quantitative research topics in criminal justice

Research Methods for Criminal Justice Students

(3 reviews)

Monica Williams, Weber State University

Publisher: Monica Williams

Language: English

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Reviewed by Kelly Arney, Dean of Behavioral Sciences, Associate Professor, Grace College on 12/15/23

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This textbook covers topics needed for criminal justice students to understand as they are going to be doing continual research in their field. Most of the examples cover criminal justice-specific real work examples with an emphasis on law enforcement. Interestingly, this could be utilized for a larger behavioral science class as it encompasses the foundations of research that can be applied to most degrees in behavioral sciences. It places a large emphasis on the scientific method, how to design research, and data collection. It differs from other textbooks by not exploring the specifics of experimental designs, nonexperimental designs, quasi-experimental strategies, and factorial designs. The integration of real-world examples throughout each chapter will likely help students to grow in their willingness to engage in research that is necessary to the profession. Emphasis is placed on finding, understanding, and utilizing research.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The content was accurate and error-free. No biases material or examples were identified.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The content was relevant and recent. The foundational terminology spans the last two decades. This book was originally based on Bhattachergee's 2012 Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practice and Blackstone's 2012 Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods. This material was built on and this textbook is accurate with more recent examples. It has devoted a chapter to ethics in research which I found particularly relevant. It not only covers ethical standards such as the Belmont Report but also dives deep into ethics surrounding the specifics of those requirements. It has a section for research on humans, the Stanford Prison Experiment, Institutional Review Boards, informed consent, vulnerable populations, and the professional code of ethics. This textbook explores these areas in depth. Compared to other textbooks, this has devoted a substantial area to these topics that seem especially relevant recently and particularly important to emphasize for the criminal justice student.

Clarity rating: 5

This textbook seems to make research a little easier. The author has bolded the terminology words for students and created a nice and simple way of organizing the areas of study. The author has multiple categories inside each chapter that give meaning to the section. It is clear what each chapter is about, then each section inside that chapter. Research Methods can be a world of confusing terminology, but this author has simplified this and taken it to a level that students can easily follow. The Key Terms and Discussion Questions at the end of each chapter are also a nice guide for students to clarify what they read in each chapter.

Consistency rating: 4

Consistency is a difficult task in research methods because terms are interchangeable. Some of the terminology was inconsistent, but it described the same things and did not seem confusing. This textbook was the easiest to read when compared to the other textbooks on Research Methods. The sentences were simple and to the point. The book was not overrun with examples or mathematical equations that tend to confuse students. The instructor of the class may need to work to create the standard terminology they want to be used in class. This textbook explores the different terminology, so that can be a learning experience for students in and of itself. People use different terms in real life. It is an easy read as far as research goes. The clarity in the sentences and larger categories is apparent.

Modularity rating: 5

This is one of the largest strengths of this textbook. The text is easy to follow. The author did an excellent job of dividing the chapters into categories that divide the content into smaller readable sections. This makes smaller assignments much easier to assign to instructors. The sections have nice bolded titles and clear spacing between them with bolded words inside the sections. This makes pulling out specific areas and the relevant terminology much easier than in a traditional textbook. It is clear the author put time into organizing this textbook in a student-friendly way.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The topics are organized well. The chapters flow in a way that seems relevant to how it should be taught in the classroom. It is logical in that flow. The chapters are encompassed into larger sections: Think like a researcher, Research design, Qualitative data collection and analysis techniques, A qualitative and quantitative data collection technique, and finally Quantitative data collection and analysis techiniques. Inside each of these larger 5 sections are the chapters that expand on that idea. It is wellorganized.

Interface rating: 5

The digital pdf and the online versions of the textbook did not have any navigational problems. This textbook has some illustrations that worked well. No issues were noted with the interface.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

The writing in this textbook was straightforward and clear. I did not find any typos or grammatical errors. This was an easy-to-read textbook.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

This textbook was culturally inclusive. I did not find any of the materials in this book to be insensitive or offensive. The examples in this textbook were general examples and did not associate with a cultural component. The only area I think that encompassed this was the vulnerable population section. That was very generalized and mostly suggested students consider who would fall into the vulnerable population category given what they want to research. The chapter on Research Questions (CH 4) did dive into the idea that students are social scientists and use their bias for their research projects. This was more about observing the world around them and then asking questions. It did not dive into cultural sensitivity any further.

I would recommend this book for research in behavioral science college-level classes. This book can be applied to students well beyond the criminal justice major. Many of the examples can be used for psychology, sociology, law, political science, and social work students. Don't let the criminal justice part of the title limit you. This is an easy-to-read and well-organized research textbook with helpful review guides included at the end of each chapter.

Reviewed by Mari Sakiyama, Associate Professor, Western Oregon University on 12/14/23

Each chapter of the textbook included the objectives, summary, key terms, and a few discussion questions. The key terms used in the book were in bold and were easy to identify. The chapters covered in the textbook are appropriate, and they are grouped in sections. Given that the provided examples throughout the textbook are CJ related, the major specific students can relate themselves to the course materials and it is easier for them to apply their conceptual CJ research ideas to research questions or a proposal. Glossary with definitions at the end of the book was not listed.

Content Accuracy rating: 2

I thought the content was accurate, and the author put the book together in an error-free manner. However, I thought that the textbook was slightly qualitative research heavy as opposed to quantitative research. Also, in the sampling section, I probably would not label non-probability and probability sampling for inductive qualitative and deductive quantitative research, respectively.

Given that research methods is generally required at all 4-year CJ programs and the majority of the concept of the course does not get outdated, the textbook definitely meets both relevancy and longevity.

Despite research methods tend to be full of jargon and technical terminologies, the material was written and introduced in a very reader-friendly and lucid manner. Perhaps, this book might had been the easiest read amongst all the research methods books I have read.

Both terminology and framework were internally consistent throughout the textbook. Although research methods consist with many interchangeable terms that describe the same thing, the author did a great job maintaining its consistency. In addition, the format for each chapter was also consistent and was easy to follow.

Modularity rating: 4

The textbook contains 15 chapters and are grouped in 5 different sections. Each chapter or even within those chapters can be divisible into smaller segment to fit instructors’ existing course structure. However, as mentioned earlier, the textbook was more qualitative research oriented and I thought some of the sections could be combined (i.e., III & IV). In addition, I think sampling could be its own section. Nonetheless, with the divisibility as well as the author’s permission to reuse and modify with attribution, the issues could be easily resolved.

The textbook was well-organized and -structured. I generally do not cover different designs until after midterm but I personally like the flow of this textbook.

Interface rating: 3

The textbook did not have any navigation problems, since each chapter’s organization is consistent. Some of the tables that provided key summaries of strategies/designs or its comparison of strengths/weakness are very helpful to learners. The author did a great job creating charts and diagrams, bur there could be more of them. Also, the number of illustrations/photos were limited but that could be easily adjusted when incorporating the textbook.

The style of writing was appropriate and straightforward. I did not find any typos or grammatical errors. I believe that the textbook would be an easy read compared to other publishers’ research methods textbooks.

I did not find any of the materials in the textbook that were culturally insensitive nor offensive. Examples throughout the textbook were general examples that did not necessarily associate with cultural component.

While there have been OER research methods books for Sociology and Psychology, I think this is the first OER book for CJ research methods, at least that I know of (and kudos to the author)! It would be an excellent material for undergraduate CJ students. I definitely consider using this book for my class.

Reviewed by Youngki Woo, Assistant professor, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley on 12/16/22

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

The textbook covers most areas of research methods in the field of criminology and criminal justice. Like other textbooks, each chapter identifies the learning objectives and showed it in the beginning. At the end of each chapter, there are several discussion questions for students. Each chapter is comfortable to follow and addresses all the learning objectives to provide a straightforward response to the discussion questions. In addition, each chapter covers ideas of the subject appropriately and provides an effective index, key terms, and glossary.

Content is accurate and it is easy to read and follow.

Each chapter addresses fundamental concepts and techniques that students should know about research methods in social sciences. The book is published in 2022, indicating that content is up-to-date.

The text is simple and well-written, and content is informative and straight-forward.

Consistency rating: 5

The text is internally consistent in terms of terminology and framework. The author did a great job in providing summary at the end of the chapter that tied along with the learning objectives that are provided at the beginning of the chapter.

There are five parts in the textbook and each part is easily divisible into smaller reading sections that can be assigned at different points within the course (please see the Table of Contents). Personally, chapter 4 and 5 covers relevant information, but they could have gone more in depth when describing the different techniques along with a variety of research examples.

The topics in the text are presented in a logical and clear fashion. The logical organization carries students through the sequence of the research process. As an instructor, I like the organization that is flexible and helps students better understand the fundamental research skills in criminal justice.

Personally, I would suggest the author to add more photos/images/charts to give examples of what each objective talk about on each chapter. It would help the reader to figure out some methodological techniques with a visual representation. Nonetheless, the text is free of significant interface issues, including navigation problems and any other display features that may distract or confuse the reader.

There are no typos or technical/grammatical errors that I am aware of in the textbook.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

The text is not culturally insensitive and offensive as the text discuss mainly about research methods. Some examples in the textbooks are children and family.

Overall, this book contains information that could help students understand the knowledge about methodological terms and skills. This book would be suitable for undergraduate methods courses in most social sciences.

1. Scientific Research
2. Paradigms, Theories, and Research
3. Ethics in Research
4. Research questions
5. Research approaches and goals
6. Research methodologies
7. Measurement
8. Sampling
9. Focus groups
10. Field research
11. Qualitative data analysis
12. Interviews
13. Surveys
14. Experiments
15. Quantitative data analysis

Ancillary Material

About the book.

This book is based on two open-access textbooks: Bhattacherjee’s (2012) Social science research: Principles, methods, and practices and Blackstone’s (2012) Principles of sociological inquiry: Qualitative and quantitative methods. I first used Bhattacherjee’s book in a graduate-level criminal justice research methods course. I chose the book because it was an open educational resource that covered the major topics of my course. While I found the book adequate for my purposes, the business school perspective did not always fit with my criminal justice focus. I decided to rewrite the textbook for undergraduate and graduate students in my criminal justice research methods courses. As I researched other open- educational resources for teaching social science research methods, I found Blackstone’s book, which covered more of the social science and qualitative methods perspectives that I wanted to incorporate into my book.

As a result, this open-access textbook includes some content from both previous works along with my own additions based on my extensive experience and expertise in conducting qualitative and quantitative research in social science settings and in mentoring students through the research process. My Ph.D. is in Sociology, and I currently teach undergraduates and graduate students in a criminal justice program at Weber State University. Throughout my career, I have conducted and published the results of research projects using a variety of methods, including surveys, case studies, in-depth interviews, participant observation, content analysis, and secondary analysis of quantitative data. I have also mentored undergraduates in conducting community-based research projects using many of these same methods with the addition of focus groups and program evaluations.

About the Contributors

Monica Williams, Ph.D ., Associate Professor, Weber State University

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Criminal justice research topics.

This collection provides overviews of nearly 100 key criminal justice research topics comprising traditional criminology and its more modern interdisciplinary outgrowths. These topics are divided into six thematic parts:

Criminology
Correlates of Crime
Criminology Theories
Crime Research
Types of Crime
Criminal Justice System

Criminology and Criminal Justice Research Topics

Research topics in criminology:.

Criminology as Social Science .
Criminology and Public Policy .
History of Criminology .

Research Topics in Crime and Victimization:

Age and Crime .
Aggression and Crime .
Citizenship and Crime .
Education and Crime .
Employment and Crime .
Families and Crime .
Gender and Crime .
Guns and Crime .
Immigration and Crime .
Intelligence and Crime .
Mental Illness and Crime .
Neighborhoods and Crime .
Peers and Crime .
Race and Crime .
Religion and Crime .
Social Class and Crime .
Victimization .
Weather and Crime .

Research Topics in Criminology Theories:

Biological Theori es.
Classical Criminology .
Convict Criminology .
Criminal Justice Theories .
Critical Criminology .
Cultural Criminology .
Cultural Transmission Theory .
Deterrence and Rational Choice Theory .
Feminist Criminology .
Labeling and Symbolic Interaction Theories .
Life Course Criminology .
Psychological Theories of Crime .
Routine Activities Theory .
Self-Control Theory .
Social Construction of Crime .
Social Control Theory .
Social Disorganization Theory .
Social Learning Theory .
Strain Theories .
Theoretical Integration.

Research Topics in Criminology Research and Measurement:

Citation and Content Analysis .
Crime Classification Systems .
Crime Mapping .
Crime Reports and Statistics .
Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) and Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM) .
Edge Ethnography .
Experimental Criminology .
Fieldwork in Criminology .
Program Evaluation .
Quantitative Criminology .

Research Topics in Types of Crime:

Campus Crime .
Child Abuse .
Cybercrime .
Domestic Violence .
Elder Abuse .
Environmental Crime .
Hate Crime .
Human Trafficking .
Identity Theft .
Juvenile Delinquency .
Organizational Crime .
Prostitution .
Sex Offenses .
Terrorism .
Theft and Shoplifting .
White-Collar Crime .
Wildlife Crime .

Research Topics in Criminal Justice System:

Capital Punishment .
Community Corrections .
Crime Prevention .
Criminal Courts .
Criminal Justice Ethics .
Criminal Law .
Criminal Specialization .
Drug Courts .
Drugs and the Criminal Justice System .
Felon Disenfranchisement .
Forensic Science .
Juvenile Court .
Juvenile Justice .
Mass Media, Crime, and Justice .
Offender Classification .
Offender Reentry .
Police–Community Relations .
Prison System .
Problem-Solving Courts .
Public Health and Criminal Justice .
Racial Profiling .
Restorative Justice .
Sentencing .
The Police .
Victim Services .
Wrongful Convictions .
Youth Gangs .

Because just listing suggestions for criminal justice research topics will be of limited value we have included short topical overviews and suggestions for narrowing those topics and divided them into 6 parts as in the list above. If you’re interested in some topic in the list follow the links below for more information.

Example criminal justice research papers on these topics have been designed to serve as sources of model papers for most criminological topics. These research papers were written by several well-known discipline figures and emerging younger scholars who provide authoritative overviews coupled with insightful discussion that will quickly familiarize researchers and students alike with fundamental and detailed information for each criminal justice topic.

This collection begins by defining the discipline of criminology and observing its historical development (Part I: Criminology ). The various social (e.g., poverty, neighborhood, and peer/family influences), personal (e.g., intelligence, mental illness), and demographic (e.g., age, race, gender, and immigration) realities that cause, confound, and mitigate crime and crime control are featured in Part II: Correlates of Crime . The research papers in this section consider each correlate’s impact, both independently and in a broader social ecological context. The sociological origins of theoretical criminology are observed across several research papers that stress classical, environmental, and cultural influences on crime and highlight peer group, social support, and learning processes. Examination of these criminological theory research papers quickly confirms the aforementioned interdisciplinary nature of the field, with research papers presenting biological, psychological, and biosocial explanations and solutions for crime (Part III: Criminology Theories ).

Part IV: Criminology Research provides example research papers on various quantitative and qualitative designs and techniques employed in criminology research. Comparison of the purposes and application of these research methods across various criminal justice topics illustrates the role of criminologists as social scientists engaged in research enterprises wherein single studies fluctuate in focus along a pure–applied research continuum. This section also addresses the measurement of crimes with attention to major crime reporting and recording systems.

