essay on earthquake 2072 in nepal

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Earthquakes and Nepal: From the Beginning

Anup kumar ayadi.

Increased understanding of Nepal's susceptibility to earthquakes critical to promoting concern among the public and authorities and fueling efforts for disaster preparedness and mitigation activities

According to the Earthquake catalog from the bulletin of National Seismological Center, more than 70 earthquakes of Magnitude 4.0 or higher struck Nepal in 2023. A few among those earthquakes, such as the ones that hit Bajhang and Jajarkot, registered magnitudes higher than 6.0. It is the highest since the disastrous year of 2015, where there were over 400 such earthquakes. Despite this, Seismologists still warn of a major earthquake threat in western Nepal – one that could potentially be of a magnitude above 8.0.

The earthquakes of Bajhang and Jajarkot shock us. They appear to have come suddenly and without warning. Yet for Nepal, recent earthquakes are nothing but just another day in its interminable seismic history. Large earthquakes have plagued Nepal since the geographical origin of the country itself. Perhaps understanding this can better help us comprehend present events and properly guage future risks.

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Why Earthquakes Occur in Nepal?

As per our current understanding, the Earth is a sphere with different layers. Primarily, there is the crust (the outer solid layer), the mantle (the middle semi-solid layer) and the outer and inner core (the innermost dense layers). The base of the crust is broken up into rocky plates called the tectonic plates which lie on top of semi molten rocks of the mantle. Due to convection in the mantle, the tectonic plates move relative to each other. In the process, they often get stuck with one another at various places called faults. But due to their tendency to move, stress gradually accumulates in these areas. When enough energy accumulates, it can suddenly overcome friction, and the plates slip violently releasing some or all the stored energy in the form of an earthquake.

Most earthquakes in the world occur in this fashion, at regions where one tectonic plate meets another called plate boundaries. Around the world, there are such belts of plate boundaries where frequent earthquakes take place.

One of these lines passes directly through Nepal. It is the part of a prominent earthquake belt called the Alpide earthquake belt, which according to the US Geological Survey, accounts for about 17 percent of the world's largest earthquakes. The line that passes through Nepal represents the tectonic boundary between the Indian plate and the Eurasian plate which collided some 60 million years ago. Back then, their collision had formed the Tibetan Plateau, the Himalayans and present Nepal. Today, the Indian plate is still moving northwards, pushing against the Eurasian plate at a very slow rate. Throughout history, as enough energy accumulates around this region, it is released as earthquakes. So this is the source of most of Nepal's earthquakes including the ones that occurred in 1833, 1934 and 2015.

History of Recorded Earthquakes in Nepal

Although we know that earthquakes in Nepal are as old as Nepal itself, all such historical occurrences of Earthquakes in Nepal before the twentieth century remains poorly documented. This is because the system of instrumentally recorded earthquakes in the country is only a recent development. Tracing the historical seismology of Nepal, therefore, mostly comes down to studying written history, autobiographies, scriptures and chronicles of the past.

Subsequently, quantitative data such as scale, epicenter, casualties, length, depth of hypocenter, number of foreshocks and aftershocks we possess regarding these earthquakes are limited at best. The more behind we go in the past, the more these details become fuzzier and ambiguous.

One of the earliest accounts of Earthquakes in Nepal is the earthquake of 1255 A.D. which is said to have killed one third to one-fourth of the then Nepali population. Abhaya Malla, the second Malla king of Nepal, is also said to have died in the disaster. Some assume that this earthquake was at least a magnitude 7 or higher. Likewise, a similar earthquake in 1408 A.D. is said to have destroyed the Machhendra Nath temple of Patan.

Written accounts in the monasteries of western Tibet as well as historical records in Moghul India suggest of another apocalyptic earthquake that struck the Himalayans, western Tibet, western Nepal and large parts of Northern India, in the summer of 1505 A.D. Relying on the descriptions of this earthquake in several Tibetian autobiographies, it is often assumed that this earthquake might have been over the 8 magnitude threshold. This is often called the last great earthquake in the western Himalayas as it is said that no record of another great earthquake of this scale exists in this region after 1505 A.D. This is also why some seismologists warn of a mega-earthquake threat in western Nepal due to all the stress that has accumulated in this region over more than 600 years as India continues to move northwards towards Tibet. It is often referred to as a "seismic gap".

From the 1800s and 1900s, we began to develop better records of historical earthquakes. The following map, obtained from the US geological survey's website, displays earthquakes that occurred in the past few centuries that were above the magnitude of 5.

The 1833 A.D. earthquake is one of the earliest major earthquakes of Nepal of which we possess modest amount of historical data. This earthquake, which devastated Kathmandu valley, is estimated to be of the magnitude 7.8, considering the large area over which the Earthquake was felt. The epicenter was somewhere 50 km North - North East of Kathmandu. Two foreshocks occurred before the main earthquake, which could have ushered most residents out of their homes in panic. This might explain why the casualties are reported to be less than 500 despite the large scale of the event.

