other” grey literature (i.e. reports and white-papers) accounted for the increase in the proportion of grey literature in title searches relative to full text searches. Theses formed a particularly small proportion of the full text search results across all case studies (1.3%), but formed a larger proportion of title search results (6.4%). Similarly, conference proceedings were less common in full text search results (3.2%) than title search results (15.3%). The proportion of patents, book chapters and books was similar in full text and title searches (0.2 and 0.3; 1.7 and 2.5; 4.2 and 2.8% respectively).

When examining the location of literature categories across search results (see S1 Fig ) several patterns emerge. “Peak” grey literature content (i.e. the point at which the volume of grey literature per page of search results was at its highest and where the bulk of grey literature is found) occurred on average at page 80 (±15 (SD)) for full text results, whilst it occurred at page 35 (± 25 (SD)) for title results. Before these points in the search results grey literature content was low in relative terms. For the majority of the case studies it was not until page 20 to 30 that grey literature formed a majority of each page of search results.

Google Scholar demonstrated modest overlap with Web of Science title searches: this overlap ranged from 10 to 67% of the total results in Web of Science ( Table 3 ). The overlap was highly variable between subjects, with reviews on marine protected area efficacy and terrestrial protected area socioeconomic impacts demonstrating the lowest overlap (17.1 and 10.3% respectively). Two case study title searches returned more than the viewable limit of 1,000 search results in Google Scholar (SR1 and SR4) and so only the first 1,000 could be extracted.

See Table 2 for case study explanations.

Full text search results from Google Scholar demonstrated low overlap with Web of Science results ( Table 4 ), ranging from 0.2 to 19.8% of the total Web of Science results.

n/a corresponds to search results that were too voluminous to download in full. See Table 2 for case study explanations.

3. What proportion of Google Scholar and Web of Science search results are duplicates and how do these duplicates come about?

Duplication rates (i.e. the percentage of total results that are duplicate records) for Google Scholar and Web of Science are shown in Table 5 and range from 0.00 to 2.93%. Rates of duplication are substantially higher within Google Scholar than Web of Science, and rates are far higher in title searches within Google Scholar than full text searches ( Table 6 ), although this is quite variable between the 7 case studies (1.0 to 4.8%%).

Numbers in parentheses correspond to the standard deviations of the individual case study duplication rates. Sample size refers to the number of search records in total, followed by the number of independent search strings (i.e. the number of case studies investigated).

Duplication rates are assessed for up to 1,000 search records (or the total number where less than c. 1,300). For Web of Science the full text results were ordered by publication date (newest first) and relevance where more than 1,000 results were returned. Numbers are duplication rate (%) followed by total search records in parentheses.

Duplicates appear to have arisen for a range of reasons. First, typographical errors introduced by manual transcription were found in both Google Scholar (15% of title records) and Web of Science. For example, the sole example of a duplicate from Web of Science is that of the two records that differ only in the spelling of the word ‘Goukamma’ (or Goukarmma) in the following title: “A change of the seaward boundary of Goukamma Marine Protected Area could increase conservation and fishery benefits”. Differences in formatting and punctuation are a subset of typographical errors and corresponded to 18% of title level duplicates. Second, capitalisation causes duplication in Google Scholar, and was responsible for 36% of title level duplicates. Third, incomplete titles (i.e. some missing words) were responsible for 15% of title level duplicates. Fourth, automated text detection (i.e. when scanning documents digitally) was responsible for 3% of title level duplicates. Fifth, Google Scholar also scans for citations within references of selected included literature, and the presence of both these citations and the original articles themselves was responsible for 13% of title level duplication.