Having established a theoretical–methodological symmetry as the scientific foundation of criminology, and increasingly the field of criminal justice, Part V: Types of Crime considers a wide range of criminal offenses. Each research paper in this section thoroughly defines its focal offense and considers the related theories that frame practices and policies used to address various leading violent, property, and morality crimes. These research papers also present and critically evaluate the varying level of empirical evidence, that is, research confirmation, for competing theoretical explanations and criminal justice system response alternatives that are conventionally identified as best practices.

Ostensibly, an accurate and thorough social science knowledge base stands to render social betterment in terms of reduced crime and victimization through the development of research–based practices. This science–practitioner relationship is featured, advocated, and critiqued in the research papers of the final section, Part VI: Criminal Justice System . Here, the central components of criminal justice research paper topics (law enforcement, courts, and corrections) are presented from a criminology–criminal justice outlook that increasingly purports to leverage theory and research (in particular, program evaluation results) toward realizing criminal justice and related social policy objectives. Beyond the main system, several research papers consider the role and effectiveness of several popular justice system and wrap-around component initiatives (e.g., specialty courts, restorative justice, and victim services).

See also: Domestic Violence Research Topics and School Violence Research Topics .

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500+ Criminal Justice Research Topics

Criminal justice is a complex and critical field that encompasses various aspects of crime prevention, law enforcement, legal proceedings, and punishment. Research plays a crucial role in understanding and addressing the challenges and opportunities in this field. From studying the causes and consequences of crime to exploring the effectiveness of policies and interventions, there is a wide range of fascinating and important criminal justice research topics to explore. Whether you are a student, a scholar, a practitioner, or a curious citizen, delving into the world of criminal justice research can deepen your knowledge, sharpen your critical thinking skills, and contribute to creating a safer and fairer society. In this post, we will introduce some of the most compelling and relevant criminal justice research topics that you may find intriguing and informative.

Criminal Justice Research Topics

Criminal Justice Research Topics are as follows:

The effectiveness of community policing in reducing crime rates
The impact of body-worn cameras on police accountability and public trust
The causes and consequences of police use of excessive force
The role of race and ethnicity in police-citizen interactions and perceptions
The effectiveness of diversion programs in reducing recidivism among juvenile offenders
The impact of mandatory minimum sentencing on crime rates and prison populations
The challenges and opportunities of restorative justice as an alternative to punitive justice
The role of mental health and substance abuse treatment in reducing criminal behavior
The ethics and implications of using predictive policing algorithms
The impact of private prisons on the criminal justice system and society
The effectiveness of victim-offender mediation in reducing the harm of crime
The prevalence and causes of wrongful convictions and the implications for justice
The role of media in shaping public perceptions of crime and justice
The effectiveness and fairness of the death penalty as a form of punishment
The role of international law in addressing transnational crimes such as terrorism and human trafficking
The impact of the War on Drugs on drug use, drug-related crime, and public health
The effectiveness of gun control laws in reducing gun violence and crime rates
The role of technology in enhancing or challenging the criminal justice system, such as DNA analysis or facial recognition software
The prevalence and causes of domestic violence and the effectiveness of intervention programs
The impact of sentencing disparities based on race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status
The role of plea bargaining in the criminal justice system and the implications for justice
The effectiveness of sex offender registries and notification laws in reducing sex crimes
The impact of pretrial detention on defendants’ rights and outcomes
The role of community-based corrections in reducing recidivism and promoting reentry
The ethics and implications of using unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) for surveillance and law enforcement
The effectiveness and implications of using risk assessment tools in pretrial decision-making
The prevalence and impact of hate crimes and the challenges of prosecuting them
The role of eyewitness testimony in criminal trials and the reliability of memory
The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing drug-related crime and improving outcomes for offenders
The impact of race and ethnicity on the administration of the death penalty
The role of juries in the criminal justice system and the factors that affect their decisions
The effectiveness and ethics of using informants in criminal investigations and prosecutions
The prevalence and impact of cybercrime and the challenges of investigating and prosecuting it
The effectiveness of juvenile justice reforms in promoting rehabilitation and reducing recidivism
The impact of community-based policing on police-citizen relations and trust
The role of social media in shaping perceptions of crime and justice
The effectiveness of prison education and vocational training programs in promoting rehabilitation and reducing recidivism
The prevalence and impact of human rights abuses in the criminal justice system, such as torture or discrimination
The effectiveness of gang prevention and intervention programs in reducing gang-related crime
The role of implicit bias in the criminal justice system and its impact on outcomes
The impact of solitary confinement on mental health, behavior, and reentry outcomes
The impact of police body cameras on public trust and police accountability.
The effectiveness of diversion programs for juvenile offenders.
The impact of community policing on crime reduction
The use of predictive policing in law enforcement
The impact of decriminalizing marijuana on crime rates
The role of mental health professionals in the criminal justice system
The effectiveness of de-escalation training for police officers
The impact of technology on police surveillance practices
The relationship between gender and sentencing disparities in the criminal justice system
The relationship between poverty and crime
The effectiveness of restorative justice programs in reducing recidivism
The impact of the War on Drugs on mass incarceration
The use of cognitive-behavioral therapy in offender rehabilitation
The effectiveness of diversion programs for people with substance use disorders
The role of implicit bias in jury selection
The impact of police officer stress on use of force incidents
The use of big data in criminal investigations and decision-making
The effectiveness of restorative justice practices in school disciplinary policies
The relationship between mental illness and homelessness in the criminal justice system
The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on juvenile offenders
The role of drug courts in the criminal justice system
The effectiveness of offender reentry programs for people with disabilities
The impact of restorative justice programs on victims of crime
The use of therapeutic jurisprudence in the criminal justice system
The relationship between race and ethnicity and the use of force by private security personnel
The effectiveness of educational programs in correctional facilities
The impact of eyewitness identification procedures on wrongful convictions
The role of community-based policing in reducing crime rates
The use of predictive analytics in bail decisions
The effectiveness of correctional education programs on recidivism
The impact of immigration enforcement policies on immigrant communities’ trust in law enforcement
The relationship between mental health and juvenile detention
The use of biometrics in criminal investigations and identification
The effectiveness of mental health courts in reducing recidivism among people with co-occurring disorders
The impact of gender and sexuality on hate crime victimization and reporting
The role of cultural competence in police training
The use of risk assessment tools in pretrial detention decisions
The effectiveness of community supervision programs for people with substance use disorders
The impact of social and economic policies on criminal justice outcomes
The relationship between race and ethnicity and criminal case outcomes
The use of therapeutic communities in correctional facilities
The effectiveness of specialized courts for domestic violence cases
The impact of gun violence on public safety and crime rates
The role of eyewitness memory and recall in criminal investigations and trials
The use of DNA evidence in criminal investigations and exoneration
The effectiveness of probation and parole programs for people with disabilities
The impact of victim impact statements on sentencing decisions
The relationship between criminal justice policies and racial and ethnic disparities in incarceration rates
The use of unmanned aerial vehicles in law enforcement
The effectiveness of community-based restorative justice programs for juvenile offenders
The impact of public defender workload on criminal case outcomes
The role of community activism and advocacy in criminal justice reform
The use of risk assessment tools in school disciplinary policies
The effectiveness of family-focused interventions in reducing juvenile recidivism
The impact of police officer race and ethnicity on use of force incidents
The relationship between race and ethnicity and prosecutorial decision-making
The use of virtual reality simulations in police training
The effectiveness of mental health diversion programs for people with traumatic brain injuries
The impact of juvenile life without parole sentences on individuals and society.
The use of drones in criminal investigations
The effectiveness of community-based alternatives to incarceration for nonviolent offenders
The impact of wrongful convictions on the criminal justice system
The role of implicit bias in criminal justice decision-making
The use of risk assessment tools in child welfare investigations
The effectiveness of offender reentry programs in reducing recidivism
The impact of hate crimes on marginalized communities
The relationship between mental health and the use of force by police officers
The use of body language analysis in criminal interrogations
The effectiveness of community policing strategies in building trust between police and communities
The impact of race on police use of force and police brutality
The role of prosecutorial discretion in the criminal justice system
The use of algorithms in pretrial detention decisions
The effectiveness of victim-centered approaches to sexual assault investigations
The impact of domestic violence on child custody decisions
The relationship between social media and cybercrime
The use of facial recognition technology in law enforcement
The effectiveness of police officer training programs on cultural sensitivity and bias reduction
The impact of the school-to-prison pipeline on youth
The role of mental health courts in diversion programs
The use of virtual reality technology in criminal justice education and training
The effectiveness of crisis intervention teams in responding to mental health crises
The impact of immigration policies on crime reporting and victimization rates in immigrant communities
The relationship between police department size and use of force incidents
The use of predictive analytics in parole and probation supervision
The effectiveness of juvenile justice system diversion programs for LGBTQ+ youth
The impact of bail reform on pretrial detention rates and recidivism
The role of trauma-informed care in the criminal justice system
The use of artificial intelligence in forensic investigations
The effectiveness of prison entrepreneurship programs in reducing recidivism
The impact of COVID-19 on the criminal justice system
The relationship between mental health and incarceration rates
The use of social network analysis in criminal investigations
The effectiveness of drug testing and monitoring programs for probationers and parolees
The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on drug offenses
The role of the media in shaping public perceptions of crime and the criminal justice system
The use of body-worn cameras in courtroom proceedings
The effectiveness of mental health diversion programs for veterans involved in the criminal justice system
The impact of race and ethnicity on the plea bargaining process
The relationship between police department diversity and community trust
The use of crime mapping in law enforcement strategies
The effectiveness of animal therapy programs in correctional facilities
The impact of the death penalty on families of victims and offenders
The role of prosecutorial misconduct in wrongful convictions.
Racial disparities in the use of capital punishment
The effectiveness of electronic monitoring as an alternative to incarceration
The role of restorative justice in reducing recidivism
The relationship between mental illness and criminal behavior
The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing drug-related offenses
The impact of body-worn cameras on police behavior and citizen complaints
The use of risk assessment tools in sentencing and release decisions
The effectiveness of boot camp programs for juvenile offenders
The use of eyewitness testimony in criminal trials
The impact of victim-offender mediation on the criminal justice system
The relationship between education level and criminal behavior
The effectiveness of parole and probation in reducing recidivism
The use of artificial intelligence in criminal justice decision-making
The role of public defenders in the criminal justice system
The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on the prison population
The effectiveness of therapeutic courts for individuals with substance abuse disorders
The impact of social media on the reporting of crimes and public perception of crime
The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in reducing recidivism
The impact of mental health courts on the criminal justice system
The role of community service in reducing recidivism
The relationship between domestic violence and gun ownership
The effectiveness of diversion programs for individuals with mental illnesses
The impact of sentencing guidelines on judicial discretion
The use of police body language in detecting deception during interviews
The relationship between incarceration and employment opportunities post-release
The effectiveness of community-based supervision programs for released offenders
The impact of the war on drugs on the criminal justice system
The role of race and ethnicity in plea bargaining decisions
The use of risk assessment tools in juvenile justice
The effectiveness of animal-assisted therapy in correctional facilities
The impact of restorative justice on the victims of crime
The relationship between gun laws and gun violence rates
The effectiveness of pretrial diversion programs for individuals with mental illnesses
The role of reentry programs in reducing recidivism
The impact of mandatory arrest policies in domestic violence cases
The use of polygraph tests in criminal investigations
The relationship between gang membership and criminal behavior
The effectiveness of drug treatment courts in reducing recidivism
The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and behavior
The role of gun buyback programs in reducing gun violence
The relationship between substance abuse and child abuse
The effectiveness of victim impact panels in reducing drunk driving
The impact of juvenile detention on mental health and behavior
The use of forensic science in criminal investigations
The relationship between race and wrongful convictions
The effectiveness of prison education programs in reducing recidivism
The impact of police militarization on community trust and safety
The relationship between race, ethnicity, and police use of force.
The impact of mandatory minimum sentencing laws on incarceration rates.
The effectiveness of community policing in reducing crime rates.
The relationship between mental illness and criminal behavior.
The role of gender in criminal justice sentencing and outcomes.
The impact of the war on drugs on incarceration rates and drug use.
The effectiveness of restorative justice programs in reducing recidivism.
The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and rehabilitation.
The relationship between poverty and crime rates.
The role of technology in modern policing and criminal justice.
The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing drug-related crime.
The relationship between immigration and crime rates.
The impact of mandatory arrest policies in cases of domestic violence.
The effectiveness of victim-offender mediation in reducing recidivism.
The role of social media in modern crime and policing.
The impact of police militarization on community trust and safety.
The effectiveness of rehabilitation programs for incarcerated individuals.
The relationship between gun ownership and violent crime.
The impact of wrongful convictions on individuals and the criminal justice system.
The role of race and ethnicity in jury selection and decision-making.
The effectiveness of mental health courts in reducing recidivism.
The relationship between education and crime rates.
The impact of body-worn cameras on police officer behavior and decision-making.
The effectiveness of drug treatment programs in reducing recidivism.
The relationship between domestic violence and gun ownership.
The impact of the death penalty on deterrence and sentencing outcomes.
The role of implicit bias in policing and criminal justice decision-making.
The effectiveness of community-based reentry programs for formerly incarcerated individuals.
The relationship between crime rates and social inequality.
The impact of predictive policing on crime rates and community trust.
The effectiveness of probation and parole programs in reducing recidivism.
The relationship between mental health and policing.
The impact of police unions on police accountability and reform efforts.
The role of the media in shaping public perceptions of crime and justice.
The effectiveness of pretrial diversion programs in reducing incarceration rates.
The relationship between police use of force and police training.
The impact of mandatory minimum drug sentences on racial disparities in the criminal justice system.
The effectiveness of juvenile detention alternatives in reducing recidivism.
The relationship between mass incarceration and economic inequality.
The impact of police body language on civilian compliance.
The role of community organizations in crime prevention and intervention.
The effectiveness of reentry programs for people with disabilities.
The relationship between mental health and criminal justice reform.
The impact of immigration policies on community safety and trust.
The role of prosecutorial discretion in the criminal justice system.
The effectiveness of job training programs for formerly incarcerated individuals.
The relationship between race and drug policy.
The impact of pretrial detention on case outcomes and incarceration rates.
The effectiveness of diversion programs for offenders with mental health issues
The prevalence and impact of police corruption and the challenges of rooting it out
The role of victim impact statements in the criminal justice system and their impact on sentencing
The impact of social inequality on crime rates and the criminal justice system
The role of political ideology in shaping criminal justice policy and practice
The effectiveness of rehabilitation and reentry programs for adult offenders
The prevalence and impact of sexual harassment and assault within the criminal justice system
The role of the Fourth Amendment in regulating police searches and seizures
The effectiveness of restorative justice practices in addressing campus sexual assault
The impact of mass incarceration on families and communities
The ethics and implications of using artificial intelligence in criminal justice decision-making
The role of bail reform in promoting justice and reducing pretrial detention
The prevalence and impact of police misconduct and accountability mechanisms
The effectiveness of drug policy reform in reducing drug-related harm and promoting public health
The impact of globalization on transnational crimes and the challenges of international cooperation
The role of prosecutorial discretion in shaping criminal justice outcomes
The prevalence and impact of white-collar crime and the challenges of prosecution
The role of public defenders in ensuring access to justice for indigent defendants
The effectiveness of mental health courts in diverting mentally ill offenders from the criminal justice system
The impact of the criminal justice system on immigrant communities and the challenges of immigrant detention and deportation
The role of forgiveness in restorative justice and its implications for healing and reconciliation
The effectiveness of alternative dispute resolution in reducing court congestion and promoting justice
The prevalence and impact of hate speech and the challenges of regulating it
The role of public opinion in shaping criminal justice policy and practice
The effectiveness of community supervision in reducing recidivism and promoting reentry
The impact of the criminalization of homelessness on vulnerable populations
The role of community activism and advocacy in promoting criminal justice reform
The effectiveness of therapeutic jurisprudence in promoting rehabilitation and well-being
The prevalence and impact of police militarization and its implications for public safety and civil liberties
The role of eyewitness identification procedures in criminal investigations and the reliability of identification evidence
The effectiveness of harm reduction strategies in reducing drug-related harm and promoting public health
The impact of the criminal justice system on Indigenous communities and the challenges of decolonizing justice
The role of hate crime legislation in promoting justice and reducing hate-motivated violence
The effectiveness of police training programs in reducing racial and ethnic bias and promoting cultural competence
The prevalence and impact of gun violence and the challenges of gun control policy
The role of the Eighth Amendment in regulating cruel and unusual punishment
The effectiveness of problem-solving courts in addressing complex social issues and promoting justice
The impact of the criminal justice system on LGBTQ+ communities and the challenges of achieving equality and inclusivity
The role of victim services in promoting healing and well-being for crime victims
The effectiveness of drug testing and monitoring programs in promoting rehabilitation and reducing recidivism
The prevalence and impact of prison gangs and the challenges of managing them
The role of implicit bias in eyewitness identification and the implications for justice
The effectiveness of diversion programs for offenders with substance abuse issues
The impact of social media on crime reporting and law enforcement
The role of mental health diversion programs in reducing mass incarceration and promoting treatment
The prevalence and impact of wrongful convictions of innocent people and the challenges of exoneration
The relationship between immigration and crime rates
The impact of drug courts on drug-related offenses and recidivism rates
The use of restorative justice practices in the criminal justice system
The effectiveness of reentry programs for people released from prison
The use of polygraph tests in criminal investigations and court proceedings
The impact of bail amounts on pretrial detention and case outcomes
The relationship between gun ownership and crime rates
The effectiveness of mental health screening and assessment for individuals involved in the criminal justice system
The use of virtual courtrooms in criminal proceedings
The impact of juvenile detention on mental health and future criminal behavior
The relationship between poverty and crime rates
The use of eyewitness identification procedures in criminal investigations and court proceedings
The effectiveness of community service programs as a sentencing alternative
The role of racial profiling in law enforcement practices
The use of risk assessment tools in sentencing and parole decisions
The impact of mandatory reporting laws on child abuse and neglect cases
The relationship between parental incarceration and children’s wellbeing
The effectiveness of diversion programs for drug-related offenses
The use of cognitive-behavioral therapy in offender rehabilitation programs
The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and recidivism rates
The relationship between social capital and crime rates
The use of DNA evidence in criminal investigations and court proceedings
The effectiveness of crisis response teams in reducing police use of force incidents
The role of race and ethnicity in jury selection and decision-making
The impact of court fines and fees on individuals involved in the criminal justice system
The relationship between education and crime rates
The use of risk assessment tools in domestic violence cases
The effectiveness of reentry programs for individuals with substance use disorders
The impact of court-appointed attorneys on case outcomes and access to justice
The role of victim impact statements in sentencing decisions
The use of mental health courts for individuals with co-occurring disorders
The effectiveness of court-mandated treatment programs for drug offenders
The impact of gender on the sentencing and treatment of offenders
The relationship between drug policy and crime rates
The use of forensic psychology in criminal investigations and court proceedings
The effectiveness of cognitive interviewing techniques in witness testimony
The impact of the media on public perceptions of the criminal justice system
The relationship between neighborhood characteristics and crime rates
The use of body-worn cameras in police-community interactions
The effectiveness of reentry programs for individuals with intellectual disabilities
The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on sentencing disparities
The role of mental health providers in prisons and jails
The use of civil asset forfeiture in law enforcement practices
The effectiveness of diversion programs for individuals with mental illness involved in the criminal justice system
The impact of police militarization on community trust and police accountability
The relationship between unemployment and crime rates
The use of artificial intelligence in identifying and preventing human trafficking
The effectiveness of reentry programs for individuals with traumatic brain injuries
The impact of community-based alternatives to policing on public safety and crime rates.
The impact of the militarization of police on community relations
The effectiveness of restorative justice practices in reducing recidivism
The relationship between socioeconomic status and juvenile delinquency
The impact of police department culture on officer behavior
The role of community courts in addressing low-level offenses
The effectiveness of reentry programs for people who were formerly incarcerated
The impact of body-worn cameras on police officer behavior and community perceptions
The relationship between mental illness and police use of force
The use of neuroscience in criminal sentencing
The effectiveness of gun control policies in reducing gun violence
The role of alternative dispute resolution in the criminal justice system
The use of biometrics in criminal investigations
The effectiveness of gang prevention and intervention programs
The impact of domestic violence on employment and economic stability
The use of artificial intelligence in criminal investigations and sentencing
The role of implicit bias in eyewitness identification
The use of drug courts in addressing drug addiction and drug-related crimes
The effectiveness of reentry programs for juvenile offenders
The impact of social media on crime and victimization
The relationship between mental health and incarceration of women
The use of surveillance technologies in correctional facilities
The effectiveness of victim-offender mediation programs
The impact of prosecutorial discretion on plea bargaining outcomes
The role of mental health assessments in competency to stand trial determinations
The use of biographical information in criminal investigations
The effectiveness of diversion programs for people with mental illness
The impact of police body language on community perceptions
The relationship between criminal justice policies and racial disparities in healthcare
The use of geospatial analysis in predicting crime patterns
The effectiveness of community service programs in reducing recidivism
The impact of court fines and fees on people with low incomes
The role of neuroscience in detecting deception
The use of technology in victim advocacy and support services
The effectiveness of juvenile justice diversion programs for LGBTQ+ youth
The impact of parental incarceration on children and families
The relationship between race and juvenile justice system involvement
The use of facial recognition technology in correctional facilities
The effectiveness of community-based mental health services in reducing incarceration rates
The impact of prison labor on employment opportunities for formerly incarcerated people
The role of community-based restorative justice in addressing hate crimes
The use of predictive analytics in child welfare investigations
The effectiveness of alternative sentencing programs for drug-related offenses
The impact of immigration enforcement policies on crime reporting in immigrant communities
The relationship between implicit bias and jury decision-making
The use of technology in improving language access in the criminal justice system.
The impact of police body language on citizen perceptions and trust
The effectiveness of police academy training on officer decision-making in high-pressure situations
The role of technology in the spread of human trafficking
The relationship between mental health and probation and parole revocation rates
The use of community courts in addressing quality of life offenses
The effectiveness of prisoner reentry programs on family reunification and support systems
The impact of public defender caseloads on the quality of legal representation
The role of implicit bias in jury selection and decision-making
The use of diversion programs for juveniles involved in prostitution
The effectiveness of community supervision programs for offenders with serious mental illness
The impact of immigration enforcement policies on the criminal justice system
The relationship between recidivism rates and prison education and vocational programs
The use of body-worn cameras in prison settings
The effectiveness of alternative dispute resolution in reducing court congestion
The impact of prison labor on reentry and recidivism rates
The role of risk assessment tools in parole and probation decision-making
The effectiveness of drug courts in addressing substance abuse and recidivism
The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and behavior in prison
The relationship between domestic violence and firearm possession
The use of mental health diversion programs for veterans involved in the criminal justice system
The effectiveness of juvenile drug court programs on reducing recidivism
The impact of private prisons on inmate rehabilitation and public safety
The role of implicit bias in pretrial detention decisions
The use of GPS monitoring in pretrial release and probation supervision
The effectiveness of offender education and job training programs in reducing recidivism
The impact of collateral consequences on reentry and recidivism rates
The use of crisis intervention teams in responding to mental health emergencies
The effectiveness of community-based alternatives to detention for juveniles
The role of public opinion in shaping criminal justice policy
The effectiveness of police body-worn cameras in reducing police misconduct and excessive use of force
The impact of incarceration on family dynamics and relationships
The relationship between access to legal representation and case outcomes
The use of community supervision and support programs for individuals with substance use disorders
The impact of pretrial detention on case outcomes and recidivism rates
The role of prosecutorial discretion in plea bargaining and sentencing
The use of facial recognition technology in criminal investigations and surveillance
The effectiveness of problem-solving courts in addressing specialized criminal cases
The impact of prison privatization on inmate rights and access to services
The relationship between race, gender, and criminal justice outcomes
The use of mental health courts in diversion programs
The effectiveness of community policing strategies in building trust and reducing crime rates
The impact of police militarization on community perceptions and police-citizen interactions
The role of forensic evidence in criminal investigations and court proceedings
The use of artificial intelligence in predicting criminal behavior and recidivism.
The use of restorative justice in the criminal justice system
The impact of police militarization on community policing efforts
The effectiveness of diversion programs for individuals with substance use disorders
The relationship between economic inequality and crime rates
The use of artificial intelligence in pretrial risk assessment
The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on non-violent drug offenses
The impact of the War on Drugs on communities of color
The relationship between mental health and probation violations
The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing recidivism rates
The role of eyewitness testimony in wrongful convictions
The use of facial recognition technology in criminal investigations and prosecutions
The effectiveness of diversion programs for juvenile offenders
The impact of probation and parole supervision on recidivism rates
The relationship between police use of force and mental health disorders
The use of predictive analytics in criminal sentencing
The effectiveness of reentry programs for individuals with mental illness
The impact of bail systems on low-income individuals and communities
The role of implicit bias in sentencing decisions
The use of social media in criminal investigations
The impact of mandatory sentencing on judicial discretion
The relationship between drug addiction and property crime
The use of predictive analytics in risk assessment for pretrial release
The effectiveness of substance abuse treatment programs in correctional facilities
The impact of police body-worn cameras on police-citizen interactions
The role of forensic evidence in wrongful convictions
The use of drones in border patrol and immigration enforcement
The effectiveness of community supervision programs for individuals with mental illness
The impact of mandatory sentencing on the prison population and corrections costs
The relationship between gang activity and violent crime
The use of artificial intelligence in criminal investigations and evidence collection
The effectiveness of juvenile diversion programs for first-time offenders
The impact of prosecutorial misconduct on wrongful convictions
The role of implicit bias in police use of force incidents
The use of risk assessment tools in pretrial detention decisions for juvenile defendants
The effectiveness of prison education programs in reducing recidivism rates
The impact of racial profiling on policing practices and community trust
The relationship between homelessness and criminal behavior
The use of predictive analytics in identifying and preventing cybercrime
The effectiveness of mental health treatment programs for incarcerated individuals
The impact of the school-to-prison pipeline on students of color
The role of community-based programs in reducing crime rates and recidivism
The use of neuroscience in criminal investigations and sentencing decisions
The effectiveness of diversion programs for individuals with co-occurring disorders
The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and recidivism rates.
The effectiveness of diversion programs for offenders with substance use disorders
The impact of judicial discretion on sentencing outcomes
The relationship between access to legal representation and sentencing disparities
The use of body-worn cameras in reducing police misconduct and brutality
The impact of bail practices on pretrial detention and racial disparities
The relationship between police unions and police accountability
The effectiveness of community supervision in reducing recidivism
The impact of solitary confinement on mental health outcomes for inmates
The relationship between criminal justice policies and racial wealth inequality
The use of risk assessment tools in sentencing decisions
The effectiveness of mandatory minimum sentences in reducing crime rates
The impact of victim impact statements on sentencing outcomes
The relationship between criminal justice policies and environmental justice
The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) in law enforcement
The effectiveness of juvenile justice diversion programs for at-risk youth
The impact of police militarization on community relations
The relationship between immigration enforcement and public safety
The use of artificial intelligence in predicting recidivism risk
The effectiveness of police training on de-escalation tactics
The relationship between the criminal justice system and income inequality
The use of geographic profiling in criminal investigations
The effectiveness of mental health courts in reducing incarceration rates
The impact of mandatory arrest policies on domestic violence victims
The relationship between criminal justice policies and public health outcomes
The use of body-worn cameras in reducing false accusations against police officers
The effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy in reducing domestic violence recidivism
The impact of race and ethnicity on police use of force during traffic stops
The use of predictive analytics in parole and probation revocation decisions
The effectiveness of offender treatment programs for intimate partner violence offenders
The impact of prison education programs on post-release employment and recidivism
The relationship between prison labor and modern-day slavery
The use of predictive modeling to prevent child abuse and neglect
The effectiveness of community courts in reducing recidivism rates
The impact of community-based organizations on crime prevention
The relationship between mental health and substance use disorders in the criminal justice system
The use of mobile forensic technology in criminal investigations
The effectiveness of gender-responsive programming in reducing female recidivism rates
The impact of anti-immigrant sentiment on policing in immigrant communities
The relationship between police legitimacy and public trust
The use of data analytics in law enforcement resource allocation
The effectiveness of reentry programs for people with disabilities
The impact of police misconduct on wrongful convictions
The relationship between restorative justice and school discipline
The use of location tracking technology in the criminal justice system
The effectiveness of anti-bias training for law enforcement officers
The impact of drug decriminalization on public safety and health.

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Quantitative Studies on Media and Crime

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First Online: 27 November 2018
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Gruenewald, J., Parkin, W., Chermak, S.M. (2014). Quantitative Studies on Media and Crime. In: Bruinsma, G., Weisburd, D. (eds) Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5690-2_2

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Criminology and Criminal Justice Research: Methods

Quantitative research methods.

Quantitative research methods are typically concerned with measuring criminological or criminal justice reality. To understand this process several terms must first be identified. Concepts are abstract tags placed on reality that are assigned numerical values, thus making them variables. Variables are then studied to examine patterns of relation, covariation, and cause and effect. At the most basic level, there exists at least one dependent variable and one independent variable. The dependent variable is commonly referred to as the outcome variable. This is what the researcher is attempting to predict. The independent variable is commonly referred to as the predictor variable, and it is the variable that causes, determines, or precedes in time the dependent variable (Hagan). Consider the following examples.

Criminological theorists may be interested in studying the relationship between impulsivity (independent variable) and criminal behavior (dependent variable). In studying such a relationship, scholars create a summated scale of items that is designed to indirectly measure the concept of impulsivity. Then, this impulsivity scale is used to predict involvement in criminal behavior. Criminal justice scholars may be interested in studying the effects of a mandatory arrest policy (independent variable) on future patterns of domestic violence (dependent variable). In studying such a question, scholars typically evaluate the effect of an arrest, compared to some other sanction, on the future criminal behavior of the arrestee. Thus, quantitative research methods involve a pattern of studying the relationship(s) between sets of variables to determine cause and effect.