The great Nepal-Bihar earthquake was another historical earthquake which occurred in 1934 A.D. The epicenter for this event was located in eastern Nepal. The tower of Dharahara which had been severely damaged in the 1833 earthquake once again crumbled to the ground. More than 8000 people died in the event. Roads in the valley were severely damaged and many electricity lines were disrupted.

Finally, there is the Gorkha earthquake of 2015 which remains one of the most studied earthquakes of the Himalayan region. However, the record of historical earthquake in Nepal is incomplete. This makes it challenging to assess the recurrence period of great earthquakes in Nepal. Despite this, it is generally said that a great earthquake strikes Nepal in every 80 to 100 years interval.

Preparing for Future Risks

As far as we know, there exists no reliable technique to accurately predict earthquake events of the future. However, due to high seismic activity in the Himalayan region as well as due to a long record of violent earthquakes in the past, we do understand that Nepal is incredibly prone to frequent earthquakes. The government's post-disaster needs assessment (PDNA) of 2015 ranked the nation as the 11th most earthquake prone country in the world which also attests to our vulnerability. Therefore, it is essential that Nepal implements effective disaster preparedness strategies to minimize causalities in the next earthquake.

We can learn from our past. In the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake, the practice of hospital retrofitting helped keep the biggest hospitals in Kathmandu functioning throughout the 7.8 magnitude earthquake. Now, we should focus on not only retrofitting hospitals but all schools, public and commercial buildings and private homes. Building codes should be also be stringently enforced. Concrete buildings are fatal if proper construction procedures are neglected.

Open spaces that can be used as shelter during an earthquake should be protected. Especially in dense urban areas like Kathmandu, the government should be especially strict to ensure that these open spaces like urban parks are not infringed or encroached. A map of such areas should be easily accessible to the public so that they can plan their disaster preparedness plans in the household level. Similarly, humanitarian relief and response in a post disaster scene need to be swift and correctly placed to save as much lives as possible in the golden hour. Therefore, it is essential to have sufficient relief packages at stand by.

Finally, all large offices should create emergency preparedness plans for their staff in an event of an earthquake and all households should understand how to respond in such an event. Schools should practice earthquake drills in a timely manner. Earthquakes are uncontrollable, disastrous events. But even if we cannot control these seismic catastrophes, we can control our response to them.

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Post-earthquake relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction measures undertaken by the government of nepal.

• Govt. Nepal

The devastating earthquake of 7.8 in Richter scale that struck the country with its epicenter at Mandre, Barpak VDC-02, Gorkha at 11:56 am on 2072 Baisakh 12 (corresponding to 25 April 2015) and its frequent aftershocks chiefly the two fatal ones dated 26 April and 12 May 2015 have caused an inconceivable loss of lives and properties. Thousands of people have been killed, thousands injured and hundreds of thousands of houses completely destroyed and many people rendered homeless. Many government and public office buildings, historical, cultural and archeological heritages have been destroyed; physical infrastructures including public and private school buildings, bridges, roads, etc. have also been destroyed. The Government has declared the fourteen districts (Gorkha, Kavrepalanchok, Dhading, Nuwakot, Rasuwa, Sindupalchok, Dolakha, Ramechhap, Okhaldunga, Makwanpur, Sindhuli, Kathmandu, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur) as the crisis-hit districts and started rescue and relief works. In view of such a large scale of devastation, the Government of Nepal has taken various initiatives for rescue, relief and rehabilitation as well as reconstruction works. They are as follows:

1.Immediate Response: By enforcing the Essential Services Operation Act, 1957, the Government ensured the supply of essential goods and services to the affected region. The Central Natural Disaster Relief Committee (CNDRC) has been coordinating and overseeing all the rescue and relief works. The CNDRC decided to form a Central Command Post (CCP) headed by Home Secretary. Alternative provisional arrangements were made for the smooth delivery of public services related to education, health, justice, security as well as administrative services until public schools, health institutions, courts and other infrastructures of public importance damaged in the earthquake are reconstructed. Similarly, the Ministry of Finance called an emergency meeting with the Ambassadors/representatives of the donor countries in Kathmandu. The ambassadors/representatives of the donor countries assured that they will assist Nepal in every possible way. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs regularly briefed the diplomatic community in Kathmandu on the ongoing rescue and relief operations, and urged for assistance in such hour of great tragedy.

