research articles on environmental education

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Published: 13 April 2020

The effect of education on determinants of climate change risks

• Brian C. O’Neill   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7505-8897 1 ,
• Leiwen Jiang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2073-6440 2 , 3 ,
• Samir KC 2 , 4 ,
• Regina Fuchs 5 ,
• Shonali Pachauri   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8138-3178 4 ,
• Emily K. Laidlaw 4 ,
• Tiantian Zhang 6 ,
• Wei Zhou 6 &
• Xiaolin Ren 7  

Nature Sustainability volume  3 ,  pages 520–528 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

3178 Accesses

38 Citations

94 Altmetric

Metrics details

• Socioeconomic scenarios
• Sustainability

Increased educational attainment is a sustainable development priority and has been posited to have benefits for other social and environmental issues, including climate change. However, links between education and climate change risks can involve both synergies and trade-offs, and the balance of these effects remains ambiguous. Increases in educational attainment could lead to faster economic growth and therefore higher emissions, more climate change and higher risks. At the same time, improved attainment would be associated with faster fertility decline in many countries, slower population growth and therefore lower emissions, and would also be likely to reduce vulnerability to climate impacts. We employ a multiregion, multisector model of the world economy, driven with country-specific projections of future population by level of education, to test the net effect of education on emissions and on the Human Development Index (HDI), an indicator that correlates with adaptive capacity to climate impacts. We find that improved educational attainment is associated with a modest net increase in emissions but substantial improvement in the HDI values in developing country regions. Avoiding stalled progress in educational attainment and achieving gains at least consistent with historical trends is especially important in reducing future vulnerability.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Access Nature and 54 other Nature Portfolio journals

Get Nature+, our best-value online-access subscription

24,99 € / 30 days

cancel any time

Subscribe to this journal

Receive 12 digital issues and online access to articles

111,21 € per year

only 9,27 € per issue

Buy this article

• Purchase on Springer Link
• Instant access to full article PDF

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Similar content being viewed by others

The economic commitment of climate change

Climate damage projections beyond annual temperature

The role of artificial intelligence in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals

Data availability.

The samples of census datasets analysed during the current study are publicly available from IPUMS International at https://international.ipums.org/international/ . The national sample household survey data analysed for this study are publicly available for Brazil ( https://www.ibge.gov.br/estatisticas/sociais/habitacao/9050-pesquisa-de-orcamentos-familiares.html?=&t=downloads ), China ( https://opendata.pku.edu.cn/dataverse/CFPS?language=en ), India (Human Development Survey, https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/DSDR/studies/36151 ), Mexico ( http://en.www.inegi.org.mx/programas/enigh/tradicional/2005/ ), South Africa ( https://www.datafirst.uct.ac.za/dataportal/index.php/catalog/316 ) and Uganda ( http://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/2059 ), after registering and submitting requests. The national survey data for some countries are available but restrictions apply to the availability of these data, which were used under licence for the current study and so are not publicly available. These include India (National Sample Survey 2004–2005 and 2011–2012, http://www.icssrdataservice.in/datarepository/index.php/ ) and Indonesia ( https://microdata.bps.go.id/mikrodata/index.php/catalog/SUSENAS ). While these original full datasets have restrictions on availability, tables of derived results from the original datasets can be provided upon request.

Code availability

The code for the version of the iPETS model used to produce economic and emissions projections for this analysis is available upon request. It will eventually be publicly available at ipetsmodel.com.

Smith, W. C., Anderson, E., Salinas, D., Horvatek, R. & Baker, D. P. A meta-analysis of education effects on chronic disease: the causal dynamics of the population education transition curve. Soc. Sci. Med. 127 , 29–40 (2015).

Article   Google Scholar  

Coady, D. & Dizioli, A. Income inequality and education revisited: persistence, endogeneity and heterogeneity. Appl. Econ. 50 , 2747–2761 (2018).

Hanmer, L. & Klugman, J. Exploring women’s agency and empowerment in developing countries: where do we stand? Fem. Econ. 22 , 237–263 (2016).

Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, 2015).

A Guide to SDG Interactions: From Science to Implementation (International Council for Science, 2017).

McCollum, D. L. et al. Connecting the sustainable development goals by their energy inter-linkages. Environ. Res. Lett. 13 , 033006 (2018).

Pradhan, P., Costa, L., Rybski, D., Lucht, W. & Kropp, J. P. A systematic study of sustainable development goal (SDG) interactions. Earth’s Future 5 , 1169–1179 (2017).

Moyer, J. D. & Bohl, D. K. Alternative pathways to human development: assessing trade-offs and synergies in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Futures 105 , 199–210 (2019).

Gomez-Echeverri, L. Climate and development: enhancing impact through stronger linkages in the implementation of the Paris Agreement and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 376 , 20160444 (2018).

Oppenheimer, M. et al. in IPCC Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (eds Field, C. B. et al.) 1039–1100 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2014) .

O’Neill, B. C. et al. Global demographic trends and future carbon emissions. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107 , 17521–17526 (2010).

Crespo Cuaresma, J., Lutz, W. & Sanderson, W. Is the demographic dividend an education dividend? Demography 51 , 299–315 (2014).

Lutz, W., Muttarak, R. & Striessnig, E. Universal education is key to enhanced climate adaptation. Science 346 , 1061–1062 (2014).

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Gall, M. Indices of Social Vulnerability to Natural Hazards: A Comparative Evaluation (Univ. South Carolina, 2007).

Füssel, H.-M. Review and Quantitative Analysis of Indices of Climate Change Exposure, Adaptive Capacity, Sensitivity, and Impacts (World Bank, 2010); https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/9193

KC, S. & Lutz, W. The human core of the shared socioeconomic pathways: population scenarios by age, sex and level of education for all countries to 2100. Glob. Environ. Change 42 , 181–192 (2017).

O’Neill, B. C. et al. The roads ahead: narratives for shared socioeconomic pathways describing world futures in the 21st century. Glob. Environ. Change 42 , 169–180 (2017).

Riahi, K. et al. The shared socioeconomic pathways and their energy, land use, and greenhouse gas emissions implications: an overview. Glob. Environ. Change 42 , 153–168 (2017).

Ren, X. et al. Avoided economic impacts of climate change on agriculture: integrating a land surface model (CLM) with a global economic model (iPETS). Clim. Change 146 , 517–531 (2018).

Ren, X., Lu, Y., O'Neill, B. C. & Weitzel, M. Economic and biophysical impacts on agriculture under 1.5 °C and 2 °C warming. Environ. Res. Lett. 13 , 115006 (2018).

Böhringer, C. & Löschel, A. Computable general equilibrium models for sustainability impact assessment: status quo and prospects. Ecol. Econ. 60 , 49–64 (2006).

Scrieciu, S. S. The inherent dangers of using computable general equilibrium models as a single integrated modelling framework for sustainability impact assessment. A critical note on Böhringer and Löschel (2006). Ecol. Econ. 60 , 678–684 (2007).

Lutz, W. & Skirbekk, V. in World Population & Human Capital in the Twenty-First Century: An Overview (eds Lutz, W. et al.) 14–38 (Oxford Univ. Press, 2014).

IPCC: Summary for Policymakers. In Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis (eds Stocker, T. F. et al.) (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2013).

Fuso Nerini, F. et al. Mapping synergies and trade-offs between energy and the sustainable development goals. Nat. Energy 3 , 10–15 (2018).

Wiedenhofer, D., Smetschka, B., Akenji, L., Jalas, M. & Haberl, H. Household time use, carbon footprints, and urban form: a review of the potential contributions of everyday living to the 1.5 °C climate target. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 30 , 7–17 (2018).

Duarte, R. et al. Modeling the carbon consequences of pro-environmental consumer behavior. Appl. Energy 184 , 1207–1216 (2016).

Dickson, J. R., Hughes, B. B. & Irfan, M. T. Advancing Global Education (Routledge, 2010).

Burke, M., Davis, W. M. & Diffenbaugh, N. S. Large potential reduction in economic damages under UN mitigation targets. Nature 557 , 549–553 (2018).

IPCC Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report (eds Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R. K. & Meyer, L. A.) (IPCC, 2014).

Casey, G. & Galor, O. Is faster economic growth compatible with reductions in carbon emissions? The role of diminished population growth. Environ. Res. Lett. 12 , 014003 (2017).

Bongaarts, J. & O’Neill, B. C. Global warming policy: is population left out in the cold? Science 361 , 650–652 (2018).

Jiang, L. & O’Neill, B. C. Global urbanization projections for the shared socioeconomic pathways. Glob. Environ. Change 42 , 193–199 (2017).

Dellink, R., Chateau, J., Lanzi, E. & Magné, B. Long-term economic growth projections in the shared socioeconomic pathways. Glob. Environ. Change 42 , 200–214 (2017).

Lutz, W. & Kc, S. Global human capital: integrating education and population. Science 333 , 587–592 (2011).

KC, S. et al. Projection of populations by level of educational attainment, age, and sex for 120 countries for 2005–2050. Demogr. Res. 22 , 383–472 (2010).

KC, S., Potancokova, M., Bauer, R., Goujon, A. & Striessnig, E. in World Population and Human Capital in the Twenty-First Century (eds Lutz, W. et al.) 434–518 (Oxford Univ. Press, 2014).

Cutler, D. & Lleras-Muney, A. in Encyclopedia of Health Economics (ed. Culyer, A. J.) 232–245 (Elsevier, 2014).

Baker, D. P., Leon, J., Smith Greenaway, E. G., Collins, J. & Movit, M. The education effect on population health: a reassessment. Popul. Dev. Rev. 37 , 307–332 (2011).

KC, S. & Lentzner, H. The effect of education on adult mortality and disability: a global perspective. Vienna Yearb. Popul. Res. 8 , 201–235 (2010).

Rindfuss, R. R., St. John, C. & Bumpass, L. L. Education and the timing of motherhood: disentangling causation. J. Marriage Fam. 46 , 981–984 (1984).

Gerster, M., Ejrnæs, M. & Keiding, N. The causal effect of educational attainment on completed fertility for a cohort of Danish women—does feedback play a role? Stat. Biosci. 6 , 204–222 (2014).

Kravdal, Ø. Effects of current education on second- and third-birth rates among Norwegian women and men born in 1964: substantive interpretations and methodological issues. Demogr. Res. 17 , 211–246 (2007).

Forced Out: Mandatory Pregnancy Testing and the Expulsion of Pregnant Students in Tanzanian Schools (CRR, 2013); https://go.nature.com/2WJOg9J

Bongaarts, J. The causes of educational differences in fertility in Sub-Saharan Africa. Vienna Yearb. Popul. Res. 8 , 31–50 (2010).

Clarke, D. Children and their parents: a review of fertility and causality. J. Econ. Surv. 32 , 518–540 (2018).

Hoem, J. M. & Kreyenfeld, M. Anticipatory analysis and its alternatives in life-course research. Part 1: the role of education in the study of first childbearing. Demogr. Res. 15 , 461–484 (2006).

Calvin, K. et al. The SSP4: a world of deepening inequality. Glob. Environ. Change 42 , 284–296 (2017).

Rogelj, J. et al. Scenarios towards limiting global mean temperature increase below 1.5 °C. Nat. Clim. Change 8 , 325–332 (2018).

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank the Asian Demographic Research Institute at Shanghai University for hosting research stays for B.C.O. during which parts of this work were carried out. A substantial amount of the work for this study was completed while B.C.O., L.J., E.K.L. and X.R. were at the National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Josef Korbel School of International Studies and Pardee Center for International Futures, University of Denver, Denver, CO, USA

Brian C. O’Neill

Asian Demographic Research Institute, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China

Leiwen Jiang & Samir KC

Population Council, New York, NY, USA

Leiwen Jiang

International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria

Samir KC, Shonali Pachauri & Emily K. Laidlaw

Statistics Austria, Vienna, Austria

Regina Fuchs

Institute of Population and Development Studies, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

Tiantian Zhang & Wei Zhou

National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO, USA

Xiaolin Ren

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

B.C.O. led, and L.J., S.KC and S.P. contributed to, the design of the study. B.C.O. coordinated the paper and led the writing, with contributions from L.J., S.KC, S.P. and E.K.L. L.J., R.F., S.P. and E.K.L. led the analysis of household survey data, with contributions from T.Z. and W.Z. S.KC carried out the population–education projections. L.J. carried out the household projections. X.R. carried out the iPETS model projections, with contributions from B.C.O. B.C.O., L.J., S.KC, S.P., E.K.L. and X.R. interpreted results.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Brian C. O’Neill .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Supplementary information.

Supplementary Methods 1–3, Tables 1–4, Figs. 1–4 and references.

Reporting Summary

Rights and permissions.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

O’Neill, B.C., Jiang, L., KC, S. et al. The effect of education on determinants of climate change risks. Nat Sustain 3 , 520–528 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-0512-y

Download citation

Received : 03 August 2018

Accepted : 11 March 2020

Published : 13 April 2020

Issue Date : July 2020

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-0512-y

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

This article is cited by

Achieving carbon neutrality in africa is possible: the impact of education, employment, and renewable energy consumption on carbon emissions.

• Chinyere Ori Elom
• Robert Ugochukwu Onyeneke
• Chidebe Chijioke Uwaleke

Carbon Research (2024)

Climate change unequally affects nitrogen use and losses in global croplands

• Chenchen Ren
• Xiuming Zhang

Nature Food (2023)

Assessing populations exposed to climate change: a focus on Africa in a global context

• Daniela Ghio
• Anne Goujon
• Thomas Petroliagkis

Population and Environment (2023)

Digitalization and its impact on labour market and education. Selected aspects

• Piotr Hetmańczyk

Education and Information Technologies (2023)

Socio-demographic factors shaping the future global health burden from air pollution

• Xinyuan Huang

Nature Sustainability (2022)

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

North American Association for Environmental Education

• About eePRO
• Explore eePRO
• Collections & PRO Picks
• All Learning
• eeLEARN Modules
• Higher Education Database
• Annual Conference
• All Resources
• Climate Change
• All Opportunities
• Explore eeJOBS
• All Research Initiatives
• Research Symposium

Welcome to our collaborative research library!

eeRESEARCH combines research for environmental education and the movement to connect children and nature. The database includes multiple ways to search for articles, syntheses, and research summaries. 

This project is a partnership with Children & Nature Network and NAAEE. Funded by the Pisces Foundation with support from ee360 and the U.S. Forest Service.  Learn more.

Displaying 1 - 50 of 2107

Cultural connections can play an important role in the wholistic wellness of Indigenous children

Riley, K. ., Chow, A. F., Wahpepah, K. ., Houser, N. ., Brussoni, M. ., Stevenson, E. ., … Humbert, M. L. (2023). A nature’s way—Our way pilot project case assemblage: (Re)storying child/physical literacy/land relationships for Indigenous preschool-aged children’s wholistic wellness. Children , 10 . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/children10030497

Nature is an important part of adolescents’ leisure time experiences and everyday well-being

Puhakka, R. ., & Hakokongas, E. . (2023). Adolescents’ experiences in nature: Sources of everyday well-being. Journal of Leisure Research . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.2023.2204346

Adventure therapy provides adolescents with complex trauma an opportunity for healing

Pringle, G. ., Boddy, J. ., Slattery, M. ., & Harris, P. . (2023). Adventure therapy for adolescents with complex trauma: A scoping review and analysis. Journal of Experiential Education , 46 , 433-454. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/10538259221147195

Engaging children in the co-production of nature-based solutions can foster their connections to nature

Hoyle, H. ., & Cottrill, W. . (2023). Beyond the ‘usual suspects’? Engaging children in diverse communities in co-producing an arboretum-meadow: Professional partner perspectives. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening , 79 . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2023.127847

Children with a strong connection to nature have higher social emotional learning skills than those with a weaker connection to nature

Lanza, K. ., Alcazar, M. ., Chen, B. ., & Kohl, H. W. , III. (2023). Connection to nature is associated with social-emotional learning of children. Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology , 4 . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2022.100083

Children need expanded opportunities for independence to support their mental well-being

Gray, P. ., Lancy, D. F., & Bjorklund, D. F. (2023). Decline in independent activity as a cause of decline in children’s mental well-being: Summary of the evidence. The Journal of Pediatrics , 260 . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2023.02.004

Designing playgrounds for inclusion may require more than a Universal Design approach

Moore, A. ., Boyle, B. ., & Lynch, H. . (2023). Designing public playgrounds for inclusion: A scoping review of grey literature guidelines for Universal Design. Children’s Geographies , 21 , 422-441. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/14733285.2022.2073197

A sustainable development curriculum developed in collaboration with an Indigenous community increased students’ sense of place

Li, W.-T. ., & Shein, P. P. (2023). Developing sense of place through a place-based Indigenous education for sustainable development curriculum. Environmental Education Research , 29 , 692-714. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2022.2098933

Children of all abilities want playgrounds that are welcoming, safe, aesthetically pleasing, and that provide opportunities for fun

Morgenthaler, T. ., Schulze, C. ., Pentland, D. ., & Lynch, H. . (2023). Environmental qualities that enhance outdoor play in community playgrounds from the perspective of children with and without disabilities: A scoping review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 20 . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20031763

A “two-eyed seeing” approach can support Indigenous self-determination and wholistic health

Riley, K. ., Chow, A. F., Wahpepah, K. ., Humbert, M. L., Brussoni, M. ., Houser, N. ., & Erlandson, M. C. (2023). Etuaptmumk (Two-Eyed Seeing) in Nature’s Way-Our Way: Braiding physical literacy and risky play through Indigenous games, activities, cultural connections, and traditional teachings. AlterNative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/11771801231167881

More tree canopy in children’s play area is associated with more moderate to vigorous physical activity

Lanza, K. ., Alcazar, M. ., Durand, C. P., Salvo, D. ., Villa, U. ., & Kohl, H. W. , III. (2023). Heat-resilient schoolyards: Relations between temperature, shade, and physical activity of children during recess. Journal of Physical Activity and Health , 20 , 134-141. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2022-0405

Exposure to nature is linked to improved social health

Arbuthnott, C. D. (2023). Nature exposure and social health: Prosocial behavior, social cohesion, and effect pathways. Journal of Environmental Psychology , 90 . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2023.102109

Nature-based interventions can have a positive impact on the psychological and behavioral health of vulnerable adolescents

Overbey, T. A., Diekmann, F. ., & Lekies, K. S. (2023). Nature-based interventions for vulnerable youth: a scoping review. International Journal of Environmental Health Research , 33 , 15-53. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2021.1998390

Youth with visual impairments need adapted support and special programming to safely participate in outdoor recreation activities

Lieberman, L. J., Haibach-Beach, P. ., Perreault, M. ., & Stribing, A. . (2023). Outdoor recreation experiences in youth with visual impairments: A qualitative inquiry. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning , 23 , 170-183. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2021.1984965

Topography and other physical features of outdoor play spaces encourage children’s engagement in risky play

Loebach, J. ., Ramsden, R. ., Cox, A. ., Joyce, K. ., & Brussoni, M. . (2023). Running the risk: The social, behavioral and environmental associations with positive risk in children’s play activities in outdoor playspaces. Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s42322-023-00145-1

A brief exposure to virtual nature can promote adolescents’ mental well-being, nature connection, and spirituality

Owens, M. ., & Bunce, H. . (2023). The effect of brief exposure to virtual nature on mental wellbeing in adolescents. Scientific Reports , 13 . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-44717-z

Interventions designed to increase nature connectedness may also promote pro-nature behaviors and life satisfaction in children

Harvey, C. ., Sheffield, D. ., Richardson, M. ., & Wells, R. . (2023). The impact of a ‘‘Three Good Things in Nature’’ writing task on nature connectedness, pro-nature conservation behavior, life satisfaction, and mindfulness in children. Ecopsychology , 15 , 26-36. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1089/eco.2022.0014

Natural surroundings and biophilic design may enhance therapeutic work with children and youth

Hauge, A. L., Lindheim, M. O., Røtting, K. ., & Johnsen, S. A. K. (2023). The meaning of the physical environment in child and adolescent therapy: A qualitative study of the Outdoor Care Retreat. Ecopsychology , 15 , 244-258. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/eco.2022.0087

Early childhood educators nurture young children’s enthusiasm for learning in nature

Bergan, V. ., Nylund, M. B., Midtbø, I. L., & Paulsen, B. H. L. (2023). The teacher’s role for engagement in foraging and gardening activities in kindergarten. Environmental Education Research . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2023.2181271

Teachers’ opportunities for mentorship are essential to risky outdoor play and learning in schools

Zeni, M. ., Schnellert, L. ., & Brussoni, M. . (2023). “We do it anyway”: Professional identities of teachers who enact risky play as a framework for education outdoors. Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s42322-023-00140-6

Barriers to addressing settler colonialism in outdoor education programs include lack of understanding, fear, and adherence to white ignorance

Brooks, S. D., Sabzalian, L. ., Weiser-Nieto, R. ., & Springer, S. . (2023). “We should have held this in a circle”: White ignorance and answerability in outdoor education. The Journal of Environmental Education , 54 , 114-131. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00958964.2023.2169897

Children with physical disabilities face barriers to outdoor recreational activities

Vogt, A. ., Zajchowski, C. ., & Hill, E. . (2022). A ramp that leads to nothing: Outdoor recreation experiences of children with physical disabilities during the COVID-19 pandemic. Leisure Studies , 41 , 742-752. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2022.2049629

Arts-based interventions in nature can increase nature connectivity and improve well-being in children and young people

Moula, Z. ., Palmer, K. ., & Walshe, N. . (2022). A systematic review of arts-based interventions delivered to children and young people in nature or outdoor spaces: Impact on nature connectedness, health and wellbeing. Frontiers in Psychology , 13 . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.858781

Nature has a positive impact on the mental health of adolescents, but little is known about why

Rowley, M. ., Topciu, R. ., & Owens, M. . (2022). A systematic review of mechanisms underpinning psychological change following nature exposure in an adolescent population. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 19 . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912649

Engaging students, teachers, and parents in recycling education can build community habits

Taghdisi, M. H., Estebsari, F. ., Gholami, M. ., Hosseini, A. F., Milani, A. S., Abolkheirian, S. ., & Kandi, Z. R. K. (2022). A training program of source-separated recycling for primary school students: Applying the health promoting schools model. Applied Environmental Education & Communication , 21 (1), 102-117. https://doi.org/10.1080/1533015X.2021.2001392

Adolescents report being engaged and emotionally affected by current environmental issues

Thompson, R. ., Fisher, H. L., Dewa, L. H., Hussain, T. ., Kabba, Z. ., & Toledano, M. B. (2022). Adolescents’ thoughts and feelings about the local and global environment: A qualitative interview study. Child and Adolescent Mental Health , 27 , 4-13. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12520

Engaging children in digital storying can support children in expressing and sharing their emotional experiences.

Byman, J. ., Kumpulainen, K. ., Wong, C. ., & Renlund, J. . (2022). Children’s emotional experiences in and about nature across temporal–spatial entanglements during digital storying. Literacy , 56 . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/lit.12265

Education outside the classroom can have a positive effect on biological stress regulation

Dettweiler, U. ., Gerchen, M. ., Mall, C. ., Simon, P. ., & Kirsch, P. . (2022). Choice matters: Pupils’ stress regulation, brain development and brain function in an outdoor education project. British Journal of Educational Psychology , 93 , 152-173. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12528

Most adolescents experience climate worry, which can be constructively associated with societal engagement but can also be associated with greater depression

Sciberras, E. ., & Fernando, J. W. (2022). Climate change-related worry among Australian adolescents: an eight-year longitudinal study. Child and Adolescent Mental Health , 27 , 22-29. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12521

Cripping environmental education means disrupting the able-bodiedness within the field

Schmidt, J. . (2022). Cripping environmental education: Rethinking disability, nature, and interdependent futures. Australian Journal of Environmental Education . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/aee.2022.26

High-quality parks and safe, walkable, built environments can enhance neighborhood social capital in low-income communities of color

Mullenbach, L. E., Larson, L. R., Floyd, M. F., Marquet, O. ., Huang, J. ., Alberico, C. ., … Hipp, J. A. (2022). Cultivating social capital in diverse, low-income neighborhoods: The value of parks for parents with young children. Landscape and Urban Planning , 219 . https://doi.org/http://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2021.104313

Planning programs around a nature-based literacy framework may promote child health while promoting ecological knowledge and stewardship

Barrette, M. ., Boyer, W. ., Naylor, P. J., & Harper, N. . (2022). Defining a nature-based literacy: A research synthesis review of health-promoting literacies to promote nature engagement. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning . https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2022.2067201

Access to multiple types of greenspace is a stronger predictor of greenspace use by children than parental support

Arvidsen, J. ., Schmidt, T. ., Praestholm, S. ., Andkjaer, S. ., Olafsson, A. S., Nielsen, J. V., & Schipperijn, J. . (2022). Demographic, social, and environmental factors predicting Danish children’s greenspace use. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening , 66 . https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2022.127487

Children who become aware of the effects of climate change vicariously can have both maladaptive and adaptive emotional responses

Leger-Goodes, T. ., Malboeuf-Hurtubise, C. ., Mastine, T. ., Généreux, M. ., Paradis, P.-O. ., & Camden, C. . (2022). Eco-anxiety in children: A scoping review of the mental health impacts of the awareness of climate change. Frontiers in Psychology . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.872544

Local conservation efforts could benefit from student involvement

Kamaludin, M. ., Azlina, A. A., Ibrahim, W. N. W., Alipiah, R. M., Saputra, J. ., Abdullah, M. M., … Omar, C. M. (2022). Effectiveness of a conservation education program among school students on the importance of mangrove ecosystems in Setiu Wetlands, Malaysia. Applied Environmental Education & Communication , 21 (1), 23-41. https://doi.org/10.1080/1533015X.2021.1936298

Outdoor environments can promote the mental health of adolescents by supporting physical activity, restoration and social connection

Wales, M. ., Mårtensson, F. ., Hoff, E. ., & Jansson, M. . (2022). Elevating the role of the outdoor environment for adolescent wellbeing in everyday life. Frontiers in Psychology . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.774592

Co-development of learning activities with a community can lead to better educational outcomes

Leach, C. ., Schroeck, N. ., Blessman, J. ., Rorai, V. ., Cooper-Sargent, M. ., Lichtenberg, P. A., & Trentacosta, C. J. (2022). Engaged communication of environmental health science: Processes and outcomes of urban academic-community partnerships. Applied Environmental Education & Communication , 21 (1), 7-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/1533015X.2021.1930609

Successful program implementation may depend on the staff administering the program

Schulz, J. H., Stanis, S. A. W., Li, C. J., Morgan, M. ., & Webb, E. B. (2022). Factors affecting staff support of a voluntary nonlead ammunition outreach program. Applied Environmental Education & Communication , 21 (1), 55-72. https://doi.org/10.1080/1533015X.2021.1943062

Nature-specific learning outside the classroom has measurable socio-emotional, academic and wellbeing benefits for school children across all ages

Mann, J. ., Gray, T. ., Truong, S. ., Brymer, E. ., Passy, R. ., Ho, S. ., … Curry, C. . (2022). Getting out of the classroom and into nature: A systematic review of nature-specific outdoor learning on school children’s learning and development. Frontiers in Public Health , 10 . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.877058

Green space exposure can promote youth development outcomes, but more research is needed in low- and middle-income countries

Sprague, N. L., Bancalari, P. ., Karim, W. ., & Siddiq, S. . (2022). Growing up green: A systematic review of the influence of greenspace on youth development and health outcomes. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-022-00445-6

Mitrochondria readings in primary children suggest that more green space during early life might promote health in later life

Hautekiet, P. ., Saenen, N. D., Aerts, R. ., Martens, D. S., Roels, H. A., Bijnens, E. M., & Nawrot, N. S. (2022). Higher buccal mtDNA content is associated with residential surrounding green in a panel study of primary school children. Environmental Research , 213 . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.113551

Loose parts in an outdoor environment can enhance children's play and promote their holistic development.