Three criteria are needed to establish causality. The first is association. That is, the independent and dependent variables must be related to one another. The second is time order; the independent variable must precede the dependent variable in time. Finally, there is the issue of nonspuriousness. This occurs if the relationship between the independent and dependent variables is not due to variation in some unobserved third variable.

There are a number of different quantitative research methods available to researchers, most of which fall under the rubric of a research design, which loosely can be defined as the plan or blueprint for a study that includes the who, what, where, when, why and how of an investigation (Hagan). These research methods include: survey research, experimental and quasi-experimental research, cross-sectional research, longitudinal research, time series research, and meta-analysis.

Survey research. Serving as the most frequently used mode of observation within the social sciences, including criminology (Maxfield and Babbie), survey research involves the collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions (Schutt). Survey research is generally carried out via mail, telephone, computer, or in person.

Typically, surveys contain a combination of open- and closed-ended questions. Open-ended questions ask the respondent to provide an answer to a particular question. For example, the respondent may be asked: "What do you think is the most important problem facing residents in your neighborhood today?" Then in their own words, the respondent would provide his or her answer. On the other hand, closed-ended questions ask the respondents to select an answer from a list of choices provided. For example, the question asked above would read exactly the same only now respondents are provided with a list of options to choose from: "What do you think is the most important problem facing residents in your neighborhood today? (a) crime, (b) drugs, (c) education, (d) employment, (e) family structure, (f ) poverty, (g) health care, (h) child care, (i) extracurricular activities, ( j) other."

Surveys offer a number of attractive features that make them a popular method of doing research. They are versatile, efficient, inexpensive, and generalizable. At the same time, survey methods may be limited due to problems in sampling, measurement, and overall survey design. When creating a survey, researchers should take care in making sure that the items in the survey are clear and to the point.

Experimental and quasi-experimental research. Some scholars believe that experimental research is the best type of research to assess cause and effect (Sherman; Weisburd). True experiments must have at least three features: (1) two comparison groups (i.e., an experimental group and a control group); (2) variation in the independent variable before assessment of change in the dependent variable; and (3) random assignment to the two (or more) comparison groups (Schutt).

Many experiments contain both a pre-test and a post-test. The former test measures the dependent variable prior to the experimental intervention while the latter test measures the outcome variable after the experimental group has received the treatment. Randomization is what makes the comparison group in a true experiment a powerful approach for identifying the effects of the treatment (Schutt). Assigning groups randomly to the experimental and comparison groups ensures that systematic bias does not affect the assignment of subjects to groups. This is important if researchers wish to generalize their findings regarding cause and effect among key variables within and across groups.

The classic experimental design is one in which there is a pre-test for both groups, an intervention for one group (i.e., the experimental group), and then a post-test for both groups. Consider the following criminal justice example. Two police precincts alike in all possible respects are chosen to participate in a study that examines fear of crime in neighborhoods. Both precincts would be pre-tested to obtain information on crime rates and citizen perceptions of crime. The experimental precinct would receive a treatment (i.e., increase in police patrols), while the comparison precinct would not receive a treatment. Then, twelve months later, both precincts would be post-tested to determine changes in crime rates and citizen perceptions.

There have been several experimental designs in criminology and criminal justice including the Domestic Violence Experiment (Sherman), where offenders were randomly assigned to one of three interventions (arrest, mediation, separation). The Jersey City Police Department's Program to Control Violent Places also utilized an experimental design (Braga et al.). For this study, twenty-four high-activity, violent crime places were matched into twelve pairs and one member of each pair was allocated to treatment conditions in a randomized block field experiment.

On the other hand, quasi-experimental research lacks the random assignment to experimental and control groups, but can be approximated by close and careful matching of subjects across the two groups on several key variables. The two major types of quasi-experimental designs are: (1) nonequivalent control group designs, which have experimental and comparison groups that are designated before the treatment occurs and are not created by random assignment; and (2) before-and-after designs, which have both a pre- and post-test but no comparison group (Schutt).

An example of a nonequivalent control group design is a study of the effect of police actions on seat-belt law violations. For example, Watson selected two communities of comparable size where police enforcement of the law was low. In the experimental community, Watson instituted a media campaign to increase seat-belt usage, followed by increased police enforcement of the seat-belt law. Watson found that the percentage of drivers using seat belts increased in the experimental community but remained stable or declined slightly in the comparison community.

An example of the before-and-after design is the Pierce and Bowers analysis of the impact of the Massachusetts Bartley-Fox gun law. This law carried a one-year minimum prison sentence for the unlicensed carrying of firearms. Their early evaluation showed a decrease in gun-related assaults, robberies, and homicides, but was offset by increases in nongun assaults and robberies using other weapons.

Cross-sectional research. Cross-sectional designs involve studies of one group at one point in time. Therefore, they offer a quick glimpse or snapshot of the phenomena being studied. Typically, they refer to a representative sample of the group and thus allow researchers to generalize their findings (Hagan). Cross-sectional research designs permeate criminology and criminal justice research. Hirschi's famous study of causes of delinquency utilized a cross-sectional design in which he asked male respondents a series of questions related to involvement in delinquent activities and emotional ties to social bonds.

Longitudinal research. There are two commonly used longitudinal research designs, panel and cohort studies. Both study the same group over a period of time and are generally concerned with assessing within- and between-group change. Panel studies follow the same group or sample over time, while cohort studies examine more specific populations (i.e., cohorts) as they change over time. Panel studies typically interview the same set of people at two or more periods of time. For example, the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) randomly selects a certain number of households from across the United States and interviews a member from each a series of seven times at six-month intervals. Cohort studies follow individuals or specific cohorts as they change over time. One classic example of a cohort study was conducted by Marvin Wolfgang and his colleagues in Philadelphia. The authors traced the criminal records of all boys born in Philadelphia in 1945 through the age of eighteen. Similarly, Tracy, Wolfgang and Figlio tracked the criminal history of males and females born in Philadelphia in 1958.

Time-series designs. Time-series designs typically involve variations of multiple observations of the same group (i.e., person, city, area, etc.) over time or at successive points in time. Typically, they analyze a single variable (such as the crime rate) at successive time periods, and are especially useful for studies of the impact of new laws or social programs (Schutt). An example of a time-series design would be to examine the murder rate in the United States over the last twenty years or to compare the murder rate of the United States and Canada over the same period of time.

An interrupted time-series design analyzes a single variable at successive time periods with measures taken prior to some form of interruption (i.e., intervention) and other observations taken after the intervention. An example of an interrupted time-series design may be found in Spelman and Eck (1987). These authors studied the number of larcenies from automobiles in Newport News, Virginia. The intervention in this study was a problem-oriented policing program that consisted of special tracking and investigation of crime incidents. The results showed that the number of larcenies dropped significantly immediately after the intervention took place and remained significantly small for over one year after the intervention. In another interrupted time series study, D'Alessio and Stolzenberg investigated the impact of Minnesota sentencing guidelines on jail incarceration. They found that the onset of the sentencing guidelines increased judicial use of the jail sanction beyond the effect of preexisting trends.

Although time-series designs are especially useful in studying trends over time and how such trends are influenced by some sort of intervention, researchers should be aware of one key feature of time-series designs: the inability to control for all potential spurious effects. Consider the following example. Suppose that a researcher is studying the effect on robberies of a mandatory convenience store law that requires stores to have at least two clerks working during hours of operation. After examining the number of robberies before and after the law took effect, the researcher observed that the number of robberies significantly decreased after the law was instituted. Therefore, the researcher claimed that the law led to the decrease in the number of robberies committed and concluded that the law should be generalized to other locales. However, what the researcher may have failed to consider was the recent capture of two offenders who were committing 75 percent of all convenience store robberies, and who just happened to be captured about the time the law took effect. In sum, researchers need to be careful in making sure that their interpretations of interrupted time-series analyses take into consideration as much information, both empirical and nonempirical, as possible.

Meta-analysis. A recent advent in research methodology is the use of meta-analysis. This research approach is the quantitative analysis of findings from multiple studies. At its core, meta-analysis involves researchers pulling together the results of several studies and making summary, empirical statements about some cause and effect relationship. A classic example of meta-analysis in criminology was performed by Wells and Rankin and concerned the relationship between broken homes and delinquency.

After observing a series of findings showing that the broken-homes-causes-delinquency hypothesis was inconclusive, Wells and Rankin identified fifty studies that tested this hypothesis. After coding the key characteristics of the studies, such as the population sampled, age range, measures (both independent and dependent) used, the authors found that the average effect of broken homes across the studies was to increase the probability of delinquency by about 10 to 15 percent. Perhaps more importantly, they found that the different methods used across the studies accounted for much of the variation in estimating the effect of broken homes. For example, the effect of broken homes on delinquency tended to be greater in studies using official records rather than self-report surveys.

Although the research community has not spoken with one voice regarding the usefulness of meta-analysis, one thing is clear: meta-analysis makes the research community aware that it is inappropriate to base conclusions on the findings of one study. It is because of this important lesson that meta-analysis has become a popular technique in criminological and criminal justice research (Lipsey and Wilson).

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Criminology and Criminal Justice Research: Methods - Threats To Validity
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Convict criminology: what do ex-convicts have to say on the subject?
Criminal justice theories: punishment as a deterrent to crime.
Critical criminology : debunking false ideas about crime and criminal justice.
Cultural criminology: criminality as the product of culture.
Cultural transmission theory: how criminal norms are transmitted in social interaction.
Deterrence theory: how people don’t commit crimes out of fear of punishment.
Rational choice theory : how crime doing is aligned with personal objectives of the perpetrator.
Feminist Criminology: how the dominant crime theories exclude women.
Labeling and symbolic interaction theories: how minorities and those deviating from social norms tend to be negatively labeled.
Life course criminology : how life events affect the actions that humans perform.
Psychological theories of crime: criminal behavior through the lense of an individual’s personality.
Routine activities theory : how normal everyday activities affect the tendency to commit a crime.
The concept of natural legal crime.
Self-control theory : how the lack of individual self-control results in criminal behavior.
Social construction of crime: crime doing as social response.
Social control theory : how positive socialization corresponds with reduction of criminal violation.
Social disorganization theory : how neighborhood ecological characteristics correspond with crime rates.
Social learning theory : how (non)criminal behavior can be acquired by observing and imitating others.
Strain theories : how social structures within society pressure citizens to commit crime.
Theoretical integration: how two theories are better than one.

Criminology Research and Measurement Topics

Citation content analysis (CCA): a framework for gaining knowledge from a variety of media.
Crime classification systems: classification of crime according to the severity of punishment.
Crime mapping as a way to map, visualize, and analyze crime incident patterns.
Reports and statistics of crime: the estimated rate of crime over time. Public surveys.
Drug abuse warning network (DAWN): predicting trends in drug misuse.
Arrestee drug abuse monitoring (ADAM): drug use among arrestees.
Edge ethnography: collecting data undercover in typically closed research settings and groups through rapport development or covert undercover strategy.
Experimental criminology: experimental and quasi-experimental research in the advancement of criminological theory.
Fieldwork in criminology: street ethnographers and their dilemmas in the field concerning process and outcomes.
Program evaluation: collecting and analyzing information to assess the efficiency of projects, policies and programs.
Quantitative criminology: how exploratory research questions, inductive reasoning , and an orientation to social context help recognize human subjectivity.

Criminology Topics on Types of Crime

Campus crime: the most common crimes on college campuses and ways of preventing them.
Child abuse : types, prevalence, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
Cybercrime : cyber fraud, defamation, hacking, bullying, phishing.
Domestic violence : gender, ways of detection and prevention, activism.
Domestic violence with disabilities .
Elder abuse : types, prevalence, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
Environmental crime. Natural resource theft: illegal trade in wildlife and timber, poaching, illegal fishing.
Environmental crime. Illegal trade in ozone-depleting substances, hazardous waste; pollution of air, water, and soil.
Environmental crime: local, regional, national, and transnational level.
Environmental crime: climate change crime and corruption.
Environmental crime: wildlife harming and exploitation.
Hate crime : how prejudice motivates violence.

Homicide : what motivates one person to kill another.
Human trafficking : methods of deception, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
Identity theft : methods, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
Gambling in America .
Juvenile delinquency : risk groups, prevention policies, prosecution and punishment.
Juvenile Delinquency: Causes and Effects
Organizational crime: transnational, national, and local levels. Ways of disrupting the activity of a group.
Prostitution : risk groups, different takes on prevention policies, activism.
Robbery : risk groups, ways of prevention, prosecution and punishment.
Sex offenses: risk groups, types, prevalence, ways of detection and prevention.
Terrorism: definition, history, countermeasures .
Terrorism : individual and group activity, ways of detection and prevention.
Theft and shoplifting : risk groups, ways of detection, prevention policies, prosecution and punishment.
Counter-terrorism: constitutional and legislative issues .
White-collar crime : types, ways of detection, prevention policies, prosecution and punishment.

Criminology Topics on Racism and Discrimination

How systemic bias affects criminal justice?
How discriminatory portrayal of minority groups in the media affects criminal justice?
Racial profiling : targeting minority groups on the basis of race and ethnicity.
Racism and discrimination towards African-Americans .
Racial profiling : what are the cons? Are there any pros?
How discriminatory is the UK Court System?
How discriminatory is the US Court System?

🌶️ Hot Criminal Justice Topics

The history of modern police.
Different types of prison systems.
Is situational crime prevention effective?
How to prevent wrongful convictions.
Challenges faced by crime victims.
The advantages of community corrections.
How do ethics influence criminal justice?
Disadvantages of felony disenfranchisement.
Does correctional system in the USA really work?
Possible problems of prisoner reentry process.

💂 116 Criminal Justice Research Topics & Questions

Here are some of the most typical and interesting criminal justice issues to dazzle your professor.

Prison system : the main problems and the hidden pitfalls.
The question of gender: why are there more men who receive capital punishment than women?
Kidnapping and ransom: common features, motifs, behavior patterns.
Crime prevention : key principles.
Firing a gun: what helps professionals understand whether it was deliberate or happened by accident?
Cybercrime : the legal perspective.
Internet vigilantism: revenge leaks.
Hate crime on the Internet: revenge leaks, trolling, defamation.
Crime and justice in mass media .
Parental abduction laws.
Sex offender registry: pros and cons.
The deterrence theory and the theory of rational choice : are they relevant in the modern world?
Sexual assault in schools and workplaces.
Jury selection: how is it performed?
Experimental criminology: the latest innovations.