Many of the included articles from the six published systematic review case studies were identified when searching for those articles specifically in Google Scholar ( Table 7 ). However, a significant proportion of studies in one review [ 31 ] were not found at all using Google Scholar (31.5%). Other reviews were better represented by Google Scholar coverage (94.3 to 100% of studies). Only one review had an included article list that was fully covered by Google Scholar, the review with the smallest evidence base of only 37 studies [ 31 ]. For those reviews where studies were not identified by Google Scholar, a further search was performed for these missing studies in Web of Science ( Table 7 ), which demonstrated that some of these studies (6 studies from 2 case study reviews) were catalogued by Web of Science.

Records identified as citations are found only within reference lists of other articles (their existence is not verified by the presence of a publisher version or full text article, unlike hyperlinked citations).

1 For those articles not found using Google Scholar, Web of Science searches were carried out using Bangor University subscription (Biological Abstracts, MEDLINE, SciELO Citation Index, Web of Science Core Collections, Zoological Record).

Google Scholar search results that were available only as citations (i.e. obtained from the reference lists of other search results) constituted between 0 and 15.2% of identified results. Citations typically do not lead to web pages that provide additional information and cannot therefore be verified manually by users.

When searching specifically for individual articles, Google Scholar catalogued a larger proportion of articles than Web of Science (% of total in Google Scholar / % of total in Web of Science: SR1, 98.3/96.7; SR4, 94.3/83.9; SR6, 99.4/89.7).

None of the 84 grey literature articles identified by SR5 [ 28 ] were found within the exported Google Scholar search results (68 total records from title searches and 1,000 of a total 49,700 records from full text searches). However, when searched for specifically 61 of the 84 articles were identified by Google Scholar.

This paper set out to investigate the role of Google Scholar in searches for academic and grey literature in systematic and other literature reviews. There is much interest in Google Scholar due to its free-to-use interface, apparent comprehensiveness e.g. [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ], and application within systematic reviews [ 16 ]. However, previous studies have disagreed on whether the service could be used as a standalone resource e.g. [ 11 , 12 ]. Our study enables recommendations to be made for the use of Google Scholar in systematic searches for academic and grey literature, particularly in systematic reviews.

Our results show that Google Scholar is indeed a useful platform for searching for environmental science grey literature that would benefit researchers such as systematic reviewers, agreeing with previous research in medicine [ 32 , 33 ]. Our investigations also demonstrate that more grey literature is returned in title searches than full text searches (43% relative to 19%, respectively), slightly more than previously found in an investigation of full text searching alone in an early version of Google Scholar (13% of total results; [ 17 ]). The grey literature returned by Google Scholar may be seen by some as disadvantageous given its perceived lack of verification (through formal academic peer-review), particularly where researchers are looking for purely traditional academic evidence. However, this may be particularly useful for those seeking evidence from across academic and grey literature domains; for example, those wishing to minimise the risk of publication bias (the over-representation of significant research in academic publications [ 34 ]).

We found that the greatest volume of grey literature in searches occurs at around page 35 for title searches. This finding indicates that researchers, including systematic reviewers, using Google Scholar as a source of grey literature should revise the current common practice of searching the first 50–100 results (5–10 pages) in favour of a more extensive search that looks further into the records returned. Conversely, those wishing to use title searching for purely academic literature should focus on the first 300 results to reduce the proportion of grey literature in their search results.

The grey literature returned in the 7 systematic review case studies examined herein mostly consisted of “other” grey literature and conference proceedings; i.e. white papers and organisational reports. Reports and white papers may prove particularly useful for secondary syntheses, since they may often represent resources that are commissioned by policy and practice decision-makers. Conference proceedings typically represent academic works that have not been formally published in commercial academic journals: such articles may also provide useful evidence for reviewers, particularly systematic reviewers. Academic theses were more common in title searches in Google Scholar, whilst books were more common in full text searches. Theses can provide a vital source of grey literature [ 35 ], research that never makes it into the public domain through academic publications. It is worth noting that whilst academic peer-review is not a guarantee of rigour, research that has not been through formal academic peer-review should be carefully appraised before being integrated into syntheses such as systematic reviews [ 5 ]. Google Scholar may thus prove to be a useful resource in addition to dedicated databases of theses (e.g. DART-Europe; http://www.dart-europe.eu/basic-search.php ) and other grey literature repositories (e.g. ProceedingsFirst; https://www.oclc.org/support/services/firstsearch/documentation/dbdetails/details/Proceeding.en.html ).