Boulton, P. ., & Thomas, A. . (2022). How does play in the outdoors afford opportunities for schema development in young children?. International Journal of Play , 11 , 184-201. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/21594937.2022.2069348

Different interactional qualities of teachers are needed to support young children's interest in natural elements

Skalstad, I. ., & Munkebye, E. . (2022). How to support young children’s interest development during exploratory natural science activities in outdoor environments. Teaching and Teacher Education , 120 . https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2022.103687

Family is a strong determinant of open space use

Freeman, C. ., Buttery, Y. ., & van Heezik, Y. . (2022). Nature exposure and use of open spaces in three generation families: Implications for planning. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management , 65 , 562-582. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2021.1891870

Nature-based early childhood education may support children's growth in multiple areas of social, emotional, and cognitive development

Johnstone, A. ., Martin, A. ., Cordovil, R. ., Fjørtoft, I. ., Iivonen, S. ., Jidovtseff, B. ., … Wells, V. . (2022). Nature-based early childhood education and children’s social, emotional and cognitive development: A mixed-methods systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 19 . https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105967

Empathy-based stories can be useful for collecting children’s perspectives on urban green spaces across different cultural-geographic contexts

Shu, X. ., Mesimaki, M. ., Kotze, J. ., Wales, M. ., Xie, L. ., Benicke, R. ., & Lehvavirta, S. . (2022). Needs and expectations of German and Chinese children for livable urban green spaces revealed by the method of empathy-based stories. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening , 65 . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2022.127476

Unsupervised, risky play in dangerous communities may pose hazards to children

Janik, A. . (2022). Outdoor (anti-)play spaces and places: a qualitative study of Polish large city backyards seen from children’s perspective. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2022.2127111

Neighborhood socioeconomic status moderates the way park and neighborhood environments influence children's park-based physical activity in a high-density city

Zhang, R. ., Zhang, C. ., Lai, P. C., & Kwan, M. . (2022). Park and neighbourhood environmental characteristics associated with park-based physical activity among children in a high-density city. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening . https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2022.127479

More vulnerable groups live near and have access to parks, but they are less attractive

Biernacka, M. ., Lasziewicz, E. \, & Kronenberg, J. . (2022). Park availability, accessibility, and attractiveness in relation to the least and most vulnerable inhabitants. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening , 73 . https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2022.127585

Frequency of family-based nature activities in childhood is related to more time outdoors and a preference for outdoor environments in early adulthood

Izenstark, D. ., & Middaugh, E. . (2022). Patterns of family-based nature activities across the early life course and their association with adulthood outdoor participation and preference. Journal of Leisure Research , 53 , 4-26. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00222216.2021.1875274

Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field.

For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click here .

Loading metrics

Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

The role of climate change education on individual lifetime carbon emissions

Roles Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – original draft

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Department of Meteorology and Climate Science, San José State University, San José, California, United States of America

Roles Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing

Roles Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Communication Studies, San José State University, San José, California, United States of America

• Eugene C. Cordero, 
• Diana Centeno, 
• Anne Marie Todd

• Published: February 4, 2020
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206266
• Reader Comments

Strategies to mitigate climate change often center on clean technologies, such as electric vehicles and solar panels, while the mitigation potential of a quality educational experience is rarely discussed. In this paper, we investigate the long-term impact that an intensive one-year university course had on individual carbon emissions by surveying students at least five years after having taken the course. A majority of course graduates reported pro-environmental decisions (i.e., type of car to buy, food choices) that they attributed at least in part to experiences gained in the course. Furthermore, our carbon footprint analysis suggests that for the average course graduate, these decisions reduced their individual carbon emissions by 2.86 tons of CO 2 per year. Surveys and focus group interviews identify that course graduates have developed a strong personal connection to climate change solutions, and this is realized in their daily behaviors and through their professional careers. The paper discusses in more detail the specific components of the course that are believed to be most impactful, and the uncertainties associated with this type of research design. Our analysis also demonstrates that if similar education programs were applied at scale, the potential reductions in carbon emissions would be of similar magnitude to other large-scale mitigation strategies, such as rooftop solar or electric vehicles.

Citation: Cordero EC, Centeno D, Todd AM (2020) The role of climate change education on individual lifetime carbon emissions. PLoS ONE 15(2): e0206266. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206266

Editor: Francesco S. R. Pausata, Universite du Quebec a Montreal, CANADA

Received: October 5, 2018; Accepted: January 7, 2020; Published: February 4, 2020

Copyright: © 2020 Cordero et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: Data are available at OSFHOME, and access to the data can be found at ( https://osf.io/an4ht/ ), with this reference: DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/AN4HT .

Funding: The National Science Foundation under grant 1513332 provided support for the partial salary of DC, but did not have any additional role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. The specific roles of these authors are articulated in the ‘author contributions’ section. The commercial company Green Ninja did not provide any financial support related to this research, nor did they have any additional role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: I have read the journal’s policy and the authors of this manuscript have the following competing interests: EC is the majority owner of Green Ninja, an education company that produces middle school curriculum. A conflict of interest plan has been established through San Jose State University. This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials as detailed online in our guide for authors http://journals.plos.org/plosone/s/competing-interests .

1. Introduction

In 1992, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) stated, “Education is an essential element for mounting an adequate global response to climate change” [ 1 ]. Few would argue against the importance of education in providing an informed response to environmental problems. Solutions to climate change tend to focus on mitigation and adaptation measures, and successful implementation of either strategy requires an informed and educated citizenry. Interest in education and climate change has increased in recent years [ 2 ] in part due to leadership efforts from organizations like the United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) that continue to advocate for educational efforts to respond to climate change [ 3 ]. Yet despite the notion of education’s importance in responding to climate change, education is rarely mentioned in discussions of today’s major climate solution strategies. One reason that education programs may not feature prominently in discussions about climate change mitigation is that few studies verify the effective reductions in carbon emissions resulting from education programs. Although several studies have linked environmental education and environmental quality (e.g., Education and water quality [ 4 ]; Education and air quality [ 5 ]; and Education and energy reduction [ 6 ]), the environmental education literature is relatively sparse [ 7 ]. And while the potential to reduce carbon emissions through behavior programs is clear (e.g., [ 8 ]), connections to education over time have not been as well established [ 9 ]. This is in contrast to technologies such as renewable energy generation and the electrification of automobiles that can demonstrate reductions in carbon emissions using more easily accessible data. Should education be shown to be an effective tool to reducing emissions via changes in attitudes and behavior, it would seem likely that funding and interest in such methods would become more widespread and well supported.

Education has been found to be one method for promoting behavior change, but only under certain circumstances (e.g., [ 10 ]; [ 11 ]). The environmental education literature offers insights into the connections between education and behavior change, and it also provides guidance on how to encourage pro-environmental behavior [ 12 ]; [ 13 ]; [ 14 ]; [ 15 ]. The notion that knowledge leads to awareness and then to action has been countered with studies that document that knowledge and skills are not enough to change behavior (e.g., [ 16 ]). The literature suggests that more personal factors such as a deep connection to nature, personal relevance to the issue and personal agency towards action are important elements that contribute to successful behavior change programs (e.g., [ 10 ]; [ 17 ]; [ 18 ]; [ 19 ]). Even among successful programs, the question of how long the intended behavior is sustained can vary depending on the type of intervention, with longer and more sustained engagements tending to have more long-lasting impacts [ 20 ]. This previous research informs educational research programs towards designs that not only focus on information but also promote the personal qualities that can support sustained action.

A growing base of literature is developing around climate change education as national standards move towards inclusion of this subject in the core curriculum [ 21 ], and educators negotiate the teaching of this sometimes ‘controversial’ subject (e.g., [ 22 ]; [ 23 ]; [ 24 ]). While there are similarities to the teaching of other environmental topics, climate change includes some unique education challenges that make teaching this topic especially difficult [ 25 ]; [ 26 ]; [ 27 ]. The science is highly complex and spans various areas in the natural and physical sciences, and yet the implications of our changing climate and the role of human activities make this scientific topic both a social and a political issue. Despite the goals of environmental education organizations like the UNESCO, relatively few climate change education programs remain that have successfully demonstrated the type of behavior change needed to effectively respond to climate change [ 23 ]; [ 28 ]; [ 29 ]. Further, even among existing climate change education resources offered in textbooks and through government programs, it appears there are opportunities to promote more effective emission-reduction strategies [ 30 ].

The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the impact of an intensive university climate change course on individual long-term carbon emissions. The design of the course is described including the background research framework that was employed to help students develop a deep connection with climate change and climate solutions. Five years of graduates from the course were surveyed at least five years after they took the course. The results of both survey data and focus group interviews provide an indication of the long-term impact of the course, and they contribute to our understanding of the potential role that education can play in long-term behaviors and attitudes. We then quantify the reductions in annual carbon emissions resulting from graduates’ pro-environmental behavior, and we compare the reductions achieved through this education program with other climate change mitigation measures. Additional discussion is provided about the educational approach and the factors we felt were critical to the success of the education program.

The San Jose State University IRB committee has approved this human subject research (F15035) and all participants have provided written consent.

2.1. University course and students

In fall 2007, a new course was offered at San José State University (SJSU) that satisfied all three subject areas of the upper division general education (GE) requirements, plus the campus upper division writing requirement. The course, COMM/ENVS/GEOL/HUM/METR 168 & 168W: Global Climate Change I & II (hereafter referred to as COMM 168), is taught over an academic year, with six credit hours in the fall semester, and three credit hours in the following spring semester. The course is team taught by three faculty members from different departments with expertise in the core themes of climate science, climate mitigation and environmental communication. Although different professors taught the course during the five-year study period, the syllabus was consistent through the five years. During this same five-year period, student enrollment came from a broad distribution of the campus colleges, as shown in Table 1 . The course uses a number of design approaches to impact students in ways that maximize effects on students’ personal and professional lives, and this is described in more detail in section 3, Course Design. COMM 168 has been taught every year since 2007 and continues to be a well-enrolled class at SJSU.

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206266.t001

2.2. Survey and focus groups

An 18-item survey instrument (provided in the S1 Text ) was developed to study participants’ beliefs about climate change and whether their own personal actions to mitigate climate change could be associated with taking the COMM 168 course. The survey was broadly based on questions about climate change drawn from [ 31 ] and [ 32 ], and included questions that used a five-element Likert scale (strongly agree, agree, don’t know, disagree, or strongly disagree), multiple choice, and free response. A draft survey was trialed at SJSU by other educators and was revised based on their feedback. Of the more than 500 students who took the course, 104 students from the five different course iterations between 2007 and 2012 completed the survey. We emphasize that the survey was given to students at least five years after they completed the course, and no surveys were given before participants took the course. The categories of questions focused on participants’ a) attitudes and beliefs about global warming and whether they perceive it to affect them personally, and b) whether any of the participants’ current pro-environmental behaviors can be attributed to taking the COMM 168 course. The survey data was collected using an online platform where participant email was used to ensure only one response was collected per participant. Once the data was collected, spreadsheet statistical techniques, including pivot tables, were used to analyze participant data based on responses to different items.

After evaluating the survey responses and noting themes in the utility of the course and personal climate change mitigation strategies, we followed up with focus group interviews to gain more in-depth understanding of the enduring influence of the course on students’ personal and professional lives. Including a qualitative approach, such as focus group interviews, can complement the survey analysis and ultimately enhance the quality of the resulting analysis [ 33 ].

Focus group participants were randomly selected from the 100+ survey respondents. We conducted two focus groups with a total of five participants in a classroom at San José State University. Participants were asked a series of open-ended questions about the course and its impact on their current lives. Once the focus group interviews were completed, focus group transcripts were analyzed according to thematic analysis. The goal of a thematic analysis was to identify patterns in the data to bring clarity to the research questions. First, we interpreted patterns in the focus group responses by identifying themes in the transcripts that were common across the interviewees in different focus groups. Then select quotes and phrases were chosen to illustrate the identified themes. These quotes and phrases were woven into a narrative to describe the focus group responses in a coherent way. This exploratory approach to thematic analysis enabled us to present a rich description of student experiences in the course and perceptions of climate change issues. Copies of the survey, focus group scripts, and focus group protocols are provided in S1 and S3 Texts.

2.3. Estimating carbon emission reductions from the survey responses

Once responses to the survey questions were obtained, the potential carbon reductions from the decisions made by participants were estimated. Details of the procedure used are provided in S2 Text , but we briefly describe the method here. We use the CoolClimate Calculator [ 34 ] an online household carbon footprint calculator that has been well documented and verified in a number of studies (e.g., [ 35 ]; [ 36 ]; [ 37 ]; [ 38 ]). The carbon footprint calculator is used to estimate how a particular action attributed to taking COMM 168 would impact individual annual carbon emissions. We start by calculating the annual carbon emissions for an average person in California. Then, based on the response to a particular question (e.g., participant attributed their current purchasing of renewable energy from their utility to the COMM 168 course), we use the calculator to determine the reduction in annual carbon emissions due to that particular action (e.g., participant reduced emissions by 1.38 tons/year by purchasing renewable energy from their utility). This procedure is repeated for each of the actions identified in the survey, and thus allows us to estimate how particular actions have changed individual carbon emissions. We acknowledge that although participants attributed particular actions to the COMM 168 course, other experiences either before or after the course may have also contributed towards these pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors. Our notion is that this intensive one-year class on climate change played a key or leading role in the development of these attitude and behaviors.

3. Course design

The COMM 168 course was designed to promote lasting responsible environmental behavior through an educational model broadly based on the environmental education research of [ 17 ]. In this research, Hungerford and Volk identified three predictor variables or factors that contribute to pro-environmental behavior. The first factor is labeled as an entry-level variable and describes the importance of an empathetic perspective towards nature and the environment. The second factor is labeled as the ownership variables and describes the importance of both in-depth knowledge about the issue and a personal connection to the issue. The third factor is the empowerment variable, and this describes the understanding and skills around solutions to the issue, together with a sense of personal agency. As described in various later studies (e.g., [ 10 ]; [ 39 ]; [ 40 ], these three factors are important components to successful behavior change educational programs.

To illustrate the theoretical connection between the design elements of the course and the expected outcomes, we use a conjecture map in Fig 1 [ 41 ] to illustrate what we believe are the most salient connections between the primary conjecture, key elements of the intervention design, the measurable mediating processes and the intervention outcomes. This framework outlines the intermediate processes that support learning, and offers opportunities to measure the effectiveness of these mediating processes towards the intervention outcomes.

In the course design column, the item superscripts indicate an alignment with predictor variables (i.e., 1—entry level; 2—ownership; 3—empowerment).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206266.g001

The course design includes two primary tools that aim to provide students with the key learning experiences that will lead to the intended outcomes. The first tool is a series of activities where students explore connections between their personal and professional lives and climate change. The second tool is the community action project, where student teams design and implement plans to reduce carbon emissions in a community of their choice. Each of these tools, together with other learning experiences in the class, are structured around the three key focus areas of climate science, climate solutions and communication. Examples of the primary tools followed by the mediating processes are provided below.

The COMM 168 course used a series of activities to help students develop a stronger connection to climate change and to leverage the predictor factors that have been found to promote behavior change. We provide three examples of learning activities that leveraged each of these predictor factors. In one activity focused on careers, students write a paper, supported by research, about the importance of climate change in their specific discipline. The audience of the paper are peers in their field, and students identify at least three reasons why climate change would be important in their discipline. This career activity is most closely aligned with the ownership variable. In another activity focused on individual action, students use an online calculator to compute their own carbon footprint based on their lifestyle, and then they develop a plan for how to reduce their carbon footprint by 10%. Students then implement their carbon reduction plan for a week and report on their experiences. This activity is most closely aligned with the empowerment variable. In a third activity, students participate in a multi-day United Nations (UN) climate negotiation simulation, where students play the role of a delegate representing a specific nation or bloc of nations. This activity provided students with unique perspectives on the impacts of climate change on vulnerable communities, and this activity was most strongly associated with the entry-level variable.

The other primary tool used in the course design is the community action project (CAP), a year-long culminating experience that threads through the two semesters. In the CAP, student teams build on their course knowledge to develop, design and implement projects that respond to climate change in local communities. During the first semester, student teams are formed and develop proposals for their community action project, while in the second semester, student teams are focused on developing and implementing their projects. Examples of CAPs include developing community gardens in the local neighborhood, presenting climate lessons in schools, and creating campaigns to help individuals and businesses move towards some type of climate action. At the end of the second semester, a panel of external judges comprising local government and industry award prizes to the teams with the most innovative and successful projects. The CAP allows students the opportunities to apply their learning in a way that is meaningful and impactful, and there is strong alignment between CAP projects and the predictor variables described above.

Supporting these two instructional tools are the three key focus areas of climate science, climate solutions and environmental communication. For the focus area of climate science, the instruction provides an understanding of the natural and anthropogenic factors that affect the Earth’s climate. Students study the past climate to understand natural factors, and then they focus on the current climate where human activities are the dominant contributor to contemporary changes. Tools like radiative forcing and climate models are used to help students identify evidence connecting human activities and climate change.

For the focus area of climate solutions, students study how both policy mechanisms and personal actions can help mitigate climate change. Through various case studies, students look at the role that local, state and national policies can have on improving environmental conditions. Related issues such as environmental justice and the slow uptake of climate action in government are also discussed. Other areas of climate change mitigation include studies of personal behavior around subjects like food, transportation and home energy use.

For the focus area of environmental communication, students look at marketing and communication strategies and the ideas around framing for particular audiences. Students study various media campaigns and develop experience creating their own communication tools designed for a particular audience. A component of this also focuses on analyzing the current public discourse around climate change and how various stakeholders play a role in shaping these discussions.

As referenced in the conjecture map of Fig 1 , these course design elements support a number of mediating processes that ultimately can lead to actions and behaviors that reduce carbon emissions. Aspects of the mediating processes and intervention outcomes can be measured using various tools. In this study we have used surveys and focus group interviews to explore students’ knowledge and attitudes about climate change at least five years after completing the course.

The design elements of the course were developed to achieve the stated outcome of developing a personal connection to climate change and participating in behaviors that reduce carbon emissions. As is the case in many educational settings, along the way faculty made adjustments to the course and their teaching to help promote student engagement. However, the primary course design tools and key focus areas were constant throughout the five study years. A copy of the original syllabus is provided in S4 Text .

Finally, when developing this course more than 10 years ago, we were focused on creating a contemporary and action-based learning experience. Only later did we realize that this learning environment was creating unique outcomes, worthy of further study. Although it would have been preferable to have also collected data before and during the course experience, the type of longitudinal analyses presented here is rare in environmental education, and our methodology, although subject to some limitations, provides a unique opportunity to investigate the long-term role of education on personal behavior.

As described in Sections 2.2 and 2.3, we use surveys and focus groups to study the attitudes and behaviors of graduates of COMM 168 after more than five years following the course completion. These results are analyzed in the below sections.

4.1. Survey

The first part of the survey focused on participants’ attitudes and beliefs about global warming. A large majority of participants (83%) agreed with the statement, “Most scientists think global warming is happening.”, and most participants (84%) also felt that global warming would affect their lives “a great deal” or “a moderate amount.” This is notable since the general public often discounts the impacts that global warming will have on them personally [ 42 ]; [ 43 ]. Most participants (84%) also strongly agreed or agreed with the statement, “I have personally experienced the effects of global warming.”, and when asked about how global warming will affect future generations, 91% said “a great deal.” Because these results are quite different from the average U.S. general public (e.g., [ 44 ]), this suggests that the course may have had an influence on students’ long-term beliefs about climate change. Even so, we cannot rule out the possibility that a socially-agreeable bias may be present in participant responses, as described further in the Section 7.

The second group of questions asked about personal actions to reduce climate change and whether the COMM 168 course had any effect on those actions. The general areas of climate action included waste reduction, home energy conservation, transportation and food choices. Each question asked participants to reflect on how participation in COMM 168 may have affected their actions today in those areas.

A summary of the results for the different categories is provided in Fig 2 . In the waste and home energy conservation categories, a large percentage of participants described engaging in some actions to reduce waste or reduce energy use in their home that they attribute to taking the COMM 168 course. This included recycling more often (95%), changing to more energy efficient light bulbs (86%), giving away or donating products so they can be reused (75%), buying products that have less packaging (64%), and purchasing energy-efficient appliances (59%). Fewer participants reported actions such as composting food scraps (48%), purchasing renewable energy from their utility (18%) and installing solar panels (4%).

The blue bars represent the percentage of students who agreed with the survey response, while the orange bars represent the impact in carbon emissions in percent relative to the total reductions.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206266.g002

In the transportation category, about 25% of participants reported some behavior to reduce emissions that is attributed to the COMM 168 course. This included using public transportation more (35%), using a bicycle for transportation (26%) and carpooling regularly (22%). And in the food choices category, most participants (80%) reported that at least occasionally they made food choices based on reducing carbon emissions.

The survey responses reported here suggest that participant behavior was influenced by the COMM 168 course in ways that continue to impact daily life. The types of actions studied here can be divided into two groups: one-time actions and recurring actions. For example, the purchase of an energy-efficient light bulb or automobile is a one-time action, and these decisions will shape energy use for years into the future. In contrast, recurring actions such as recycling or food choices are made every day, and thus require more consistent engagement or behavior response. In reality, pro-environmental behavior includes both types of actions, and their impacts on carbon emissions can vary depending on the type of action and whether recurring actions become part of an individual’s lifestyle. Given the number of years that elapsed between the course and the survey, the survey provides a glimpse into behaviors that have likely become habitual. In the waste and food categories, some recurring actions were noted by most participants. Although recycling may be viewed as a fairly common action in many Californian communities, food choices and the connection with carbon emissions is not as widely known by the general public (e.g., [ 30 ]; [ 31 ]). Given that 80% of participants reported some changes to their food choices, it appears that the course did have an impact on decision-making in this category even years after the course.

4.1.1. Estimated carbon emissions.

Using the survey responses about the actions that participants took, we estimate the reductions in carbon emissions for all participants using a household carbon footprint calculator. Fig 2 also shows the contribution of each of the survey questions to the total reductions in carbon emissions. While changes to behavior around reducing waste and energy conservation at home were the most common actions taken, the largest reduction in participant-averaged carbon emissions came through transportation decisions. For example, while only 31% of participants reported purchasing a more gas-efficient car, this single action accounted for 18% of all carbon emission reductions observed. In contrast, while over 90% of participants reported that they recycle more often, the combined reduction in carbon emissions only accounted for 11% of the total reductions.

As shown in Fig 3 , the average reduction in carbon emissions based on the participant survey responses is 3.54 tons of CO 2 /year, with most participants between 2 and 5 tons of CO 2 /year. About 5% of students reported almost no change (0–1 ton of CO 2 /year), and about 10% reported between 6 and 8 tons of CO 2 /year. Of the four primary categories of carbon emission reductions, changes in transportation were responsible for 40% of the total carbon emission reductions, while waste reduction, food choices and home energy contributed 33%, 13% and 12% respectively of the achieved total carbon emission reductions.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206266.g003

4.1.2. Understanding how personal relevance and carbon emissions are related.

Given that one of the goals of the course is to help students develop a personal connection between global warming and their lives, we explore the connections between participant beliefs and total carbon emission reductions through analysis of grouped data. In Fig 4 , we show the relationship between individual carbon emission reductions with personal beliefs about how global warming will influence them or future generations. We find that participants who believe that global warming will harm them personally, or will harm future generations, have larger reductions in carbon emissions compared to participants who do not believe there will be a strong impact on them or future generations. Thus, it appears that in most cases, participants were at some level influenced by how they perceived the impact of global warming on their own well-being, or the well-being of future generations, when making personal decisions related to the environment.

The percentage of the total responses for that question is also given above each bar.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206266.g004

Further, of the participants who agreed (strongly agreed or agreed) to the statement, “I have personally experienced the effects of global warming.” their reductions in carbon emissions were 3.7 tons of CO 2 /year, while for the participants who did not agree with that statement (disagreed, strongly disagreed or neutral), their reductions were only 2.9 tons of CO 2 /year (see Fig 5 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206266.g005

4.2. Focus groups

Responses from focus group participants converged around two themes: the importance of daily decisions to mitigate their climate change impact and the importance of engaging their community through climate change communication. Examples of these themes from focus groups responses are provided below, together with relevant connection to the three predictor variables used to inform the course design.

4.2.1. Impact on daily decisions.

A hallmark of conversations with graduates from the course was the consideration of climate in daily decisions. Fundamentally, focus group participants recognized the pervasiveness of climate change. As Tara, a focus group participant, noted, “Almost every activity we choose can affect [climate change] in some way, whether we choose to take the bus or drive to work or whether we choose to buy food that’s grown on land that was cleared from rainforests….Since it is in every aspect of our life pretty much, that automatically makes it relevant to all those different aspects.” Other participants agreed and described daily actions that centered on transportation, waste and food choices. Melissa noted, “I think about it all the time…. Definitely how I think about and go about my days, making decisions, even just from using plastic.” And Elaine commented about buying a car after she paid off her student loans “I ended up choosing a Prius C for a lot of reasons. At the time it was pricey, but it just seemed energy efficient. It had what I was looking for while still being helpful for the environment.” These responses exemplify a common theme in the group—the knowledge of climate change gained in the course prompted them to think about the impact of their actions.

The focus group participants noted that they go out of their way to take action because they feel as if they are making a difference. Billy noted, “When everyone does something to mitigate climate change, it will have a huge impact.” Tara concurred, “Almost everything I do can affect the climate somehow. If you start realizing how everything ties together, then pretty much everything you do, every choice you make can affect it in some way.” She continued, “I think every small step does make a difference…. One little step at a time; it all adds up. I’d like to think we’re making a difference. I feel like I am when I contribute a little bit.” Participants suggested that the interdisciplinary focus of the course allowed them to see the connections between their actions and broader climate forcings.

Participant comments demonstrate that environmental actions are not just because of sacrifice but that people feel good about taking action. Lolitta explained, “So when we started the global climate change class, for a week we had to do something eco-friendly. I’m like okay, I’m gonna be a vegan. And I did it totally wrong. I just ate vegetables and fruits all day, and I was starving. But it got me to become vegan, and for a couple years I was. Now I’m a vegetarian, and I’ve stuck to it. I feel good about how I’m living my life, and I’m excited by all the changes that I’m making, and I will continue making these changes because they make me feel great.” Billy noted proudly that he acts because “it’s like a moral obligation.” Ultimately, participants concurred that daily actions matter, and they cited this belief as the reason they continue to take actions. Their comments suggest they are empowered to act because they see themselves as part of the solution.

4.2.2. Community engagement through communication.

Overall, focus group participants noted that this course helped them develop experience communicating with other people about their actions and why they are taking them. Participants cited the community action class project as a key element in their understanding of the impact of community engagement. Billy described the lasting impact of “the hands-on approach” of the project: “Those experiences, I think for me, I carry those longer than / more than being in the classroom…. Being with people, doing something that’s going to translate into what I have to do work-wise in the future, [the project was a] translatable experience to the workforce.” Melissa described the lasting impression of the project as a crucial aspect to seeing the impact of action: “It actually bridged the gap between the course and what the community itself is doing.”

Participants noted the impact of the course on life beyond the home. One focus group participant, Elaine, is a manager at Walmart, and she credited the course for her “awareness in an industry with high consumption…. It’s so interesting how much I’ve been able to use just from this course.” She noted her focus as a manager is how to “reduce your inventory, reduce the waste, sell what you need to.” Elaine views Walmart’s waste issues both as a climate issue and a management problem: “I see the huge amounts that they’re throwing away because they’re not managing their business correctly, because they’re not managing their production versus what they need, what they don’t. So that’s one of the things that I work on.” Elaine’s comments exemplify how many graduates of COMM 168 viewed the importance of taking action.

Billy noted the course explained how to make “big issues” like climate change “resonate with your audience… That’s what I do now.” He explains that in his job at the utility company, Pacific Gas and Electric, one of his roles is communicating about energy issues, “That’s my biggest takeaway from this class: messaging. [I now understand] the importance of communicating about climate change in a way where people who don’t have a background in that subject can understand.” Other participants concurred that the course made them experts in climate change, and they now have to think about how to communicate with people who don’t have such extensive knowledge.