2.Relief, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Measures: The Government constructed temporary safe shelters in sixteen different parts of the valley. A Cabinet-level decision was taken on 30 April 2015 on the various relief measures, some of them were changed/modified from time to time to make them more realistic:

a. Cremation Cost and Assistance to the Family of Victims: Family that has lost its member in the earthquake will get NPR 40,000.00 per dead person as cremation cost, which was increased from previously stated NPR 15,000.00 per person. Additionally, the Government will provide a fixed sum of NPR 100,000.00 to each family that has lost its one or more members (i.e. losing more than one member will not multiply this amount).

b. Temporary Shelters/Rehabilitation of those Rendered Homeless: The Government is committed to ensuring that all the affected population in the crisis-hit districts got tents/tarpaulin and other basic items and making necessary arrangements for resettling them safely. Those who wish to repair their partially damaged houses will get a sum of NPR 25,000.00 per family as maintenance cost. And those who wish to rebuild their houses on their own will get a relief assistance of NPR 200,000.00 plus a concessional loan up to NPR 25,00,000.00 in the valley and NPR 15,00,000.00 outside the valley at just two per cent interest rate under "Earthquake Victim Special Loan" scheme. The Government later decided to provide tin-sheets or NPR 15,000.00 to each affected family for managing a temporary accommodation in view of the coming monsoon. This amount together with all other relief amounts previously provided will be deducted from the relief of NPR 200,000.00 to be provided to the victims later.

c. Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Plan backed by the NRRF: An appropriate plan of land pooling for rehabilitation in the affected areas with adequate facilities will be implemented. Such a plan will ensure the building of earthquake-resistant structures with the use of local materials/resources as well as cost-effective means. The Government has announced to rebuild all the damaged structures of the individuals, the public houses/infrastructures and the heritages devastated by the earthquake in one year, two years and five years respectively. Such a scale of damage caused by the earthquake requires a huge fund. The National Planning Commission (NPC) has recommended a low-cost model of houses to the Government for necessary approval. Construction of houses in large scale as well as the construction of the collapsed government houses and the heritages requires a huge fund. So, the Government has decided to set up a National Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Fund (NRRF) with an initial target of collecting US$ 2 Billion. The Government has already transferred US$ 200.00 Million to the Fund as seed money. The Government has also urged the international community to make generous contributions to the Fund. Similarly, a Post-Disaster Need Assessment (PDNA) is being conducted and the amount required for rehabilitation and reconstruction is expected to rise after the detailed assessment. A National Reconstruction Consultation Committee under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister has also been formed to make the reconstruction campaign more effective and coordinated. The Committee had its first meeting on 26 and 27 May 2015.

d. Priority Items: The Government of Nepal issued an indicative list of priority items (that cover shelter, food, hygiene, clothes; drug and surgical items and construction; emergency veterinary medicines, vaccines, disinfectants and feeds; and agricultural nutrients) required in connection with the immediate relief operations. The list may be revised based on the evolving circumstances in the areas affected by the devastation. The last revision to the list was made on 14 May 2015 and was extended until 03 June 2015. The list is transmitted to all Diplomatic Missions, United Nations and its Specialized Agencies and other International Organizations based in Kathmandu for ready reference.

e. Injured in the Earthquake: The Government initially decided to provide NPR 25,000.00 per injured person to the hospitals that are providing treatment facilities to the people injured in the earthquake. The Government will also provide money to the hospitals through the Ministry of Health and Population for treating more serious injuries. Later on, the Government decided to provide free-of-cost treatment facility for all the people injured in the earthquake. Similarly, the Government also decided to provide, as per a criterion to be worked out, additional relief to those left disabled due to the devastation.

f. Information Dissemination: The Government has effectively disseminated, through different mediums of communication, all types of information for the safety, security and well-being of its citizens. The Government has warned that no one can predict the occurrences of earthquake, and therefore, has asked not to follow any rumor of earthquake prediction by some unscrupulous agents. Information on minimizing losses during the time and after earthquakes, safety tips, relief/rehabilitation measures taken by the Government, health and hygiene instructions, etc. is being constantly circulated. The websites of the Government agencies including those of the Nepalese missions abroad are now replete with the earthquake-related information, and a dedicated portal http://www.drrportal.gov.np has been active to provide all types of information.

3.Data Collection: With a view to collecting data on the loss of lives/properties with all vital details, the Government has sent various teams to the affected districts. For maintaining uniformity of the data and also to manage the teams, the Guidelines for the Teams to be Deployed in the Earthquake-affected Areas, 2015, was prepared and enforced. The data will be utilized for effective relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction works. These teams are still in the field and the reports are expected to be submitted soon.

4.International Donors' Conference: The Government of Nepal will organize an International Donors' Conference on post-earthquake reconstruction and rehabilitation works, after completing a comprehensive need assessment, in Kathmandu on 25 June 2015. A preparatory committee has also been formed recently with the Finance Minister as the coordinator. A main agenda of the Conference will be garnering donors' support to the Government's plan for the post-earthquake rehabilitation and reconstruction.

5.Call for Contributions to PMDRF: The Government has advised all the contributors (countries, organizations and individuals) both at home and abroad to contribute to the Prime Minister's Disaster Relief Fund (PMDRF) to reach out to the real victims of the earthquake. The Government is committed to making the optimum utilizations of the fund received. Similarly an e-portal to facilitate online transfer of money (through Visa/Master Card) to the Fund has been created for the ease of contributors. As of 31 May 2015, NPR 4,210,032,106.00 has been collected including NPR 745891.00 through online transfers.