Surprisingly, we found relatively little overlap between Google Scholar and Web of Science (10–67% of WoS results were returned using searches in Google Scholar using title searches). For the largest set of results (SR4) only 17% of WoS records were returned in the viewable results in Google Scholar (restricted to the first 1,000 records). However, the actual number of returned results in Google Scholar was 4,310, with only the first 1,000 being viewable due to the limitations of Google Scholar. Assuming an even distribution of overlapping studies across these results we might expect a modest 73% coverage in total (calculated by applying a consistent rate of 17% from the first 1,000 to the full set of 4,310 search records). The limitations of viewable results in Google Scholar make an assessment of overlap impossible when the number of results is greater than 1,000. The case study SR1 only slightly exceeded the viewable limit of 1,000 studies and identified an overlap of 38%, however.

The relatively low overlap between the two services demonstrates that Google Scholar is not a suitable replacement for traditional academic searches: although its results are greater than those in Web of Science, the majority of Web of Science search results are not returned by Google Scholar. However, Google Scholar is a useful addition to traditional database searching, since a large body of search records was returned for each case study that did not overlap, potentially increasing the coverage of any multi-database search, such as those carried out in systematic reviews.

Duplicates within citation databases are disadvantageous because they represent false records. Although the individual reference may be correct, its presence in the database contributes to the number of results. Where large numbers of references must be screened manually, as in systematic reviews, duplicates may also represent a waste of resources where they are not automatically detectable. Duplication rates in Web of Science were very low (0–0.05%), but notably higher in Google Scholar (1–5%). Duplication in Google Scholar occurred as a result of differences in formatting, punctuation, capitalisation, incomplete records, and mistakes during automated scanning and population of the search records. The sensitivity of Google Scholar searches comes at a cost, since identical records are identified as unique references. This may not be a significant problem for small-scale searches, but a 5% duplication rate represents a substantial waste of resources in a systematic review where tens of thousands of titles must be screened manually.

Gehano et al. [ 13 ] found that Google Scholar was able to identify all 738 articles from across 29 systematic reviews in medicine, and concluded that it could be used as a standalone resource in systematic reviews, stating that “if the authors of the 29 systematic reviews had used only GS, no reference would have been missed”. As pointed out by other researchers e.g. [ 14 ], this conclusion is incorrect, since the ability to find specific, known references does not equate to an ability to return these references using a search strategy as might be conducted within a systematic review: most importantly, the relevant articles may be returned outside of the viewable 1,000 records. Giustini and Boulos [ 14 ] found that 5% of studies from a systematic review could not be identified using specific searches in Google Scholar, whilst Boeker et al. [ 11 ] found that up to 34% of studies from 14 systematic reviews were missed.

Google Scholar was able to find much of the existing literature included within the systematic review case studies in our investigations, and indeed found more than Web of Science in the three case studies examined. As such, Google Scholar provides a powerful tool for identifying articles that are already known to exist (for example, when looking for a citation or access to a full text document). In addition, the search engine was also able to identify large amounts of potentially relevant grey literature. However, some important evidence was not identified at all by Google Scholar (31.5% in one case study), meaning that the review may have come to a very different conclusion if it had relied solely on Google Scholar. Similarly, Web of Science alone is insufficient to identify all relevant literature. As described above, Google Scholar may provide a useful source of evidence in addition to traditional academic databases, but it should not be used as a standalone resource in evidence-gathering exercises such as systematic reviews.