Wildlife crime: areas of prevalence, ways of prevention.
Felony disenfranchisement laws: when do they apply?
The relation between organized crime and corruption .
Victim services: what help can a victim of a crime get?
Prison rape and violence: the psychological aspect, ways of prevention.
Juvenile recidivism : what are the risk groups?
Forensic science : role and functions in modern criminal justice.
Shoplifting: how to prevent theft?
Witness Protection Program: who is eligible and how to protect them.
Date rape : what are the ways for the victims to seek legal assistance?
Substance abuse and crime: correlation or causation?
Identity theft: dangers and consequences in the modern world.
Online predators: what laws can be introduced to protect kids? Real-life examples.
Civil and criminal cases: how to differentiate?
Domestic abuse victims: what laws protect them?
Elder abuse : what can be done to prevent it?
The strain theory : the unachievable American dream.
Concepts of law enforcement: pursuing criminal justice .
Ethics and criminal justice: the unethical sides of law enforcement.
The top problems to be solved by law enforcement today.
Information sharing technology: how has it helped in the fight against terrorism ?
Terrorism in perspective: characteristics, causes, control .
Serial killers : types.
Drug use and youth arrests.
Aggressive behavior : how does it correlate with criminal tendencies?
Community corrections : are they effective?
Sentencing: how does it take place?
Punishment types and the established terms.
Unwarranted arrest: when is it acceptable?
Human trafficking in the modern world.
Human trafficking: current state and counteracts .
The role of technology in modern forensics .
Similarities and differences between homicide , murder, and manslaughter.
Types of offenders: classification.
Effects of gun control measures in the United States .
The role of crime mapping in modern criminal justice.
Male crimes vs female crimes: are they different?
Prisons : the problems of bad living conditions.
Victimization : causes and ways of prevention.
Victimology and traditional justice system alternatives .
Rape victims: what are their rights?
Problem-solving courts: what underlying problems do they address?
Mandatory sentencing and the three-strike rule.
Have “three-strikes” laws been effective and should they be continued?
Criminal courts : what can be learned from their history?
Hate crimes : what motivates people to commit them?
Youth gangs: what is their danger?
Fieldwork: how is it done in criminology?
Distributive justice : its place in criminal justice.
Capital punishment : what can be learned from history?
Humanities and justice in Britain during 18th century .
Abolition of capital punishment .
Criminals and prisoners’ rights .
Crime prevention programs and criminal rehabilitation .
Campus crime: what laws and precautions are there against it?
Criminal trial process: how does it go?
Crimes committed on a religious basis: how are they punished?
The code of ethics in the Texas department of criminal justice .
Comparison between Florida and Maryland’s legislative frameworks .
Fraud in the scientific field: how can copyright protect the discoveries of researchers?
Prosecution laws: how are they applied in practice?
The classification of crime systems.
Cyberbullying and cyberstalking: what can parents do to protect their children?
Forgery cases in educational institutions, offices, and governmental organizations.
Drug courts : how do they work?

Controversial Topics in Criminal Justice

Want your work to be unconventional? Consider choosing one of the controversial topics. You will need to present a number of opposite points of view. Of course, it’s acceptable to choose and promote an opinion that you think stands the best. Just make sure to provide a thorough analysis of all of the viewpoints.

You can also stay impartial and let the reader make up their own mind on the subject. If you decide to support one of the viewpoints, your decision should be objective. Back it up with plenty of evidence, too. Here are some examples of controversial topics that you can explore.

Reform vs. punishment: which one offers more benefits?
Restorative justice model : is it the best criminal justice tool?
The war on drugs : does it really solve the drug problem?
Criminal insanity: is it a reason enough for exemption from liability?
Juvenile justice system : should it be eliminated?
Drug testing on the school ground.
Police brutality in the United States .
How to better gun control ?
Why Gun Control Laws Should be Scrapped .
Pornography: is it a type of sexual violence?
Whether death penalty can be applied fairly?
Jack the Ripper: who was he?
The modern justice system: is it racist?
A false accusation: how can one protect themselves from it?
Concealed weapons: what are the criminal codes of various states?
Race and crime: is there a correlation?
Registering sex offenders: should this information be in public records?
Juvenile delinquency and bad parenting: is there a relation?
Assessing juveniles for psychopathy or conduct disorder .
Should all new employees be checked for a criminal background ?
Are delinquency cases higher among immigrant children?
Restrictive housing: can it help decongest prisons?
Homegrown crimes: is there an effective program against them?
Prostitution: the controversy around legalization .
Eyewitness testimony : is it really helpful in an investigation?
Youthful offenders in boot camps: is this strategy effective?
Predictive policing : is it effective?
Selective incapacitation: is it an effective policy for reducing crime?
Social class and crime: is there a relation?
Death penalty: is it effective in crime deterrence?
Extradition law: is it fair?
Devious interrogations: is deceit acceptable during investigations?
Supermax prisons: are they effective or just cruel?
Zero tolerance: is it the best policy for crime reduction?
Marijuana decriminalization: pros and cons.
Marijuana legalization in the US .

Now that you have looked through the full list of topics, choose wisely. Remember that sometimes it’s best to avoid sensitive topics. Other times, a clever choice of a topic will win you extra points. It doesn’t depend on just the tastes of your professor, of course. You should also take into account how much relevant information there is on the subject. Anyway, the choice of the topic of your research is up to you. Try to find the latest materials and conduct an in-depth analysis of them. Don’t forget to draw a satisfactory conclusion. Writing may take a lot of your time and energy, so plan ahead. Remember to stay hydrated and good luck!

Now, after we looked through the topic collections on criminology and criminal justice, it is time to turn to the specifics in each of the fields. First, let’s talk more extensively about criminology. If you are training to be a criminologist, you will study some things more deeply. They include the behavior patterns of criminals, their backgrounds, and the latest sociological trends in crime.

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In the field of criminology, the specialties are numerous. That’s why it’s difficult to pinpoint one career that represents a typical member of the profession. It all depends on the background of a criminologist, their education, and experience.

Careers possible with a criminology major.

A criminologist may have a number of responsibilities at their position. For example, they might be called forth to investigate a crime scene. Participation in autopsies is unpleasant yet necessary. Interrogation of suspects and subsequent criminal profiling is another essential duty.

Some professionals work solely in research. Others consult government agencies or private security companies. Courts and law firms also cooperate with criminologists. Their job is to provide expert opinion in criminal proceedings. Some of them work in the prison systems in order to oversee the rehabilitation of the convicted.

Regardless of the career specialty , most criminologists are working on profiling and data collection. A criminologist is another word for an analyst. They collect, study, and analyze data on crimes. After conducting the analysis, they provide recommendations and actionable information.

A criminologist seeks to find out the identity of the person who committed the crime. The time point of a crime is also important, as well as the reason for it. There are several areas covered by the analysis of a criminologist. The psychological behavior of the criminal or criminals is closely studied. The socio-economic indicators are taken into account. There are also, of course, the environmental factors that may have facilitated the crime.

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Some high-profile cases require a criminologist to correspond with media and PR managers extensively. Sometimes criminologists write articles and even books about their findings. However, it should be noted that the daily routine of a professional in the field is not so glamorous. Most criminologists do their work alone, without the attention of the public.

The research a criminologist accumulates during their work is extensive. It doesn’t just sit there in a folder on their desk, of course. The collected statistics are used for developing active criminal profiles that are shared with law enforcement agencies. It helps to understand criminal behavior better and to predict it. That’s why a criminologist’s work must be precise and accurate for it to be practical and useful. Also, criminology professionals must have a good grasp of math and statistics.

Thinking of a career in criminology? You will need to, at the very least, graduate from college. There, you’ll master mathematics, statistics, and, of course, criminology. An associate’s degree may get you an entry-level position. But the minimum entry-level requirement is usually the bachelor’s degree. The best positions, though, are left for the professionals with a master’s degree or a PhD.

Just having a degree is not enough. To succeed as a criminologist, you will require all your intelligence, commitment, and the skill of analyzing intricate situations. An aspiration to better the society will go a long way. You will need to exercise your creative, written, and verbal communication skills, too. An analytical mind will land you at an advantage.

Criminology: Research Areas

Times change and the world of crime never ceases to adapt. The nature of criminal transgression is evolving, and so do the ways of prosecution. Criminal detection, investigation, and prevention are constantly advancing. Criminology studies aim to improve the practices implemented in the field.

There are six unified, coordinated, and interrelated areas of expertise. Within each, the professionals are busy turning their mastery into knowledge and action.

The first research area is the newest worry of criminology – cybercrime. The impact of this type of crime is escalating with every passing day. That’s why it’s crucial for the law enforcement professionals to keep up to date with the evolving technology. Cybercrime research is exploring the growing threat of its subject at all levels of society. Cybercrime may impact people on both personal and governmental levels. Cybercrime research investigates the motivation and methodology behind the offenses and finds new ways to react.

The second research area is counter fraud. Crimes that fall under this category include fraud and corruption. The questions that counter fraud research deals with are many. How widely a crime is spread, what method is best to fight it, and the optimal courses of action to protect people and organizations.

The third research area is that of forensics. The contemporary face of justice has been changed by forensic science beyond recognition. Nowadays, it’s much harder for criminals to conceal their activity due to evolved technologies. The research in forensics is utilizing science in the identification of the crime and in its reconstruction. It employs such techniques as DNA recovery, fingerprinting, and forensic interviewing.

What is forensic interviewing? It helps find new ways to gather quality information from witnesses and crime scenes. It also works on developing protocols that ensure the protection of this human data and its correct interpretation by police.

The fourth research area is policing. Police service is facing a lot of pressing issues nowadays due to budget cuts. At the same time, police officers still need to learn, and there are also individual factors that may influence their work.

The fifth research area is penology. It’s tasked with exploring the role of punishment in the criminal justice system. Does punishment aid the rehabilitation of perpetrators, and to what extent? The answer will help link theory to practice and thus shape how criminal justice practitioners work.

The sixth research area is that of missing persons. Before a person goes missing, they may display a certain pattern of behavior. The study of missing persons helps to identify it. The results will determine the handling of such cases.

Now that we know what criminology is, it’s time to talk about criminal justice.

While criminology focuses on the analysis of crime, criminal justice concentrates on societal systems. Its primary concern is with the criminal behavior of the perpetrators. For example, in the USA, there are three branches of the criminal justice system. They are police (aka law enforcement), courts, and corrections. These branches all work together to punish and prevent unlawful behavior. If you take up a career in criminal justice, expect to work in one of these fields.

The most well-known branch of criminal justice is law enforcement. The police force is at the forefront of defense against crime and misdemeanor. They stand against the criminal element in many ways. For instance, they patrol the streets, investigate crimes, and detain suspects. It’s not just the police officers who take these responsibilities upon themselves. There are also US Marshals, ICE, FBI Agents, DEA, and border patrol. Only after the arrest has been made, the perpetrator enters the court system.

The court system is less visible to the public, but still crucial to the criminal justice system. Its main purpose is to determine the suspect’s innocence or guilt. You can work as an attorney, lawyer, bailiff, judge, or another professional of the field. In the court, if you are a suspect, you are innocent until proven guilty. You are also entitled to a fair trial. However, if they do find you guilty, you will receive a sentence. Your punishment will be the job of the corrections system.

The courts determine the nature of the punishment, and the corrections system enforces it. There are three elements of the corrections system: incarceration, probation, and parole. They either punish or rehabilitate the convicts. Want to uptake a career in corrections? You may work as, including, but not limited to: a parole officer, a prison warden, a probation officer, and a guard.

📈 Criminal Justice: Research Areas

The research areas in criminal justice are similar, if not identical, to those of criminology. After all, those are two very closely related fields. The one difference is that criminal justice research has more practical than theoretical applications. But it’s fair to say that theory is the building blocks that practice bases itself on. One is impossible without the other unless the result you want is complete chaos.

So, the question is – what topic to choose for the research paper? Remember that the world of criminal justice is constantly changing. Choosing a subject for research in criminal justice, consider a relevant topic. There are many pressing issues in the field. Exploring them will undoubtedly win you points from your professor. Just make sure to choose a direction that will give you the opportunity to show off both your knowledge and your analytical skills.

Not sure that your original research direction will be appreciated? Then choose one of the standard topics. Something that is widely discussed in the media. And, of course, make sure that you are truly interested in the subject. Otherwise, your disinterest will translate into your writing, which may negatively affect the overall impression. Also, it’s just more enjoyable to work on something that resonates with you.

What can you do with your research paper? Literally anything. Explore the background of the issue. Make predictions. Compare the different takes on the matter. Maybe there are some fresh new discoveries that have been made recently. What does science say about that?

Also, remember to backup all your arguments with quotes and examples from real life. The Internet is the best library and research ground a student could hope for. The main idea of the paper, aka the thesis, must be proven by enough factual material. Otherwise, it’s best to change your research direction.

And, of course, don’t put it all off till the last minute. Make a plan and stick to it. Consistency and clever distribution of effort will take you a long way. Good luck!

🤔 Criminal Justice Research FAQs

Criminological and criminal justice research are the scientific studies of the causes and consequences, extent and control, nature, management, and prevention of criminal behavior, both on the social and individual levels.

Criminal justice and criminology are sciences that analyze the occurrence and explore the ways of prevention of illegal acts. Any conducted personal research and investigation should be supported by the implemented analytical methods from academic works that describe the given subject.

There are six interrelated areas of criminology research:

Cybercrime research makes law enforcement professionals keep up to date with the evolving technology.
Counter fraud research investigates cases of fraud and corruption.
Forensics research utilizes science: DNA recovery, fingerprinting, and forensic interviewing.
Research in policing investigates individual factors that may influence the work of police officers.
Penology explores the role of punishment in the criminal justice system.
The study of missing persons helps to identify patterns of victims’ behavior.

There are seven research methods in criminology:

Quantitative research methods measure criminological and criminal justice reality by assigning numerical values to concepts to find patterns of correlation, cause and effect.
Survey research collects information from a number of persons via their responses to questions.
Experimental research assesses cause and effect in two comparison groups.
Cross-sectional research studies one group at one point in time.
Longitudinal research studies the same group over a period of time.
Time-series designs study the same group at successive points in time.
Meta-analysis employs quantitative analysis of findings from multiple studies.

The basis of criminological theory is criminological research. It influences the development of social policies and defines criminal justice practice.

Criminological research doesn’t just enable law students to develop analytical and presentational skills. The works of criminal justice professionals, scholars, and government policymakers dictate the way law enforcement operates. The newest ideas born out of research identify corrections and crime prevention, too.

Here is a step-by-step instruction on how to write a criminal justice research paper:

Choose a topic
Read the materials and take notes
Come up with a thesis
Create an outline for your work
Draft the body
Start with a cover page, an abstract, and an intro
List the methods you used, and the results you got
Include a discussion
Sum it up with a conclusion
Don’t forget a literature review and appendices
Revise, proofread, and edit

The most common types of methodologies in criminal justice research include:

Observation of participants.
Surveys and interviews.
Observation of focus groups.
Conducting experiments.
Analysis of secondary data and archival study.
Mixed (a combination of the above methods).

Learn more on this topic:

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The Differences Between Criminal Justice and Criminology: Which Degree Is Right for You? (Concordia St. Paul)
Corporate Crime: Britannica
The Development of Delinquency: NAP
Databases for Research & Education: Gale
A CS Research Topic Generator: Purdue University
A Introduction To The Federal Court System: US Department of Justice
Criminal Justice Research Topics: Broward College
Research Topics in Criminology: Cambridge Institute of Criminology
CRIMINOLOGY: University of Portsmouth
Research: Department of Criminology & Criminal Justice, University of Maryland
Criminal Justice: RAND
Research Methods in Criminal Justice: Penn State University Libraries
Research: School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Arizona State University
Criminology – Research Guide: Getting started (Penn Libraries)
Criminology Research Papers: Academia
The History & Development of the U.S. Criminal Justice System: Study.com
CRIMINAL JUSTICE & CRIMINOLOGY: Marshall University
Criminal Justice: Temple University
Criminal Justice: University of North Georgia
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The schools of criminology seems like such a fascinating field — it’s definitely not for the lighthearted though! Here in the Philippines, criminology as a course is highly underrated; hopefully that’ll change!