Participants also noted the importance of communicating with others about the actions they take. Tara noted: “It doesn’t really help unless you try to bring it out there. If I only ever walk places, no one will ever know unless I try to let them know why I walk places…. If you’re going to make a point by breaking the rules, you first have to know the rules because otherwise it doesn’t mean anything. If I want to rebel by not using a car, I first have to know that everyone thinks using a car is a normal thing to do.” Participants agreed that talking about their own actions helped in discussing climate change issues with others.

The community action project was a key part of the course in giving students experience outside of class in creating change. It also gave them some agency over this issue. Participants described their attempts to make a difference, both in their personal and professional lives. Participants noted the community action project allowed them to see the importance of communication in the design of their projects. The focus group responses suggest that interdisciplinary education including aspects of communication can give students the skills and experience necessary to create change in their own communities.

The outcome of the themes that emerged from the focus groups are broadly aligned with the methodology outlined in the course design (Section 3) and as described in the conjecture map ( Fig 1 ) In particular, students noted a personal connection with climate change (ownership variable), and they demonstrated specific ways either through personal actions or through communication that they could take action (empowerment variable). The entry level variable, which describes a sensitivity or empathy for the environment, was present in some of the focus group remarks, but did not emerge as a central theme.

5. Educational approach

We describe a number of key design elements that stood out as critical to the success of the education program we developed and that have sustained student engagement over many years. These include a) connecting climate science to students’ lives, b) providing students with experience creating change in a community of their choice and c) creating a culture devoted to stewardship and action. We found that these elements of the course helped students to connect with the subject in ways that extended into their personal and professional lives, and are broadly aligned with some of the predictor variables that we used to design the course. These elements were not isolated from each other, or from other important elements of the course, including a solid focus on climate science, climate solutions and environmental communication. These elements are in line with the models suggested by other researchers, including personal relevance and empowerment [ 16 ]; [ 23 ]. We now review each of these elements in more detail to provide insights into how these ideas may be applied to other educational settings.

5.1. Connecting science to students’ lives

Various activities in the course were designed to help connect climate change with students’ lives and align with the ownership variable discussed in Fig 1 . One project asked students to reflect on how climate change would affect their personal and professional lives. Another project had students track their personal energy use, and then implement a plan to reduce their energy use in their home using data from their home smart meters. These elements appeared to have some lasting impact, as various focus group participants reflected on how the course materials affected their personal and professional lives.

In addition to the actions that were identified in the survey data, open-ended feedback also revealed that the course affected other major decisions, such as where to live and how many children to have. In fact, two of the participants mentioned their decisions to adopt a child or not to have children were influenced by the course. This implies that at least for some of the students, the course content and the implications of climate change affected their personal lives deeply. It appears that some of the high-impact actions identified by [ 30 ], such as having fewer children, did resonate with the COMM 168 students.

In a recent study by [ 23 ], a systematic review of the climate change education literature identified themes common in successful programs. One of the primary themes identified was a focus on making climate change personally relevant and meaningful for learners. It is noted that this is also a common practice in environmental education and science education, but as we found in our own work here, it can be made especially meaningful given the personal connection that climate change can have to students’ lives.

5.2. Creating change in a community of their choice

Another design element of the course was to provide students with real-world experience creating and implementing an action plan to reduce carbon emissions, an activity aligned with the empowerment variable. The Community Action Project (CAP) was the culminating experience where student teams competed to develop the most impactful community-based project. The goal of the CAP was to give students real-world experience developing solutions to climate change. It was our intention that through this experience, students would not only better understand some of the challenges associated with creating change but also gain confidence that change can happen through well-designed efforts. [ 45 ] found that using issue investigation and action training was an effective way to promote pro-environmental behavior. And [ 46 ] found that students were deeply affected by their service-learning course even years after the experience. The COMM 168 course was focused around the year-long CAP, and feedback from the focus groups shared how impactful the project was for some of the students, as a majority of the focus group participants mentioned the CAP as the most memorable part of the course. Our conclusion that the CAP promoted engagement and student empowerment has also been recognized in various other climate change education programs as a key element in creating effective learning experiences [ 23 ].

5.3. Creating a culture devoted to stewardship and action

• Encouraging group discussions with different students: We did a lot of group work in class, and with 80–120 students per class, we took special efforts to mix students for their group work. This helped students work with new students and be exposed to new ideas. By giving students some challenging subjects to discuss (i.e., how does climate change affect their current or future lives), or challenging situations (i.e., during a UN simulation on climate change where students represented different countries negotiating a climate treaty), we gave students the opportunity to exchange personal ideas about climate. We felt this helped students see multiple views across the class, and if an emerging interest and dedication to climate change arose through the class, it could spread.
• Faculty committed to climate action: The faculty who taught this course were all deeply committed to climate change solutions, and they were encouraged to share their own personal and professional journeys towards reducing carbon emissions. And because students got to know the faculty fairly well, given the course was taught over an academic year, students had the opportunity to connect with the faculty at a personal level. For example, when faculty reflected on their own personal challenges in reducing emissions associated with driving or eating, students could relate to this. Role models are important in creating social change, and we suggest that having professors committed to environmental solutions was also a factor in creating a social culture for the class that encouraged pro-environmental thinking and behavior. For example, one of the focus group participants mentioned that as a result of the class culture, her ownership of an SUV grew uncomfortable given her shifting connection to the environment. She admitted to deliberately concealing her vehicle type from the faculty, even though the faculty attempted to create a culture of acceptance without judgement. Later after graduating, this participant purchased a hybrid as her next vehicle. This is an example of the social norms that were established in the class that may have extended to students’ lives outside of school and over time.

6. Potential role of education on carbon emission reductions

Given the reductions in carbon emissions calculated in Section 4.1.1 (and shown in Fig 3 ), we now explore the potential role of education as a climate change mitigation strategy. We start by estimating the participant reductions in carbon emissions compared to a control group. The control group is created by using California’s per capita carbon emissions data as estimated by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) [ 49 ]. We choose to use California’s per capita carbon emissions for two reasons. First, we do not have a good way to access course participant’s prior behavior retrospectively, and second, we assume that behavior after graduating from the course could change as students become professionals resulting in a potential dramatic lifestyle change. The California per capita carbon emission data show that by 2014, per capita carbon emissions for the average Californian declined by 0.68 tons/year compared to 2009, the midpoint when students had graduated from SJSU. By contrast, the participants in COMM 168 reduced their per capita emissions by 3.54 tons/year. Thus, if we subtract the emission reductions for the average Californian (0.68) from our participants (3.54), we find that the net reduction above the average citizen is 2.86 tons/year (3.54–0.68 = 2.86).

We now use the net reduction in carbon emissions observed for graduates of COMM 168 to compare the potential role of education as a climate change mitigation strategy with other climate change mitigation strategies. For this comparison, we employ the methodology outlined in Project Drawdown, where 80 different technologies or strategies are evaluated based on the potential to cumulatively reduce carbon emissions by 2050 [ 50 ].

The following procedure and set of assumptions are used to calculate carbon emission reductions associated with climate change education, as shown in Fig 6 . We first assume that a modest investment in climate change education would allow students of secondary school age from middle and high income countries (where their carbon emissions are highest) to receive a specialized climate change education (i.e., using similar educational methodologies as we have described in this paper), and that students who receive this education would each reduce their carbon emissions by 2.86 tons of CO 2 /year (i.e., as in the COMM 168 course), for that year, and for each year following. Further, we assume that such a program would start small at 1 million students and grow by 13% per year until 2050, when the program reaches over 38 million participants. We use 2015 data from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) [ 51 ] to estimate the number of students of secondary school age from high income and upper middle income as 298 million. This allows us to estimate the percentage of students participating in this specialized climate change education program in 2020 and 2050, assuming the population of secondary students in these countries does not change.

The potential role of climate change education programs is calculated using the per student carbon reductions estimated from the COMM 168 course.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206266.g006

In Fig 6 , six of the solutions presented in Project Drawdown are compared with our own estimate for using education as a climate change mitigation strategy. For the solution scenarios developed by Project Drawdown, each of these represents ambitious and yet also technically and economically feasible plans for reducing carbon levels. Technical details and reference literature for all these solutions are presented at www.drawdown.org . As examples, the Rooftop Solar scenario grows the percentage of electricity generated by rooftop solar from 0.4% today to 7% by 2050, while the Electric Vehicles scenario grows the percentage of passenger miles from electric vehicles from less than 1% today to 16% by 2050. For the Climate Change Education scenario we assume that a) each student reduces their carbon emissions by 2.86 tons of CO 2 , similar to the COMM 168 course and b) the adoption of this type of education grows from less than 1% of all secondary students today to 16% of all secondary students by 2050 (note: the number of secondary students is restricted to only high income and upper-middle income countries where residents have higher carbon emissions).

The results of this comparison show that education, if designed appropriately, can potentially be as effective as other established climate change mitigation techniques. Based on the scenario we developed, the implementation of climate change education over a 30-year period (2020–2050) could reduce emissions by 18.8 GT of CO 2 eq, an amount that would rank in the top quarter (15 out of 80) of the presented solutions in Project Drawdown. Although at scale, the use of education as a climate change mitigation technique is still untested, our analysis suggests that if the educational approach is sound, and if we take the effort to measure the impact of education, we may realize the potential to reduce carbon emissions using education. We also acknowledge that although barriers to developing a successful large-scale climate change education program exist, significant social and political challenges exist with most large-scale solutions to climate change.

7. Uncertainties and study limitations

In the following section, we describe a number of uncertainties and study limitations that are important to the interpretation of the results. Although we believe the COMM 168 course provides unique insight into the long-term role that education can have on individual behaviors, especially given the lack of existing studies that look at how education can shape behavior over many years, we also acknowledge the potential limits of such a research design, and thus we are careful here to identify uncertainties and describe limitations in the study. The exposure of such uncertainties and limitations provides the research with a context for interpreting the results and also provides an avenue for researchers to undertake additional studies to investigate the impact that education can have on long-term behavior change.

7.1. Uncertainties

The study methodology and analysis include a number of assumptions that contribute to the uncertainties associated with this study, and these are discussed below.

Student enrollment.

Because the course is titled “Global Climate Change,” students interested in environmental issues may have self-selected into the course. These students may respond more favorably to the course design, and may be more willing to change their behavior in the future given their initial interest in the environment. Although the impact of incentives on bias is not clearly understood [ 52 ], the year-long course included a 3-unit incentive where a passing grade in the 9-unit course provided students with an additional 3 units of general education credit. We heard that many students reported that they signed up for the course because of the extra requirements satisfied. Further, we note that when this incentive was removed from the course design in 2014, the initial broad distribution of majors who enrolled in the class declined quite dramatically. In the earlier years with the 3-unit incentive (2007–2013), four colleges (i.e, Social Sciences, Humanities and the Arts, Business, and Health and Human Sciences) each had at least 10% of the registered students. However, once the 3-unit incentive was removed in 2014, only two colleges (i.e., Social Sciences, Humanities and the Arts) had significant enrollment (i.e., more than 10% of students), with the course now having more enrollment from Environmental Studies and Communication Studies. The 3-unit incentive thus appears to have been effective in drawing students from across campus, and this suggests that the course topic was not the only reason students enrolled in the course.

Energy calculations.

The household carbon footprint calculator was used to estimate how student responses would impact carbon emissions. Although the calculator has been used in a number of studies, various assumptions were made as described in Table 1 of S2 Text . It is clear that some of the carbon reductions attributed to the course experience may have inherent uncertainties. For example, actions such as carpooling regularly, making food choices to reduce emissions and buying energy-star appliances all suggest actions to reduce emissions, and yet the actual reduction amount depends on specifics of the action that are difficult to obtain without a more detailed survey tool. In contrast, the goal of this analysis was to document actions attributable to the course and develop a practical methodology for estimating the carbon reductions using the best tools available.

Behavior changes.

Another uncertainty that this research only partially uncovered was the motivation for the reported changes. Did participants make lifestyle changes because of environmental concerns or for other reasons, such as financial considerations or ethical concerns? In our focus group, participants reported that pro-environmental outcomes were the primary reason for their choices, but we do not know if this was also the case with all students. Further, without a more detailed survey, it is difficult to understand whether other factors (e.g., social circumstances) also contributed to these changes. This is one reason we chose to use the California per capita emission reduction as a control group, so that pro-environmental trends seen throughout California could be accounted for.

Other considerations.

We also acknowledge a number of other uncertainties in the design of this study. Participants were surveyed at least five years after taking the course, and we recognize the limits of human memory may skew some of their responses. There may be students who incorrectly remember aspects of the course, and this may have influenced some of our conclusions. This is in part why we chose to do a focus group to more accurately investigate aspects of the course that may have been important.

7.2. Study limitations

One limitation in this study is the lack of a control group or a pre-survey. We acknowledge that without such accompanying data, determining the precise relationship between students’ participation in the course and their current attitudes and behaviors is difficult. We did attempt to control for how pro-environmental behaviors in California have become more common over the last decade, but we do not have any data that measured student attitudes or behavior before taking the class. Although further studies should consider the various ways to measure changes in participant attitudes and behaviors, measuring such changes over many years remains a challenge.

Another limitation in the study is the potential for selection bias. Although we attempted to determine whether students self-selected into the course based on their environmental leanings or the 3-unit incentive, we do not have independent data to quantify the role that selection bias had on student enrollment. If students did select this course because of their initial interest in environmental stewardship, this could bias the outcomes of the study.

Another concern is related to biases in participant responses to survey and focus group questions. We acknowledge that a socially-agreeable response bias with regard to behaviors being attributed to the course may exist in the participant responses to surveys and focus group questions. Although we took measures in our survey design and focus group protocol to reduce such biases, it cannot be ruled out that such self-reporting response biases may be present and could influence the reliability of the results.

Finally, we recognize that among the uncertainties identified in section 7.1, none of them have been adequately quantified. Although some of these uncertainties, such as the reliability of the carbon footprint calculator and the related carbon emissions, probably would not influence the primary outcomes of the study, other uncertainties such as initial attitudes of participating students may have a larger influence on the study results.

As we have generally described, establishing linkages between an educational campaign and long-term behavior can be challenging. Other studies that attempt to establish causal links between education and environmental quality also faced similar challenges (e.g., [ 5 ]), and yet the insights gained from such work provide a strong motivation for environmental education and this type of research [ 7 ]; [ 53 ]. Our work is similar. Despite the limitations we have identified, our analysis provides important insights into understanding the role that well-designed climate change education can play on long-term attitudes and behavior.

8. Conclusions

The potential role of education on individual carbon emissions was studied using data from students who completed an intensive university course on climate change. Students were surveyed at least five years after having taken the course, and their responses were used to provide both qualitative and quantitative measures of the impact of the course on their attitudes and behavior regarding solutions to climate change. The university course was designed to be impactful, including various elements from the environmental education literature to engage students around personal and social activism. In open-ended feedback and the focus group interviews, students recounted how the course has changed their lives, both personally and professionally. Examples of personal changes included the type of car they drive and the type of food they eat. Examples of professional changes included how they create environmental benefits through their job. The results from the survey data also suggest that the course was impactful, even many years later. Student behavior related to waste decisions, home energy decisions, transportation and food choices all showed significant behavior change that was attributed to the COMM 168 course, and these changes were quantified using a reputable online carbon emissions calculator. The estimated reductions in carbon emissions attributed to the COMM 168 graduates are 3.54 tons/year, compared with the carbon emissions for an average California resident of 25.1 tons/year. It was found that the participants who had personally experienced the effects of global warming, or felt that global warming will harm them personally, had the largest reductions in carbon emissions. Although a number of studies have established links between educational programs and environmental quality, such as water or air quality [ 7 ], far fewer studies have established causal links between education and carbon emissions [ 5 ].

This study suggests that the design of the COMM 168 course provides elements of the three crucial factors that [ 17 ] identify as contributing to pro-environmental behavior: entry-level, ownership, and empowerment variables. Surveys and focus group interviews reveal that graduates of the course feel a lasting personal connection to the issue and have confidence in the success of their actions. This strong sense of personal obligation and the perceived individual agency to address climate change suggest that education that leverages these design elements including community engagement may provide a public benefit. The authors also note that social norms, established through a year-long course and emphasized through various classroom activities, also may have contributed to students’ pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors. However, while previous studies have demonstrated that factors such as having a personal connection (e.g., [ 23 ]) and perceived self-efficacy (e.g., [ 54 ]) can influence individual behaviors, we acknowledge that other factors are also likely important (e.g., [ 55 ]), and understanding how these factors contribute to individual behavior change is complex [ 39 ]; [ 56 ]. We also acknowledge that there may be cases where structural factors, such as size of home or distance of commute, may obscure the intentions of pro-environmental behavior [ 57 ].

The potential to use education as a climate change mitigation measure would be valuable and in line with other mitigation measures if such reductions as achieved in the COMM 168 course could be achieved in other classrooms. We illustrate this through comparisons with other climate change solutions, and show that at scale, climate change education can be as effective in reducing carbon emissions as other solutions such as rooftop solar or electric vehicles. The notion that education is an important part of responding to climate change is not novel (e.g., [ 29 ]; [ 58 ]), and yet rarely has it been quantified and measured [ 53 ]. This paper sheds light on how such measurements could be taken, and it offers a pedagogical insight for how to make education an effective climate change mitigation strategy.

At present, the authors are using similar design approaches to develop a comprehensive science curriculum focused around environmental stewardship and climate action (e.g., [ 59 ]; [ 60 ]) for middle schools. The Next Generation Science Standards now emphasize applying integrative science fields to solving real-world problems, and this serves as an ideal platform for applying the type of educational platform developed in COMM 168 towards a broader science curriculum for schools. The middle school science curriculum [ 61 ] is currently being used in a number of school districts in California, and studies examining changes in student attitudes and behavior will be reported in the future.

Supporting information

S1 text. survey instrument used for the graduates of the comm 168 course..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206266.s001

S2 Text. Procedure for estimating reductions in carbon emissions from the survey responses.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206266.s002

S3 Text. Focus group protocol.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206266.s003

S4 Text. COMM 168 syllabus.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206266.s004

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the students involved in this study for their time and participation, and Dr. Elizabeth Walsh for her helpful suggestions on our data analysis. We also thank Liz Palfreyman for her help in gathering some of the student demographic data.

• 1. United Nations. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. New York: United Nations, General Assembly; 1992.
• View Article
• Google Scholar
• 3. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). UNESCO strategy for the second half of the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. Paris: UNESCO; 2010.
• PubMed/NCBI
• 21. National Research Council. A framework for K-12 science education: practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2012.
• 33. Wolff B, Knodel J, Sittitrai W. Focus groups and surveys as complementary research methods. In: Morgan DL, editor. Successful focus groups: advancing the state of the art. London: Sage; 1993. pp. 118–136.
• 34. University of California. CoolClimate Network: household calculator [Internet]. Berkeley, CA: University of California; 2019. [cited 2019 May 15]. https://coolclimate.berkeley.edu/calculator
• 44. Maibach E, Roser-Renouf C, Leiserowitz A. Global warming’s six Americas 2009: an audience segmentation analysis. New Haven, CT: Yale Project on Climate Change and George Mason University Center for Climate Change Communication; 2009.
• 49. California Air Resources Board (CARB). California’s 2000–2016 greenhouse gas emissions inventory; 2018. [cited 2019 May 15]. https://ww3.arb.ca.gov/cc/inventory/pubs/reports/2000_2016/ghg_inventory_00-16_method_update_document.pdf
• 50. Hawken P, editor. Drawdown: the most comprehensive plan ever proposed to reverse global warming. New York: Penguin Books; 2017. Database [Internet]. [cited 2019 May 15]. https://www.drawdown.org
• 51. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). UNESCO Institute for Statistics. UIS statistics database. 2015. [Internet]. [cited 2019 May 15]. http://data.uis.unesco.org .
• 61. greenninja.org [Internet]. Mountain View, CA; 2019 [cited 2019 May 15]. https://web.greenninja.org .

Research Methods for Environmental Education

• Open Access
• First Online: 30 September 2022

Cite this chapter

You have full access to this open access chapter

• Wei-Ta Fang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4460-0652 4 ,
• Arba’at Hassan 5 &
• Ben A. LePage   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3155-7373 4 , 6  

Part of the book series: Sustainable Development Goals Series ((SDGS))

12k Accesses

1 Citations

Research methods are the sum of knowledge, plans, strategies, tools, steps, and processes. In this chapter, we seek to understand the “research” nature of Environmental Education (EE), define the scope of research through a systematic investigation process by gathering and understanding past facts and discovering new facts through practical investigations, experiments, and verification methods to increase or modify the contemporary know-how in our environment. After exploring the history of EE, entering quantitative research on EE and qualitative research on EE, we use this chapter to improve the level of thinking of EE theory, using the learning methods of Benjamin S. Bloom, Harold R. Hungerford, and the emotional learning theory of ABC. We aim to understand the value of post-environmental learning, strengthen our transcendental cognition of animate and inanimate objects by looking at these aspects objectively and have a more general and mature view of the biotic and abiotic processes that shape the world around us.

At “Environmental education is the process of recognizing values and clarifying concepts to develop skills and attitudes necessary to understand and appreciate the inter-relatedness among man [sic], his culture , and his biophysical surroundings. Environmental education also entails practice in decision -making and self-formulation of a code of behaviour about issues concerning environmental quality .” UNESCO, International Working Meeting on Environmental Education in the School Curriculum , 1970

You have full access to this open access chapter,  Download chapter PDF

Similar content being viewed by others

The relational, the critical, and the existential: three strands and accompanying challenges for extending the theory of environmental education

Do Experiences with Nature Promote Learning? Converging Evidence of a Cause-And-Effect Relationship

A Typology of Research Paradigms and Sources of Knowledge in Educational Research

1 what is environmental education research.

In the previous chapter we mentioned that environmental educators must present the new and growing body of scientific knowledge and technologies to their students to meet changing social, economic, and cultural needs. The foundation of the environmental knowledge and the challenges facing environmental educators required for teachers and scientists today, is to re-examine the way we perform research, assess the questions that are relevant to modern issues, and to train EE professionals and educators (Fig.  3.1 ). We generate about 2.5 quintillion bytes of data daily (Humbetov 2021 ; Roque and Ram 2019 ), but most are out of touch with current and future societal, economic, and global environmental issues. Our environmental conditions are changing daily; some are normal and have been seen throughout Earth’s history. Human activities are simply accelerating a process that is occurring naturally. We may not necessarily know the exact time of a volcanic explosion or earthquake, but have a good idea on when they could happen based on past occurrences. This unfortunately does not meet society’s expectations on our ability to more accurately predict these changes based on the trajectory of the amount of data we’ve generated, technological improvements, societal expectations of the modern environment. Society is gob-smacked when scientists and educators can’t solve or explain environmental problems like global warming to the public in a way that they understand. Is it possible for the scientific community and environmental educators to distill complex environmental concepts, the problems and potential solutions, and correctly communicate them to the general public without creating panic? Therefore, in defining the goals of EE, we should strive to establish a professional standard for EE and the educators, and strengthen the standards needed for EE (Hudson 2001 ).

As scientists and educators, we have the opportunity and responsibility to expand the resource base of EE. Professor Fang sharing the Asia Chapter lessons learned and progress at an annual Society of Wetland Scientists (SWS) board meeting in 2015, from far left to right-sided: Wei-Ta Fang (Graduate Institute of Environmental Education, National Taiwan Normal University), Beth A. Middleton (Wetland and Aquatic Research Center, U.S. Geological Survey), Loretta Battaglia (Center for Coastal Studies, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi) (Photo by Yung-Nane Yang)

So, in terms of a basic learning plan, what is the “research” of EE? After we have defined the state of the art and the scope of our research, we then strive to validate, dispel, increase, and/or modify contemporary environmental knowledge through a systematic investigation process, by collating and understanding past facts, and discovering new facts based on actual investigations, experiments, and verification methods. Therefore, we need to understand the personnel, culture, societal norms and values in space and in time, organizations, and materials in the environment using scientific and social science methods to analyze environmental issues, and to use these tools to develop a broad-based EE research program to address current and future needs. The needs of educational research are important.

Public education for the environment should have a positive impact on life in the future. Therefore, according to the concept of sustainable development, if our current and future generations want to enjoy the benefits of the planet’s natural heritage, EE must then be taken seriously. In the face of the increasingly cumbersome and complex issues of the twenty-first century, environmental problems are becoming increasingly difficult to understand and evaluate, but we need to become more heteroglossic to be effectively solve environmental problems. Heteroglossia however, has a problem of creating social controversies (Bakhtin 1981 , 1994 ; Guez 2010 ). Science and EE is not immune to heteroglossia. Scientific reasoning and rational interpretation and analysis of environmental problems can be solved, but each person and/or organization has their own opinion and interpretation of complex environmental issues that are communicated at levels that are appropriate and targeted to different audiences, while others are not. Despite having messaging that is appropriate to one group of stakeholders, other groups may “hear or understand” the message differently.

Operationally and from an environmental point of view, human beings often adopt non-sustainable resource use and management methods to deal with economic development. The quality of our environment is often the victim of politically-vested interests of the public agenda. Therefore, as environmental educators our challenge now is how to express the complexity of modern environmental problems in an understandable way using simple and understandable methods, while ensuring that the environmental science is accurate and effective in interpreting and assessing environmental problems without inciting panic. This requires a carefully crafted communications plan and potential solutions for the environmental problems being faced that has consensus among stakeholders.

Therefore, although we study the environment, we need to follow a process that includes a literature review, a list of the problems that have been identified in the literature, new ideas, assess, and understand processes to determine whether the data collection, analyses, and interpretations are reasonable and feasible, and where improvement is needed. The most important thing to remember is that when we observe the environment, we interpret our observations from the societal norms, values, and constructs that we are a part of, while recognizing these elements are spatially and temporally variable, in addition to theoretical estimation and speculation. The research of EE must of course be based on theory and must be corroborated by sound science, practical analyses, and summarized and organized in a manner that the public at large can understand and when appropriate, contribute to developing solutions or the discussion. The following issues need to be emphasized when combing research methods (Estabrooks 2001 ):

1.1 Instrumental Research Utilization

Instrumental research is the application of specific research results and transforming them into materials that are suitable for EE.

1.2 Conceptual Research Utilization

It is said that research may change one's thinking, but it does not necessarily change one's behavior (Heimlich and Ardoin 2008 ). Heimlich and Ardoin ( 2008 ) declared that human behavior is grounded in rational thought. Why environmental education is not effective? How it could be more effective? In this case, it is necessary to inform decision makers of the research, what the results mean, and then let the decision makers ponder why EE is not effective.

1.3 Symbolic Research Utilization

Conceptually, environmental education research is often abstract and based on paradigms that fit the social and economic needs of human populations in space and in time (Stevenson 2007 ; Ardoin et al. 2013 , 2020 ) The scientific and environmental concepts that are studied and ultimately presented to the public are explained or framed in a manner that pushes the science forward, but not too quickly or in a manner that society will lose interest or consider the results irrelevant to the problems society faces at that time (Ardoin et al. 2020 ). For example, the global change issues that we are concerned with today were not prevalent 100 years ago. Evolution was not accepted as a valid hypothesis until Darwin’s ( 1859 ) seminal work that appeared in the On the Origin of Species (1859), and even today, there are sectors of society that do not accept this hypothesis that shapes all life on the planet. Environmental education is the persuasive summary of what we know to be true, which in turn regulates human environmental behavior from actionable knowledge (Mach et al. 2020 ). Therefore, the scientific community and stakeholders need to develop processes where existing and new environmental/scientific data are collated, made relevant to society so that educational pedagogies and policies can be developed for the benefit of humans and the environment.