6.Resolution Motion of the CA-LP and the Government's Response: Upon the recommendation of the Government, the Rt. Hon. President called for a special session of the House on 07 May 2015. The Assembly-Legislature Parliament of Nepal passed a 27-point resolution on 13 May 2015 directing the Government to effectively undertake the relief, reconstruction and rehabilitation works. To implement the instructions, the Government has prepared and has put into effect the Integrated Action Plan for Post-Earthquakes Response and Recovery, 2072. It has altogether forty actions to be completed in a coordinated manner. Some important ones are as follows:

Constructing temporary emergency shelters for the earthquake affected senior citizens, single women, diseased, pregnant and new mothers, disabled, etc.

Providing the children who have lost their guardians/parents in the earthquake and those who are rendered homeless with shelters and free education.

Classifying the affected population for the ease of providing them with necessary facilities.

Making necessary arrangements for providing the affected farmers with free of cost seeds and subsidies for fertilizers. Also exempt the farmers in the affected regions from taxes.

Making a review of the National Building Code, 2060 and ensure its effective enforcement.

Undertaking a review of the land-use policy.

Dismantling the cracked structures that pose dangers. Also, dismantling the structures at the cost of the owners who built the houses by violating the building codes.

Building a memorial for those who have lost their lives in the earthquake. Recognizing and rewarding the public servants, organizations and individuals who have done praiseworthy jobs.

7.Deployment of Youth Volunteers: There is a plan to deploy youth volunteers to assist in rescue, relief and rehabilitations works. A technical volunteers programme will also be launched. The Ministry of Youths and Sports has announced that at least 500 to maximum of 50,000 youth volunteers will be sent to each affected district.

8.Earthquake Victim Identity Card: Necessary arrangements are underway to issue “Earthquake Victims’ Family Identity Card" to each family with details of damages suffered by them recorded on it which will be used as a basis to provide facilities by the State.

9.Nepalese Missions Abroad: The Government instructed all the Nepalese missions abroad to 1. Open an account for the ease of contributors and send the collected amount periodically to the PMDRF 2. Inform the contributors about the online facility to make generous contributions through their VISA/MASTER Cards, and 3. Make an appeal to contribute to the Government's plan for post-earthquake rehabilitation and reconstruction through NRRF. The missions abroad have been sending the collected amounts to the PMDRF, and the total amount deposited through the missions as of 01 June 2015 is NPR 662061998.78.

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Earthquakes Of Nepal: Research & Analysis