I understand. Thank you for sharing your thoughts!

6 Chapter 6: Qualitative Research in Criminal Justice

Case study: exploring the culture of “urban scrounging” 1.

Research Purpose

To describe the culture of urban scrounging, or dumpster diving, and the items that can be found in dumpsters and trash piles.

Methodology

This field study, conducted by Dr. Jeff Ferrell, currently a professor of sociology at Texas Christian University, began in 2002. In December of 2001, after resigning from an academic position in Arizona, Ferrell returned home to Fort Worth, Texas. An avid proponent for and participant in field research throughout his career, he decided to use the next eight months, prior to the 2002 academic year beginning, to explore a culture in which he had always been interested, the urban underground of “scrounging, recycling, and secondhand living” (p. 1). Using the neighborhoods of central Fort Worth as a backdrop, Ferrell embarked, often on his bicycle, into the fife of a dumpster diver. While he was not completely homeless at the time, he did his best to fully embrace the lifestyle of an urban scrounger and survive on what he found. For this study, Ferrell was not only learning how to survive off of the discarded possessions of others, he was systematically recording and describing the contents of the dumpsters and trash piles he found and kept. While in the field, Ferrell was also exploring scrounging as a means of economic survival and the social aspects of this underground existence. A broader theme of Ferrell’s research emerged as he encountered the number and vast array of items he found discarded in trash piles and dumpsters. This theme concerns the “hyperconsumption” and “collective wastefulness” (pp. 5–6) by American citizens and the environmental destruction created by the accumulating and discarding of so many material goods.

Results and Implications

Ferrell’s time spent among the trash piles and dumpsters of Fort Worth resulted in a variety of intriguing yet disturbing realizations regarding not only material excess but also social and personal change. While encounters with others were kept to a minimum, as they generally are for scroungers, Ferrell describes some of the people he met along the way and their conversations. Whether food, clothes, building materials, or scrap metal, the commonality was that scroungers could usually find what they were looking for among the trash heaps and alleyways. Throughout his book, Ferrell often focuses on the material items that he discovered while scrounging. He found so much, he was able to fill and decorate a home with perfectly good items that had been discarded by others, including the bicycle he now rides and a turquoise sink and bathtub. He found books and even old photographs and other mementos meant to document personal history. While discarded, these social artifacts tell the stories of society and often have the chance to find altered meaning when possessed by someone new.

Beyond the things found and people met, Ferrell discusses the boundary shift that has taken urban scrounging from deviant to criminal as lines are often blurred between public access and ownership. Not only do these urban scroungers face the stigma associated with their scrounging activities, those who dive in dumpsters and dig through trash piles can face criminal charges for trespassing. While this makes scrounging more challenging, due to basic survival or interest, the wealth of items and artifacts to be found are often worth the risk. Ultimately, Ferrell’s experiences as an urban scrounger provide not only a description of this subculture but also a critique on American consumption and wastefulness, a theme that becomes more important as Americans and others continue in economically tenuous times.

In This Chapter You Will Learn

To explain what it means for research to be qualitative

To describe the advantages of field research

To explain the challenges of field studies for researchers

To provide examples of field research in the social sciences

To discuss the case study approach

Introduction

In Chapter 2, you read about the differences between quantitative and qualitative methodologies. Whereas methods that are quantitative in nature focus on numerical measurements of phenomena, qualitative methods are focused on developing a deeper understanding regarding groups of people, or subcultures, about which little is known. Using detailed description, findings from qualitative research are generally more sensitizing, providing the research community and the interested public information about these generally elusive groups and their behaviors. A debate rages between criminologists as to which type of research should be achieved and referenced more often. The truth is that both have something valuable to offer regarding the study of deviance, crime, and victimization.

Field Research

Qualitative methodologies involve the use of field research, where researchers are out among these groups collecting information rather than studying participant behavior through surveys or experiments that have been developed in artificial settings. Field research provides some of the most fascinating reading because the researcher is observing closely or acting as part of the group and is therefore able to describe in depth not only the subjects’ behaviors, but also consider the motivations that drive their behaviors. This chapter focuses on the use of qualitative methods in the social sciences, particularly the use of participant observation to study deviant, and sometimes criminal, behaviors. The many challenges as well as advantages of conducting this type of research will be discussed as will well-known examples of past field research and suggestions for conducting this type of research. First, however, it is important to understand what sets qualitative field research apart from the other methodologies discussed in this text.

The Study of Behavior

It is common for criminal justice researchers to rely on survey or interview methodologies to collect data. One advantage of doing so is being able to collect data from many respondents in a short period of time. Technology has created other advantages with survey methodology. For example, Internet surveys are a convenient, quick, and inexpensive way to reach respondents who may or may not reside nearby. Researchers often survey community residents and university students, but may also focus specifically on offender or victim samples. One significant limitation of using survey methodologies is that they rely on the truthfulness of the respondents. If researchers are interested in attitudes and behaviors that may be illegal or otherwise controversial, it could be that respondents will not be truthful in answering the questions placed before them. Survey research has focused on past or current drug use (see the Monitoring the Future Program), past victimization experiences (see the National Criminal Victimization Survey), and prison sexual assault victimization (see the Prison Rape Elimination Act data collection procedures conducted by the Bureau of Justice Statistics), just to name a few. If a student uses marijuana but does not want anyone to know, they may choose to falsify their survey responses when asked about marijuana use. If a citizen or prison inmate has been sexually assaulted but is too ashamed or afraid to tell anyone, they may be untruthful when asked about such victimization experiences on a survey. The point is, although researchers attempt to better understand the attitudes and behaviors of a certain population through the use of surveys, there is one major drawback to consider: the disjunction between what people say and what they actually do. As mentioned previously, a student may be a drug user but not admit to it. Someone may be a gang member, but say they are not when asked directly about it. Someone may respond that they have never committed a crime or been victimized when in fact they have. In short, people sometimes lie and there are many potential reasons for doing so. Perhaps the offender or drug user has not yet been caught and does not want to be caught. Whatever the reason, this is a hazard of measuring attitudes and behaviors through the use of surveys. One way to overcome the issue of untruthfulness is to conduct research using various forms of actual participation or observation of the behaviors we want to study. By observing someone in their natural environment (or, “the field”), researchers have the ability to observe behaviors firsthand, rather than relying on survey responses. These research strategies are generally known as participant observation methods.

Types of Field Research: A Continuum

Participant observation strategies involve researchers studying groups or individuals in their natural setting. Think of participant observation as a student internship. Students may read about law enforcement in their textbooks and discuss law enforcement issues in class, but only through an internship with a law enforcement agency will a student have a chance to understand how things actually happen from firsthand observation. Field strategies were first developed for social science, and particularly crime, research in the 1920s by researchers working within the University of Chicago’s Department of Sociology. The “Chicago School,” as this group of researchers is commonly known, focused on ethnographic research to study urban crime problems. Emerging from the field of anthropology, ethnographic research relies on field research methodologies to scientifically examine human culture in the natural environment. Significant theoretical developments within the field of criminology, such as social disorganization, which focused on the impact of culture and environment, were advanced at this time. For example, researchers such as Shaw and McKay, Thrasher, and others used field research to study the activities of subcultures, particularly youth gangs, as well as areas of the city that were most impacted by crime. These researchers were not interested in studying these problems from afar. Instead, they were interested in understanding social problems, including the impact of environmental disintegration, from the field.

There are various ways to conduct field research, and these can be placed on a continuum from most to least invasive and also from more qualitative to more quantitative. In attempting to understand phenomena from the standpoint of the actors, a researcher may participate fully in the behaviors of the group or may instead choose to observe from afar as activities unfold. The most invasive, and also most qualitative, form of participant observation is complete participation. The least invasive, and also most quantitative, is complete observation. In between these two are participant as observer and observer as participant. Each of these strategies will now be discussed in more detail.

Complete participation, sometimes referred to as disguised observation, is a method that involves the researcher becoming a full-fledged member of a particular group. For example, if a researcher is interested in understanding the culture of correctional officers, she may apply to be hired on as a correctional officer. Once hired on, the researcher will wear the uniform and obtain firsthand experience working in a prison environment. To study urban gangs, a researcher may attempt to be accepted as a member or associate of the gang. In complete participation, the true identity of the researcher is not known to the members of the group. Therefore, they are ultimately just like any other member of the group under study. Not only will the researcher have the ability to observe the group from the inside, he can also manipulate the direction of group activity through participation or through the use of confederates. This method is considered the most qualitative because, as a complete participant, the researcher will be fully sensitized to what it is like to be a member of the group under study, and will fully participate in the group’s activities. The researcher can then share the information he has gathered on the group’s inner workings, motivations, and activities from the perspective of a group member.

Researchers utilizing the participant as observer method will also participate in the activities of the group under study. The difference between the complete participant strategy and participant as observer strategy is that in the participant as observer method, the researcher reveals herself as a researcher to the group. Her presence as a researcher is known. Accordingly, the researcher does not overtly attempt to influence the direction of group activity. While she does participate, the researcher is more interested in observing the group’s activity and corresponding behaviors as they occur naturally. So, if a researcher wanted to examine life as a homeless person, she might go to where a group of homeless persons congregate. The researcher would introduce herself as such but, if safe, stay one or many days and nights out with the homeless she meets in order to conduct observations and participate in group activities.

The third participant observation strategy is observer as participant. As with the participant as observer method, researchers using the observer as participant method reveal themselves to the group as a researcher. Here again, their presence as a researcher is known. What makes this strategy different from the first two is that the researcher does not participate in the group’s activities. While he may interact with the participants, he does not participate. Instead, the researcher is there only to observe. An example of this method would be a researcher who conducts “ride-alongs” in order to study law enforcement behavior during traffic stops. The researcher will interact with the officers, but he will not participate or even exit the car during the traffic stops being observed.

The least invasive participant observation strategy is complete observation. As you will learn in Chapter 7, this is a totally unobtrusive method; the research subjects are not aware that they are being observed for purposes of research. Think of a law enforcement officer being on a stakeout. These officers generally sit in unmarked vehicles down the street as they observe the movements and activities of a certain person or group of people. Researchers who are complete observers work much the same way. While being the least invasive, complete observation is also the least qualitative. Studying an individual or group from afar means that there is no interaction with that individual. Without this interaction, researchers are unable to gain a more sensitized understanding of the motivations of the group. This strategy is considered to be more quantitative because researchers must rely on counts of activities or movements. For example, if you are a researcher interested in studying how many drivers run a stop sign on campus, you may sit near the intersection and observe driver behavior. In collecting the data, you will count how many drivers make a complete stop, how many come to a rolling stop, and how many run the stop sign altogether. Now, although you may have these counts, you will not know why drivers stopped or not. It could be that one driver had a sick passenger who he was rushing to the hospital and that is why he did not come to a complete stop. As with most quantitative research, as a complete observer, questions of “why?” often go unanswered.

FIGURE 6.1 | Differences among Participant Observation Methods

quantitative research topics in criminal justice

Advantages and Disadvantages of Field Research by Method

As with any particular research method, there are advantages and disadvantages to conducting field research. Some of these are specific to the type of field research a researcher decides to conduct. One general advantage to participant observation methods is that researchers are able to study “hard to reach” populations. A disadvantage is that these groups may be difficult to study for a number of reasons. It could be that the group is criminal in nature, such as a youth gang, a biker gang, or the Mafia. While perhaps not criminal, the individual or group may be involved in deviant behaviors that they are unwilling to discuss even with people they know. An additional disadvantage is that there could be administrative roadblocks to conducting such research. If a researcher wants to understand the correctional officer culture but the prison will not allow the researcher to conduct the study, she may have to get hired on and conduct the research as a full participant. Examples of research involving each of these situations will be discussed later in this chapter.

Another challenge for field researchers is the ability to maintain objectivity. In Chapter 2, the importance of objectivity for scientific research was discussed. If data gathered is subjective or biased in some way, research findings will be impacted by this subjectivity and will therefore not be reflective of reality. While objectivity would be easier to maintain from afar, the closer a researcher becomes to a group and its members, the easier it may be to lose objectivity. This is true particularly for complete participants. For researchers who participate as members of the group under study, it may become difficult not to begin to identify with the group. When this occurs, and the researcher loses sight of the research goals in favor of group membership, it is called “ going native. ” This is a hazard of field research in which the researcher spends a significant amount of time, perhaps years, within a group. The researcher may begin to see things from the group’s perspective and therefore not be able to objectively complete the intended study. To balance this possible hazard of complete participation is the advantage of not having reactivity. Because the research subjects do not know they are being observed, they will not act any differently than they would under normal circumstances. Researchers therefore avoid the Hawthorne Effect when conducting field research as a complete participant.

There is the possibility that a researcher who incorporates the participant as observer strategy may also go native. Although his presence as a researcher is known, he is interacting with the group and participating in group activities. Therefore, it is possible he may begin to lose objectivity due to an attachment to or identification with the group under study. Whereas complete participants can avoid the Hawthorne Effect, participants as observers do not have this luxury. Even though these researchers may be participating in group activities, because their presence as a researcher is known, it can be expected that the group may in some way alter their behavior because they are being observed. An additional disadvantage to this strategy is that it may take time for a researcher to be accepted by group members who are aware of the researcher’s presence. If certain group members are uncomfortable with the researcher’s presence, they may make it difficult for the researcher to interact with other members or join in group activities.

Researchers on the observing end of the participant observation continuum face some similar and some unique challenges. Those who conduct observer as participant field studies will also face reactivity, or the Hawthorne Effect, because their presence as a researcher is known to the group under study. As in the ride-along example discussed previously, if a patrol officer knows she is being observed, she may alter her behavior in such a way that the researcher is not observing a realistic traffic stop. Additionally, these researchers may face difficulties gaining access or being accepted into the group under study, especially since they are there only to observe and not to participate with the group. In this case, the researcher may be ostracized even further by the group because she is not acting as one of them.

Researchers acting as complete observers to gather data on an individual or group are not limited by reactivity. Because the research subjects are unaware they are being observed, the Hawthorne Effect will not impact study findings. The advantage is that this method is totally unobtrusive, or noninvasive. The main disadvantage here is that the researcher is too far away to truly understand the group and their behaviors. As mentioned previously, at this point, the research becomes quite quantitative because the researcher can only observe and count movements and interactions from afar. Lacking in context, these counts may not be as useful in understanding a group as findings would be from the use of another participant observation method.

Costs One of the more important factors to consider when determining whether field research is the best option is the demand such research may place on a researcher. If you remember from the opening case study, Ferrell spent months in the field to collect information on urban scrounging. Researchers may spend weeks, months, and even years participating with and/or observing study subjects. Due to this, they may experience financial, personal, and sometimes professional costs. Time away from family and friends can take a personal toll on researchers. If the researcher is funding his own research or otherwise not able to earn a salary while undergoing the field study, he may suffer financially. Finally, also due to time away and perhaps due to activities that may be considered unethical, fieldwork can have a negative impact on a researcher’s career. While these demands are very real, past researchers have found ways to successfully navigate the world of field research resulting in fascinating findings and ultimately coming out unscathed from the experience.