Therefore, research on EE must first emphasize the importance of the relevant topics, including the value of assessing the state of the art (all that is known on a topic) (Freeman III 1986 ), the problem statement (uncertainties or gaps) (Zehr 1999 ), the research to fill the gaps, and the writing stage (dissertations and peer-reviewed publications). Building on what is known is the process that the scientific community has followed for hundreds of years. It follows a process that helps scientists recognize emerging and important issues discussed by the international academic community (Fig.  3.2 ). Second, EE research requires an in-depth analysis of disputes (Lucas 1980 ; Tilbury 1995 ; Van Weelie and Wals 2002 ). In order to conduct logical dialectics, we need to propose a preliminary analysis structure, think repeatedly, and demonstrate the ability to control the research object. Third, in research, the research goals should be as specific as possible to avoid vague descriptions. In addition, performance needs to be measured, and currently this is based on the quality of academic research results published, important personal contributions, talent cultivation, and the research team’s academic community building and service experience (Estabrooks 2001 ). Although these elements are of the utmost importance, a dichotomy between science and the public is created (Eden 2010 ). The distillation and presentation of new ideas and relevance of the scientific data to the public at large is generally not considered important in academia. Environmental/science educators are then tasked with interpreting and translating the results generated in academia to the stakeholders, including and the public. This task is often difficult given that the goals of academia and society are generally not aligned.

From the discussions of education scholars with all folks, we understand that education is an educational activity that develops theory from practice from brainstorming to face-to-face communication (Person standing on the right side: President Cheng-Chih Wu, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan, 2022) (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

When the physical environment refers to something other than human beings, it is necessary to define the environmental boundaries or what is the environment. We can consider brainstorming as a form of productive discussion. EE emphasizes the importance of close cooperation between professional teams, local people, and stakeholders in a face-to-face setting to establish lines of communication, the exchange of ideas opinions, and trust. As a result, these types of local engagements or personal relationships are considered more effective than written documents (Wang et al. 2021 ). In addition, EE advocates the need for appropriate planning to experience the natural environment and promote concepts of environmental protection based on novel ideas. In the education process, continuous improvement of teaching skills encourages understanding the rapid changes in the environment and environmental conditions are needed to respond to the development of pedagogies focused on teaching environmental aspects. Therefore, regardless of the interaction between the individual and the environment, whether the individual cares for the environment or not, we must grasp the “initial intention” (Bratman 1981 ) that human beings generally benefit from the environment and the resources it provides.

According to the Avatamsaka Sutra 《華嚴經》 (V.17, in Chinese “Huayan,” in the late third or the fourth century CE) (Gimello 2005 ): “Those who traverse the three times in the worlds, you never forget why you started,”. In V. 19 it is said: “Like a bodhisattva’s original heart, it is not the same as the latter heart.” Later generations summarized their original intentions, explaining that “without forgetting their original intentions, they can always be obtained; their initial intentions are easy to obtain and always difficult to keep.” Therefore, in the process of EE, it is inevitable to feel lonely, because this is a lonely job (Hart 2002 ). The hardest part of doing any work that is beneficial to environmental protection is persistence, hoping to communicate hard, and persevere; endure the torment, and be able to win.

Therefore, in a team setting we need to establish good and clear lines of communication and collaboration for the course development team. In the initial stage of curriculum development, when the needs of learners cannot be fully collected, it is necessary to periodically review and adjust the needs of the people and adjust the curriculum based on feedback (Bester et al. 2017 ), which is a focus on the practical process of truth-seeking (Ansori et al. 2020 ). Research can be monetarily and intellectually expensive and could drive or impede the research questions being asked. Therefore, in the process of conducting research, even if in a vacuum, it’s important to stay on task and follow through on your original intentions and ideas. Building theory around hypotheses is challenging because changing paradigms not only requires the sound science to support new ideas, but acceptance of new ideas and in some cases changes in human behavior are needed. In addition to detailed observation, analysis, discussion, and constant self-criticism, it is also necessary to use seek the gift of feedback from one’s peers to modify better shape the initial theoretical prototype. Environmental education is structured around a mutually coordinated framework to achieve the goal of sustainable development. For details, please refer to Fig.  3.3 .

Innovative research methods toward developing sustainability models (Illustrated by Wei-Ta Fang)

2 Types of Environmental Education Research

The term EE appeared in 1947. When we talk about EE research, we think we need to break the question down. That is, what exactly is EE research? The mission of EE research is to promote research and academic understanding of EE and education around the goals of sustainable development. These goals are achieved by publishing one’s research findings in peer-reviewed journals. These journals were developed from EE programs and scientists across the globe. Many are founded on outstanding schools of education thought and practice and have been able to adapt to philosophical changes in space and in time (Stewart 2020 ). Therefore, it is important to identify journal philosophies, practical EE experience, education for sustainable development (ESD) goals, and the government policies that helped create the ecosystem around the science of the research and high-quality innovative papers from a new social contract (Lubchenco 1998 ). It is important to determine whether the scientists and editors are driving the direction of the science or it’s a question of dollars. Publishing houses businesses that like newspapers, are focused on generating revenue. The agencies that are providing the research funding are reacting to public pressure. The scientists then find themselves in a political, economic, and ethical mire because they need to follow the money and publish in the right type of journal. As the liaison between the academic community, stakeholders, and the public, environmental educators find themselves acting as sheriffs, lawyers, politicians, priests, and/or therapists in the process of distilling and disseminating the results of environmental study research and the meaning of these data to their students, stakeholders, and public.

2.1 International Periodicals

The Journal of Environmental Education (JEE) was founded in 1969 and Stapp ( 1969 : 30–31) published an article within which EE was defined. The journal was dedicated to the research and development of environmental protection communications, highlighting the opportunity of the media to attract public attention to environmental conditions and issues. The mission of JEE was to provide a critical and constructive forum for research on the theory and practice of environmental and sustainable education. Today JEE publishes articles on EE experience and theoretical analysis, including critical, conceptual, or policy analyses articles on environmental or sustainability-related education edited by Alberto (Tico) Arenas, Editor in Chief, the faculty of the Environmental and Sustainability Education in the College of Education, University of Arizona, USA. Arenas received his Ph.D. at the fields of Sociocultural Studies in Education at the University of California, Berkeley. Papers are interdisciplinary and cover research that ranges from early childhood to higher education, formal to informal approaches, literature reviews, and program evaluations.

A second influential journal, Environmental Education Research (EER) was founded in 1995 and the papers published in this journal are often literature reviews highlighting innovative empirical and theoretical research approaches, and papers within which key concepts and of EE and Sustainable Development Education (SDE) methods are analyzed (see Fig.  3.4 ). The JEE and EER provide readers with perspectives on EE theory and methodology. Their purpose is to improve research and practice on EE and SDE topics. The research published encourages examining methodological issues and challenges to the existing theoretical dialogue. New articles provide in-depth connections between theory and practice and strengthen the conceptual framework across disciplines. Both journals welcome reader responses to published papers to attract ideas and generate academic dialogue that promote the theory and practice of EE and SDE research.

Environmental Education Research ( EER ) was founded in 1995 and the papers published in this journal are often literature reviews highlighting innovative empirical and theoretical research approaches. Left: Alan Reid (Faculty of Education, Monash University, Australia), the Editor of EER , inquired one of the Ph.D. students, Chia-Huan Hsu (Right), during the Taiwan’s EE Conference, Jianshanpi Jiangnan Resort, Tainan, Taiwan in 2018 (Photo courtesy of Yi-Hsuan (Tim) Hsu, Middle, back to photographer) (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

We reviewed research articles published in EER and JEE and all of the papers that we reviewed were based on international problems, such as climate change, global warming, sustainable development goals (SDGs), and empirical articles that included critical analyses and discussions of the research methods and findings. Conclusions and suggestions are based on policy practice derogation. As such, according to the papers published in the JEE and EER , EE and SDE have a wide range of research content, including critical articles and analyses on education policy, philosophy, theory, and history. In addition, articles within which qualitative analyses and verification of the reliability and validity of the analyses that were performed are predominant. Data on program evaluations show the progress of innovation in this field (Reid and Scott 2013 ), explains program goals, and record the background, processes, and research results. These results are based on the consistency and empirical nature of the arguments and can be extended to other educational and cultural backgrounds.

2.2 Local Periodicals

In the Sinophone society there are not many journals that are focused on EE research, but they are becoming more prominent. The Journal of Environmental Education Research published by the Chinese Society for Environmental Education (CSEE) in Taiwan was launched in 2003 and contains research papers that address a variety of topics, including educational discourses and environmental philosophical works. The main contents include:

Research Articles : Reports on scientific research,

Academic Articles : Reviews on EE research and practices; and

Essays and Analyses : Discourses on the historical development, ideas, practices, and philosophy of EE.

Environmental education, as defined in the Journal of Environmental Education Research (JEER) , edited by Shin-Cheng Yeh at GIEE, NTNU, is extensive and includes “formal” and “informal” EE. Topics can cover a variety of environmentally related subject areas, such as: environmental ethics, environmental philosophy, sociology, psychology, commentary, communication, economics, planning and design, science and engineering, tourism, leisure and recreation, natural resource management, geography, culture and history, sustainable development, public health, food and agriculture ( https://www.ipress.tw/J0088?pWebID=54 ) (in Chinese). Approaches to propose/test/assess theories and practices of EE policy, curriculum planning, or teaching and learning from multiple perspectives are the focus of the papers published in JEER .

2.3 Research on Environmental Education

In the aforementioned discussion the development of international EE is akin to a tree Joy Palmer (1951–) used to compare the content and development direction of EE. He believed that EE in the twenty-first century is based on the roots of trees, some shallow, some deep, but prevalent in the soil. On this basis, students should understand the environment, possess environmental knowledge, skills, and values, and develop the ability to take care of the environment (Palmer 1998 ).

2.3.1 Theme of Environmental Education

Project Environment was implemented in the UK in 1974 and mentioned three topics: “education about the environment,” “education in/from the environment,” and “education for the environment” (Tilbury 1995 ; Palmer 1998 ). However, how can teachers use the spirit of suspicion, curiosity, and exploration in the development of EE to conduct ecological surveys under different hypothetical situations and attract students towards the field of scientific investigation in a tempting manner? In reality it comes down to what a person/teacher wants to achieve? Do they want to teach students how to perform outdoor teaching projects based on critical and creative thinking, integrate past experiences and ongoing course learning content, and/or use education and research to develop the process? At the present time, in the process of developing education and research teaching, the following three directions are mainly discussed through instructivism, constructivism, and deconstructionism.

Education about the Environment

The aim of EE is to teach students about the environment, let them understand environmental concepts, and to allow them to criticize issues in a logical and constructive manner. This approach needs to generate critical thinking and problem-solving abilities by building on existing environmental knowledge and developing an awareness of the biotic and abiotic elements of the world around them. Therefore, EE is to seek and discover the essence of environmental research by developing and testing hypotheses. Learning to identify environmental problems that society faces today and then formulate relevant questions is a learned process. Under the guidance of teachers, colleagues, and peers, information about the environment is collected that will form the foundation of the research being performed. Therefore, education about the environment is a type of guided EE.

Education in or from the Environment

The field of EE emphasizing outdoor education is important. Teachers teach students to use the natural environment for learning; nature is a classroom and we can use our natural curiosity for inquiry and discovery to strengthen the learning process (Chang and Ow 2022 ). In the learning process, we integrate environmental awareness, research data, and personal experience to develop environmental awareness and solve environmental problems. Using this model, an awareness is built around our knowledge and experience with the environment.

Education for the Environment

At this stage, we have the experience that the environment is the cause and human beings are the effect; or human beings are the cause and environment is the effect. From the deconstruction approach, teachers can encourage students to study the relationships between individuals and the environment. Through the screening and discussion of environmental issues, students can begin to understand the causes of environmental pollution and encouraged to integrate environmental responsibility and action into their behaviors.

Education about, in, and for the Environment

The focus of EE still needs to be integrated into a unified system because most educational processes, from knowledge to competence and construction, are full of divides. That is to say, the curved lines in Fig.  3.5 are all EE content and can achieve the goal of sustainability through education. In other words, the concept of EE is high, but after a student receive EE instruction of EE, does it produce an ethical value that has for the environment, cultivate the correct knowledge, build the ability to improve the environment, integrate a sense of environmental responsibility, and generate actions resulting in stronger environmental awareness? This is the ideal scenario for “about, in, and for” EE. Integrated EE learning and research can cultivate actions oriented towards developing problem-solving skills and knowledge that form environmental attitudes and values that contribute to the formation of responsible environmental behaviors (Fig.  3.5 ). Therefore, integrated EE is a process that develops environmental attitudes, values, morals, and ethics and educates students develop an awareness and behaviors in people that care, want to be close, and protect the environment through different learning processes.

Focus of EE (Illustrated by Wei-Ta Fang)

2.3.2 Proposals for Environmental Education

Environmental education emphasizes self-learning and in academia, self-directed learning is expected. In-depth study is conducted based on the interaction of learning methods, situations, and free choice (Falk et al. 2009 ; Falk 2017 ). Learners are free to design personal education plans for their environment through autodidacticism. However, because people have the inclination to be liked, disliked, and work hard, all the previous situations are ideal learning methods for social environmental education. Therefore, how do we educate kindergarten, elementary school to middle school, and college students in the formal environmental setting? How do we integrate knowledge and experience into learning experiences and encourage learners understand the environment around them and the resources provided by these ecosystems? This is explained further.

Instructivism

“Instructivism” is the approach of “guidance” that is advocated in the early stages of EE courses. It is based on the premise that teachers establish/provide the necessary learning resources and restrictions for students, set learning goals, understand themselves the principles of EE, design teaching methods that will allow students to attain the program goals and objectives, and emphasize the importance of professional knowledge learning in the curriculum goals. Instructivism provides a learning approach where students learn about the environment based on stimuli that emphasizes EE is a discipline within the constructs of ecology. Teachers must present the learning content in the way that meets the goals and objectives of the curriculum and use the appropriate tests to measure whether the students grasped the concepts and further expanded their knowledge and abilities on the information presented.

Under the notion of guiding theory of media richness by Chao et al. ( 2020 ), communication can still take place, but the scope will expand in concert with that of the knowledge field, allowing scholars and graduate students to gradually understand their own capabilities and vision from computer-mediated communication (Chao et al. 2020 ). Based on guidance-based learning, it is emphasized that learning is a two-way contract learning between teachers and students, rather than one-way teachers exerting their teaching authority. The learning contract is a kind of autonomous learning (autodidacticism), allowing learners to accept two-way contracts on their own, and teachers and students accept each other. In the integration of instructionalism into learning, based on the connection between “stimulus-and-response” (S-R), scholars are encouraged to try mistakes, and teachers can correct mistakes, and through the process of guidance, perform wrong learning and correct answer problems.

Constructivism

Constructivism is a philosophical idea derived from cognitionism and adopts a philosophical stand of “non-objectivism.” Constructivists believe that the ability to generate knowledge needs to pass through the actual field. Although the ecological environment of the so-called EE field exists objectively, the human understanding of ecology and the meaning given to it are determined by individuals. Therefore, human beings construct the concept of “environment” with their own experience.

Constructivist learning is a self-learning theory that scholars should establish after accumulating the basic work of self-learning. While constructivism and instructivism help students to acquire knowledge, constructivism adopts an open-ended learning method and instructivism adopts problem-solving learning method (Edelson et al. 1996 ; Herrington and Standen 1999 ). Their educational concepts are different and Constructivists believe that the learning method of EE is closer to that in nature (Klein and Merritt 1994 ). Students can learn on their own and build knowledge from observing and interacting with the environment. Therefore, the study of natural ecological knowledge is an education in/from the environment. It is based on the experience and understanding of environmental situations.

Constructivists therefore believe that human beings choose for themselves and are responsible for those choices. This kind of thinking gives human-beings greater freedom, but they must also accept greater responsibility, which is close to the existentialist thinking mode. Existentialists believe that the meaning of human existence cannot be answered by rational thinking. Therefore, from the philosophical thinking of “non-objectivism,” we understand that learning in/from the environment is personal, independent, and self-awareness is learned from subjective experience, which is not what teachers can do.

Constructivism encourages learners to actively experiment, experience, and take further actions in ecological experiences through the approach of “personal and direct participation in environment.” This will complete the learning process of education. Knowledge of EE is “learning by observing nature,” rather than relying on teachers to teach in the classroom what students should and should not do. Therefore, constructivism hopes that when scholars are confronting the conflict between theory and practice, that they form a sense of responsibility in the living environment and seek solutions on their own.

Deconstructivism

Deconstructivism is a critical way of learning in the course advancement and growth education. We observe education about the environment and only teach what the environment is and cannot produce environmental actions. It is only a state of knowing and not doing. Education in/from the environment is integrated into the context of nature and the effects of nature connectedness, but whether knowledge and action can be generated as a result is still questioned by scholars (Tilbury 1995 ). We interpret the different perspectives and look for reasons for these conflicts. When dealing with classic narrative structures, it is best to interpret them in the existing context/setting (Gough and Price 2004 ). For example, from the deconstruction of any EE dissertation, the existence of a certain type of prototype is required.

However, even though the process of construction is perfect, it means that we have seen in our research the strong and powerful natural connection to nature and even reached the wonderful feeling of unity between heaven and man. However, from the perspective of critics there are deficiencies that need to be carried out by deconstructive criticism. Here, we quote the Discussion of the Equality of Things, Zhuangzi of ancient Zhuang Zhou (莊子; 莊周) (Zhuangzi, 369–286 BC), who said:

There is nothing in the world greater than the tip of autumn down, and nothing in the world smaller than Mt. Tai (泰山). There is no one longer-lived than an infant died young, and no one shorter-lived than Ancestor Peng (彭祖), Heaven and earth and I are born together; the myriad things and I are one.

In other words, in the context of the two things, in the so-called environment, in terms of Zhuangzi’s deconstruction, there is no absolute standard for all sizes; there is no absolute standard for the length of all time. From Zhuangzi’s deconstruction method of time and space in the natural environment, in the process of deconstruction of “EE” textbooks and teaching methods, “instructivism” in the classroom and “constructivism” in the environment have always been in opposition and have a tense relationship.

“Instructivism” is described as “students memorizing the ecological knowledge to be a clear and unquestionable state forced by teachers”; however, “constructivism” is described as “both teachers and students do not know what to do. Teachers are only concerned with the psychological activities of students while learning knowledge, and not keen to test whether students really understand and memorized the knowledge required in the environment.” Deconstructionists discuss the EE teaching model to guide questions and construct critical ideas and theories, so that students can further investigate and conduct research on controversial environmental issues and generate questions. However, deconstructionists sometimes find too many problems, have the ability to be critical, and cannot participate in the process of environmental improvement. They blame others for not understanding environmental protection, but all lack the ability to improve the environment and cannot be integrated into the actual mainstream society. Therefore, what we need is the fourth kind of doctrine, which is the integration doctrine of EE.

Integrationism

The fourth doctrine refers to the integrationism of education about, in, and for the environment. The aforementioned methods of education do not actively fight against environmental, economic, and social injustices (Tilbury 1995 ). Even when criticism is made, it is limited to anonymous criticism and dares not to openly make constructive EE theory and practical contributions. Therefore, from the ontology of western scholarship, we need is an integrationism approach when it comes to the epistemology of the environment. “Nature” is not an absolute condition but relative in space and in time. In the dualistic structure of deconstruction, scholars criticize that although deconstruction can be used for academic criticism, it is difficult to understand its true definition and often belongs to political criticism. Therefore, we need a more rigorous academic and practical basis to explore the real complex interaction modes in the environment.

When investigating “deconstructivism,” scholars should learn French philosopher Derrida's caring and self-reflection skills for the world. Through self-reflection, critical thinking, and group evaluation, he transforms from a virtual situation into an enlarged body of the real environment. Recognize that only through reflection and mirroring can we improve our prejudices and ideas, as well as strengthen the responsibility of the citizens of the earth through actions. In recent years, due to the emphasis on sustainable development and the promotion of education for sustainable development, the paradigm of educational research has shifted from an empirical paradigm to an ecological paradigm in the real world. Positivism has turned to critical theory and hermeneutics, so the connotation of EE is increasing. In other words, more social evidence, argumentation, criticism, interpretation, dialogue, and social participation are needed to respond to the changing trends of the times, see Table 3.1 .

2.3.3 Research Directions of Environmental Education

Environmental Education Policy

Environmental Education is based on the following concepts of “One Planet, Environmental Justice, and Sustainable Development (Magraw and Lynch 2006 ; Habib 2013 );” therefore, how to improve the environmental literacy of the entire population and the practice of responsible environmental behavior is an important developmental direction for national environmental policies and environmental governance (Fig.  3.6 ). At present, the national EE program is the basis for environmental literacy policies (Liu et al. 2015 ). It is formulated by the Environmental Protection Administration of the Executive Yuan (Environmental Protection Administration 2014 ), and consults with the Ministry of Education and other units, and reports to the Executive Yuan for approval of the Taiwan’s environmental education program to carry out. This EE programs have been designed to enhance citizens’ understanding and awareness of the world’s environmental challenges, as well as to encourage active participation in environmental protection and, sustainable development (Huang et al. 2021 ).

EE policy is based on the mechanism from local system to global system (Illustrated by Wei-Ta Fang)

Environmental Education in the Schools

The school’s EE program aims to strengthen the nation’s establishment of environmental-related programs through the school system (from kindergartens, elementary schools, junior high schools, high schools to university undergraduates, graduate schools), classrooms, and outdoor environments. Environmental Education are built on a teachers’ environmental literacy of knowledge, attitudes, skills, and values.

Corporate Environmental Education

To promote corporate social responsibility, reduce environmental pollution and promote the recovery, regeneration or effective use of a producers' product(s), industry and government need to develop partnerships that promote environmental protection, improve employee environmental literacy, and environmental education.

Environmental Science Education

To strengthen the disciplines involved in the environmental sciences (e.g., ecology, geology, geography, conservation biology, resources technology, environmental engineering, environmental psychology, environmental politics, environmental society, environmental culture, environmental economy, and environmental engineering) science learning activities in the classroom, laboratory, and field must be organized in uncertain times (Wals et al. 2014 ; Kidman and Chang 2022 ). Environmental science education includes a good understanding of the living and physical aspects of the world around us.

In-Service Education

EE at communities is a process of disseminating environmental knowledge and skills from in-service education in society (le Roux and Ferreira 2005 ). Disseminating environmental knowledge and learned skills from learning fields such as museums, social education centers, EE facilities, ecotourism, community tours, and the visits strengthened the connotation of environmental literacy of community residents and In‐Service Education and Training (INSET) for teachers (le Roux and Ferreira 2005 ).

Environmental Philosophy

Environmental philosophy explores the relationship between natural environmental values, human dignity, animal welfare, and the interactions between humans and nature. Environmental philosophy includes environmental ethics, land morality, and the meaning of sustainable development. Environmental philosophy studies the earth’s ethics of earth resources, human depletion, environmental protection, and philosophical practice toward project planning, design, and evaluation (Fig.  3.7 ).

The research directions of EE could be embedded in the environmental philosophy associated with project planning, design, and evaluation (Illustrated by Wei-Ta Fang)

Environmental Interpretation

Environmental interpretation is suitable for non-formal EE. Through the strategy of environmental outdoor fields and to explain the planning and implementation of outdoor ecological basics, ecotourism, ecological guides, and outdoor education methods are used to communicate knowledge and strengthen the human and natural environment. Therefore, an interactive opportunity can inspire learners to improve their knowledge, attitude, and activity skills of environmental ecology.

Environmental Communication

Environmental communication is an activity that transmits environmental knowledge, methods, and thoughts through communication media, and cultivates environmental literacy for all. Environmental communication conveys the status and problems of environmental events and the creative process of multimedia forms such as text, sound, images, animations, and videos, that results in a tangible explanation of environmental protection. Environmental communication explores the symbols, discourses, and contextual relationships of environmental issues. The dissemination of environmental information through books, videos, media, and social networking platforms has aroused readers’ interest in environmental knowledge. Furthermore, Artificial Intelligence (AI) and digital technology will be a new topic for revolutionary transformation for EE research in science (Yeh et al. 2021 ; Stagg et al. 2022 ).

3 Research on the History of Environmental Education

Historical studies of EE can be traced back to the emergence of the fields of formal education and educational research (Gough 2012 ). If we study the history of EE, we can then use curriculum history or genealogy.

Generally speaking, the historical research of EE is a type of research that must first look for objective knowledge in archives. Topics related to the subject can be found in the library, documentary library, and computer network searches. How to explore the context of archives through archival retrieval systems has become a key factor in thinking about archive/metadata research. In the archive, we understand that the reason why we need to involve in EE is because of the threat of global environmental change. International conferences have mobilized scientists to think about how to save the planet from the scourge of global change. Therefore, the history of EE illustrates our efforts to survive. From the historical trajectory, it we can observe the change of human collective behavior and use the “structuralist and “post-structuralist” approaches” research on using historical data.

The process of these meetings is long. In 1972, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment advocated “the importance of education.” The meeting stated that “Education in environmental matters, for the younger generation as well as adults, giving due consideration to the underprivileged, is essential in order to broaden the basis for an enlightened opinion and responsible conduct by individuals, enterprises and communities in protecting and improving the environment in its full human dimension.” The Tbilisi Declaration in 1977 participants, discussed and formalized the field of EE (Knapp 1995 ). The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992. The meeting participants provided education, public awareness, and training for the global action plan on Basic Principles tabled in Agenda 21. However, in the Conference on Environment and Development, EE was focused on promoting sustainable development and improving people’s ability to solve environmental and development problems. Later, EE was called “education for sustainable development.” In 2009 the Bonn Declaration was developed and describes education for sustainable development and prescribes formal, non-formal, informal, vocational, and teacher education actions.

In many countries, the development of EE and the education for sustainable development (ESD) are different. Some scholars believe that “EE” has been diluted by “sustainable development education.” Knapp ( 1995 : 9) concluded that a name change was not in the best interests of EE. But overall, because EE has expanded into the economic and social fields, EE has been able to deepen its promotion effect in the world. European scholars of EE have incorporated EE research into their ESD programs. If we make inferences with the above-mentioned historical analysis methods, we can then understand that the budding and robustness of EE originated in the 1960s.

3.1 The Rise of Environmental Education

The field of EE originated in the 1960s. As the global environment deteriorated, it threatened human development. In the 1960s, scientists increasingly paid attention to the increasing scientific and ecological problems of the environment, and the public's need to understand these problems. These problems include the growing pollution of land, air, and water. In addition, the world’s population is growing, and natural resources are continuously depleting. As explained by the Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, or Stockholm Declaration in 1972:

We see around us growing evidence of man-made harm in many regions of the earth: dangerous levels of pollution in water, air, earth, and living beings; major and undesirable disturbances to the ecological balance of the biosphere; destruction and depletion of irreplaceable resources; and gross deficiencies, harmful to the physical, mental and social health of man, in the man-made environment, particularly in the living and working environment.

If education comes first in environmental improvement, educational research can stimulate effective ways of thinking and discussing human beings facing environmental problems (Carson 1962 ). American scholars Rachel Carson (1907–1964), Garrett J. Hardin (1915–2003), and Paul R. Ehrlich (1932–) yelled loudly, hoping to include education in the environmental agenda. However, EE is not just a social issue, but an educational issue. In addition, the relationship between science education and EE is implicit. In view of the seriousness of environmental problems, scholars in the 1970s hoped to solve environmental problems with science and technology. But a few scientists believe that science and technology alone are not enough. Therefore, through environmental chemistry, ecology, geology, geography, conservation biology, resource technology, and environmental engineering, the problems of environmental hazards that have been disturbed, could not be solved. Human ecologist Stephen Boyden said in 1970 (Boyden 1970 : 18):

The suggestion that all our problems will be solved through further scientific research is not only foolish, in fact dangerous. The environmental changes of our time have arisen out of the tremendous intensification of the interactions between cultural and natural processes. They can neither be considered left to the natural scientists nor as problems to be left to those concerned professionally with the phenomena of culture. All sectors of the community have a role to play, certain key groups have, at the present time, a special responsibility.