• 04 Jun, 2021

Gandhi Raj Kafle

Facts provide knowledge and teach lessons. But, the question here is – who realises them first – the government or an individual researcher? It is a self-motivated individual researcher, who works seriously and makes facts shining for future generation with research. The government does its work, sees laws of land and people and if it feels things are done and duty is fulfilled, it is okay. Also, what is seen is government keeps changing and the cycle repeats. In the process, the facts finding and preservation task go messy at an authoritative level. Contrary to this nature of government, what we find is scholars and researchers go deeper. They take facts even from the hole and show them in public. Societies from generation to generation, thus, have been benefitting from the work of such researchers. Here, we have author Ramesh Jung Sijapati with the under review book “Nepalka Mahabhukampa” to remind timelessly about what had shockingly happened due to the Mega Earthquake of Nepal, 2015, and its innumerable aftershocks. So, the aforementioned context of individual scholarly tradition needs to be connected with Sijapati’s this book because he has taken facts of Nepal’s Mega Earthquake – 2015 from the holes and made them public for benefit of all now and in future. This book is divided into five chapters. The first chapter tells the background of the study, where readers will find some interesting information about the birth of the idea to write a research-based book on the Great Earthquake – 2015 of Nepal in the mind and heart of the author. The deadly jolts were non-stop and to visit highly affected parts was dangerous, but the author defied such hazards to write this book visiting even Barpak, the epicentre of the 2015 Earthquake in Gorkha District and various places in Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Kavrepalanchowk and Makwanpur. The second chapter, where we find historical information about the Great Earthquakes of Nepal, is important. To all readers, who faced the bitter experience of the Earthquake – 2015 and helplessly tolerated the irreparable loss of life and lived a miserable life due to damage of property, the Great Earthquake of 1990 BS is a much-heard story. In different contexts and headings, he has discussed the 1990's Earthquake about the similar Earthquake of 2072 BS. Sijapati has reached to centenarian and nonagenarian resource persons, too, like Rastrakavi Madhav Ghimire, Cultural Expert Satya Mohan Joshi, senior politician Khanuparude Rambabu Prasai and historian Purushottam Shamser JBR and their talks about the Earthquake of now and of then in 1990 BS are authentic inputs for the book. But, Great Earthquakes in Nepal had occurred before 1990 also. So, to meet this curiosity, the author has consulted historical documents and other publications to give authentic information about all the Great Earthquakes even from the distant past date of 1280 BS. From this date to the latest 7.9 Richter scale Earthquake in 2072 BS, there are already Mega Earthquakes like of 1312, 1401 and 1890 in Nepal and the author has quoted different historical documents like the Gopal Bansabali, Bhasa Bansabali, Gorkha History and publication of newspapers and magazines for his research. The third, fourth and fifth chapters are exclusively about the Gorkha Earthquake – their titles in the book ‘Impact in the Epicenter of Earthquake’, ‘Loss of Life and Property from the Earthquake’ and ‘Means of Communications Radios and TVs during Earthquake’. The list of reference materials mentioned in the end part of the book shows the author has extensively consulted both contemporary newspapers and magazines and related historical books and document to write this 400-page book. The last pictorial section is also interesting because it is diverse in coverage – on the one hand, it presents pictures of personalities who have spoken about both 1990's and 2072's Earthquakes and on the other hand, the inclusion of pictures of the damaged historical monuments and miraculously rescued four-month-old baby boy Sonish Awal and his mother Rasmita Awal with the author is a forever human interest material. Coming to the beginning section once again, even the prefaces written for the book by scholar Gyan Mani Nepal, Dinesh Raj Panta, Ram Babu Prasai, Binod Sijapati and that of the author himself are interesting to read because they provide a brief focus on earthquakes of Nepal from different angles. The inclusion of a long parliamentary speech of Prime Minister Sushil Koirala to assure the people and the nation of relief, rescue and reconstruction and renovation after the great damage of the Earthquake has increased the merit of the book. It is natural to have a huge concern on the part of the executive head no matter what kind of governance system was there or was heading the government. The quotable concern of the old times, according to the book "Nepalko Mahabhukampa 1990" of Bramha Shamser Rana, from the then Prime Minister Juddha Shamser JBR, who said 'Whatever we can, don't worry, we will do all possible coming there immediately' is also a relevant authoritative historical fact. Juddha had been on the tour to Pashchim Nepal Mahakali when Kathmandu and many parts of Nepal were rattled by the 1990's Great Earthquake. Sijapatiji's this book has given words for the voice of the Earthquake victims of 2072 BS. His research and analysis are precious for the time to come. Nepal's geographical destiny is earthquake-prone and this book will serve all awareness loving readers. 

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Earthquake Contingency Plan Nepal, 2022

Nepal is a high-risk country for natural hazards including earthquakes, floods, landslides, fires and drought. The hazards with the greatest humanitarian impact are earthquakes and floods. Nepal is categorized into three geographical and ecological zones: Terai, hill and mountain areas. The middle hills and higher mountains are highly susceptible to secondary earthquake effects, such as landslides, which can be exacerbated by excessive erosion of hill slopes and rock falls as well as heavy rainfall. The most recent high-impact earthquake in 2015 affected all 37 of 77 districts, 14 of them severely, in the hill and mountain areas. It caused almost 9,000 deaths and displaced approximately 100,000 people

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Essay: Earthquakes in Nepal

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Three years ago, on the 25th of April 2015, the worst earthquake since 1934 devastated Nepal, creating massive damage and loss of human lives. The earthquake measured a 7.8 magnitude on the Richter scale, impacting roughly 8 million, injuring over 22,000, and killing nearly 9,000 individuals. To escalate matters, there were numerous aftershocks and an additional, massive earthquake just 17 days later, this time measuring at a 7.3 magnitude.

The series of earthquakes and aftershocks that shook Nepal in 2015 took place within 50 miles of the country’s capital, Kathmandu, immensely heightening the death toll and structural damage that occurred. Being one of the poorest nations in Asia, much of the infrastructure was not built to withstand an earthquake of this magnitude. Many historic temples collapsed which had held immense cultural significance for the country. Additionally, a massive amount of villages were destroyed, crumbling the homes and little belongings that the Nepalese had to the ground (Mercy Corps, 2016).

One of Nepal’s greatest sources of income is the tourism industry, which is heavily based around Mt. Everest, located on the Northern border of Nepal. Each year, thousands of individuals visit the country to awe over of the beauty of the Himalayas, and hundreds more attempt to summit the world’s tallest mountain. Due to weather and snow conditions, there is a limited time frame in which climbers can attempt to summit Everest, which unfortunately, falls between April and May. On April 15th, 2015, many climbers were at base camp acclimatizing and waiting to begin their voyage, while other expeditions had already begun their journeys, when a massive avalanche formed as a result of the earthquake, which had an epicenter just 150 miles away. The small, flimsy tents used by climbers were no match for the massive avalanche plummeting down the mountain, sweeping away everything in its path. The avalanche that resulted from the earthquake took the lives of at least 22 individuals and severely injured many others. Nobody was able to summit Everest that year (Wilkinson, 2015).