Google Scholar was able to identify a large proportion of the grey literature found in one case study through hand searching of organisational websites (61 of 84 articles). However, 23 articles could not be found using the search engine. Furthermore, the 61 articles found were not returned when using a typical systematic review-style search string. Together, these factors demonstrate that Google Scholar is a useful resource in addition to hand searching of organisational websites, returning a large volume of potentially relevant information, but that it should not be used as a standalone resource for grey literature searching, since some vital information is missed. Hand searching, as recommended by the Collaboration for Environmental Evidence Guidelines in Systematic Reviews [ 5 ], is restricted only to those websites included in an a priori protocol. Google Scholar exhaustively searches the internet for studies, however, and whilst it may be more coarse than fine-level hand searching (i.e. missing studies), the addition of a Google Scholar search targeting grey literature would increase comprehensiveness without giving cause for concern with relation to any systematic bias. However, since the algorithms that order search results are not disclosed, a substantial proportion of search results should be examined.

Other Considerations

As mentioned above, only the first 1,000 search results can be viewed in Google Scholar, and the order in which results are returned is not disclosed. Furthermore, the ‘advanced’ search facility supports only very basic Boolean logic, accepting only one set of ‘OR’ or ‘AND’ arguments, not both. In addition, variations in the way that subscript and superscript text, for example with chemical symbols, are displayed and recognised mean that poor matching occurs during searches where these characters form part of article titles. Finally, Google Scholar has a low threshold for repetitive activity that triggers an automated block to a user’s IP address (in our experience the export of approximately 180 citations or 180 individual searches). Thankfully this can be readily circumvented with the use of IP-mirroring software such as Hola ( https://hola.org/ ), although care should be taken when systematically accessing Google Scholar to ensure the terms of use are not violated.

Conclusions

We have provided evidence that Google Scholar is a powerful tool for finding specific literature, but that it cannot be a replacement for traditional academic citation databases, nor can it replace hand-searching for grey literature. The limitations of the number of search results displayed, the incomplete Boolean operation of the advanced search facility, and the non-disclosure of the algorithm by which search results are ordered mean that Google Scholar is not a transparent search facility. Moreover, the high proportion of grey literature that is missed by Google Scholar mean that it is not a viable alternative to hand searching for grey literature as a stand-alone tool. Despite this, Google Scholar is able to identify a large body of additional grey literature in excess of that found by either traditional academic citation databases or grey literature identification methods. These factors make Google Scholar an attractive supplement to hand searching, further increasing comprehensiveness of searches for evidence.

We also note that the development of tools to take snapshots of search results from Google Scholar and extract these results as citations can significantly increase the efficiency and transparency of using Google Scholar (i.e. beyond the arbitrary first 50 search results currently favoured in many systematic reviews).

Several recommendations can be made based on our findings for those wishing to use Google Scholar as a resource for research evidence:

• 1. Finding : Google Scholar is capable of identifying the majority of evidence in the systematic review case studies examined when searching specifically for known articles.
• Recommendation : Google Scholar is a powerful, free-to-use tool that can be recommended if looking for specific research studies.
• 2. Finding : Google Scholar is not capable of identifying all relevant evidence identified in the systematic review case studies examined, missing some vital information (as did Web of Science).
• Recommendation : Google Scholar (and Web of Science) should not be used as standalone resources for finding evidence as part of comprehensive searching activities, such as systematic reviews.
• 3. Finding: Substantially more grey literature is found using title searches in Google Scholar than full text searches.
• Recommendation: If looking for grey literature, reviewers should consider using title searches. If looking for academic literature title searches will yield a great deal of unsuitable information.
• 4. Finding: Title level searches yield more conference proceedings, theses and ‘other’ grey literature.
• Recommendation: Title level searches may be particularly useful in identifying as yet unpublished academic research grey literature as well as organisational reports and government papers [ 9 ]
• 5. Finding: The majority of grey literature begins to appear after approximately 20 to 30 pages of results.
• Recommendation: If looking for grey literature the results should be screened well beyond the 20 th page.