Gaining Access Gaining access to populations of interest is also a difficult task to accomplish as these populations are often small, clandestine groups who generally keep out of the public eye. Field research is unlike survey research in that there is not a readily available list of gang members or dumpster divers from which you can draw a random sample. Instead, researchers often rely on the snowball sampling technique. If you remember from Chapter 3, snowball sampling entails a researcher meeting one or a handful of group members and receiving introductions to other group members from the initial members. One member leads you to the next, who then leads you to the next.

When gathering information as an observer as participant, a researcher should be straightforward and announce her intentions to group members immediately. It may be best to give a detailed explanation of her presence and purpose to group leaders or other decision-makers. If this does not happen, when the group does find out a researcher is in their presence, they may feel the researcher was trying to hide something. If the identity of the researcher is known, it is important that the researcher be a researcher, and that she not pretend to be one of the group, as this may also cause problems. It may be disconcerting to group members if an outsider thinks she is closer to the group than members are willing to allow her to be.

While complete participant researchers may be introduced to one or more members, this does not mean that they will be readily accepted as part of the group. This is true even if they are acting as full participants. There are some things researchers can do to increase their chances of being accepted. First, researchers should learn the argot, or language, of the group under study. Study subjects may have a particular way of speaking to one another through the use of slang or other vernacular. If a researcher is familiar with this argot and is able to use it convincingly, he will seem less of an outsider. It is also important to time your approach. A researcher should be aware, as much as possible, about what is happening in the group before gaining access. If a researcher is studying drug dealers and there was just a big drug bust or if a researcher is studying gangs and there was recently a fight between two gangs, it may not be the best time to gain access as members of these groups may be immediately suspicious of people they do not know.

Researchers often must find a gatekeeper in order to join a group. Gatekeepers are those individuals who may or may not know about the researcher’s true identity, who will vouch for the researcher among the other group members and who will inform the researcher about group norms, territory, and the like. Gatekeepers may lobby to have a researcher become a part of the group or to be allowed access to the place where the group gathers. While this is helpful for the researcher, it can be dangerous for the gatekeeper, especially if something goes wrong. If the researcher is attempting to be a full participant but her identity as a researcher is exposed, the gatekeeper may be held responsible for allowing the researcher in. This may be the case even if the gatekeeper was not aware of the researcher’s true identity. If a researcher does not want to enter the group himself, he may find an indigenous observer, or a member of the group who is willing to collect information for him. The researcher may pay or otherwise remunerate this person for her efforts as she will be able to see and hear what the researcher could not. A similar problem may arise, however, if this person is caught. There may be negative consequences to pay if it is found out that she is revealing information about the group. Additionally, the researcher must be careful when analyzing the information provided as it may not be objective, or may not even be factual at all.

Maintaining Objectivity Once a researcher gains access, there is another issue she must face. This is the difficulty of remaining an outsider while becoming an insider. In short, the researcher must guard against going native. Objectivity is necessary for research to be scientific. If a researcher becomes too familiar with the group, she may lose objectivity and may even be able to identify with and/or empathize with the group under study. If this occurs, the research findings will be biased and not an objective reflection of the group, what drives the group, and the activities in which the group members participate. For these reasons, it is not suggested that a researcher conduct field research among a group of which he is a member. If a researcher has been a member of a social organization for many years and is friends, or at least acquaintances, with many of the members, it would be very difficult for her to objectively study the group. The researcher may consider the group and the group’s activities as normal and therefore miss out on interesting relationships and behaviors. This is also why external researchers are often brought in to evaluate agency programs. If employees of that program are tasked with evaluating it, they may—consciously or not—design the study in such a way that findings are sure to be positive. This may be because they feel that a negative evaluation will mean an end to the program and ultimately an end to their jobs. Having such a stake in the findings of research is sure to impact the objectivity of the person tasked with conducting the study. While bringing in external researchers may ensure objectivity, these researchers face their own challenges. Trulson, Marquart, and Mullings 3 offer some tips for breaking in to criminal justice agencies, specifically prisons, as an external researcher. The first two tips pertain to obtaining access through the use of a gatekeeper. The third tip focuses on the development and cultivation of relationships within the agency in order to maintain access. The remaining tips describe how a researcher can make a graceful exit once the research project is completed while still maintaining those relationships, as well as building new ones, for potential future research endeavors.

❑ Tip #1: Get a Contact

❑ Tip #2: Establish Yourself and Your Research

❑ Tip #3: Little Things Count

❑ Tip #4: Make Sense of Agency Data by Keeping Contact

❑ Tip #5: Deliver Competent Readable Reports on Time

❑ Tip #6: Request to Debrief the Agency

❑ Tip#7: Thank Everyone

❑ Tip #8: Deal with Adversity by Planning Ahead

❑ Tip #9: Inform the Agency of Data Use

❑ Tip #10: Maintain Trust by Staying in for the Long Haul (pp. 477–478)

CLASSICS IN CJ RESEARCH

Youth Violence and the Code of the Street

Research Study

Based on his ethnography of African American youth living in poor, inner-city neighborhoods, Elijah Anderson 2 developed a comprehensive theory regarding youth violence and the “code of the street.” Anderson explains that, stemming from a lack of resources, distrust in law enforcement, and an overall lack of hope, aggressive behavior is condoned by the informal street code as a way to resolve conflict and earn respect. Anderson’s detailed description and analysis of this street culture provided much needed awareness regarding the context of African American youth violence. Like other research discussed in this chapter, these populations could not be sent an Internet survey or be surveyed in a classroom. The only way for Anderson to gain this knowledge was to go out to the streets and observe and interact with the youth himself. To do this, he conducted four years of field research in both the inner city and the more suburban areas of Philadelphia. During this time, he conducted lengthy interviews with youth and acted as a direct observer of their activities. Anderson’s research is touted for bringing attention to and understanding of inner-city life. Not only does he describe the “code of the street,” but, in doing so, he provides answers to the problem of urban youth violence.

Documenting the Experience Researchers must also decide how best to document their experiences for later analysis. There is a Chinese Proverb that states, “the palest ink is better than the best memory.” Applied here, researchers are encouraged to document as much as they can, as giving a detailed account of things that have occurred from memory is difficult. When taking notes, it is important for researchers to be as specific as possible when describing individuals and their behaviors. It is also important for researchers not to ignore behaviors that may seem trivial at the time, as these may actually signify something much more meaningful.

Particularly as a complete participant, researchers are not going to have the ability to readily pull out their note pad and begin taking notes on things they have seen and heard. Even careful note taking can be dangerous for a researcher who is trying to hide his identity. If a researcher is found to be documenting what is happening within the group, this may breed distrust and group members may become suspicious of the researcher. This suspicion may cause the group members to act unnaturally around the researcher. Even if research subjects are aware of the researcher’s identity, having someone taking notes while they are having a casual conversation can be disconcerting. This may make subjects nervous and unwilling to participate in group activities while the researcher is present. Luckily, with the advance of technology, documentation does not have to include a pen and a piece of paper. Instead, researchers may opt for audio and/or visual recording devices. In one-party consent states, it is legal for one person to record a conversation they are having with another. Not all states are one-party consent states, however, so researchers must be careful not to break any laws with their plan for documentation.

WHAT RESEARCH SHOWS: IMPACTING CRIMINAL JUSTICE OPERATIONS

Application of Field Research Methods in Undercover Investigations

Participant observation research not only informs criminal justice operations, but police and other investigative agencies use these methods as well. Think about an undercover investigation. While the purpose of going undercover for a law enforcement officer is to collect evidence against a suspect, the officer’s methods mirror those of an academic researcher who joins a group as a full participant. In the 1970s, FBI agent Joe Pistone 4 went undercover to obtain information about the Bonnano family, one of the major Sicilian organized crime families in New York at the time. Assuming the identity of Donnie Brasco, the jewel thief, Pistone infiltrated the Bonnano family for six years. Using many of the techniques discussed here—learning the argot and social mores of the group, finding a gatekeeper, documenting evidence through the use of recording devices—by the early 1980s, Pistone provided the FBI with enough evidence to put over 100 Mafioso in prison for the remainder of their lives. Many of you may recognize his alias, as Pistone’s experiences as an undercover agent were brought to the big screen with the release of Donnie Brasco, starring Johnny Depp. Depp’s portrayal of Pistone showed not only his undercover persona but also the difficulties he had maintaining relationships with his loved ones. Now, more than 30 years later, people are still interested in Pistone’s experiences as Brasco. As recently as 2005, the National Geographic Channel premiered Inside the Mafia, a series focused on Pistone’s experiences as Brasco. While this is a more well-known example of an undercover operation, undercover work goes on all the time. Whether making drug busts, infiltrating gangs or other trafficking organizations, or conducting a sting operation on one of their own, investigators employ many of the same techniques as field researchers rely upon.

Ethical Dilemmas for Field Researchers

As you can tell, field research poses unique complications for researchers to consider prior to and while conducting their studies. Ethical issues posed by field research, particularly field research in which the researcher’s identity is not known to research subjects, include the use of deception, privacy invasion, and the lack of consent. How can a researcher obtain informed consent from research subjects if she doesn’t want anyone to know research is taking place? Is it ethical to include someone in a research study without his or her permission? When the first guidelines for human subjects research were handed down, they caused a huge roadblock for field researchers. Later, however, it was determined that social science poses less risk to human subjects, particularly those being observed in their natural setting. Because it was recognized that the risk for harm was significantly less, field researchers were allowed to conduct their studies without conditions involving informed consent. The debate remains, however, as to whether it is truly ethical to conduct research on individuals without them knowing. A related issue is confidentiality and anonymity. If researchers are living among study subjects, anonymity is impossible. One way field researchers protect their subjects in this regard is through the use of pseudonyms. A pseudonym is a false name given to someone whose identity needs to be kept secret. In writing up their study findings, researchers will use pseudonyms instead of the actual names of study subjects.

Beyond the ethical nature of the research itself, field studies may introduce other ethical dilemmas for the researcher. For example, what if the researcher, as a participating member of a group, is asked to participate in an illegal activity? This may be a nonviolent activity like vandalism or graffiti, or it may be an activity that is more sinister in nature. Researchers, as full participants, have to decide whether they would be willing to commit the crime in question. After all, if caught and arrests are made, “I was just doing research,” will not be a justification the researcher will be able to use for his participation. Even if not a full participant, a researcher may observe some activity that is unlawful. The researcher will then have to decide whether to report this activity or to keep quiet about it. If a researcher is called to testify, there could be consequences for not cooperating. Depending on what kind of group is being studied, these dilemmas may occur more or less frequently. It is important that researchers understand prior to entering the field that they may have to make difficult decisions that like the research itself, could have great costs to them personally and professionally.

RESEARCH IN THE NEWS

Field Research Hits Prime Time

In 2009, CBS aired a new reality television series, Undercover Boss, 5 in which corporate executives go “undercover” to experience life as an employee of their company. Fully disguised, the executives are quickly thrown into the day-to-day operations of their workplaces. From the co-owner of the Chicago Cubs, to the CEO of Norwegian Cruise Line, to the mayor of Cincinnati, these executives conduct field research on camera to gain a better understanding of how their company, or city administration, runs from the bottom up. Often, they find hard-working, talented employees who are deserving of recognition, which is given as the episode comes to a close and the executive reveals himself and his undercover activities to his employees. Other times, they find employees that are not so good for business. Ultimately, the experience provides these executives with awareness they did not have prior to going undercover, and they hope to be able to utilize this knowledge to position their workplaces for continued success. Not only has this show benefited the companies and other workplaces profiled, with millions of viewers each week, it has certainly brought the adventures of field research into prime time.

Examples of Field Research in Criminal Justice

If you recall from Chapter 2, Humphreys’ Tea Room Trade is an example of field research. Humphreys participated to an extent, acting as a “watchqueen” so that he could observe the sexual activities taking place in public restrooms and other public places. Another study exploring clandestine sexual activity was conducted by Styles. 6 Styles was interested in the use of gay baths, places where men seeking to have sexual relationships with other men could have relatively private encounters. While Styles was a gay man attempting to study other gay men, at the outset his intention was to be a nonparticipant observer. Having a friend vouch for him, he easily gained access into the bath and began figuring out how to best observe the scene. After observing and conducting a few interviews, Styles was approached by another man for sexual activity. Although he was resolved to only observe, this time he gave in. From this point on, he began attending another bath and collecting information as a complete participant. Styles’ writing is informative, not only for the description regarding this group’s activity, but also for the discussion he provides about his travels through the world of field research, beginning as an observer and ending as a complete participant. His writing on insider versus outsider research resulted in four main reflections for readers to consider:

There are no privileged positions of knowledge when it comes to scrutinizing human group life;

All research is conditioned by value biases and factual preconceptions about the group being studied;

Fieldwork is a process of building up images from one’s biases, preconceptions, and new information, testing these images against one’s observations and the reports of informants, and accepting, modifying, or discarding these images on the basis of what one observes and what one has been told; and

Insider and outsider researchers will differ in the ways they go about building and testing their images of the group they study. (pp. 148–150)

Reviewing the literature, one finds that field researchers often choose sexual deviance as a topic for their field studies. Tewksbury and colleagues have researched gender differences in sex shop patrons 7 and places where men have been found to have anonymous sexual encounters 8 such as sex shop theaters. 9 Another interesting field study was conducted by Ronai and Ellis. 10 For this study, Ronai acted as a complete participant, drawing from her past as a table dancer and also gaining access as an exotic dancer in a Florida strip bar for the purpose of her master’s thesis research. Building on Ronai’s experiences and her interviews with fellow dancers, the researchers examined the interactional strategies used by dancers, both on the stage and on the floor, to ensure a night where the dancers were well paid for their services. In conducting these studies, these researchers were able to expose places where many are either unwilling or afraid to go, or perhaps afraid to admit they go.

In their study of women who belong to outlaw motorcycle gangs, Hopper and Moore 11 used participant observation methods as well as interviews to better understand the biker culture and where women fit into this culture. Moore provided access, as he was once a member and president of Satan’s Dead, an outlaw biker club in Mississippi. Like Styles, Hopper and Moore discuss the challenges of conducting research among the outlaw biker population. Having to observe quietly while bikers committed acts opposite to their personal values and not being able to ask many questions or give uninvited comments were just some of the hurdles the researchers had to overcome in order to conduct their study. The male bikers were, at the least, distrustful of the researchers, and the women bikers even more so. While these challenges existed, Hopper and Moore were able to ascertain quite a bit about the female experience as relates to their role in or among the outlaw biker culture.

Ferrell has been one of the most active field researchers of our time. He is considered a founder and remains a steadfast proponent of cultural criminology, 12 a subfield of criminology that examines the intersections of cultural activities and crime. Not only did he conduct the ethnography on urban scrounging discussed at the beginning of this chapter, he has spent more than a decade in the field studying subcultural groups who defy social norms. Crossing the United States, and the globe, Ferrell has explored the social and political motivations of urban graffiti artists, 13 anarchist bicycle group activists, and outlaw radio operators, 14 just to name a few. The research conducted by Ferrell, and others discussed here, has been described as edgework, or radical ethnography. This means that, as researchers, Ferrell and others have gone to the “edge,” or the extreme, to collect information on subjects of interest. Ferrell and Hamm 15 have put together a collection of readings based on edgework, as have Miller and Tewksbury. 16 While dangerous and wrought with ethical challenges, their research has shed light on societal groups who, whether by choice or not, often reside in the shadows.