3.2 The Construction of Environmental Education

Since the 1970s, school education in western countries have incorporated ecological and environmental content into integrated teaching and incorporated it into the education curricula of schools at all levels. The Intergovernmental Biosphere Conferences in 1968 and 1970 both recommended EE should be incorporated into school curricula. Stapp ( 1969 : 31) emphasized the relationship of the environment using four goals EE (Stapp et al. 1969: 31):

It is recognized that the human system is composed of human, cultural and ecological environments (Boyden 1970 : 18). The biophysical environment is an integral part of the system, and humans can change the interrelationships of this system;

A broad understanding of natural and man-made biophysical environments and their role in contemporary society;

Basic understanding of the ecological and environmental problems facing human beings, how to solve them, and the responsibility of citizens and governments to work hard to solve problems; and

Attitudes about the quality of the biophysical environment, which will encourage citizens to participate in the solution of ecological and environmental problems.

According to Stapp and his colleagues, this method of education is different from conservation education (Boyden 1970 : 18). Conservation education focuses primarily on natural resources, not on the community and its related issues. Therefore, EE is not only concerned with the natural environment, but also with the working environment, as well as human well-being (Stapp et al. 1969: 30). In 1970, Stapp was invited to participate in the Australian Academy of Science Conference and proposed a curriculum in Australia. He emphasizes curriculum development procedures and administrative strategies rather than professional philosophical analysis. The experimental direction of Stapp led the practical development of EE.

The definition and goals of EE form the basis of some other concepts in the field. For example, in September 1970, the First International Working Meeting on EE in the School Curriculum, accepted the definition of EE as follows (UNESCO 1970 ):

Environmental education is the process of recognizing values and clarifying concepts, in order to develop skills and attitudes necessary to understand and appreciate the interrelations among man, his attitude and his bio-physical surroundings. Environmental education also entails practice in decision making and self-formation of a code of behavior about issues concerning environmental quality.

3.3 Ideology of the Declaration on Environmental Education

Environmental science education, usually in the form of ecological concepts, are incorporated into school curricula. However, true EE and learning have not been regarded as a priority for education, because in the West, EE is valued by scientists, environmentalists, and scholars, but not by governments.

In addition, the drafters of the EE declaration are all men. Although EE is based on novel ideas no attention was paid to gender equality. For example, 1975 was the International Women’s Year and the United Nations issued non-sexist writing guidelines, hoping to use as much gender equality as possible in international declarations. For example, try to replace sex identification in the declaration with neutral words/descriptors. These instructions were followed writing the 1975 Belgrade Charter, but the 1977 Tbilisi Declaration didn’t, which would make this document discriminatory on the basis of gender identification. Although some women consider human male activities to be a major factor in environmental degradation, it is important that all human beings be regulated by EE statements.

3.4 The Practical Power of Environmental Education

In the historical demonstration of EE, the practical power of EE needs to be evidence-based practice through empirical research. In science education, empirical research requires an experimental group and a control group to conduct evidence inference by employing intervention. However, EE is not education of knowledge, but education of practice. In other words, practical education requires behavioral changes, but this behavioral change comes from a sincere change in the heart, not a short-term plan that can be manipulated in a classroom-based laboratory. Therefore, the experimental limits of EE have received considerable criticism for its research results (Blumstein and Saylan 2007 ). In recent years, EE research has been mainly discussed in terms of “positivism,” “post-positivism,” “structuralism,” or “hermeneutics” and “critical theory.”

The Frankfurt school Jürgen Habermas (1929–) has criticized the issue of instrumental rationality. His claim on epistemology holds that human knowledge can be divided into three types (Habermas 1971 ):

Scientific research of experience-analysis: including the cognitive interest of technology;

The scientific research of history-hermeneutics: including the cognitive interest of practice; and

Critically oriented research: contains the cognitive purpose of liberation.

It could be argued that students who advocate the supremacy of techno-science, don’t care about the environment. Therefore, if EE is an instrumental research utilization, which then means that through manipulation and intervention, one can change the way one thinks, which is empirical; but changing one’s way of thinking does not necessarily change one's practices. Therefore, we need to adopt conceptual research, which is based on Habermas’ “hermeneutics” and “critical theory.” Conceptual research requires the power of social practice, and its purpose is to confirm the relationship between practice in a social context. In social practices, researchers emphasize the promise of change. There are two forms of this kind of commitment: one is activity, and the other is inquiry. In other words, social practice is usually applied in the context of human development and involves knowledge production and theoretical analysis. This knowledge is the knowledge generated after practice. Therefore, how to use research from the physical world to make sense requires research procedures. In other words, we need research as a persuasive tool, which requires time and money. Our research on how to continue to grow over time requires long-term observations, hypotheses of behavioral intent, and a correct measure of how others respond. In social practice, environmental literacy is regarded as a key factor in human growth (see Chap. 4 ). The practical factors occur that produce environmental literacy with the material, meaning, and procedures of the human world. The aforementioned research must confirm that ontology/epistemology/methodology have different assumptions, and the constructed worldview is also different.

3.5 Reflection on Environmental Education

If we say, the practical power of EE is action research. Action research is a type of self-criticism under collective action (Fig.  3.8 ). The purpose of understanding how practitioners deal with matters in a social context is to improve the public interest of the entire population, generate social justice, and understand the meaning of practice (Kemmis and McTaggart 1982 ). Kemmis and McTaggart ( 1982 ) adopted a self-reflective circle that can be divided into four elements: plan, action, observation, and reflection, and the extension of the plan will continue to be revised by plan, action, observation, and reflection (Fig.  3.8 ). A detailed research guide and experimental design reference manual were designed based on the concept of the course of the circle of action research (Kemmis and McTaggart 1982 ). His plans, actions, observations, and reflections, through revising and improving the plan, produce a circle of re-action, forming the characteristics of the EE field to promote EE.

Elements of research guidelines and experimental design (Illustrated by Wei-Ta Fang)

Box 3.1 Examples of Environmental Action Research in Taiwan in the 1990s

A self-reflective circle, which is divided the plan, action, observation, and reflection elements. This model is effectively a continuous improvement model where improvements/changes to the research and experimental design are made each time one moves around the circle. Therefore, according to the plan of the Environmental Protection Administration of the Executive Yuan (Taiwan EPA), how to promote campus ecological protection and community environmental protection, we cite the following case of the “National Little Environmental Planner” from Taiwan EPA.

Planning Basis

First, to promote EE in schools and strengthen environmental protection education, the Environmental Protection Administration of the Executive Yuan (Taiwan EPA) began to hold a National Conference on Children’s Environmental Protection in 1990, which was expanded in 1991 and renamed the National Conference of “Little Environmental Protection Administrator.” From 1991 to 1997, a total of 4500 national elementary school students participated in the conference. Therefore, how to pay attention to environmental issues through the activities of the Little Administrator of Environmental Protection. How to protect the environment when problems occur in the campus environment or when problems are encountered during the implementation of EE. For example: “How to deal with the fact that the ponds on the campus are seriously eutrophicated and become a breeding ground for mosquitoes?”.

Reference Methods

From European and American countries : Environmental planning methods, planning theory, citizen participation, case studies, roundtable discussions, computer-aided mapping, report presentations, The Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment Program (GLOBE).

Japan : Town making plan, drawing of the environment map of amenity, outdoor visits, etc.

Taiwan , Republic of China ( Taiwan , ROC) : Local teaching materials and teaching methods, off-school teaching, national science exhibitions, etc.

Research Strategy

Think about the idea and solutions first. This project can be carried out from outside or inside the school. If it is outside the school, then start from the neighborhood, conduct environmental surveys, draw environmental maps, discuss urban and rural issues, and publish the research findings. When encountering environmental problems on campus, first perform the tasks and use scientific methods to collect information related to the issue, including expert interviews and detailed investigation. First, we can organize tasks and use scientific methods to collect information related to the issue, including expert interviews, data query, site surveys, questionnaires, etc. After the data are collected, we conduct preliminary consolidation (triage) and then use various democratic procedures, such as: conduct debates, discussions, and decisions to determine the best issue resolution method to use as a yardstick for follow-up action or provide it to administrative units for reference.

Take-Action

Take-action based on the above-mentioned solution strategy, that is, “how do we manage to solve it by hand?” Therefore, under the promotion of the plan of the Little Environmental Planners nationwide in 1997, through the guidance of schools’ teachers and the guidance of college student associations, the mothers and all residents of the community were affected and promoted (Fig.  3.9 ).

Assembly photos. Take-action based on the solution strategy for natural conservation, that is, “how do we manage to solve all environmental issues by hand?” (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

Reflective Thinking

Through “evaluation,” the actual implementation results of the strategy are resolved, and the results are reflected on reflection. At the beginning of the promotion of the plan, in 1997, this project was praised as an “unprecedented national EE plan.” Neighborhood neighborhoods started with a lot of interest, because planning in the United States started with towns and cities and communities.

Government Action

In order to evaluate the performance of Little Environmental Protection Administrators of counties and cities in promoting environmental protection, the Taiwan EPA selected the first (the year of 1996) National Little Environmental Protection Administrators and arranged to meet with President Li Teng-Hui (1923–2020), Republic of China (Taiwan) at the Presidential Office and Record a TV show. In 1997, he promoted the “Little Environmental Planner” activity, using the four elements of planning, action, observation, and reflection. In response to the actual needs of social environment changes and EE, the “National Conference of Little Environmental Protection Administrators” organized by the Taiwan EPA. “The Little Environmental Protection Administrators Meeting” organized by the states focused on actually promoting environmental protection work as an educational focus, in line with the concept of “general transformation of the living environment, and discussed the format of holding. According to the Taiwan EPA and the Ministry of Education (MOE) compiling the “National Records of Excellent Little Environmental Protection Administrators,” and “Environmental Protection Seeds” in 1998, it is good to look for local environmental issues and uses various scientific methods to collect relevant information. After collecting the data, draw an environmental map, write a small paper, and promote local environmental improvement, including river research, coastal protection research, campus noise decibel research. There are 79 environmental planner reports regarding to “The Little Environmental Protection Administrators Meeting” on environmental studies of the elementary school with fruitful results.

After more than 30 years of education reform, the MOE has promoted twelve years of national education, and has made quality-oriented education a priority in EE. It is believed that the cooperation between school education and community development promotes the planned Curriculum Guidelines of 12-Year Basic Education of the Ministry of Education in Taiwan, Republic of China (ROC). Community cooperation perspective. EE has undergone a generation of educational reforms, from the promotion of neighborhood education to the integration of cross-regional cultures, forming a new situation. Environmental education from parents, through the struggle of science and practice, has produced the next generation of EE from infusion education to transformation education. That is:

The Sustainable Future Equation:

4 Quantitative Research on Environmental Education

Quantitative research on EE is mainly based on “positivism.” In the research, we attach importance to collecting evidence, conducting data analysis, using validity and reliability to strengthen the reliability of data, and using variable operations to control variables. Perform statistical analysis to describe the phenomena such as personnel, features, etc. to be discussed.

4.1 Preparation and Measurement of Questionnaires and Tests

The differences between the scale and the questionnaire and the compilation structure include the theoretical basis for the scale. The questionnaire is only required to meet the theme. Therefore, the compilation of the scale is based on the theory proposed by scholars to determine its content. The researcher compiles the questionnaire according to the following three steps: determining the subject, collecting information, and compiling the question. Once this information is collected the questionnaire can be developed.

To strengthen the validity of the questionnaire/scale, it is recommended to ask three EE scholars and experts to review the questionnaire, provide feedback, and discuss whether the questionnaire/scale topics need to be revised. The most common form of attitude measurement is the Likert five-point scale.

4.2 The Experimental Research Methods of Environmental Education

The experimental approaches can be repeated. Different experimenters can get the same results if the premises/assumptions are the same and the operation steps are the same. Experiments are usually published in the form of experimental reports. Due to the need for funding for the experiment, under the consideration of reducing the probability of experimental failure and reducing the cost of the experiment, the quantitative experiment should divide the experimental object into small phenomena; also, because the reality cannot be recognized by the experimenter, it needs to be cut into experiments one by one to analyze. Quantitative experimental research includes scientific experiments on EE, the methods of which are described below:

4.2.1 Observation and Formation of the Topic

After thinking about the EE topic of interest, researchers conduct research on the topic. The subject should not be selected randomly, but should be based on topics of interest. After selecting, you need to read many documents to fully understand what all the documents in this field include, in order to reduce information gaps. Therefore, the topic should be selected carefully, and the knowledge of that topic needs be connected.

Forming of Hypothesis : Specify hypothetical relationships between two or more variables, test them, and make predictions;

Conceptual Definition : Describe the concept and generates correlation with other concepts;

Operational Definition : Define the parameter variables and how to measure and evaluate parameters in research;

Gathering of Data : Include determining the size of the parent space, where the parent parameter is a statistical measurement and is unknown. The sample space is selected for parameter sampling distribution, and specific research instruments are used to gather information from these samples. Instruments used for information and data collection must be safe and reliable;

Analysis of Data : Analyze the data and interpret the results to summarize the conclusions;

Data Interpretation : Use tables, graphics, or photos to represent, and then describe in words; and

Testing and Revising of Hypothesis : Make conclusions and repeat operations if necessary (i.e., conclusion, reiteration if necessary).

As mentioned previously, empirical research in “science education” requires the establishment of an experimental group and a control group to conduct evidence inference utilizing intervention. However, “EE” is not a knowledge-based education, but a practical education. That is to say, it is difficult for EE to conduct psychological experiments in a classroom-type laboratory through short-term plans to get the answers we want. Therefore, the “experimental results” of EE require careful examination of the “empirical results” and careful verification.

4.2.2 Quasi-experimental Research Method of Environmental Education

It is difficult for the social sciences to adopt an “experimental research” approach; therefore, most research is “quasi-experimental design.” When researchers are unable to use random sampling methods to assign research subjects in educational situations and strictly control experimental situations, the ideal experimental design is to use “quasi-experimental design.” For example, if EE researchers have compiled a new “environmental education textbook,” they need to know whether this textbook is better than the traditional “EE” textbook. Researchers were unable to randomly select subjects from National Primary Schools and randomly assign them to experimental and control groups. However, when approaching the school, the researcher must use the quasi-experimental research method when the original class is used as the experimental object.

Therefore, the principle of “quasi-experimental research” design is “design of forward and backward measurement of unequal groups.” The experimental and control groups are classified as follows:

Experimental Group : pre-test (measurement before the experiment), test (experimental teaching, or new teaching of experimental “EE textbooks”), post-test (measurement after the experiment), delay test (in the measurements were taken three months after the experiment).

Control Group : pre-test (measurement before the experiment), test (without experimental teaching, or traditional teaching of experimental “EE materials”), post-test (measurement after the experiment), delayed test (measured three months after the experiment).

Although the above quasi-experimental design cannot control all the factors that affect the internal validity of the experiment like the actual experimental design, it can control most of them, and can avoid the experimental situation of EE that is too artificial if missing. In education research, there are four most commonly used quasi-experimental designs: (1) Unequal control group design; (2) Equivalent time sample design; (3) Adversarial equilibrium design; and (4) Time series design.

4.3 Reliability and Validity Analysis

4.3.1 reliability.

The purpose of reliability analysis is mainly to analyze the consistency of test results. Reliability refers to the consistency or stability of the results obtained by the testing tools (questionnaires/scales), and an indicator that reflects the true degree of the tested features. There are four main methods for reliability analysis:

Retest Reliability Method : The retest reliability method uses the same questionnaire and repeats the test at a certain interval for the same group of participants to calculate the correlation coefficient between the two test results. Because the retest reliability method needs to be tested twice for the same sample, the questionnaire survey is easily affected by events, activities, and subjects, and the interval is also limited, there are also certain difficulties in implementation.

Replica Reliability Method : The replica reliability method allows the same group of participants to fill out two copies of the questionnaire at one time, and calculates the correlation coefficient between the two copies. The reliability of replicas hopes that the two replicas are completely the same in terms of content, format, difficulty, and direction of the corresponding items, in addition to the different expression methods. In actual surveys, the questionnaires meet this requirement, so this method a bit less.

Half-Reliability Method : The half-reliability method is to divide the survey item into two parts, calculate the correlation coefficient of the scores of the two parts, and then estimate the reliability of the entire scale. Half-reliability is used for reliability analysis of attitude and opinion questionnaires. When performing a half-reliability analysis, if the scale contains reverse items, the scores of the reverse items should be reversed first to ensure the consistency of the scoring direction of each item, and then all items should be odd numbers. Or even, divide it into two parts that are as equal as possible, calculate the correlation coefficient between them, and finally get the reliability coefficient of the entire scale.

Alpha Reliability Coefficient Method : Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient is the most used reliability coefficient at present. The alpha coefficient is the consistency between the scores of various items in the scale, which is an inherent consistency coefficient. This method is suitable for reliability analysis of EE attitudes, opinion questionnaires (or scales).

4.3.2 Content Validity

Content validity refers to the appropriateness of the content of the test subject to the sampling of the relevant content, that is, whether a certain measured value can represent all the partial content of an event. The higher the content validity measurement, the more able it is to measure the content of EE textbooks, and the more able it is to measure whether the teaching goals are consistent with the original plan. The content of content validity verification requires a detailed logical analysis of the content being tested, so it is also called logical validity.

4.3.3 Criterion-Related Validity

If we study the relationship between environmental attitudes and behaviors, the validity of the correlation criterion then is to test the relationship between the measurement score and the actual attitude and behavior. Because the validity of the criterion requires actual evidence, it is also called empirical validity.

4.3.4 Construct Validity

Construction validity refers to the degree to which measurement results, also known as construct validity, can be consistent with theoretical concepts. This kind of validity is mainly to measure the degree of construction of a certain theory of environmental psychology, also known as the conceptual validity of the theory.

4.3.5 Degree of Difficulty

The degree of difficulty of the questionnaire refers to the difficulty of the question. Generally speaking, the knowledge and ability test can explain the difficulty of the test, but for the test of EE motivation, attitude, and personality traits, the difficulty refers to the rate of whether to answer the question.

4.3.6 Discrimination

Discrimination refers to the test questions, mainly environmental knowledge questions, whether it can distinguish the level of participants' ability, adopt internal consistency, arrange the participants in order of the total score, and take the top 25% of the highest score as the high group. Take the last 25% of the lowest score as the low group, and then find the correct answer rate of each question in the high and low groups, expressed as PH and PL, and D = (PH − PL) as the item's discrimination index (item) discrimination index). The D value is between −1.00 and +1.00. The larger the D value, the greater the degree of discrimination; the smaller the D value, the smaller the degree of discrimination; the D value of 0, which means no discrimination.

4.4 Retrospective Research

Ex-post facto research uses ex-post facto research to find out possible relationships or effects. Comparing retrospective research methods with experimental research methods, these two research methods are both looking for the relationship between the self-variant term and the dependent variable term. However, the self-variables of the retrospective study must be determined in advance before collecting data to explore the relationship with the observed variables. An analysis is usually performed using statistical records, personal files, and mass media reports. Therefore, ex post facto research is also called explanatory observational studies, or causal-comparative research.

4.5 Relevance Research

Correlation research is defined as the relationship between two (or more) variables that collectively change values. Statistical correlation refers to the degree of relationship between two groups or populations, or co-occurrence and interaction between variables. In statistical methods, Pearson correlation technology can be used to calculate the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and we use correlation coefficients. Positive correlation and negative causation, respectively, represent the situation that when a value increases, the value associated with it also increases or decreases.

4.6 Data Analysis, Interpretation and Application, Presentation of Research Results

In the research, we will formulate research hypotheses. Data analyses mainly applies statistical methods, calculation of the existing relationships between the data, and draws out statistical diagrams to explain the meaning of the data. The data analyses explain the most useful part of the data and through the presentation of the research results, the application of the research results are used to transform the value of the research results for EE promotion.

4.7 The Research Method of Delphi

Besides setting assumptions for quantification to converge, other objective methods can also be used to deal with the construction of environmental indicators, such as using the “Delphi expert research method, which is a structured decision support technology”. During the information collection process, independent subjective judgments of experts are used to construct relatively objective opinions and suggestions, so the composition validity of the experts is important. The “Delphi Research Method” investigates in a way that experts do not meet each other until the opinions converge (Clark et al. 2020 ).

5 Qualitative Research on Environmental Education

The qualitative research of EE can be applied in the field of environmental social sciences. Qualitative research is a process of inquiry and construction of multiple realities. There are many kinds of qualitative research methods, and so far, there are still new methods, which are constantly being researched and explored. Qualitative research tools are mainly used by researchers to make long-term observations of research objects through the research area. Qualitative research requires interviews to understand the patterns of daily life of the participating researchers, analyze their social and cultural environment, and the impact of these environments on their thinking and behavior.

Therefore, the main purpose of qualitative research on EE is to understand the personal experience of the research object, the construction of its meaning, and “interpretive understanding” of the overall context in a certain environment. Researchers interpret their life stories and meaning construction through their own experience. Also, researchers need to reflect on whether they have research biases due to data limitations. In the actual research process, the researcher is a patchwork of social reality. If something happens only at a certain time and space, such patchwork will bias the data and subsequent analyses and interpretations. Therefore, the qualitative research results have a large subjective component, which is only applicable to specific situations and conditions, and cannot be inferred to the scope of the study area and the sample. That is, qualitative research focuses on understanding social and environmental events in a particular social context, rather than inferring situations like that event. In EE research, qualitative research often uses interviews, observations, grounded theory, action research, ethnography, and content analysis.

Of course, the above methods are not independent; it means that interview methods, observation methods, and other methods are also used in grounded theoretical research. The methods of qualitative research are rich and diverse, and they affect each other and are inexhaustible.

5.1 Interview

Interviews in qualitative research are a process of dialogue, asking questions to interviewees, and leading out meaningful messages for research and questions raised. Interviewing is a type of research-oriented conversation. It is a research method in which the researcher collects first-hand information from the research through oral conversation. The interview method is usually performed by a trained researcher, who asks the interviewees a series of interactive answers. In phenomenological or ethnographic research, interviews are often used to reveal the meaning of the center of life from the perspective of the interviewee. Because social science research involves human thoughts and ideas, interviews have become a very common and useful research method in social science research associated with questions (please see energy literacy scales and conceptual logic maps) (Yeh et al. 2017 ). The following methods are commonly used in interview methods.

5.1.1 Non-structured Interview

No predetermined outline of the interview was proposed to remain as open and compliant as possible to the priorities of the interviewee. In the interviews, the researchers took a “let it go” approach.

5.1.2 Structured Interview

The purpose of this approach is to ensure that each interview presents the same questions in the same order. This allows the interview data to be easily and reliably compiled and compared between different interviewees or between different survey dates.

5.1.3 Semi-structured Interview

Different from structured interviews, there is a rigorous and standardized interview outline that does not allow respondents to easily shift the focus; semi-structured interviews are open. Although there are still preliminary interviews, new questions are allowed during the interview process and ideas.

5.1.4 Focus Groups Interview

This is a qualitative form of research that can be divided into environmental expert interview methods and focus group clinical interview methods. Focus group interviews are groups of people who are asked about their views, opinions, or attitudes about something or something. In focus group interviews, participants are free to talk to each other or ask questions. In the process, researchers record what the participants mentioned in the conversation. Also, researchers should carefully select focus group interview members to obtain a more effective response. Focus group interviews have many advantages that individual interviews do not have, so they can play a more special role in research. These include: (1) “Interviews are themselves the object of research; (2) Collective inquiry into research issues; and (3) Collectively constructing knowledge.

5.2 Observation

Observation can be either quantitative or qualitative. Observation is a method of collecting data by observing people, events, or in the natural environment and recording their characteristics. Observation is a process in which human sense organs perceive things (see Fig.  3.10 ), and it is also a process in which the human brain actively thinks about things (see Figs. 3.11 and 3.12 ). In qualitative research, observation depends not only on the perception of things, but also on the perspective of observation. Observation can be a straightforward method of qualitative research. Human beings are research tools, and first-hand exploration of the object being studied. The research question chosen by the observer, personal experience and assumptions, and the relationship with the observed things will all affect the implementation and results of the observation. Therefore, observation can be divided into:

Observation is a process in which human sense organs perceive things (Photo by Max Horng)

Observation is a process in which the human brain actively thinks about things, like a drawing activities (Drawing at constructed wetlands of grades 3–6 students from direct practice of experiential learning (Gonguan Campus, National Taiwan Normal University) (Photo by Yi-Te Chiang)

Observation is a process in which the human brain actively thinks about things, like a drawing activity (Rubbing practice of experiential learning (Gonguan Campus, National Taiwan Normal University) (Photo by Yi-Te Chiang)

5.2.1 Participatory Observation

The researcher becomes a participant in the culture or background being observed. Researchers need to be part of the context, organization, and cultural context that is being observed in order to make a successful observation. Researchers who want to use the participatory observation method must enter the field for observation at the beginning of the study, that is, with the consent of the observation subject. Researchers are the main tools for data collection and analysis. Therefore, the researcher must obtain the trust of the observed person and must maintain a friendly relationship with the observed person during the observation period. More importantly, researchers must be able to understand and reflect on the environment in which they are located in order to obtain a wealth of research data, so that the collected data can respond to research questions. Currently, visual participatory methods (VPMs) are one of the approaches to understand in EE research in regarding to conservation about diverse worldviews (Swanson and Ardoin 2021 ).

5.2.2 Direct Observation

Researchers must try to be unobtrusive so as not to bias the results of observations (see some observations approach from children’s studies, i.e., young children’s affective and cognitive growth (Ardoin and Bowers 2020 ); see Figs. 3.13 and 3.14 ). Making good use of technology is a good way, such as directly recording (Fig.  3.16 ), but with the consent of the interviewer (see Figs.  3.13 , 3.14 and 3.15 ).

An observation for grouped children for data collection is a good way on campus (Gonguan Campus, National Taiwan Normal University) (Photo by Yi-Te Chiang)

Making good use of observation aimed at parents and children for data collection is a good way learning in museum (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

Making good use of technology is a good way, such as directly recording by a smartphone (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

You may use direct/indirect approaches to observe the interactions between individuals to groups to detect soil hardness from soil compaction of the changes caused by human trampling in the soils and ground for a field (Scenic view in the surrounding areas of Lake Tahoe, CA, USA) (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

5.2.3 Indirect Observation

Observe the interactions between individuals, such as the results of processes, behaviors, carbon footprint, or soil compaction (Fig.  3.16 ). For example, observe the food waste left by students in the school cafeteria to determine whether they are eating a moderate amount of food.

5.3 Grounded Theory

Grounded theory is a systematic methodology in the social sciences that builds theory through methodical data collection and analysis (Martin and Turner 1986 ). Grounded theory can be described as a research method, or it can be interpreted as a type of qualitative research (Strauss 1987 ). Before the research began, researchers did not have theories or hypotheses, but directly summarized the concepts and propositions from the original data, and then rose to the point of theory.

Therefore, the grounded theory is the opposite of the hypothetic-deductive method. The grounded theory is studied inductively. At the beginning of research using grounded theory, there may be a problem of awareness in the mind of the researcher, or only the preliminary qualitative data collected. As researchers review the collected data, after rethinking the idea, the concept or element will gradually become clear, and the code will be used to classify these concepts or elements. However, these codes are extracted from qualitative data. As more data are collected and re-examined, coding can organize concepts first and then categorize them. Therefore, the grounded theory is very different from the traditional research model. The traditional research model selects the existing theoretical framework, and then only collects data to show whether the theory is applicable to the phenomenon under study (Allan 2003 ).