In summary, we find Google Scholar to be a useful supplement in searches for evidence, particularly grey literature so long as its limitations are recognised. We recommend that the arbitrary assessment of the first 50 search results from Google Scholar, frequently undertaken in systematic reviews, should be replaced with the practice of recording snapshots of all viewable search results: i.e. the first 1,000 records. This change in practice could significantly improve both the transparency and coverage of systematic reviews, especially with respect to their grey literature components.

Supporting Information

Search results by page for 7 case studies (see Table 2 for descriptions), for a) full text and b) title searches. Results displayed are for the total number of extractable records in Google Scholar.

Database of Google Scholar full text and title searches for 7 case study systematic reviews.

List of organisations yielding potentially relevant evidence for a systematic review on the human wellbeing impacts of terrestrial protected areas.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank Helen Bayliss and Beth Hall for discussion of the topic. AMC acknowledges a Policy Placement Fellowship funded by the Natural Environment Research Council, the UK Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs and the Environment Agency. Some ideas for this project were prompted by a forthcoming Defra research project (WT1552).

Funding Statement

AMC acknowledges a Policy Placement Fellowship funded by the Natural Environment Research Council, the UK Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs and the Environment Agency. Some ideas for this project were prompted by a forthcoming Defra research project (WT1552). NH was hosted at Bangor University ( http://www.bangor.ac.uk/ ).

Data Availability

Home > USC Columbia > Education, College of > Educational Studies > Educational Studies Theses and Dissertations

Educational Studies Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2023 2023.

Centering the Teacher: How an Autonomy-Supportive Environment Impacts Arts Educators’ Sense of Agency and the Collaborative Culture of Their Education Networks , Kyle Andrew Anderson

Effects of a Self-Monitoring Tracking System Combined With Blended Learning Intervention Time on Students’ Self-Regulated Learning Skills And Academic Performance , Jennifer E. Augustine

Reading Strategies: Impact on Fifth Grade African American Males’ Reading Comprehension and Motivation to Read , Patrice Antoinette Barrett

Tip of the Iceberg in Changing School Culture: Acknowledging and Addressing Microaggressions , Nicole Lauren Becker

Impacts of Technology-Enhanced Dual Enrollment Mathematics Course on Rural High School Students’ Intentions of Going to College , Nicolae Bordieanu

Creating a Culturally Inclusive American Literature Classroom , Holly R. Bradshaw

The Effects of Gamified Peer Feedback on Student Writing in High School English Language Arts , Kerise Amaris Broome

Evaluating the Impact of Personalized Professional Learning on Technology Integration in the Classroom , Angela Bishop Burgess

An Exploration of Perinatal Stress and Associated Mental Health of Transitioning First-Time Fathers , Timothy Reed Burkhalter

A Study of Computational Thinking Skills and Attitudes Towards Computer Science with Middle School Students , Lorien W. Cafarella

Mitigating Student Anxiety in the Secondary Classroom: A Culturally Sustaining Approach , Erin Hawley Cronin

Daily Activities and Routines: A Comparative Case Study of the Home Language and Literacy Environment of Spanish-Speaking Toddlers With and Without Older Siblings , Eugenia Crosby-Quinatoa

Online Professional Development’s Effect on Teachers’ Technology Self-Efficacy and Continuance Intention to Use Pear Deck , Katherine Shirley Degar

Empowering Teachers to Support MTSS Students: An Action Research Study , Sahalija Dentico

Multisensory Phonics Instruction in Struggling Readers , Amanda M. Dixon

Student Engagement Action Research a Focus on Culturally Relevant Instructional Methods , Amia Dixon

Instructional Coaching: A Support for Increasing Engagement in Middle School Mathematics , Christi Ritchie Edwards

A Holistic View of Integrated Care Within Counselor Education: A Multi-Manuscript Dissertation , Alexander McClain Fields

Faculty Perceptions of Readiness and Confidence for Teaching Online: An Evaluation of Online Professional Development , Kevin Brent Forman