Although ethnographers have spent years studying criminal and other deviant activities, field research has not been limited to those groups. Other researchers have sought to explore what it’s like to work in criminal justice from the inside. In the 1960s, Skolnick 17 conducted field research among police officers to better understand how elements of their occupation impacted their views and behaviors. He wrote extensively about the “working personality” of police officers as shaped by their occupational environment, including the danger and alienation they face from those they are sworn to protect, and the solidarity that builds from shared experiences. Beyond law enforcement, there have also been a variety of studies focused on the prison environment. When Ted Conover, 18 a journalist interested in writing from the correctional officer perspective, was denied permission from the New York Department of Correctional Services to do a report on correctional life, he instead applied and was hired on as an actual correctional officer. In Newjack: Guarding Sing Sing, Conover offers a compelling account of his journalistic field research, which resulted in a one-year stint as a corrections officer. From his time in training until his last days working in the galleries, Conover’s experiences provide the reader a look into the challenges faced by correctional officers, stemming not only from the inmates but the correctional staff as well.

Prior to Conover’s writing, Marquart was also interested in correctional work and strategies utilized by prison guards to ensure control over the inmate population. Specifically, in the 1980s, Marquart 19 examined correctional officials’ use of physical coercion and Marquart and Crouch 20 explored their use of inmate leaders as social control mechanisms. In order to conduct this field study, Marquart, with the warden’s permission, entered a prison unit in Texas and proceeded to work as a guard from June 1981 until January 1983. He was able to work in various posts within the institution so that he could observe how prison guards interacted with inmates. Marquart not only observed the prison’s daily routine, he examined institutional records, conducted interviews, and also developed close relationships with 20 prison guards and inmate leaders, or building tenders, whom he relied on for their insider knowledge of prison life and inmate control. Based on his fieldwork, Marquait shared his findings regarding the intimidation and physical coercion used by prison guards to discipline inmates. This fieldwork also provided a fascinating look into the building tender system that was utilized as a means of social control in the Texas prison system prior to that system being discontinued.

In the early 1990s, Schmid and Jones 21 used a unique strategy to study inmate adaptation from inside the prison walls. Jones, an offender serving a sentence in a prison located in the upper midwestern region of the United States, was given permission to enroll in a graduate sociology course focused on methods of research. This course was being offered by Schmid and led to collaborative work between the two men to study prison culture. They specifically focused on the experiences of first-time, short-term inmates. With Jones acting as the complete participant and Schmid acting as the complete observer, the pair began their research covertly. While they were aware of Jones’s meeting with Schmid for purposes of the research methods course in which he was enrolled, correctional authorities and other inmates perceived Jones to be just another inmate. In the 10 months that followed, Jones kept detailed notes regarding his daily experiences and his personal thoughts about and observations of prison life. Also included in his notes was information about his participation in prison activities and his communications with other similar, first-time, short-term inmates. Once his field notes were prepared, Jones would mail them to Schmid for review. Over the course of these letters, phone calls, and intermittent meetings, new observation strategies and themes began to develop based on the observations made by Jones. Upon his release from prison and their analyzing of the initial data, Jones and Schmid reentered the prison to conduct informed interviews with 20 first-time, short-term inmates. Using these data, Schmid and Jones began to write up their findings, which focused on inmate adaptations over time, identity transformations within the prison environment, 22 and conceptions of prison sexual assault, 23 among other topics. Schmid and Jones discussed how their roles as a complete observer and a complete participant allowed them the advantage of balancing scientific objectivity and intimacy with the group under study. The unfettered access Jones had to other inmates within the prison environment as a complete participant added to the unusual nature of this study yielding valuable insight into the prison experience for this particular subset of inmates.

Case Studies

Beyond field research, case studies provide an additional means of qualitative data. While more often conducted by researchers in other disciplines, such as psychology, or by journalists, criminologists also have a rich history of case study research. In conducting case studies, researchers use in-depth interviews and oral/life history, or autobiographical, approaches to thoroughly examine one or a few illustrative cases. This method often allows individuals, particularly offenders, to tell their own story, and information from these stories, or case studies, may then be extrapolated to the larger group. The advantage is a firsthand, descriptive account of a way of life that is little understood. Disadvantages relate to the ability to generalize from what may be an atypical case and also the bias that may enter as a researcher develops a working relationship with their subject. Most examples of case studies involving criminological subjects were conducted more than 20 years ago, which may be due to criminologists’ general inclination toward more quantitative research during this time period.

The earliest case studies focused on crime topics were conducted in the 1930s. Not only was the Chicago School interested in ethnographic research, these researchers were also among the first to conduct case studies on individuals involved in criminal activities. Shaw’s The Jack Roller (1930) 24 and Sutherland’s The Professional Thief (1937) 25 are not only the oldest but also the most well-known case studies related to delinquent and criminal figures. Focused on environmental influences on behavior, Shaw profiled an inner city delinquent male, “Stanley” the “jack roller,” who explained why he was involved in delinquent behavior, specifically the crime of mugging intoxicated men. Fifty years later, Snodgrass 26 updated Shaw’s work, following up with an elderly “Stanley” at age 70. Sutherland’s case study, resulting in the publication of The Professional Thief, was based on “Chic Conwell’s” account of his personal life and professional experience surviving off of what could be stolen or conned from others. The 1970s and 1980s witnessed numerous publications based on case studies. Researchers examined organized crime figures and families, 27 heroin addicts, 28 thieves, 29 and those who fence stolen property. 30 As with participant observation research, case studies have not been relegated to offenders only. In fact, more recently the case study approach has been applied to law enforcement and correctional agencies. 33 These studies have examined activities of the New York City Police Department, 34 the New Orleans Police Department’s response in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, 35 and Rhode Island’s prison system. 36

As with field research, the case study approach can provide a deeper understanding of individuals or groups of individuals, such as crime families, who live outside of the mainstream. Case studies inform us about the motivations for why individuals or groups behave the way they do and how those experiences or activities were either beneficial or detrimental for them. The same goes for agency research. One department or agency can learn from the experiences of another department or agency. With more recent research utilizing the case study approach, it could be that this methodology will be seen more often in the criminal justice literature.

Making Critical Choices as a Field Researcher

In conducting field studies, researchers often must make decisions that impact the viability of their research. Sometimes, researchers don’t make the best choices. In the 1990s, Dr. Ansley Hamid was an esteemed anthropologist, well-known for his field research focused on the drug subculture. 31 Based on his previous success as a researcher documenting the more significant trends in drug use and addiction, he, through his position as a university professor, was awarded a multimillion-dollar federal research grant to examine heroin use on the streets of New York. It was not long after the grant was awarded, however, that Hamid was accused of misusing the funds provided by the National Institute on Drug Abuse, even going so far as to use the funds to purchase heroin for his own use and the use of his research subjects. While the criminal charges were eventually dismissed, Hamid paid the ultimate professional price for his behavior, particularly his use of the drug, which was documented in his handwritten field notes. 32 As of 2003, the professor was no longer connected to John Jay College of Criminal Justice at the City University of New York. In fact, Hamid is no longer working in higher education at all due to the accusations and accompanying negative publicity. Instead, he owns a candle shop in a small Brooklyn neighborhood. He does not plan to stop researching and writing though. His book, Ganja Complex: Rastafari and Marijuana, was published in 2002. This case is a prime example of what can happen when researchers cross the boundary of objectivity. Hamid’s brief experience in the shoes of a heroin user led to his ultimate downfall as an objective and respected researcher.

Chapter Summary

Qualitative research strategies allow researchers to enter into groups and places that are often considered off limits to the general public. The methods and studies discussed here provide excellent examples of the use of field research to discover motivations for the development and patterns of behavior within these groups. These qualitative endeavors offer a unique look into the lives of those who may live or work on the fringes of modern society. As it would be nearly impossible to conduct research on these groups using methods such as experiments, surveys, and formal interviews, participant observation techniques extend the ability of researchers to study activities beyond the norm by participating with and observing subjects in their natural environment and later describing in detail their experiences in the field.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What are the advantages to using a more qualitative research method?

2. Compare and contrast the four different participant observation strategies.

3. What must a researcher consider before conducting field research?

4. What did Styles learn about conducting research as an insider versus an outsider?

5. How has the case study approach been applied to criminal justice research?

case study: In-depth analysis of one or a few illustrative cases

complete observation: A participant observation method that involves the researcher observing an individual or group from afar

complete participation: A participant observation method that involves the researcher becoming a full-fledged member of a particular group; sometimes referred to as disguised observation

confederates: Individuals, who are part of the research team, used to speed up the events of interest when observations are being made

edgework: This refers to researchers going to the “edge,” or the extreme, to collect information on subjects of interest

ethnographic research: Relies on field research methodologies to scientifically examine human culture in the natural environment

field research: Research that involves researchers studying individuals or groups of individuals in their natural environment

gatekeeper: A person within the group under study whom the researcher can use to learn about and access the group

going native: A challenge to field research in which the researcher loses her identity as a researcher and begins to identify more with her role as a member of the group under study

Hawthorne Effect: Based on a study of worker productivity, this term refers to changes in behavior caused by being observed

indigenous observer: A person within the group under study who is willing to collect information about the group for compensation

journalistic field research: Field research conducted by journalists and used to write books or articles about a certain topic of interest

observer as participant: A participant observation strategy in which the researcher is known to the group and is only there to observe

oral/life history: Methods used to conduct case studies; similar to an autobiographical account

participant as observer: A participant observation strategy in which the researcher will participate with the group but his identity as a researcher is known

participant observation strategies: First used for social science in the 1920s, these are research methodologies that involve participation and/or observation with the group under study; there are four such strategies

pseudonym: A false name given to someone whose identity needs to be kept secret

reactivity: The problem of having research subjects change their natural behavior in reaction to being observed or otherwise included in a research study

1 Ferrell, J. (2006). Empire of scrounge: Inside the urban underground of dumpster diving, trash picking, and street scavenging. New York: New York University Press.

2 Anderson, E. (1999). Code of the street: Decency, violence, and the moral life of the inner city. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.

3 Trulson, C., J. Marquait, & J. Mullings. (2004). “Breaking in: Gaining entry to prisons and other hard-to-access criminal justice organizations.” Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 15(2), 451–478.

4 Lovgren, S. (2005, June 10). “FBI Agent ‘Donnie Brasco’ recalls life in the Mafia.” Retrieved March 7, 2012 from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/pf/34063528 .html.

5 See series website, http://www.cbs.com/shows /undercover_boss/.

6 Styles, J. (1979). “Outsider/insider: Researching gay baths.” Urban Life, 8(2), 135–152.

7 McCleary, R., & R. Tewksbury. (2010). “Female patrons of porn.” Deviant Behavior, 31, 208–223.

8 Tewksbury, R. (2008). “Finding erotic oases: Locating the sites of men’s same-sex anonymous sexual encounters.” Journal of Homosexuality, 55(1), 1–19.

9 Douglas, B., & R. Tewksbury. (2008). “Theaters and sex: An examination of anonymous sexual encounters in an erotic oasis.” Deviant Behavior, 29(1), 1–17.

10 Ronai, C. R., & C. Ellis. (1989). “Turn-ons for money: Interactional strategies of the table dancer.” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 18, 271–298.

11 Hopper, C. B., & J. Moore. (1990). “Women in outlaw motorcycle gangs.” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 18(4), 363–387.

12 Ferrell, J., & C. Sanders (Eds.). (1995). Cultural criminology. Boston: Northeastern University Press.

13 Ferrell, J. (1996). Crimes of style: Urban graffiti and the politics of criminality. Boston: Northeastern University Press.

14 Ferrell, J. (2002). Tearing down the streets: Adventures in urban anarchy. New York: Palgrave Mcmillan.

15 Ferrell, J., & M. Hamm (Eds.). (1998). Ethnography at the edge: Crime, deviance, and field research. Boston: Northeastern University Press

16 Miller, J., & R. Tewksbury (Eds.). (2001). Extreme methods: Innovative approaches to social science research. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

17 Skolnick, J. (1966). Justice without trial: Law enforcement in a democratic society. New York: Wiley & Sons.

18 Conover, T. (2000). Newjack: Guarding Sing Sing. New York: Random House, Inc.

19 Marquart, J. (1986). “Prison guards and the use of physical coercion as a mechanism of prisoner control.” Criminology, 24(2), 347–366.

20 Marquart, J. & B. Crouch. (1984). “Coopting the kept: Using inmates for social control in a southern prison.” Justice Quarterly, 1(4), 491–509.

21 Schmid, T. J., & R. S. Jones. (1993). “Ambivalent actions: Prison adaptation strategies of first-time, short-term inmates.” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 21(4), 439–463.

22 Schmid, T. J., & R. S. Jones. (1991). “Suspended identity: Identity transformation in a maximum security prison.” Symbolic Interaction, 14, 415–432.

23 Jones, R. S., & T. J. Schmid. (1989). “Inmates’ conceptions of prison sexual assault.” Prison Journal, 69, 53–61.

24 Shaw, C. (1930). The jack-roller. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

25 Sutherland, E. (1937). The professional thief. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

26 Snodgrass, J. (1982). The jack-roller at seventy: A fifty year follow-up. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath.

27 Abadinsky, H. (1983). The criminal elite: Professional and organized crime. Wesport, CT: Greenwood Press.; Anderson, A. (1979). The business of organized crime. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press.; Ianni, F., & E. Reuss-Ianni. (1972). A family business: kinship and social control in organized crime. New York: Russell Sage.

28 Agar, M. (1973). Ripping and running: A formal ethnography of urban heroin users. New York: Seminar Press.; Rettig, R., M. Torres, & G. Garrett. (1977). Manny: A criminal addict ’ s story. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

29 Chambliss, W. (1972). Boxman: A professional thief ’ s journal, with Harry King. New York: Harper and Row.; King, H., & W. Chambliss. (1984). Harry King: A professional thief ’ s journal. New York: Wiley.

30 Klockars, C. (1974). The professional fence. New York: Free Press; Steffensmeier, D. (1986). The fence: In the shadow of two worlds. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield.

31 Forero, J. (1999, November, 1). “Charges unravel drug-use scholar’s career.” The New York Times Archives. Retrieved March 7, 2012 from http://www.nytimes .com/1999/11/01/nyregion/charges-unravel-drug-use-scholar-s-career.html?pagewanted=print&src=pm.

32 Smallwood, S. (2002, October 25). “Crossing the line: A heroin researcher partakes and pays the price.” The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved March 7, 2012 from http://chronicle.com/article /Crossing-the-Line/2839.

33 Travis, L. III (1983). “The case study in criminal justice research: Applications to policy analysis.” Criminal Justice Review, 8, 46–51.

34 Eterno, J. (2003). Policing within the law: A case study of the New York City Police Department. Westport, CT: Praeger.

35 Wigginton, M. (2007). “The New Orleans police emergency response to Hurricane Katrina: A case study.” A Dissertation completed for the University of Southern Mississippi.

36 Carroll, L. (1998). Lawful order: A case study of correctional crisis and reform. New York: Garland.

Applied Research Methods in Criminal Justice and Criminology by University of North Texas is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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