Grounded theory is to prevent the stagnation of a theory to generate a new theory. In order to show the observation of the research fields based on the root of theoretical innovation, it lays a sound scientific foundation for theoretical development. Therefore, this method of grounded theory can generate new theories and get hypotheses and concepts, categories, and propositions from the data. Concepts are the basic unit of data analysis in grounded theory; categories are a higher level than concepts and abstract than concepts and are the basis of development theory; propositions are categories and concepts, or categories between concepts and concepts, It can be said that it comes from basic hypotheses, except that propositions focus on the relationship between concepts, and hypotheses focus on the relationship between measurement data. Grounded theory consists of five phases:

Research Design Stage : include literature discussions, that is, selecting research samples;

Data Collection Stage : develop methods for data collection and enter the field;

Data Compilation Stage : arrange according to the sequence of events in the time and age;

Data Analysis Stage : use open coding to convert data into concepts, categories, and propositions, and to write data memos; and

Data Comparison Stage : compare the initially established theory with existing literature to find the same or different places, as the basis for revising the initial theory.

Constant change is a permanent feature of real social life. We need to explore the specific direction of change and the process of social interaction. Therefore, the grounded theory places special emphasis on generating theories from actions and constructing theories from the perspective of actors. The theory of grounded theory must come from the data and have a close relationship with the data. Grounded theory plays a very important role in the development of social science research theories. Theories at all levels are indispensable for a deep understanding of social phenomena (Glaser 1978 ).

5.4 Action Research

Action research can be research that solves the problem at hand or it can be a team member or cooperate with others to lead the community of practice and reflect on the problem-solving process as a way to improve, solve, or deal with problems (Stringer 2013 ). Action research is based on the theoretical basis of the practical community and jointly conducts research and participation, that is, “researchers are participants themselves and researchers.” The focus of action research is to explore the process of group problem solving and how to solve it, and to reflect on the process of problem solving. Action research is a spiral process of collecting data to establish goals and actions, and to intervene in problems to evaluate goals and understand the results. The purpose of action research strategies is to solve specific problems and develop guidelines for effective practice (Denscombe 2010 ).

Action research usually involves conducting active research and changing the situation through existing organizations. Action research can be conducted in large organizations or institutions, assisted, or directed by professional researchers, with the aim of improving strategies, practices, and knowledge in their environment. Research designers, stakeholders, and researchers collaborate with each other to propose new action plans to help their communities improve their work or practice content. Action research is an interactive investigative process that balances the resolution actions performed in a collaborative environment with data-driven collaborative analysis or research to understand the root causes that can lead to changes in individuals and organizations. For example, “action research” can be one teacher leading a class (the focus of action research is on students), or several teacher leaders leading an academic year, or the action research of several classmates (the teachers and students are also action research focus), or teachers can form an action research team (action research focuses on teachers). In terms of analysis, action research challenges traditional social science by creating reflective knowledge by transcending external sampling variables. In the process, you can actively conceptualize the theory according to step by step and collect data to understand the instantaneous changes that occur in the structure (Figs. 3.17 and 3.18 ). Therefore, action research is a process of continuously discovering problems, solving problems, and then discovering new problems, and continuously generating loops. The impact of “Environmental Education Action Research and Teaching” on students’ EE awareness is almost like traditional teaching methods; however, the environmental action curriculum has impacts on students’ environmental attitudes and behaviors through planning, action, review, reflection, and re-action, the effects are significant. Therefore, the increase of knowledge is a continuum of action after action, which needs to be taken as the starting point from this perspective. Therefore, we question the knowledge of the social sciences as to how to develop truly wise action; not just to develop reflection on action.

The environmental action curriculum has impacts on students’ environmental attitudes and behaviors through planning, action, review, reflection, and re-action (Prof. LePage and graduate students are looking for all-day events and a committed group focusing on urban wetland projects, thinking about checking out group study results at Daan Park, Taipei, Taiwan, 2021) (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

Class exercises and presentation at Daan Park, Taipei, Taiwan, 2021 (Photo by Ben LePage)

It is not enough for researchers to just communicate knowledge. In action research, the findings are implicit. We need to learn how to use action research findings to promote scientific consensus in different practice and conceptual contexts. Participatory action research is therefore a form of question-based investigation of the practice by practitioners, and therefore, it is an empirical process. The ultimate goal of action research is to create and share social science knowledge.

5.5 Ethnography

The generation of ethnographic knowledge basically depends on the comparison of two cultural experiences. Ethnographic methodology emphasizes that researchers must be “deliberate ignorance.” Process researchers in the field not only obtain research information through “question,” but also live in the present and use their own senses, including vision, taste, hearing, and touch. Wait for multiple senses as a channel for research data collection. At the same time, the researcher must always be introspective in the process of research, and must be fully aware of the influence of his cultural background and researcher's identity on the research. In addition, ethnography is used as the research method. The acquisition of data is produced by the interaction between the researcher and the researched person (see Fig.  3.19 ). The researcher must be able to discover the social meaning and cultural value implied by the event or action.

The acquisition of data is produced by the interaction between the researcher and the researched person, if you want to watch a child, be keeping a close to watch, and you may pay careful attention to a situation or a thing, so that you can deal with any physical/mind changes for a child in his/her living environment (Photo by Wei-Ta Fang)

In short, the ethnographic research method represents the researcher’s entry into the researcher’s daily life world, tries to understand the researcher’s world, reverses the passive role of the researcher, and allows the researcher's “local perspective” to be heard or seen. From the past to the present, ethnographic research has been continuously enriched. In the past, ethnography emphasized observing the interactions between people in the community. For example, in the case of ethnography, the analysis of important life experiences of environmental protests can be used as an example. For example, in Taiwan, the ethnographic analysis of the Binnan Industrial Zone, the Guanxi Industrial Zone, and the Green Oyster incident in the estuary of Keya Creek, Hsinchu City in the 1990s; the RCA incident, and the Mai Liao Industrial Zone in the 2000s, the Guoguang Petrochemical Park, and the demolition of the Dapu Industrial Zone in the 2010s on environmental events are all good subjects, which can deeply describe the field environment and the details of interaction between people. In addition, recent anthropological research has added nonhuman beings to the writing of fields, and developed multi-ethnic ethnography, emphasizing that the composition of society is not only human, but also the participation of many non-humans, such as cats and dogs, Insects, bacteria, machines, etc. (such as: Insectopedia, The Mushroom at the End of the World ), are the works of this multi-species ethnography (Raffles 2010 ; Tsing 2015 ).

5.6 Content Analysis

Content analysis is a method of studying documents, files, or correspondence. Research materials may include various formats, such as pictures, audio files, text files, text, or images. One of the great benefits of content analysis is that it is a non-intrusive way to naturally study social phenomena that depend on a particular time and place in a file. The implementation and concepts of content analysis will vary from discipline to discipline, but they all involve systematically reading or observing text content, and encoding on meaningful or interesting documents and archives. By systematically encoding a series of text content, researchers can use quantitative methods to analyze trends in big data content, or use qualitative methods to analyze text content.

6 Promotion of Environmental Education Theory

The EE department strengthens the development of human society by using practical technical knowledge, strengthening education, learning the environment, and continuously participating in and understanding activities to solve environmental problems. In this section we discuss the expansion and practice of EE theory, Darwinian scientific integration, and comparison of learning methods.

6.1 Theoretical Expansion and Practice

The theoretical improvement of EE is not so much a transfer of technology as a linear ‘top-down’ approach, but rather a participatory 'bottom-up' approach (Black 2000 ). In the process of education, the above-mentioned formal education and non-formal education are conducted through bilateral one-to-one advice or information exchange, and in accordance with formal education in EE, using organized education and training methods—formal and non-formal education activities (Fig.  3.20 ).

Environmental education is not so much a transfer of technology as a linear ‘top-down’ approach, but rather a participatory ‘bottom-up’ approaches (Illustrated by Wei-Ta Fang)

Therefore, we conclude that a single model of EE is not feasible. Although we have criticized the above-mentioned linear technology transfer model, we still need to rely on reliable scientific information and actively participate in the research and development process, from EE scholars and experts to front-line field teachers, through bilateral information exchange. On the student side, knowledge, attitudes, and behavioral models are enhanced through formal education and program training. In addition, new learning technologies will promote certain forms of education methods, training courses, and information exchange, and make up for the lack of application through promotion strategies.

6.2 Integration of Environmental Disciplines

We know that the discipline of EE crosses the traditional discipline boundaries, especially between the natural sciences and the social sciences. From the environmental sciences, the natural sciences, and the humanities, there is a tangled relationship, but we still need to be patient to go further integration. From the analysis, we can use Darwin's ecology to carry out the scientific integration of EE and the disciplines of ecology. Environmental thinkers generally think that the natural sciences and humanities are completely disconnected and there is little overlap between environmental sciences, natural sciences, and humanities, and even only limited to the methodologies of environmental and biomedical sciences, small overlap. However, today's subject areas are under the multiple social relationships that have come one after another. We observe emerging interdisciplinary areas, such as conservation biology, ecological economics, human behavioral ecology, and evolutionary psychology. We know that the clear barriers between natural sciences and social sciences are already being sold. Interdisciplinary scholars are helping to integrate the relationship between applied fields in the biological and human sciences. We need a new science, called human behavioral ecology or Darwin ecology, to complete this comprehensive doctrine.

6.3 Integration of Environmental Education Disciplines

The learning model of EE is mainly to borrow pedagogical methods to recognize and sense the environment and improve human behavior patterns. However, the cultivation of science education is based on brain science, life sciences, and cosmic sciences. It explains the nature and value of human learning science, and explores the ultimate thinking of philosophy, “What is human?” “Why am I here?” “What is the ultimate goal of the universe?”.

Three major questions; however, EE involves the development of human behavior, which connects a very down to earth attitude toward learning, beyond the philosophical exploration of nihilism, to the practical thinking of the world.

What is the relationship between “EE” and the improvement of human cognition, the cultivation of mentality, and the formation of attitudes? We use “environmental learning” to improve human values and a sense of responsibility for the environment. Can environmental learning really achieve results? Since the 1950s, educators have considered the above issues through learning theories; these issues need to be explored through educational psychology. We understand that there are three major learning theories in American academia that have a wide range of influences around the world. The views on the above points include the Bloom learning method, the Hungerford learning method, and the ABC Learning method of emotion theory (Fig.  3.21 ).

Comparison of the use of the Bloom-style learning method, the Hungerford-style learning method, and the learning of ABC emotion theory. 1(a): Bloom-style meta-learning; 1(b): Bloom-style learning (adapted from Bloom et al. 1956 ; Krathwohl et al. 1964 ). 2(a): Hungerford-style meta-learning; 2(b): Hungerford-style learning (adapted from Hungerford and Volk 1990 ). 3(a): ABC meta-learning; 3(b): ABC emotional learning (adapted from Ellis 1957 , 1962 ) (Illustrated and redrawn by Wei-Ta Fang)

6.3.1 The Bloom-Style Learning Method

Bloom divides education goals into the Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor Domains (Bloom et al. 1956 ; Krathwohl et al. 1964 ).

Cognitive Domain : Cognitive knowledge is aimed at knowledge, principles, applications, and problem-solving learning. The characteristics of cognition are the acquisition and application of knowledge;

Affective Domain : Affection mainly refers to the positive or negative palpitations of external stimuli, such as emotional reactions such as hobbies and dislikes, which in turn affect the intentions adopted on maggots; and

Psychomotor Domain : Action skills are a kind of energy generated by learning. The generated on this basis is the result of performance, and it is the precise expression of body movements. Therefore, after the teaching goals allow learners to learn through knowledge or skills, they should have the response they deserve.

6.3.2 The Hungerford-Style Learning Method

Hungerford divides EE goals into knowledge, attitude, and behavior areas (Hungerford and Volk 1990 ). He attaches great importance to EE curriculum planning and believes that “knowledge” affects “attitude” and “attitude” affects “behavior” theory. In other words, he believes that EE can ultimately affect human environmentally friendly behaviors and improve human-environmental literacy. Therefore, when human beings have knowledge, attitude, and skills, they can participate in solving environmental problems.

Knowledge : Knowledge can help us to establish the relationship between the object and the environment for the relevant information of the object we want to understand. This relationship needs to understand things through a cognitive schema;

Attitude : Attitude is a person’s psychological and neurological readiness, which refers to the judgment status of an individual on an object. This is an opinion organized through experience. When an individual’s attitude affects, behavioral will intent through thoughtful decision-making processes and then through psychological responses; and

Behavior : Human behavior refers to the spontaneous or passive behavior of human beings in the adaptation to a constantly changing and complex environment, or the interaction between the environment and other organisms or inorganic bodies physical response.

6.4 Learning Method of ABC Emotion Theory

The ABC Theory of Emotion was created by Ellis. A equates to an activating event; B is beliefs; and C triggers emotional and behavioral consequences (Ellis 1957 , 1962 ).

A = Activating Event (Induced Event) : the indirect cause of C is the inducing event A (activating event), and the direct cause of C is the individual's belief and evaluation of event A;

B =  Belief : Human emotions and behaviors (C) are not directly determined by life events (A), but by the cognitive processing and evaluation methods of these events. In other words, because the individual through this event incorrectly recognizes it, the error (B) is directly caused; and

C = Triggers Emotional and Behavioral Consequences : Human negative emotional and behavioral disorder results (C) are not directly caused by an evoked event (A).

Activating events, beliefs, emotions, and behavioral results (consequences) are accompanied by people’s thoughts, and emotional or psychological distress is caused by irrational and illogical thoughts. The basic idea behind the ABC emotion theory model is that activating events (A) will not cause the consequences of emotions (C); but beliefs (B), especially false beliefs, are also called the consequences of bad emotions (C) caused by irrational beliefs. Initially, Ellis considered his theory to be incompatible with religion, or at least incompatible with absolute religion, although he had accepted that certain types of religion were compatible with his theory (Ellis 2000 ). Specifically, according to Ellis, belief in loving God can lead to positive mental health outcomes; while belief in angry God can lead to negative mental health outcomes. The evolution of thought is especially true concerning religion.

If we take the tendency of human beings to have biology and sociology, human beings are then caught between rational reasoning of limited reason and irrationality. Under the emotions of fear and panic, human beings will produce unreasonable thought patterns. That is to say, in addition to understanding the impact of the ABC emotional theory model on the Hungerford model’s “knowledge” and its impact on “attitude,” the “attitude” affects the impact of the “behavior” theory. Looking at the behavioral model of meta, it seems that the “absolute cognition” of all things in the ternary model should be more transcendent. It is suggested that environmental educators should look at things objectively and have a more general and mature view of human environmental behavior (Ellis 2000 ; Hug 1977 ).

Therefore, we evaluate human environmental behavior, integrate the process of cognitive functions, learn to represent the intermediary role of the human intelligent system, perceive the “metacognition,” understand the formation process of environmental protection significance and guide it. We have adapted three models of “meta-learning modes.”

From the “metacognitive” learning model, we understand the individual’s own cognitive process and can perform self-mastery, monitoring, evaluation, domination, etc. to comply with self-willed management, and at the same time, self-adjust to the goal to achieve control of unreasonable thoughts. In other words, EE has grown through mental growth and produced a mature mind. Through emotional growth, it has refined mature personal traits and a model of “responsible environmental behavior” and made “friendly earth” contributions and sublimation of ideas. Therefore, this chapter hopes that the study of EE can make theoretical corrections and adjustments to the EE in the process of forming the research significance, to achieve the real purpose of solving human-environmental problems.

From the Nevada Declaration, we learned that EE is to recognize values, clarify ideas, develop skills and attitudes, understand, appreciate, and thank individuals for their interaction with culture and the environment. And we learned how to enter the field to practice, in order to be aware of how good environmental attitudes, skills, care, decision making, and codes of conduct are generated. Therefore, EE research is a discussion of research methods that focus on attitudes, skills, care, decision-making, and behavior standards. We can discuss from three levels, including methodologies, research methods, or research methods, and discuss specific environmental improvement technologies and educational techniques. Therefore, the ways in which EE research questions are formed include understanding how to think and learn about the environment's awareness, and the ability of metacognition to cultivate environmental sensitivity so as to realize higher-level thinking ability. Therefore, for the development of research, we need to successfully judge whether our cognitive process has increased in order to judge whether the ability to change behavior is strengthened. Furthermore, the relationship between the researcher and the subject matter is very important. We care about the good and bad of the research results and have a good grasp of the nature of the research. In addition, through the interaction between the researcher and the research subject, we conduct in-depth and meticulous experiences, and then explain and clarify the literature, resolve the disputes in the literature, and stimulate thinking and initiate change, a new challenge that EE researchers and practitioners alike need to recognize.

Allan G (2003) A critique of using grounded theory as a research method. Electron J Bus Res Methods 2(1):1–10

Google Scholar  

Ansori AZ, Ibrahim M, Widodo W, Sutoyo S (2020) Development of truth-seeking learning model: validity and reliability. Int J Innov Sci Res Technol 5(1):385–389

Ardoin NM, Bowers AW (2020) Early childhood environmental education: a systematic review of the research literature. Educ Res Rev 31:100353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100353

Article   Google Scholar  

Ardoin NM, Clark C, Kelsey E (2013) An exploration of future trends in environmental education research. Environ Educ Res 19(4):499–520

Ardoin NM, Bowers AW, Gaillard E (2020) Environmental education outcomes for conservation: a systematic review. Biol Cons 241:108224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.108224

Bakhtin MM (1981) In: Holquist M (ed) The dialogic imagination: four essays. University of Texas Press

Bakhtin MM (1994) In: Morris P (ed) The Bakhtin reader. Oxford University Press

Bester L, Muller G, Munge B, Morse M, Meyers N (2017) Those who teach learn: near-peer teaching as outdoor environmental education curriculum and pedagogy. J Outdoor Environ Educ 20(1):35–46

Black AW (2000) Extension theory and practice: a review. Aust J Exp Agric 40(4):493–502

Bloom BS, Engelhart MD, Furst EJ, Hill WH, Krathwohl DR (1956) Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals. In: Handbook I: cognitive domain. David McKay Company, Philadelphia

Blumstein DT, Saylan C (2007) The failure of environmental education (and how we can fix it). PLoS Biol 5(5):e120. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0050120

Boyden SV (1970) Environmental change: perspectives and responsibilities. In: Evans J, Boyden S (eds) Education and the environmental crisis. Australian Academy of Science, Canberra, pp 9–22

Bratman M (1981) Intention and means-end reasoning. Philos Rev 90(2):252–265

Carson R (1962) Silent spring. Fawcett, Greenwich

Chang C-H, Ow P (2022) Inquiry-based fieldwork assessment for and as learning in geography. In: Bourke T, Mills R, Lane R (eds) Assessment in geographical education: an international perspective. Springer, Cham, pp 123–134

Chao S-H, Jiang J, Hsu C-H, Chiang Y-T, Ng E, Fang W-T (2020) Technology-enhanced learning for graduate students: exploring the correlation of media richness and creativity of computer-mediated communication and face-to-face communication. Appl Sci 10:1602. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10051602

Clark CR, Heimlich J, Ardoin NM, Braus J (2020) Using a Delphi study to clarify the landscape and core outcomes in environmental education. Environ Educ Res 26(3):381–399

Darwin CR (1859) On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. John Murray, London

Denscombe M (2010) The good research guide: for small social research projects. McGraw-Hill House, New York

Edelson SC, Pea RD, Gomez L (1996) Constructivism in the collaboratory. In: Wilson BG (ed) Constructivist learning environments: case studies in instructional design. Educational Technology Publications, Englewood

Eden S (2010) NGOs, the science-lay dichotomy, and hybrid spaces of environmental knowledge. In: Geographies of science. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 217–230

Ellis A (1957) Rational psychotherapy and individual psychology. J Individ Psychol 13:38–44

Ellis A (1962) Reason and emotion in psychotherapy. Lyle Stuart, New York

Ellis A (2000) Can rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) be effectively used with people who have devout beliefs in God and religion? Prof Psychol Res Pract 31(1):29–33

Environmental Protection Administration (2014) National environmental education action plan (2016–2019). EPA, Taipei, Taiwan (in Chinese). https://eeis.epa.gov.tw/front/resources/ResSearch/item.aspx?id=208 . Accessed 6 Apr 2022

Estabrooks CA (2001) Research utilization and qualitative research. In: Morse JM, Swanson JM, Kuzel AJ (eds) The nature of qualitative evidence. Sage, Thousand Oaks

Falk JH (2017) Born to choose: evolution, self and well-being. Routledge

Falk JH, Heimlich JE, Foutz S (eds) (2009) Free-choice learning and the environment. AltaMira, Lanham

Freeman III AM (1986) On assessing the state of the arts of the contingent valuation method of valuing environmental changes. In: Cummings RG, Brookshire DS, Schulze WD (eds) Valuing environmental goods: an assessment of the contingent valuation method, pp 180–195

Gimello RM (2005) Huayan. In: Jones L (ed) Encyclopedia of religion, 2nd edn, vol 6. Macmillan, Detroit, pp 4145–4149

Glaser BG (1978) Theoretical sensitivity. Sociology, Mill Valley

Gough A (2012) The emergence of environmental education research: a ‘history’ of the field. In: Stevenson RB, Brody M, Dillon J, Wals AEJ (eds) International handbook of research on environmental education. Routledge, Oxfordshire

Gough N, Price L (2004) Rewording the World: poststructuralism, deconstruction and the ‘real’ in environmental education. South Afr J Environ Educ 21(2):23–36

Guez JM (2010) Heteroglossia. In: Western humanities review. University of Utah, Salt Lake City, pp 51–55

Habermas J (1971) Knowledge and human interests. Beacon, Boston

Habib A (2013) Sharing the Earth: sustainability and the currency of inter-generational environmental justice. Environ Values 22(6):751–764

Hart P (2002) Narrative, knowing, and emerging methodologies in environmental education research: issues of quality. Can J Environ Educ (CJEE) 7(2):140–165

Heimlich JE, Ardoin NM (2008) Understanding behavior to understand behavior change: a literature review. Environ Educ Res 14(3):215–237

Herrington J, Standen P (1999) Moving from an instructivist to a constructivist multimedia learning environment. In: Collis B, Oliver R (eds) Proceedings of ED-MEDIA 1999—World conference on educational multimedia, hypermedia & telecommunications. Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE), Seattle, pp 132–137

Huang YS, Asghar A, Nichols NE (2021) Implementing a national policy initiative to support education for sustainable development: lessons from Taiwan’s Environmental Education Act. Educ Res Policy Pract 20:187–205

Hudson SJ (2001) Challenges for environmental education: issues and ideas for the 21st century. Bioscience 51(4):283–288

Hug J (1977) Two hats. In: Hungerford HR, Bluhm WJ, Volk TL, Ramsey JM (eds) Essential readings in environmental education. Stipes, Champaign, p 47

Humbetov S (2021) Data-intensive computing with map-reduce and Hadoop. In: 2012 6th International conference on application of information and communication technologies (AICT), pp 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICAICT.2012.6398489

Hungerford HR, Volk TL (1990) Changing learner behavior through environmental education. J Environ Educ 21:8–22

Kemmis S, McTaggart R (1982) The action research planner. Deakin University Press, Melbourne

Kidman G, Chang C-H (2022) Numbers and graphs—what sort of mathematical literacy do we need for geographical education in uncertain times. Int Res Geogr Environ Educ 31(1):1–4

Klein ES, Merritt E (1994) Environmental education as a model for constructivist teaching. J Environ Educ 25(3):14–21

Knapp D (1995) Twenty years after Tbilisi: UNESCO inter-regional workshop on re-orienting environmental education for sustainable development. Environ Commun 25(6):9

Krathwohl DR, Bloom BS, Masia BB (1964) Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals. In: Handbook II: affective domain. Allyn and Bacon, Boston

Le Roux C, Ferreira JG (2005) Enhancing environmental education teaching skills through in-service education and training. J Educ Teach 31(1):3–14

Liu S-Y, Yeh S-C, Liang S-W, Fang W-T, Tsai H-M (2015) A national investigation of teachers’ environmental literacy as a reference for promoting environmental education in Taiwan. J Environ Educ 46(2):114–132

Lubchenco J (1998) Entering the century of the environment: a new social contract for science. Science 279(5350):491–497

Lucas AM (1980) The role of science education in education for the environment. J Environ Educ 12(2):33–37

Mach KJ, Lemos MC, Meadow AM, Wyborn C, Klenk N, Arnott JC et al (2020) Actionable knowledge and the art of engagement. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 42:30–37

Magraw D, Lynch O (2006) One species, one planet: environmental justice and sustainable development. In: The World Bank legal review, vol 2: Law, equity and development, pp 441–482

Marín-Morales J, Higuera-Trujillo JL, Greco A et al (2018) Affective computing in virtual reality: emotion recognition from brain and heartbeat dynamics using wearable sensors. Sci Rep 8:13657. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-32063-4

Martin PY, Turner BA (1986) Grounded theory and organizational research. J Appl Behav Sci 22(2):141–157

Palmer J (1998) Environmental education in the 21st century: theory, practice, progress and promise. Routledge, Oxfordshire

Raffles H (2010) Insectopedia. Vintage, New York

Reid A, Scott W (2013) Identifying needs in environmental education research. International handbook of research on environmental education. Routledge, Oxfordshire, pp 518–528

Roque NA, Ram N (2019) tsfeaturex: an R package for automating time series feature extraction. J Open Source Softw 4(37):1279. https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.01279

Stagg BC, Dillon J, Maddison J (2022) Expanding the field: using digital to diversify learning in outdoor science. Discip Interdiscip Sci Educ Res 4(1):1–17

Stapp W (1969) The concept of environmental education. Environ Educ 1(1):30–31

Stevenson RB (2007) Schooling and environmental education: contradictions in purpose and practice. Environ Educ Res 13(2):139–153

Stewart A (2020) Developing place-responsive pedagogy in outdoor environmental education: a rhizomatic curriculum autobiography. Spring Nature Switzerland, Cham

Strauss AL (1987) Qualitative analysis for social scientists. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Stringer ET (2013) Action research. Sage, Thousand Oaks

Swanson SS, Ardoin NM (2021) Communities behind the lens: a review and critical analysis of visual participatory methods in biodiversity conservation. Biol Cons 262:109293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109293

Tilbury D (1995) Environmental education for sustainability: defining the new focus of environmental education in the 1990s. Environ Educ Res 1(2):195–212

Tsing AL (2015) The mushroom at the end of the world: on the possibility of life in capitalist ruins. Princeton University Press, Princeton

UNESCO (1970) International working meeting on environmental education in the school curriculum. Final report, at Foresta Institute, Carson City, Nevada. IUCN and UNESCO

Van Weelie D, Wals A (2002) Making biodiversity meaningful through environmental education. Int J Sci Educ 24(11):1143–1156

Wals AE, Brody M, Dillon J, Stevenson RB (2014) Convergence between science and environmental education. Science 344(6184):583–584

Wang YL, Derakhshan A, Zhang LJ (2021) Researching and practising positive psychology in second/foreign language learning and teaching: the past, current status and future directions. Front Psychol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731721

Yeh S-C, Huang J-Y, Yu H-C (2017) Analysis of energy literacy and misconceptions of junior high students in Taiwan. Sustainability 9(3):423. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9030423

Yeh S-C, Wu A-W, Yu H-C, Wu HC, Kuo Y-P, Chen P-X (2021) Public perception of artificial intelligence and its connections to the sustainable development goals. Sustainability 13(16):9165. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13169165

Zehr SC (1999) Scientists’ representations of uncertainty. In: Friedman SM, Dunwoody S, Rogers CL (eds) Communicating uncertainty: media coverage of new and controversial science, pp 3–21

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Graduate Institute of Environmental Education, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan

Wei-Ta Fang & Ben A. LePage

Open University Malaysia Kota, Sabah, Malaysia

Arba’at Hassan

Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, USA

Ben A. LePage

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Wei-Ta Fang .

Rights and permissions

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Fang, WT., Hassan, A., LePage, B.A. (2023). Research Methods for Environmental Education. In: The Living Environmental Education. Sustainable Development Goals Series. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4234-1_3

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4234-1_3

Published : 30 September 2022

Publisher Name : Springer, Singapore

Print ISBN : 978-981-19-4233-4

Online ISBN : 978-981-19-4234-1

eBook Packages : Social Sciences Social Sciences (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

• Reference Manager
• Simple TEXT file

People also looked at

Original research article, impacts of outdoor environmental education on teacher reports of attention, behavior, and learning outcomes for students with emotional, cognitive, and behavioral disabilities.