Increasing Phonemic Awareness in Intellectually Impaired Students by Using Wilson’s Fundations Phonics Program in a Self-Contained Classroom , Theresa Lynne Garcia

A Causal Comparative Study of the Effects of Physical Activity Course Enrollment on College Students’ Perceived Wellness, Mental Health, and Basic Psychological Needs , Genee’ Regina Glascoe

The Effect of Computer-Based Learning Modules on Pre-Algebra Student Proficiency and Self-Efficacy in Manipulating Math Expressions Involving Negative Signs , Brian Charles Grimm

Exploring Literary Responses to Culturally Relevant Texts Through an AsianCrit Lens: A Collective Case Study of Chinese American Students in a Community-Based Book Club , Wenyu Guo

The Influence and Impacts of Critical Literacy Intervention in Preservice Teachers Culturally Responsive Teaching Self-Efficacy: A Mixed Methods Study , Heather Lynn Hall

Stories From North Carolina Teachers of Color: An Inquiry of Racialized Experiences in the Workplace. , Deborah Stephanie Harrison

Electronic Portfolios in a High School Community of Practice: Action Research Exploring Writing Experiences in an Advanced Placement Writing Course , Archibald Franklin Harrison IV

The Effects of Problem-Based Learning on Mathematics Motivation in a Flipped Classroom Instructional Environment , Joshua David Harrison

University, City, and Community: Athletics Urban Renewal Projects and the University of South Carolina’s Carolina Coliseum and Blatt Physical Education Center, 1964–1971 , Theresa M. Harrison

Stories from North Carolina Teachers of Color: An Inquiry of Racialized Experiences in the Workplace. , Deborah Stephanie Harrisson

Supporting Black Students in Sixth-Grade Science Through a Social Constructivist Approach: A Mixed-Methods Action Research Study , Kirk Anthony Heath

Effects of Choice Reading on Intrinsic Motivation in Underperforming Sixth-Grade Students , Heather M. Henderson

Academic Success and Student Development in the Health Professions: An Action Research Study , Molly Ellen Higbie

Deficit Thinking in Teacher Course Level Recommendations , Andrew Hogan

The Impact of Cognitive Coaching on High School English Teachers’ Implementation of Metacognitve Reading Strategies , Charrai Hunter

Digital Literacy Integrated Into Academic Content Through the Collaboration of a Librarian and a Core Content Teacher , Jeri Leann Jeffcoat

The Effects of Hip-Hop and Rap Music Intervention to Improve the Wellbeing of Black and African American Men , Lanita Michelle Jefferson

Examining the Relationship Between Multicultural Training and Cultural Humility Development in CACREP-Accredited Counselor Education Programs , Sabrina Monique Johnson

Multimodal Digital Literacy Practices: Perspectives of L2 Academic Writing Instructors , Priscila Jovazino Bastos Medrado Costa

Using Yoga, Meditation, and Art Therapy to Combat Complex Trauma and Promote Social–Emotional Learning in the Art Room , Karen Emory Kelly

STEM Educators’ Perceptions of Gender Bias and the Contributing Factors That Persist for Women in STEM Education , Haleigh Nicole Kirkland

A Qualitative Study Examining and Comparing Families’ and Teachers’ Perceptions of School Readiness , Shalonya Cerika Knotts

The Evolution of Contextualized, Discourse-based Professional Development to Support Elementary Teachers in the Implementation of Conceptual Mathematical Teaching Practices , Jennifer Aren Kueter

A Critical Examination Of An in Class Tabata Based Physical Fitness Protocol on Student Engagement Levels in a Sixth Grade Math Class , Justin R. Kulik

Mathematics Teachers’ Attitudes and Intentions Towards Instructional Videos as Part of a Flipped Learning Model , Jessica Lee Lambert

Increasing Math Knowledge in 3 rd Grade: Evaluating Student Use & Teacher Perceptions of Imagine Math , Paoze Lee