Nepal’s urbanized, rural, and mountainous regions were not the only areas impacted by the series of earthquakes in 2015. Surrounding countries, such as China, India, and Bangladesh, also endured the effects of these earthquakes, experiencing infrastructure damage and loss of human life as well (USAID, 2016).

Pre-Disaster Planning and Mitigation

Located in an earthquake-prone region and struggling from extreme poverty, Nepal had had numerous connections with relief organizations and had been the home to many aid agencies prior to the 2015 earthquake. Some agencies provided resources and financial aid, while others operated directly in Nepal, offering skills for the Nepalese to become self-sustaining once the organization had left. Some significant actors in Nepal that provided aid and preparedness prior to the earthquake in 2015 were: USAID, Mercy Corps, and nonprofits, such as GeoHazards International (GHI).

The United States Agency for International Development, USAID, has been working to provide relief to Nepal for over twenty years and has invested significant resources into the country in order to reduce the risk of disasters, while also planning and preparing for them. Prior to the earthquake, supplies had been pre-positioned by USAID in vulnerable areas of Nepal to increase post-earthquake efficiency. The hospital preparedness project, which had also been established by USAID prior to the earthquake, worked with 11 major hospitals throughout Nepal to better prepare for disaster response, which proved immensely beneficial once the earthquake had hit in 2015 (USAID, 2016).

Mercy Corps, a humanitarian organization that was originally founded in the United States but now operates on a global scale, also played a significant role in providing assistance to Nepal prior to the earthquake. The organization is mainly focused on “protecting, strengthening and expanding resilience strategies and opportunities among the poor, vulnerable and disadvantaged families through economic, financial and risk management programs” (Mercy Corps, 2016). Nepal has been assisted by Mercy Corps for over 12 years, and significant contributions have been made. At the time of the earthquake, over 100 staff members of Mercy Corps were already located on Nepal’s grounds, which allowed recovery efforts to be conducted instantly and with increased efficiency (Mercy Corps, 2016).

Numerous other nonprofits, both large-scale and small-scale, also participated in equipping Nepal for a disaster such as the 2015 earthquake. GeoHazards International (GHI) is a nonprofit based in California with the goal of reducing the gap between poor and rich countries in terms of disaster effects and recovery. Underdeveloped nations are affected by large-scale, natural disasters with much greater severity than are developed, rich nations. In these poor nations, the death rate for disasters is nearly 5 times higher than it is in rich countries, which is the result of inadequate access to education, healthcare, infrastructure development, and other resources. Prior to the earthquake in Nepal, organizations such as GHI were active in training Nepalese teachers to educate individuals on earthquake preparedness and retrofitting schools and other structures to withstand major disasters, such as earthquakes. These efforts proved beneficial in saving many lives and decreasing the damage caused by the 2015 earthquake that struck Nepal. GHI and other nonprofits are still a long way from closing the gap in disaster effects throughout the world, but continue working to strengthen education, development, and preparedness for poor countries commonly affected by major, natural disasters (GeoHazards International, n.d.).

Agreements Enabling the U.S. to Operate in Nepal

In 1947, the U.S. officially began to recognize Nepal, and since then, the two countries have maintained peaceful, diplomatic relations. Since then, the U.S. has continued to provide resources to Nepal, primarily in the form of economic aid (Office of the Historian (D.O.S.), n.d.). Being one of the world’s poorest nations, the U.S. works to “build a peaceful, prosperous, resilient and democratic society” within Nepal. One way that the U.S. strives to accomplish this is by decreasing Nepal’s dependency on humanitarian aid and make the nation self-sustaining. In return, Nepal provides an immense number of troops to peacekeeping missions that operate internationally. Two of the most prominent areas in which the U.S. assists Nepal are: economic development and disaster reduction and preparedness.

For decades, the two countries have overlapped in membership to many international organizations and agreements. Some of these include the United Nations, International Monetary Fund, World Trade Organization, and World Bank. There is also a strong relationship concerning trade between the U.S. and Nepal. A significant agreement between the two nations exists concerning this; the Trade and Investment Framework Agreement (TIFA) increases efficiency for communication regarding trade, investment, capacity building, and future agreements (U.S. Department of State, 2016). In addition, the U.S. has allowed Nepal to become a part of the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP), providing preference in trade to Nepal, reducing or eliminating tariffs, and encouraging economic development (Office of the United States Trade Representative, n.d.). Each of these agreements, as well as the overlapped participation in international organizations and a strong relationship, have allowed the U.S. to be able to enter Nepal with relative ease, especially in disaster situations such as the 2015 earthquake.

International Response

After the earthquake occurred in 2015, nations all throughout the world provided assistance to Nepal. Some of the main actors were the United States, India, China, the United Kingdom, Pakistan, Israel, and Malaysia. In total, there were 4,000 individuals with boots on the ground in Nepal working on the behalf of the governments of at least 36 nations. The days following the earthquake were chaotic and unorganized to say the least, but these nations each worked to aid Nepal in any way possible (Nepal for Foreign Affairs, n.d.). While the U.S. was arguably the principal nation in providing assistance, they could not have done so alone. The coordination between the governments of nations, as well as between nonprofits and other institutions, was necessary in providing a great amount of relief for Nepal.