• 1 Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management, College of Natural Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
• 2 Teacher Education and Learning Sciences, College of Education, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States

There are over 4 million students with reported emotional, cognitive, and behavioral disabilities (ECBD) in the United States. Teachers most frequently situate instruction inside, however, outdoor environmental education (EE) can improve academic and affective outcomes for many students, including students with ECBD. In North Carolina, U.S.A., an EE program utilizes outdoor science instruction for fifth-grade students. The program takes place over four to 10 full-school days across the year, and instruction occurs in both schoolyards and natural areas. The program aligns outdoor EE with state and national science education standards. Using a quasi-experimental design, the present study examined the impacts of the program on indicators of ECBD (e.g., student behavior, attention span), science efficacy, nature of science, and academic achievement for students with ECBD. We measured these factors using online surveys from both students identified with ECBD and their classroom teachers, as well as students with ECBD from matched control schools and their respective teachers. Students in both treatment ( n = 99) and control ( n = 62) classrooms took the survey two times over the school year. Quantitative data revealed teachers perceived students had significantly improved attention spans and decreased disruptive behaviors when learning outdoors. Students in the treatment group maintained measures of nature of science, science efficacy and science grades, keeping in line with their peers in the control group. We supplemented survey data with teacher interview data about their impressions of the outdoor program and the experiences of their students identified with ECBD. Teacher interview responses supported quantitative findings. These findings indicate that outdoor EE has the potential to be at least as effective a method for science instruction as classroom teaching, and in the case of addressing indicators of ECBD, outdoor EE may be a successful strategy for student learning.

Introduction

Throughout the United States, there are 4 million public school students (i.e., 18 and under) identified with emotional, cognitive, and behavioral disabilities (ECBD) ( National Center for Education Statistics, 2017 ). The phrasing “emotional/behavioral/learning disability” under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) ( 108th Congress, 2004 ) includes students with a variety of emotional, behavioral, and cognitive impairments-such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), autism, and dyslexia. While the number of students identified as ECBD in the United States has been on the rise since the 1970s ( National Center for Education Statistics, 2017 ), there have been variable efforts among states and school districts, both in terms of funding and training, to better assist these students ( Baker et al., 2012 , 2017 ; Alexander et al., 2015 ). However, these students consistently lag behind their non-ECBD peers academically ( Cawley et al., 2002 ). This points to the need for creative ways to assist students who have been identified with emotional, behavioral, or cognitive disabilities, through reducing ECBD students' challenges and increasing learning outcomes.

One such creative way to reduce ECBD students' challenges to learning includes time in the outdoors. Benefits of outdoor experiences have been explored most deeply in research on students with ADHD. Kuo and Faber Taylor, in particular, have researched this topic and have found green space to be highly beneficial for students identified with ADHD ( Kuo and Faber Taylor, 2004 ; Faber Taylor and Kuo, 2011 ). In a 2004 nationwide study that collected parent ratings of their children's experiences in green outdoor settings, researchers found that playing in green spaces significantly reduced symptoms of ADHD for youth of all income levels, locations, and community types ( Kuo and Faber Taylor, 2004 ). In a similar study, Faber Taylor and Kuo (2011) also found that for children with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and/or ADHD, their attention spans improved when they participated in routine play (i.e., majority of days in the week) in green spaces. Furthermore, playing in open green spaces (e.g., fields) was more successful in reducing hyperactivity for students with ADHD than playing indoors or in built outdoor environments. Other researchers have found similar effects: green space near homes and schools is associated with improved concentration, better attention, and less hyperactivity among children ( Wells, 2000 ; Mårtensson et al., 2009 ; Van den Berg and van den Berg, 2011 ; Amoly et al., 2014 ; Flouri et al., 2014 ; Markevych et al., 2014 ; Kuo et al., 2018 ). Other research has revealed the benefits of the outdoors for individuals with other forms of EBCD. For instance, Farnham and Mutrie (2003) found that outdoor education significantly reduced anxiety and improved trust and group cohesion for a range of students with mild to moderate learning disabilities. Similarly, Melber and Brown (2008) reported on the benefits of informal education for students who receive special education services, ranging from learning disabilities to motor impairment. Melber (2004) emphasizes that science taught with hands-on, inquiry practices such as in the schoolyard, are especially accessible to students with disabilities.

Environmental education (EE) may be a particularly promising strategy for helping ECBD students, as it has potential to combine time outdoors with instructional practices shown to be effective with ECBD students. The United States' EPA (2018) defines environmental education (EE) as “a process that allows individuals to explore environmental issues, engage in problem solving, and take action to improve the environment” (para 1). EE is characterized by being inquiry-based, hands-on, experiential, and often, outdoors ( Hanna, 1995 ; Crawford, 2000 ; Haney et al., 2007 ; Peterson, 2011 ; Ruiz-Gallardo et al., 2013 ; Zint et al., 2014 )-which are all strategies that have been found to boost attitudes and learning among students with ECBD. In particular, the inquiry-based aspects of EE programming has been shown to improve learning outcomes for students with ECBD ( Aydeniz et al., 2012 ; Kaldenberg et al., 2015 ). EE programs for children can range from a single lesson in school to residential-weeklong experiences; they can even span the entire school year ( North American Association for Environmental Education, 2010 ). Because of this variety of both program type and length, EE is uniquely situated to be flexibly integrated into education to increase both outdoor time and hands-on, inquiry-based instruction for students in schools.

Outdoor EE that targets science instruction may be an especially effective approach for integrating EE into curriculum while decreasing indicators of ECBD. Outdoor EE can integrate well with science instruction through its authentic environment and direct interaction with the outdoors. Building on Brown et al.'s (1989) situated learning theory, students' learning can be enhanced by their engagement with topics such as ecosystems through direct interactions in the context of study (i.e., in the outdoors). Science instruction in US classrooms is rarely situated in the outdoors, despite the noted benefits in both cognitive and affective domains for students when they learn outside ( Rickinson et al., 2004 ; Dyment, 2005 ; Carrier et al., 2013 , 2014 ; Fägerstam and Blom, 2013 ; Rios and Brewer, 2014 ). Research on EE programming has found that science efficacy, science knowledge, and science achievement improve for all students after the experience ( Tamir, 1991 ; Hiller and Kitsantas, 2014 ; Saribas et al., 2014 ; Dettweiler et al., 2015 ; Ardoin et al., 2017 ). Accordingly, outdoor EE may work to decrease indicators of ECBD (e.g., short attention spans and disruptive behaviors) as well as enhance learning, especially in science.

In our literature review, we located only two studies that have specifically examined how EE may be particularly helpful to students with ECBD. One such study focused on the effects of a garden-based learning program on students with disruptive behavior disorder in Spain. The year-long program had students working outside over half of their school hours and was purposefully hands-on and project-based. A 6-year analysis revealed that the intervention led to a significant decrease in dropout rates, a significant increase in classes passed, and an increase in overall behavior and attitude ( Ruiz-Gallardo et al., 2013 ). In a study by Moore et al. (2016) , experienced EE practitioners took a class of students on an experiential nature hike where they used technology to engage with the outdoors. Researchers conducted additional interviews and observations of two students with ADHD. The study revealed that the students with ADHD had positive, enriching learning experiences; teachers noted these students had greatly improved their participation when compared to their participation in the traditional classroom. Additionally, these students, who typically fell behind in academic achievement, scored as well as their peers on the environmental knowledge assessment after the program. While these studies reveal a possible connection between outdoor EE and improved learning and behavioral outcomes, neither involved a control group.

As few studies exist investigating the potential benefits of outdoor EE on students with ECBD and none include a control group, the purpose of this study was to examine the impacts of an outdoor environmental education program on students with ECBD, utilizing a quasi-experimental design. Specifically, we tested the impacts of an outdoor-and science-based EE program on both ECBD students' challenges to learning (behavior, attention span) and learning outcomes (science efficacy, nature of science, science academic achievement) during the 2016–2017 school year. We hypothesized that for students identified with ECBD, their participation in an EE program would: (1) result in teachers reporting longer attention spans and fewer disruptive behaviors in a classroom setting compared to a control group; (2) result in teachers reporting longer attention spans and fewer disruptive behaviors outdoors when compared to their attention and behavior in a classroom setting; and (3) increase learning outcomes (i.e., nature of science, science efficacy, and science academic achievement) for students in the treatment group as compared to a control group.

Our sample consisted of 161 fifth-grade students with ECBD in North Carolina, U.S.A. Students ages ranged from 9 to 12 years old, with a median age of 10 years old. We focused on fifth-grade students, since they are in the late stages of middle childhood (ages 6–12) and approaching adolescence (ages 12–18)-a critical period for developing ethical and ecological knowledge necessary for influencing environmental education outcomes, such as environmental engagement ( Kellert, 1985 ). We sampled in two stages: teachers, then, students. Treatment group teachers were recruited through an environmental education program in the southeastern U.S. (28 teachers, 99 students). Control group teachers were randomly selected from a list of matched control schools in the same geographic area. Schools were matched by percent of free-reduced lunch, percent of students that were white, location (e.g., in the same district or an adjacent district), and by charter or traditional distinction. We then created a sample frame of schools associated with those matched schools and invited a random subset of teachers from those schools to participate. We contacted 263 teachers, and 63 teachers agreed to participate as control, representing a 24% response rate. As we contacted these teachers a few months in advance of the study, a subset dropped out of the study prior to the pretest due to switching grade levels, moving schools, retiring, or other reasons. Forty-two teachers participated in the pretest as a control. Teachers in both treatment and control groups were asked about students whose Individual Education Plans identify them as ECBD, and we included those students in this study. As we only included classes with teachers that that had identified students with ECBD, we had usable data from 14 teachers (associated with 62 students) in the control group and 28 teachers (associated with 99 students) in the treatment group. Although self-selection bias may exist among teachers, students should not be affected as students are assigned to teachers regardless of their environmental interests or attention and behavior. In order to establish that our sample was representative of the general student population in North Carolina, we compared our final sample of students ( n = 112) with the North Carolina population of students with Individual Education Plans as a whole using z -tests for proportions of gender (i.e., male vs. female) and a binary indicator of ethnicity (i.e., white vs. non-white). We found no significant differences ( p = 0.55 and p = 0.54, respectively) ( Russell, 2016 ). Of our sample, 33% students were female, 50% identified as non-Hispanic white, 11% as black, 4% as Hispanic/Latino, 2% as Asian/Pacific Islander, 13% as Native American, 16% as other, and 5% identified with two or more races. There were no differences in distributions of gender, race, or socioeconomic status across treatment and control groups (Table 1 ). All students whose parents provided consent were included in the study.

Table 1 . Demographic comparison of treatment and control groups.

This study was part of a larger program evaluation for an environmental education program in the southeastern U.S.A. The EE program that took place over the course of the 2016–2017 school year focuses on experiential, outdoor science learning, environmental literacy, and connection to the natural world. Schools participate in the program 4 to 10 full school days throughout the school year with an average of six lessons spread across the school year (e.g., one per month). The program took place both in the schoolyard and nearby natural areas, like state parks. Assuming teachers followed state guidelines, students also received indoor instructional time on each of the related state standard topics for approximately four, 1-h weekly sessions, which last 4–6 weeks for each of the science standard's unit of study.

The EE program targets fifth-grade students and centers on essential state science standards for this grade level. The first lesson in the EE program is an introduction to outdoor learning. This introductory day highlights skills and safety procedures for outdoor learning, scientific tools and uses (e.g., compass, hand lens), and science practices. Subsequent lessons highlight North Carolina's science standards that address the following topics: terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems; weather; ecosystem interactions; forces and motion; inheritances and adaptation; living systems; and matter and energy ( Department of Public Instruction, 2015 ). Teachers choose from these topics to correspond with their scheduled science program to best supplement classroom instruction. The lessons last 4–6 h and typically involve a hike, a hands-on science experiment, science journaling, nature exploration, and group reflection. Students are split into small groups (maximum 12 students) for each lesson, which are supervised by a chaperone (e.g., parent/guardian, teacher, principal) and taught by the EE program instructor. The EE program instructors are all trained in hands-on, inquiry-based techniques and standards-based science content. Classroom teachers typically rotate between small groups within or between lessons.

Data Collection

Teachers administered online surveys in school during fall 2016 and the winter and spring of 2017. We provided each teacher with a survey protocol that they were asked to follow. This protocol had a script for providing instructions to students, information on helping students, and details on accessing and taking their own survey. In addition to surveys, we interviewed teachers to provide a rich picture of the students' EE experiences during the program. We measured students' science efficacy and the nature of science through a 14-item student survey (Table 2 ), which drew on the S-STEM ( Unfried et al., 2015 ) and NOSI-E ( Peoples et al., 2013 ) instruments, respectively. Scales were edited to facilitate a shorter instrument and to better align with the EE program goals. We pilot tested the full evaluation in spring 2016 with 609 students and 31 teachers. Both scales were valid and reliable (Table 2 ).

Table 2 . Item-level statistics for science efficacy and nature of science scales among students identified as ECBD ( n = 112).

Teachers reported on student behavior, attention span, and academic achievement in science through teacher surveys administered before and after the EE program. To compare data over time while maintaining anonymity, all students were given teacher-generated, anonymous ID numbers. Teachers then utilized these ID numbers when filling out their surveys. We asked all teachers to rate each student's attention span and disruptive behavior in their classroom at the beginning and end of the study period (before and after enrollment in the outdoor EE program for treatment teachers, respectively). In addition, we asked treatment teachers to rate each student's attention and disruptive behavior for the outdoor EE program, including their expectations of student attention and behavior in the program (pre-test) and observed attention and behavior in the program by the end of the year (post-test). Teachers characterized students' attention spans on each survey in a range from short (1) to long (5); and disruptive behaviors from frequent problems (1) to none (5). This method of rating student attention and behavior is common practice in elementary school classrooms—especially for required documentation for ECBD student records ( Finn, 1993 ; Friend and Bursuck, 2002 )—and has been used in numerous similar studies ( Doucette, 2004 ; Kam et al., 2004 ; Kuo and Faber Taylor, 2004 ; McFarland et al., 2013 ; Amoly et al., 2014 ). We also asked teachers to report science achievement as traditional grades (e.g., A to F). Although rating this method likely allowed for variance among teachers (i.e., different teachers may assess the same student differently), our analysis focused on changes over time, which relied on the same teachers assessing the same students over the course of the year. Teacher data were checked for errors (e.g., reverse coding, non-numerical) by two independent researchers and cross-referenced with the teacher, if necessary.

To gain further information on teachers' impressions of the EE outdoor program and experiences for students in the program, we interviewed eight teachers who agreed to follow-up interviews in summer 2017. We recorded, transcribed, and coded teacher interviews to document their impressions of the outdoor EE program and its impact on their students, including students with ECBD, to enhance our understanding of the program experience for these students. Aliases were given to all teachers for the analysis and interpretation.

Data Analysis

We analyzed our data using Stata software, version 14.2. We relied on paired t -tests to compare changes over time within the treatment group and ANCOVA (analysis of covariance) between the treatment and control group, respectively. We used these tests because they allowed for a direct comparison of individual students between their pre- and post-tests. As each student was compared against him-or herself, students not taking either the pre- or post-test due to school absences on the day teachers administered the surveys were not included in the analysis. Because of this, our final sample comprised 112 students, 80 treatment students and 32 control students. We compared students taking only the pre- or post-test to the rest of the sample and found no differences in terms of outcome variables.

We originally included a covariate for both taking students outside and amount of time spent outside during the school year (apart from the treatment associated with this study). Fifty percent of control and 71% of treatment teachers reported that they took students outside during the school year. Both control and treatment teachers had similar rates of taking students outside (14 days per year and 12 days per year, respectively). As there was no relationship between these indicators of time spent outside during the school year and learning outcomes (attention, science achievement, etc.), we omitted this in the final analysis of our results.

Quantitative Data

Prior to attending the outdoor EE program, teachers reported moderate attention spans ( M = 3.65, SD = 1.19) and low levels of disruptive behavior ( M = 4.25, SD 1.10) for their students in the classroom, as well as moderately high science grades ( M = 76.5%, SD = 12.70). Among the treatment group, teachers expected shorter attention spans ( M = 1.94, SD = 2.29) and more disruptive behaviors ( M = 1.81, SD = 2.13) when students were learning outside. Student responses on the pre-test indicated relatively high levels of science efficacy ( M = 24.90 out of 35, SD 5.98) and understanding of the nature of science ( M = 27.57, SD = 4.02). We found acceptable levels of reliability and validity for both the science efficacy and nature of science scales (Table 2 ). We also note that there were no significant differences in pre-test scores for all student-reported variables (science efficacy and nature of science) between treatment and control groups. However, teachers reported higher levels on every measure for the treatment group vs. the control group on the pre-test scores (attention: mean difference = 0.78, t = 3.08, p = 0.003; behavior: mean difference = 0.62, t = 2.56, p = 0.01; science grades: mean difference = 7.53, t = 2.88, p = 0.005). This may reflect a difference among teachers in appraisal of their students. However, our analysis related to hypothesis testing compared within group changes, with the same teachers assessing the same students at the time of the pre- and post-test, which should mitigate any challenges comparing treatment and control groups.

We found support for hypotheses two, but not hypothesis one, as there were no differences in changes in teacher reports of classroom attention and behavior when comparing treatment and control groups [attention: F (1, 94) = 0.20, p = 0.653; behavior: F (1, 94) = 0.04, p = 0.845]; however, teacher reports of students' attention and behavior levels when in the outdoor EE program improved over the course of the EE program to exceed classroom levels. Teacher reports of classroom attention and behavior remained stable for both the treatment and control groups, as there were no significant differences in pre- and post-scores for either measure in either group. However, among the treatment group, we found that teacher reports for both attention and behavior significantly improved for the outdoor EE program (Figure 1 ). Although prior to seeing students in the EE program teachers expected relatively short attention spans ( M = 1.81 out of 5, SD = 2.13) and frequent disruptive behaviors ( M = 1.94 out of 5, SD = 2.29) outdoors, their appraisal of these measures was significantly higher (i.e., longer attention spans, improved behavior) at the end of the study period (attention: pre/post mean difference = 2.48, t = 5.70, p = 0.000; behavior: pre/post mean difference = 2.55, t = 5.50, p = 0.000). Further, both of these measures exceeded similar classroom levels at the time of the post-test in the treatment group (attention: outdoor/indoor mean difference = 0.54, t = 5.23, p = 0.000; behavior: outdoor/indoor mean difference = 0.25, t = 2.95, p = 0.002).

Figure 1 . Classroom and outdoor attention behavior among the treatment group. Teachers provided estimates of attention span and behavior levels from short (1) to long (5) and poor (1) to excellent (5), respectively. Error bars represent standard error. Paired t -tests indicate that differences between the teacher-reported pre- and post-test scores for attention and behavior while outdoors were significant (attention: t = −5.70, p = 0.000; behavior: t = −5.50, p = 0.000) as well as differences between the post-test scores in the classroom vs. outdoor settings (attention: t = −5.23, p = 0.000; behavior: t = –295, p = 0.003).

We found partial support for hypothesis three that the outdoor EE program significantly increased learning outcomes for students. Science efficacy and science grades remained the same over the study period for students in both the treatment and control groups (Figure 2 ). The nature of science significantly increased for students in the treatment group, while the understanding of nature of science for students in the control group stayed the same (treatment: pre/post mean difference = 0.90, t = 1.85, p = 0.034; control = pre/post mean difference = −0.22, t = −0.27, p = 0.605). However, ANCOVA results detected no differences between treatment and control groups across any measure. Students with IEPs did not make significant gains in nature of science scores [ F (1, 111) = 0.14, p = 0.710] nor in teacher-reported academic achievement in science [ F (1, 96) = 1.58, p = 0.214].

Figure 2 . Change in science efficacy, nature of science, and science grades among treatment and control groups. All measures are represented by percentages of the maximum score. Error bars represent standard errors.

Qualitative Data

Interview data about teachers' impressions of the outdoor EE program and experiences of their students with ECBD during the program are shown in Table 3 . An overall theme that emerged from one teacher interview (Bailey) was the “value of getting kids outside more.” Another teacher (Davis) elaborated saying, “Children just don't go outside anymore. My personal favorite thing is getting them outside and exposing them to doing something outside.” In line with hypothesis two—participation in the outdoor EE program significantly decreases challenges to learning (i.e., disruptive behaviors and short attention span)—teachers saw students with ECBD become more engaged when learning outside: “They (students with ECBD) were attentive and fully interacted with the activities. They felt they were successful which does not happen much in the regular classroom.” Negative cases emerged as well. Some teachers reported obstacles to outdoor learning with the weather such as when was rainy or cold. Taylor described students' distress when they were asked to spend outdoor time writing in their journals rather than moving and exploring. When asked what part of the environmental education program students disliked, Taylor described students' initial complaints about physical activity that they clearly overcame. “The first couple of times when we were having to do all that walking…not being able to sit in front of something with a screen. They're used to passive learning but by the fourth time they were sad and crying that it's over,” thus emphasizing the impact of repeated, science-aligned experiences.

Table 3 . Emergent themes from interviews with teachers.

The present study adds to the literature on the impact of outdoor environmental education on students with ECBD utilizing a quasi-experimental, mixed methods design. Although past literature has supported a possible connection between outdoor EE and improved outcomes, in this study, we employed control groups to determine the potential of repeated, science-aligned, outdoor EE programming for improving student outcomes.

Our results related to students' attention and behavior suggest that teachers of ECBD students should consider the outdoors as a useful setting to increase attention and diminish disruptive behaviors. Although teachers expected students to have difficulty paying attention and avoiding disruptive behaviors outdoors, they reported longer attention spans and less disruptive behaviors outdoors for these students by the end of the year. We offer three possible explanations. First, teachers may have expected short attention spans and disruptive behaviors outdoors prior to the program and were pleasantly surprised from the first day outside onward. Secondly, teachers' perceptions of the behaviors themselves could have changed so that behaviors they previously considered disruptive (i.e., interrupting an instructor with a question) were considered as acceptable or indicative of high engagement. These two explanations are plausible in the context of prior research reporting that few teachers perceive the outdoors as an acceptable location for formal instruction beyond the preschool years ( Ernst and Tornabene, 2012 ) and teachers in both United States and in the United Kingdom have concerns about student behavior and classroom management when teaching outdoors ( Fox and Avramidis, 2003 ; Ernst, 2009 ). However, it is possible that teachers' expectations at the beginning of the study period aligned with actual student attention and behavior, and both measures did actually improve over the course of the outdoor sessions with more exposure to outdoor EE. This third explanation aligns with past research on the effects of green space on students with ECBD, which suggests that time outdoors can improve attention and reduce hyperactivity ( Ruiz-Gallardo et al., 2013 ; Amoly et al., 2014 ; Flouri et al., 2014 ; Moore et al., 2016 ; Kuo et al., 2018 ). Our qualitative results show some evidence of each of these explanations, as some teachers expressed surprise at how engaged ECBD students were outdoors; others seemed to transform how they viewed behavior as appropriate or not; and others reported changes in the students themselves. Although teacher perceptions may have shifted rather than actual student attention and behavior, this perception shift is beneficial. Teacher perceptions can influence academic achievement well-into a student's future ( Alvidrez and Weinstein, 1999 ; Sorhagen, 2013 ; Baker et al., 2015 ), and a shift in perceptions around student attention and behavior outdoors may reduce any apprehensions around outdoor instruction. We did not find treatment effects associated with classroom attention and behavior, but future research should continue to examine the possibility that our findings may transfer to impacts in the classroom. As recent research finds increased classroom engagement after lessons in nature ( Kuo et al., 2018 ), future research may find similar trends among with ECBD, particularly with a larger sample size than our study. We suggest further research that replicates this study include more objective measures of student attention and behavior to further identify ways in which outdoor instruction may relate to ECBD student attention and behavior in the outdoors and in the classroom.

In addition to addressing indicators of ECBD, teachers should consider outdoor EE a viable instructional strategy for science teaching, as it appears as least as effective in supporting science learning for students with ECBD than traditional science instruction. Elementary school teachers often feel challenged to differentiate their instruction in classrooms that include students with a range of academic and behavioral strengths, and these challenges are often exacerbated when teaching science ( Southerland and Gess-Newsome, 1999 ; Tobin and Tippet, 2014 ). Opportunely, other studies have demonstrated that outdoor EE has led to gains in science knowledge for all students ( Jon Schneller et al., 2015 ; Wells et al., 2015 ). In our study, those findings seem to hold true for ECBD students specifically, suggesting outdoor EE can help teachers supplement science instruction for all students using a single approach. Additionally, outdoor EE has been shown to positively impact science interest and efficacy ( Mohr-schroeder et al., 2012 ; Hiller and Kitsantas, 2014 ; Dettweiler et al., 2015 ). As nature of science, science efficacy and science grades appeared to remain stable in both treatment and control groups, outdoor EE instruction appears just as effective for students with ECBDs as classroom instruction in maintaining these measures. Since educators may cite concerns that outdoor EE may take away from instructional time ( Carrier et al., 2014 ), these results are particularly encouraging. Instead of taking away from instructional time, outdoor EE seems to contribute to sustaining science efficacy and performance, even at an age when interest in science tends to wane ( Cheung, 2009 ). Although some teachers are not aware that outdoor EE is effective ( Ernst, 2007 ), it can be as rigorous and effective as indoor instruction and has potential to improve test scores ( Volk and Cheak, 2003 ; Danforth, 2005 ; State Education and Environment Roundtable (SEER), 2005 ; McFarland et al., 2013 ). Future research is needed that focuses on students with ECBD to compare their progress with that of their peers when students experience more frequent outdoor EE. Additionally, as all data were self-reported, there are potential biases both from teachers and students. The researchers attempted to lessen this bias by not disclosing the specific details of this research apart from the larger program evaluation. However, teachers' perceptions of factors beyond our control, such as the outdoors as a learning environment, could have influenced ratings of attention and behavior ( Pas and Bradshaw, 2014 ).

We suggest future research continue to explore outdoor EE as a teaching opportunity to engage students with ECBD. There are a host of benefits for students learning in nature, from improved classroom engagement ( Kuo et al., 2018 ) to decreasing hyperactivity and inattention ( Faber Taylor and Kuo, 2011 ; Moore et al., 2016 ). The bulk of this research centers on indicators of ECBD (e.g., attention and behavior), and our results align with findings suggesting that time outdoors can mitigate these indicators. In this study, repeated outdoor, science-based EE not only appears to decrease indicators of ECBD, but it also facilitates science learning on par with classroom techniques. Previous literature suggests outdoor EE can have similar impacts on all students, and our study indicates that these findings could extend specifically to those with ECBD. As the number of students with ECBDs continues to increase, teachers need creative solutions to instruct these students. We suggest outdoor EE that is repeated throughout the school year and aligned with standards may prove an invaluable tool to enhance science instruction for all students and, specifically, to reach those identified as ECBD.

Ethics Statement

The protocol was approved as exempt from the ethics review process by the Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects in Research of North Carolina State University (IRB Protocol #6533). We provided teachers with a choice of using an active or passive informed consent form for students and parents, in accordance with the requirements of the school districts. Active consent required parent consent and student assent signatures, while passive consent required similar signatures if students and/or parents wanted to opt out of the study. Consent was obtained from all research participants and from the parents/legal guardians by the method chosen by the teachers/schools.

Author Contributions

RS was involved in study design, quantitative data acquisition, data analysis, and manuscript writing. SC was involved in qualitative data acquisition, data analysis, and manuscript writing. KS was involved in study design, quantitative data analysis, and manuscript writing.

Funding was provided through Muddy Sneakers environmental education program.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We appreciate the staff at Muddy Sneakers, their partner schools, field sites, and teachers and students who made this study possible.

108th Congress (2004). Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 . Washington, DC: 108th Congress.

Alexander, K., Salmon, R. G., and Alexander, F. K. (2015). Financing Public Schools: Theory, Policy, and Practice . New York, NY: Routledge.