Utilizing Case Studies to Increase Critical Thinking in an Undergraduate Anatomy & Physiology Classroom , Sarah E. Lehman

Exploring Chinese International Students’ Motivational Factors in Non-Mandatory Event Participation , Aimin Liao

Preparing In-Service Elementary Teachers to Support English Language Learners: A Qualitative Case Study of a Job-Embedded Professional Development Using TPACK , Rachel Theresa Lopez

Impact of Virtual Models on Students’ Multilevel Understanding of an Organic Reaction , Eli Martin

Measuring the Impact of Peer Coaching on Teacher Effectiveness at Friendship County High School , Whittney Michele McPherson

The Effects of Technology Integration on Academic Performance and Engagement of Third Grade Social Studies Students: A Mixed Methods Study , Ashley Megregian

Supporting LGBTQ+ ELA Students Through Action Research , Nicole Mustaccio

What Are They Thinking?: A Qualitative Study of Secondary Students’ Critical Thinking in Online Classes , Scott Allan Nolt

Shakespeare in Virtual Reality: Social Presence of Students in a Virtual Reality Book Club , John Funchess Ott Jr.

Teacher Observations as Professional Development Opportunities , Ashton Carrie Padgett

Reading Motivation and Retrieval Practice of United States Undergraduates Aged 18 to 23 , Robyn M. Pernetti

A Descriptive Study of Factors That Support and Hinder Classroom Discourse With English Learners , Jillian Camille Plum

Implementing Meaningful Problem-Based Learning in a Middle School Science Classroom , Celestine Banks Pough

Coaching to Success: Moving From a Fixed Mindset to a Growth Mindset Through Positive Motivation , Shannon Dianna Ramirez

The Impact of a Literacy Program on Summer Reading Setback: Providing Access to Books and Project-Based Learning , Tiffany Gayle Robles

An Examination of Semester-Long Review of Behavior Referral Data at a High School in a Southeastern State , Shalanda L. Shuler

The Impact of the Flipped Classroom Model on Elementary Students’ Achievement and Motivation for Learning Geometry , Kimberly M. Smalls

If Not Me, Then Who? A Study of Racial and Cultural Competence in a High School English Department , DiAnna Sox

“So, the World Isn’t Just Old White Guys?”: Student and Teacher Experiences in a Culturally Relevant Advanced Placement Chemistry Class , James Thomas Sox

1, 2, 3: Counting on Problem Based Learning to Improve Mathematical Achievement in African American Students , Kelley P. Spahr

Implementation of Digital Flashcards to Increase Content-Specific Vocabulary Knowledge and Perceptions of Motivation and Self-Efficacy in an Eleventh-Grade U.S. History Course: An Action Research Study , Jill Lee Steinmeyer

Family Therapy, K-12 Public Education, and Discipline Risk: A Scoping Review and Relationship Analysis Multiple Manuscript Dissertation , Cara Melinda Thompson

The Impact of Extended Professional Development in Project-Based Learning on Middle School Science Teachers , Margrett Caroline Upchurch-Ford

A Qualitative Study on Mental Health Resource Utilization of Enlisted Airmen During the COVID-19 Pandemic , Hassahn Khali Wade

Where Race Has No Place: English Teachers’ Efforts to Maintain Space for Diversity in the ELA Classroom , Muzical D. Waite

Navigating Age of Majority-Related Issues in Special Education: The Current Needs and a Potential Means for Aligning Professional Values With Policy and Practice , Charles Blayne Walters

The Impact of Opendyslexic Font on the Reading Comprehension of Tier II and Tier III Reading Intervention Students , William David Whitmire

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Implementing a Technology-Based Instructional Module in An Introduction to Engineering Course: The Impact on Student’s Vocabulary Retention and Attitudes Towards Learning , Robin T. Amick