Multilateral Planning and Execution

When a disaster of this magnitude strikes a nation, international response is expected to be overwhelming, which was evident in the case of the Nepalese earthquake. Unfortunately, Nepal is amongst the world’s poorest countries, which made coordination and overall relief efforts more challenging than usual, which is further discussed later on. Although there were endless difficulties in coordinating relief efforts within Nepal, organizations and governments from all over the world attempted to facilitate assistance as efficiently as possible.

The United Nations (UN) was a major key in facilitating efforts between different agencies by using predetermined procedures and protocol (such as the United Nations Development Assistance Framework) to do so. Prior to the earthquake, the UN had worked directly with Nepal’s government in order to establish such framework, as well as other means of efficient coordination. When doing so, the UN partnered with institutions such as the National Emergency Operations Center, the Ministry of Home Affairs, and the Multi-National Military Coordination Center operating in Nepal to standardize disaster-related response procedures. As a result, once the earthquake struck, many of the institutions within Nepal were able to efficiently communicate with the UN, who could then communicate with international organizations and the governments of assisting nations.

Despite the efforts of the United Nations, which were beneficial to an extent, the multilateral planning and execution of relief efforts were a massive failure. Communication was not efficient, some relief efforts were duplicated while other were non-existent, there were significant airport and transportation issues, and the media did not follow any guidelines, sparking feelings of disrespect and anger from many (Cook, Shrestha, & Htet, 2016).

Failures of Operations in Nepal

When any disaster of this magnitude strikes one of the world’s most underdeveloped countries, extensive challenges are to be expected. This was most certainly the case in Nepal following the 2015 series of earthquakes; a large portion of the country had been demolished, and as a result, relief operations were chaotic and unorganized. Though many governments and humanitarian organizations attempted to relieve Nepal immediately following the disaster, the unique circumstances and prevalent challenges immensely reduced response capabilities. While response and recovery failures were, unfortunately, ubiquitous, the main challenges and failures can be categorized into: inadequate preparedness efforts and poor coordination within Nepal, incorrect prioritization, and transportation challenges.

Inadequate Preparedness Efforts and Poor Coordination

Immediately following the Nepalese earthquake, there was an overwhelming amount of support that flowed in to Nepal to assist with recovery efforts. In any disaster scenario, governments appreciate any and all aid, but without proper preparation, too much humanitarian aid can create further stress and create chaos. After 34 different countries, including 18 of their militaries, as well as various international organizations and nonprofits responded to Nepal’s request for assistance directly after the earthquake had struck, Nepal quickly found itself overwhelmed. Though the Nepalese government had some preparation efforts and planning in place prior to the 2015 earthquake, these efforts proved flawed once the earthquake had stuck, specifically in the areas of: strategic planning and aid delivery, provision, and distribution. There were some agencies working to make coordination more efficient, such as the NGO Federation of Nepal and OCHA, but unfortunately, many organizations assisting in relief efforts decided to work independently. For example, “many aid providers initially bypassed government channels for relief coordination, distributing directly along highways and accessible roads” (Cook, Shrestha, & Htet, 2016).

Overall, the government of Nepal and agencies attempting to facilitate coordination struggled to control the incoming relief and equally distribute resources. In some cases, there were too many organizations providing relief to high-impact areas, and not enough providing relief to low-impact areas of Nepal. Most of the relief agencies working in Nepal, whether governments, international organizations, or nonprofits, decided to work independently rather than hand-in-hand (or through the Nepalese government), which decreased efficiency and posed numerous challenges, such as unequal distribution of relief materials, increased confusion, and overall slower relief efforts. Many of these challenges could have been diminished had Nepal had a unified operations room (Ops Room) in place prior to the 2015 earthquake (Cook, Shrestha, & Htet, 2016).

Incorrect Prioritization

As a result of poor coordination and relief agencies frequently working independently, the prioritization of resources delivered to Nepal following the major earthquake that struck in 2015 was highly inaccurate. While an overwhelming amount of resources, such as food, clothing, construction equipment, money, and volunteers, flowed into Nepal in April 2015, some of these resources were unneeded and organizations would have been better off providing other types of aid. Food in particular proved this – Nepal had recently undergone peak harvesting season, and therefore food had already been plentiful in the nation, even following the earthquake. Despite this, many relief agencies delivered food as a primary asset, and to make matters worse, much of the food delivered included beef and other food products in which Nepali citizens do not traditionally eat, due to religious or cultural beliefs. Additionally, clothing and blankets were a primary resource delivered to Nepal, but unfortunately, April is predominately Nepal’s hot, dry season, so heavy clothing and blankets were not needed. Medicine proved a similar challenge – the types of medicine delivered to Nepal were frequently unneeded, and those that were did not provide instructions in a language that the Nepalese or international volunteers could understand, so unfortunately, they were often discarded. On the other hand, the resources that the victims of the Nepalese earthquake actually required were not prioritized as high as they should have been. Some of these included tents and basic housing supplies, as well as simple, low-tech construction equipment that could have been used to rebuild small, rural villages (Cook, Shrestha, & Htet, 2016).

Transportation Challenges

In addition to poor communication, planning, and prioritization, transportation efficiency proved a major failure in Nepal following the 2015 earthquake, creating many challenges for humanitarian aid efforts. With the amount of relief flowing into Nepal, one international airport was not enough to handle the tremendous amount of resources and volunteers entering the country. Because the sole international airport of Nepal was only able to accommodate up to eight large aircrafts at any one given time, many planes entering the country had to divert not only to another airport, but to another nation as well. This resulted in volunteers entering affected areas with resources at a rate much slower than required. Once resources were finally able to enter Kathmandu, Nepal’s capital and the home to the nation’s only international airport, another challenge emerged – getting the resources from Kathmandu into the country’s rural areas. Being a mountainous, underdeveloped country, transporting resources into areas other than Kathmandu proved an immense challenge. There were little to no roads that had the ability to accommodate large trucks carrying supplies, and of those that could, many were inaccessible as a result of the various mudslides that occurred following the earthquake. Due to the lack of major airports and overall poor infrastructure within Nepal, aid took immensely longer than necessary to reach the most devastated regions of Nepal (Cook, Shrestha, & Htet, 2016).

Successes of Operations in Nepal

Despite all of the failures surrounding the operations that took place in Nepal following the 2015 earthquake, many operations can still be considered successes – especially the overall amount of aid that was overwhelmingly delivered to Nepal directly after the earthquake occurred. Many of the successes that occurred were the result of what pre-disaster planning did in fact take place; Nepal is well-known as an earthquake-prone region of the world, so many individuals involved in the preparation efforts were well aware that a disaster of this magnitude had the potential to, and most likely would, strike Nepal at some point. Throughout history, Nepal has experienced a major earthquake roughly every 100 years. Prior to the 2015 earthquake, the last major earthquake to strike Nepal had been in 1934, so by 2015, government officials and other organizations such as the UN knew it was a ticking time bomb until another would occur. These two entities, the government of Nepal and the United Nations, had the largest roles in ensuring success of post-disaster operations in Nepal.

Though Nepal is an underdeveloped nation with little available resources and lack of financial stability, the government had attempted to prepare for major disasters, such as an earthquake of this magnitude, to their greatest capability. Prior to the earthquake occurring, the government of Nepal worked with various NGOs to create the National Disaster Management Center in 2002 and further establish a framework to standardize disaster management. In addition, the Nepalese government regularly created exercises in which the Nepalese military would work hand-in-hand with the militaries of other nations on disaster preparedness operations.

In addition to the efforts of the Nepalese government, the United Nations and its partners were a primary actor in ensuring post-disaster successes. The Logistics Cluster, which is a multi-agency organization designed to increase the efficiency of aid following major humanitarian disasters, and the United Nations worked together heavily prior to the earthquake to create a “humanitarian staging area” nearby Nepal’s international airport which would allow for a home base that multiple agencies could report back to and coordinate relief efforts following any major natural disaster (Logistics Cluster, n.d.) (Cook, Shrestha, & Htet, 2016).

Following the horrific disaster, an earthquake measuring a 7.8 magnitude on the Richter scale, that struck Nepal and the surrounding nations on April 25th, 2015, there were endless response efforts that different agencies, governments, and nonprofits throughout the world performed in hopes of providing relief to Nepal. Looking back on these efforts, there were plentiful failures, including inadequate preparedness efforts and poor coordination within Nepal, incorrect prioritization of necessary resources, and transportation challenges, but additionally a handful of successes, mostly including the efforts of the Nepali government and the United Nations (and the Logistics Cluster) prior to the earthquake striking. While institutions from all over the world partook in the relief efforts to provide aid to Nepal immediately following the earthquake and its aftershocks, the United States was amongst the biggest actor, providing on-the-ground assistance, the delivery of resources, and overall $130 million in relief efforts (USAID, 2016). The United States was able to operate efficiently in Nepal and pledge such a high amount of financial aid due to the long-standing relationship that Nepal and the United States have had; the two nations have partaken in diplomatic relations since the nation’s official recognition by the U.S. in 1947. With that being said, the United States could not have acted alone – the successes and high amount of aid delivered to Nepal were the result of the combination of multi-agency cooperation and various governments throughout the world. While the United States and other national governments had a large role in assisting Nepal, other agencies such as Mercy Corps, the United Nations, and small nonprofits such as GeoHazards International are each additionally responsible for delivering the highly necessary aid to Nepal following the 2015 earthquake that devastated the nation.

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