Effectively Integrating Technology to Engage Students and Meet Learning Objectives in Language Arts Classrooms , Jessica L. Austin

The Use of Social Justice Socioscientific Issues in Secondary Biology Classes: An Action Research , Stephanie Marilyn Bailey

The Effect of Explicit Vocabulary Instruction on Elementary Students’ Vocabulary Knowledge and Reading Comprehension: An Action Research Study , Tonia Bauer

A Holistic Approach to Culturally Relevant Education In Biology to Examine Student Engagement , Robyn Brooke Biery

A Descriptive Mixed-Methods Study Examining Teachers’ Needs and Preferences for Technology Integration Professional Development , Amber Birden

The Effects of the Online Remediation of Phonological Processing Deficits on Functional Reading Abilities in Students With Dyslexia , Fletcher Bowden

“Why Do I Have to Learn This Anyway?”: A Qualitative Investigative Action Research Study Into the Tension Between the Rural, Working-Class Masculine Student and the Formal Educative Structure , Joshua Matthew Bowers

White Blindness: An Investigation Into Teacher Whiteness and Racial Ignorance , Mary Katharine Brasche

Using Multimedia Vocabulary Games to Improve Newcomer ESOL Students Motivation and Vocabulary Acquisition , Elizabeth E. Brittingham

Incremental, Spaced Repetition and StudyMate Flashcards: The Impact on College Student Memorization of Measurement Conversion Standards , Patricia A. Bromer

At-Risk Students’ Perception of the Effectiveness of Alternative Schools , Tara D. Cunningham Cantey

Qualitative Action Research Into the Planning Between the Classroom Teacher and Reading Interventionist , Russell Derrial Clark

An Evaluation of the Impact of Academic Policies and Athletic Procedures for Student Athletes , Seanta Cleveland

Supervisory Allyship for University Custodial Staff , Daniel Colascione

Where Are the Girls? Exploring Influences on Female Eighth Grade Public School Students’ Choices of Technology Classes in Texas: A Mixed Method Action Research Study , Shasta Colon

Exploring the Impact of Social Emotional Learning to Support Motivation and Self-Efficacy in Text-Dependent Analysis Writing , Elizabeth N. Crocker

Impacts in the Classroom When Students Take Ownership Of Cellphone Usage Policies: An Investigation Using a Project-Based Learning Design , Melynda Elaine Diehl

Connecting Writing to Life: The Effects of Place-Conscious Education on Writing in a First Grade Classroom , Tara P. Dietrich

Examining the Influence of Argument Driven Inquiry Instructional Approach on Female Students of Color in Sixth Grade Science: Its Impact on Classroom Experience, Interest, And Self-Efficacy in Science, Written Argumentation Skills, and Scientific Voice , Paul Duggan

Identifying and Understanding Factors Which Affect Persistence In Academically At-Risk Minority Prelicensure Nursing Students: An Action Research Study , Christina L.K. Eaton

Collaborative Problem-Solving and Its Impact on Inclusive Practices, Confidence, and Beliefs of General Education Teachers in Colombia , Shannon Renee Elmore

Fostering the Development of Instructor Cultural Competence: A Mixed Methods Action Research Study , Jennifer Lilly Engle

The Power of Story in Developing a Cycle of Efficacy for Teachers and Students , Melissa Renee Ewing

“Even the Little Things Matter:” a Phenomenological Study On Factors Impacting Student Motivation During and After COVID-Related Disruptions in Education , Jennifer Ferris-Crisafulli

Co-Teaching at the High School: One School's Approach to Create a Sustainable Co-Teaching Program Using Collaborative Learning and Learner Centered Theories , John Kegan Flynn

Supporting Black Children Within a Eurocratic Educational System: Making Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Foundational to the Role of the Literacy Coach , Jennipher C.K. Frazier

Cocreating a Strength-Based Behavioral Intervention Plan With Twice-Exceptional Students: A Youth Participatory Action Research Approach , Kristy L. Garrett

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