Google Scholar

Alvidrez, J., and Weinstein, R. S. (1999). Early teacher perceptions and later student academic achievement. J. Educ. Psychol. 91, 731–746.

Amoly, E., Dadvand, P., Forns, J., López-Vicente, M., Basagaña, X., Julvez, J., et al. (2014). Green and blue spaces and behavioral development in barcelona schoolchildren: the BREATHE Project. Environ. Health Perspect. 122, 1351–1358. doi: 10.1289/ehp.1408215

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ardoin, N. M., Bowers, A. W., Roth, N. W., and Holthuis, N. (2017). Environmental education and K-12 student outcomes: a review and analysis of research. J. Environ. Educ. 49, 1–17. doi: 10.1080/00958964.2017.1366155

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Aydeniz, M., Cihak, D. F., Graham, S. C., and Retinger, L. (2012). Using inquiry-based instruction for teaching science to students with learning disabilities. Int. J. Spec. Educ. 27, 189–206.

Baker, B., Farrie, D., Johnson, M., Luhm, T., and Sciarra, D. G. (2017). Is School Funding Fair? A National Report Card.

Baker, B., Sciarra, D., and Farrie, D. (2012). Is School Funding Fair? A National Report Card.

Baker, C. N., Tichovolsky, M. H., Kupersmidt, J. B., Voegler-lee, M. E., and Arnold, D. H. (2015). Teacher (Mis) perceptions of preschoolers' academic skills : predictors and associations with longitudinal outcomes. J. Educ. Psychol. 107, 805–820. doi: 10.1037/edu0000008

Brown, J. S., Collins, A., and Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition the culture of learning. Educ. Res. 18, 32–42.

Carrier, S. J., Thomson, M. M., and Tugurian, L. P. (2014). Elementary science education in classrooms and outdoors: stakeholder views, gender, ethnicity, and testing. Int. J. Sci. Educ. 36, 2195–2220. doi: 10.1080/09500693.2014.917342

Carrier, S. J., Tugurian, L. P., and Thomson, M. M. (2013). Elementary science indoors and out: teachers, time, and testing. Res. Sci. Educ. 43, 2059–2083. doi: 10.1007/s11165-012-9347-5

Cawley, J., Hayden, S., Cade, E., and Baker-Kroczynski, S. (2002). Including students with disabilities into the general education science classroom. Except. Child. 68, 423–436. doi: 10.1177/001440290206800401

Cheung, D. (2009). Students' attitudes toward chemistry lessons: The interaction effect between grade level and gender. Res. Sci. Educ. 39, 75–91. doi: 10.1007/s11165-007-9075-4

Crawford, B. A. (2000). Embracing the essence of inquiry: New roles for science teachers. J. Res. Sci. Teach. 37, 916–937. doi: 10.1002/1098-2736(200011)37:9<916::AID-TEA4>3.0.CO;2-2

Danforth, P. (2005). An evaluation of the National Wildlife Federation's Schoolyard Habitat Program in the Houston Independent School District, thesis, Environmental Education, Integrated Curriculums and Academic Standards .

Department of Public Instruction (2015). North Carolina Essential Standards 3-5 Science . Raleigh, NC: Department of Public Instruction.

Dettweiler, U., Ünlü, A., Lauterbach, G., Becker, C., and Gschrey, B. (2015). Investigating the motivational behavior of pupils during outdoor science teaching within self-determination theory. Front. Psychol. 6:125. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00125

Doucette, P. A. (2004). Walk and Talk: an intervention for behaviorally challenged youths. Adolescence 39, 373–388.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

Dyment, J. E. (2005). Green school grounds as sites for outdoor learning: barriers and opportunities. Int. Res. Geogr. Environ. Educ. 14, 28–45. doi: 10.1080/09500790508668328

EPA, U. (2018). What is Environmental Education? Available online at: https://www.epa.gov/education/what-environmental-education .

Ernst, J. (2007). Factors Associated With K-12 teachers' use of environment-based education. J. Environ. Educ. 38, 15–32. doi: 10.3200/JOEE.38.3.15-32

Ernst, J. (2009). Influences on US middle school teachers' use of environment-based education. Environ. Educ. Res. 15, 71–92. doi: 10.1080/13504620802710599

Ernst, J., and Tornabene, L. (2012). Preservice early childhood educators' perceptions of outdoor settings as learning environments. Environ. Educ. Res. 18, 643–664. doi: 10.1080/13504622.2011.640749

Faber Taylor, A., and Kuo, F. E. M. (2011). Could exposure to everyday green spaces help treat adhd? Evidence from children's play settings. Appl. Psychol. 3, 281–303. doi: 10.1111/j.1758-0854.2011.01052.x

Fägerstam, E., and Blom, J. (2013). Learning biology and mathematics outdoors: effects and attitudes in a Swedish high school context. J. Adv. Educ. Outdoor Learn. 13, 56–75. doi: 10.1080/14729679.2011.647432

Farnham, M., and Mutrie, N. (2003). Research section: the potential benefits of outdoor development for children with special needs. Br. J. Special Educ. 24, 31–38. doi: 10.1111/1467-8527.00008

Finn, J. D. (1993). School Engagement & Students at Risk . Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.

Flouri, E., Midouhas, E., and Joshi, H. (2014). The role of urban neighbourhood green space in children's emotional and behavioural resilience. J. Environ. Psychol. 40, 179–186. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2014.06.007

Fox, P., and Avramidis, E. (2003). An evaluation of an outdoor education programme for students with emotional and behavioural difficulties. Emotion. Behav. Difficul. 8, 267–283. doi: 10.1080/13632750300507025

Friend, M., and Bursuck, W. D. (2002). Including Students with Special Needs: A Practical Guide for Classroom Teachers . Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

Haney, J. J., Wang, J., Keil, C., and Zoffel, J. (2007). Enhancing teachers' beliefs and practices through problem-based learning focused on pertinent issues of environmental health science. J. Environ. Educ. 38, 25–33. doi: 10.3200/JOEE.38.4.25-33

Hanna, G. (1995). Wilderness-related environmental outcomes of adventure and ecology education programming. J. Environ. Educ. 27, 21–32. doi: 10.1080/00958964.1995.9941968

Hiller, S. E., and Kitsantas, A. (2014). The effect of a horseshoe crab citizen science program on middle school student science performance and STEM career motivation. Sch. Sci. Math. 114, 302–311. doi: 10.1111/ssm.12081

Jon Schneller, A., Schofield, C. A., Frank, J., Hollister, E., and Mamuszka, L. (2015). A case study of indoor garden-based learning with hydroponics and aquaponics: evaluating pro-environmental knowledge, perception, and behavior change. Appl. Environ. Educ. Commun. 14, 256–265. doi: 10.1080/1533015X.2015.1109487

Kaldenberg, E. R., Watt, S. J., and Therrien, W. J. (2015). Reading instruction in science for students with learning disabilities: a meta-analysis. Learn. Disability Q. 38, 160–173. doi: 10.1177/0731948714550204

Kam, C.-M., Greenberg, M. T., and Kusché, C. A. (2004). Sustained effects of the PATHS curriculum on the social and psychological adjustment of children in special education. J. Emotion. Behav. Dis. 12, 66–78. doi: 10.1177/10634266040120020101

Kellert, S. R. (1985). “Attitudes toward animals: age-related development among children,” in Advances in Animal Welfare Science , eds M. W. Fox and L. D. Michley (Dordrecht: Springer), 43–60.

Kuo, F. E., and Faber Taylor, A. (2004). A potential natural treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: evidence from a national study. Am. J. Public Health 94, 1580–1586. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.94.9.1580

Kuo, M., Browning, M. H. E. M., and Penner, M. L. (2018). Do lessons in nature boost subsequent classroom engagement? Refueling Students in Flight. Front. Psychol. 8, 1–15. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02253

Markevych, I., Tiesler, C. M., Fuertes, E., Romanos, M., Dadvand, P., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Heinrich, J., et al. (2014). Access to urban green spaces and behavioural problems in children: results from the GINIplus and LISAplus studies. Environ. Int. 71, 29–35. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.06.002

Mårtensson, F., Boldemann, C., Söderström, M., Blennow, M., Englund, J. E., and Grahn, P. (2009). Outdoor environmental assessment of attention promoting settings for preschool children. Health Place 15, 1149–1157. doi: 10.1016/j.healthplace.2009.07.002

McFarland, A. L., Glover, B. J., Waliczek, T. M., and Zajicek, J. M. (2013). The effectiveness of the national wildlife federation's schoolyard habitat program: fourth-grade students' standardized science test scores and science grades. Horttechnology , 23, 187–193.

Melber, L. (2004). Inquiry for everyone: authentic science experiences for students with special needs. Teach. Except. Child. Plus 1, n2.

Melber, L., and Brown, K. D. (2008). “Not like a regular science class”: informal science education for students with disabilities. Clear. House J. Educ. Strategies Issues Ideas 82, 35–39. doi: 10.3200/TCHS.82.1.35-39

Mohr-schroeder, M. J., Miller, M., Little, D. L., Schooler, W., Jacson, C., Walcoot, B., et al. (2012). Developing middle school students interests in STEM via summer learning experiences : see blue STEM camp. Sch. Sci. Math. 114, 291–301. doi: 10.1111/ssm.12079

Moore, A., Lynn, K., and Thomas, A. K. (2016). Engaging students in science through a nature hike : a case of two students with ADHD. Am. J. Undergrad. Res. 13, 73–80.

National Center for Education Statistics (2017). Children and youth with disabilities , 1–5. doi: 10.1177/1049732312468063

CrossRef Full Text

North American Association for Environmental Education (2010). Guidelines for Excellence: Preparation & Professional Development , ed L. Mann III. Washington, DC: NAAEE.

PubMed Abstract

Pas, E. T., and Bradshaw, C. P. (2014). What affects teacher ratings of student behaviors? the potential influence of teachers' perceptions of the school environment and experiences. Prev. Sci. 15, 940–950. doi: 10.1007/s11121-013-0432-4

Peoples, S. M., O'Dwyer, L. M., Shields, K. A., and Wang, Y. (2013). With hiccups and bumps: the development of a Rasch-based instrument to measure elementary students' understanding of the nature of science. J. Appl. Meas. 14, 57–78.

Peterson, K. M. (2011). Nature, Nurture, Knowledge: The Promise of Experiential Learning for Students with Special Needs (No. 3495792) . Boston, MA: ProQuest LLC.

Rickinson, M., Dillon, J., Teamey, K., Morris, M., Choi, M. Y., Sanders, D., et al. (2004). A Review of Research on Outdoor Learning. Shrewsuby: National Foundation for Educational Research and King's College London.

Rios, J. M., and Brewer, J. (2014). Outdoor education and science achievement. Appl. Environ. Educ. Commun. 13, 234–240. doi: 10.1080/1533015X.2015.975084

Ruiz-Gallardo, J.-R., Verde, A., and Valdés, A. (2013). Garden-based learning: an experience with “at risk” secondary education students. J. Environ. Educ. 44, 252–270. doi: 10.1080/00958964.2013.786669

Russell, G. D. (2016). Section 504 : Ensuring Equitable Services for All . Raleigh, NC.

Saribas, D., Teksoz, G., and Ertepinar, H. (2014). The relationship between environmental literacy and self-efficacy beliefs toward environmental education. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 116, 3664–3668. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.820

Sorhagen, N. S. (2013). Early teacher expectations disproportionately affect poor children's high school performance. J. Educ. Psychol. 105, 465–477. doi: 10.1037/a0031754

Southerland, S., and Gess-Newsome, J. (1999). Preservice teachers' views of inclusive science teachings as shaped by images of teaching, learning, and knowing. Sci. Educ. 83, 131–150.

State Education and Environment Roundtable (SEER) (2005). California Student Assessment Project Phase Two: The Effects of Environment-Based Education on Student Achievement. Poway, CA.

Tamir, P. (1991). Factors associated with the relationship between formal, informal, and nonformal science learning. J. Environ. Educ. 22, 34–42. doi: 10.1080/00958964.1991.9943052

Tobin, R., and Tippet, C. D. (2014). Possibilities and potential barriers learning to plan for differentiated instruction in elementary science. Int. J. Sci. Math. Educ. 12, 423–443. doi: 10.1007/s10763-013-9414-z

Unfried, A., Faber, M., Stanhope, D. S., and Wiebe, E. (2015). The development and validation of a measure of student attitudes toward science, technology, engineering, and math (S-STEM). J. Psychoeduc. Assess. 33, 662–639. doi: 10.1177/0734282915571160

Van den Berg, A. E., and van den Berg, C. G. (2011). A comparison of children with ADHD in a natural and built setting. Child Care Health Dev. 37, 430–439. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2214.2010.01172.x

Volk, T. L., and Cheak, M. J. (2003). the effects of an environmental education program on students, parents, and community. J. Environ. Educ. 34, 12–25. doi: 10.1080/00958960309603483

Wells, N. M. (2000). Effects of “ Greenness ” on children' s cognitive functioning. Environ. Behav. 32, 775–795. doi: 10.1177/00139160021972793

Wells, N. M., Myers, B. M., Todd, L. E., Barale, K., Gaolach, B., Ferenz, G., et al. (2015). The effects of school gardens on children's science knowledge: a randomized controlled trial of low-income elementary schools. Int. J. Sci. Educ. 37, 2858–2878. doi: 10.1080/09500693.2015.1112048

Zint, M., Kraemer, A., and Kolenic, G. (2014). Evaluating meaningful watershed educational experiences: an exploration into the effects on participating students' environmental stewardship characteristics and the relationships between these predictors of environmentally responsible behavior. Stud. Educ. Eval. 41, 4–17. doi: 10.1016/j.stueduc.2013.07.002

Keywords: environmental education, attention, behavior, classroom, schoolyard, learning impairment, disability

Citation: Szczytko R, Carrier SJ and Stevenson KT (2018) Impacts of Outdoor Environmental Education on Teacher Reports of Attention, Behavior, and Learning Outcomes for Students With Emotional, Cognitive, and Behavioral Disabilities. Front. Educ . 3:46. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2018.00046

Received: 02 February 2018; Accepted: 31 May 2018; Published: 19 June 2018.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2018 Szczytko, Carrier and Stevenson. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Rachel Szczytko, [email protected]

This article is part of the Research Topic

The Natural World as a Resource for Learning and Development: From Schoolyards to Wilderness

• News & Insights
• All News & Insights

Environmental justice and education: How schools can help foster a sustainable future

Climate change conference brought together artists, activists, public officials, school board members, higher education leadership, district administrators and teachers to share their commitment to sustaining the environment.

On April 4, USC Rossier and Bio Equity Ed , a community-based non-profit in Los Angeles, hosted a conference on “Climate Change and Environmental Justice: The Role of Schools in Planning for a Sustainable Future.” Artists, activists, public officials, school board members, higher education leadership, district administrators and teachers convened by the dozens in the LEED-certified building of the California Endowment. Panelists and conferencegoers alike shared their commitments to transforming communities and building alliances, to sustain just and meaningful change in the face of our changing climate.

In her opening remarks, Veda Ramsay-Stamps EdD ’23 , USC Rossier alumna and founder of Bio Equity Ed, described how disconnected communities of color in most urban areas feel from nature, owing to historic injustices. She recounted the stories of Black and Brown students in Los Angeles, those who grow up miles from idyllic beaches and mountains but who know only the concrete beneath the nearest river and their feet. Artist Lauren Bon then described her work to bend and regenerate the L.A. River, providing water to the Los Angeles State Historic Park, which had once been a trainyard.

As Dean Pedro Noguera told the audience in his introduction: “Every problem facing the world today is an educational challenge. We have to learn what we need to do. And if we think of the climate crisis this way, as an educational challenge, the problem itself becomes less despairing.” Dean Noguera urged those in attendance not only to meet but to act, not merely to educate others to be resilient in the face of climate change but to inspire its solutions.

In breakout sessions, Distinguished Professor Gale Sinatra moderated a discussion with Imogen Herrick  PhD ’23, a USC Rossier alumna now at the University of Kansas, and Paula Carbone , USC Rossier professor of clinical education. They described successful pedagogical approaches to inspiring students into climate action, integrating students’ own identities and experiences. USC Rossier Professor Tracy Poon Tambascia spoke with researchers and architects about how to transform schools and schoolyards into biophilic environments. Community organizers and non-profit leaders shared their experiences greening urban environments with trees and micro-farms, especially in convincing schools to plant more gardens. Teachers and administrators from California’s climate-sensitive Central Valley described their fleets of electric school buses and innovative sustainability programs and curriculum to move students of color.

The conference’s keynote speaker, University of California, Merced Chancellor Juan Sánchez Muñoz  outlined his university’s foundational commitment to sustainability in the Central Valley. At UC Merced, which was already the first research university in the United States to be carbon-neutral, Chancellor Muñoz is helping construct a center for sustainable agriculture, a model for what higher education can contribute to environmental sustainability and surrounding communities.

In an especially rousing plenary session, Stephen Ritz , a high school teacher from the South Bronx, described how he had turned his classroom and his school, in one of the most economically and environmentally deprived communities in the United States, into a vegetable garden. Ritz the subject of an upcoming documentary called Generation Growth , has not only shared his plant-based curriculum with governments and classrooms around the world, through his Green Bronx Machine non-profit, he turned the very conference room in which he spoke into an organic, immersive experience with greenery.

Naomi Riley, representing Congresswoman Sydney Kamlager-Dove of California’s 37th District, who had directed millions of dollars to sustainability projects, told those in attendance early in the day, “the folks closest to the problem are usually closest to the solution.” Most often, no one is closer to the problems in our communities than the teachers and administrators of local schools. It is they, as Noguera said, who “must begin to think creatively and critically to address climate change and give hope to kids who believe there is no future.”

• Pedro Noguera
• Distinguished Professor of Education
• Emery Stoops and Joyce King Stoops Dean

• Gale M. Sinatra
• Stephen H. Crocker Chair
• Professor of Education and Psychology
• Associate Dean for Research

Tracy Poon Tambascia

• Professor of Higher Education
• Veronica and David Hagen Chair in Women’s Leadership

Article Type

Article topics.

• Climate change

Related News & Insights

March 17, 2023

What do science and racism have in common? Denial.

Final USC Rossier Master Class for spring 2023 on Mar. 22

Featured Faculty

• Shaun Harper

November 15, 2022

What are higher education’s responsibilities in times of crisis?

Marcelo Suárez-Orozco, distinguished scholar of education, globalization and migration, spoke with the USC Rossier community on Nov. 2

May 14, 2021

How educators can stem the tide of scientific illiteracy

Editor’s note: The following content was adapted from Gale Sinatra’s 2021 USC Rossier commencement address to graduating students. Science Denial...

Class of 2024: Claudia Budzyn named Outstanding Honors College senior

Erin Deitzel

• Share on Facebook
• Share on Twitter
• Copy address link to clipboard

The Virginia Tech Honors College has named Claudia Budzyn the 2024 Outstanding Honors College Senior in recognition of her accomplishments over her undergraduate career, which exemplify Honors College core values in practice.

Budzyn, a member of the Calhoun Honors Discovery Program, will graduate with dual degrees in environmental policy and planning and politics, philosophy, and economics, plus a minor in German. During her time at Virginia Tech, Budzyn has established a firmly impressive list of accomplishments: She has been published in the Philologia Undergraduate Research Journal , received multiple research grants, studied and volunteered in 15 countries, completed internships, and held numerous leadership positions on campus.

Budzyn plans to pursue a career in law, leveraging her passion for learning to make a career out of advocating for others.

"We are proud to have Claudia represent both her classmates and the Honors College through this recognition,” said Paul Knox, the college's founding dean. “She has contributed a great deal to the honors community and to the university while maintaining an outstanding academic record.”

Service through incarcerated education initiatives

One of the highlights of Budzyn’s undergraduate career has been her participation in the Knowledge Unchained project . For her senior capstone project for the Calhoun Honors Discovery Program, Budzyn joined a team of students investigating higher education within the prison system. Recognizing a need for higher education opportunities within the prison system, the group set out upon a mission to bridge this gap.

The team partnered with faculty including Sylvester Johnson, professor and director of the Center for Humanities, to leverage resources and design a humanities course tailored to incarcerated individuals. The Knowledge Unchained project established the Virginia Tech Prison University partnership, empowering incarcerated students to enact meaningful change and make a positive impact on society.

“By advocating for educational opportunities and rehabilitation programs, we are striving to create a more just and compassionate society where individuals are not defined by their past but empowered to build brighter futures. This experience has reaffirmed my commitment to ethical leadership and service, and I am inspired to continue advocating for positive change in our society, one meaningful endeavor at a time,” said Budzyn.

Environmental education research in Botswana

Since her sophomore year, Budzyn has been developing lessons to teach primary school students the importance of sustainability and environmental issues. Budzyn connected with the nonprofit Center for African Resources: Animals, Community, and Land Use to travel to Botswana and teach these lessons in person. With funding from the National Science Foundation, Budzyn also conducted field research in Chobe National Park and collaborated with local communities to promote public health initiatives.

As a result of this research, Budzyn’s paper – titled “Postcolonial Influences on Environmental Education in Southern Africa” – was accepted for publication by the Philologia Undergraduate Research Journal.

Connecting to family history and embracing diversity

Another stand-out moment in Budzyn’s undergraduate experience was when she had the opportunity to study in Berlin for a semester to complete a minor in German, supported by a Calhoun Honors Discovery Program Experiential Learning Grant.

“With my mother's immigrant background from Poland, I have always felt a strong pull toward exploring the language and culture of the region. Through my travels, I learned that when we embrace our differences then we can truly come together as a global community,” said Budzyn.

Budzyn has pursued opportunities that demonstrate a commitment to embracing diversity in disciplinary training, scholarly experiences, and teaching approaches. In addition to her studies abroad, which shaped her understanding of community and connection, Budzyn has also served as the College of Liberal Arts and Human Sciences senator and vice president of DEI in the Undergraduate Student Senate.

“The Honors College not only deepened my knowledge and further ignited my passion for learning but helped me embark on a transformative journey of ambition and curiosity. Learning in the college and Calhoun Honors Discovery Program has truly been the cornerstone of my academic and personal growth by guiding me toward incredible career and research paths. I am forever grateful for the opportunities it provided me, and the invaluable lessons learned along the way,” said Budzyn.

(704) 780-7568

• Class of 2024
• College of Liberal Arts and Human Sciences
• Honors College

Related Content

share this!

April 29, 2024

This article has been reviewed according to Science X's editorial process and policies . Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility:

fact-checked

trusted source

Simulation makes the grade for teacher screening

by Murdoch University

New research has found that simulations are an effective on-entry screening tool for teaching candidates, exposing university students to authentic classroom dynamics, increasing their confidence, and providing a safe learning environment. The study is published in the Journal of Education for Teaching .

Australian universities are now required to implement non-academic on-entry evaluations for all teacher education candidates.

To meet this requirement, universities have introduced a variety of assessment methods, including interviews, written applications, psychometric tests, and most recently, simulation .

Murdoch University was the first university in Australia to implement teaching simulations and augmented learning environments into the general course structure, using Mursion technology (SimLab).

Murdoch University Dean and Head of the School of Education, Associate Professor Peter Whipp said his recent research sought to understand how useful these simulation tools could be in the initial screening of teaching students.

"The implications of our findings are significant for policy and practice," Professor Whipp said.

"Our research showed that simulation can reliably evaluate students' teaching dispositions, as well as provide insights into their motivations, planning, communication skills and how we can best support them.

"Students themselves also said they perceived simulation as an effective means to evaluate their on-entry performance, reporting that the experience was valuable and that it helped with their confidence, so they felt more prepared for the real classroom.

"The on-entry evaluations are important, so that we can help our students be the best they can be as a teacher in our education system once they graduate.

"The simulation process is efficient and effective. We are pleased to be a leader in this space and encourage other higher education institutes to embrace the technology."

The next steps in this research program include exploring the predictive nature of data captured at course entry and how this translates over time and experience.

The study results also emphasized the need to continue to expand the evidence base around this process.

Provided by Murdoch University

Explore further

Feedback to editors

New discovery of a mechanism that controls cell division

32 minutes ago

Novel chemical tool for understanding membrane remodeling in the cell

53 minutes ago

Researchers determine large numbers of wild mountain goats are killed every year by avalanches

How mantle movements shape Earth's surface

Vortex fluidic device can speed artificial liposome production to aid drug functionality

First mother-daughter burial from Roman times in Austria discovered

New Nevada experiments aim to improve monitoring of nuclear explosions

Lake tsunamis pose significant threat under warming climate

'Degree of Kevin Bacon' gene provides possible basis for central players in group connectedness

Physicists pioneer new quantum sensing platform

Relevant physicsforums posts, physics instructor minimum education - community college.

13 hours ago

Studying "Useful" vs. "Useless" Stuff in School

Apr 30, 2024

Why are Physicists so informal with mathematics?

Apr 29, 2024

Plagiarism & ChatGPT: Is Cheating with AI the New Normal?

Apr 28, 2024

Digital oscilloscope for high school use

Apr 25, 2024

Motivating high school Physics students with Popcorn Physics

Apr 3, 2024

More from STEM Educators and Teaching

Related Stories

Virtual pupils make for more confident teachers

Jun 22, 2021

What drives students to take up teaching? A new study explores aspirations and challenges

Mar 7, 2024

Study shows simulator, combined with app, helps teachers correct mistakes before entering classroom

Sep 21, 2023

Brief teacher training found to better prepare medical students for patient education and communication

Dec 15, 2023

If university grades are going up, does that mean there's a problem?

Mar 26, 2024

First study on teacher effectiveness for students with and without disabilities

Mar 25, 2024

Recommended for you

Investigation reveals varied impact of preschool programs on long-term school success

21 hours ago

Training of brain processes makes reading more efficient

Apr 18, 2024

Researchers find lower grades given to students with surnames that come later in alphabetical order

Apr 17, 2024

Earth, the sun and a bike wheel: Why your high-school textbook was wrong about the shape of Earth's orbit

Apr 8, 2024

Touchibo, a robot that fosters inclusion in education through touch

Apr 5, 2024

More than money, family and community bonds prep teens for college success: Study

Let us know if there is a problem with our content.

Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form . For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines ).

Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request

Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors.

Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.

E-mail the story

Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Phys.org in any form.

Newsletter sign up

Get weekly and/or daily updates delivered to your inbox. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.

More information Privacy policy

Donate and enjoy an ad-free experience

We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account.

E-mail newsletter

Astronomers share climate-friendly meeting solutions

Carbon emissions associated with air travel to professional conferences make up a sizable fraction of the emissions produced by researchers in academia. Andrea Gokus, a McDonnell Center postdoctoral fellow in the Department of Physics in Arts & Sciences at Washington University in St. Louis, is advocating for a reduction of these emissions.

In a paper published in PNAS Nexus , Gokus and collaborators estimated the CO 2 -equivalent emissions for conference travel to all 362 open meetings in the field of astronomy in 2019.

The total is an estimated 42,500 tons, or about 1 ton per participant per meeting. But it doesn't have to be that way.

"Networking and discussing new scientific developments at meetings is important for advancing the field, but adjustments can be made to reduce their hefty carbon cost," Gokus said.

Via virtual meetings, the CO 2 -equivalent emissions due to travel can almost completely be eliminated. But such virtual offerings are often not regarded as efficient networking opportunities. Meeting organizers should consider preferentially locating conferences as close as possible to the majority of as many participants as possible, Gokus said, avoiding scenarios in which most are flying intercontinentally.

"My co-authors and I are all members of the grass-roots organization Astronomers for Planet Earth, or A4E," said Gokus, who first became interested in sustainable astronomy during the annual meeting of the European Astronomical Society in 2020, which took place virtually due to the pandemic. "There are several other papers covering the emissions from particular meetings, including some recurring ones. But our paper is the first systematic study of all open meetings in an entire field."

In addition to pure virtual meetings, Gokus and her co-authors propose hybrid formats and meetings held at a small number of physical hubs, which can then be virtually linked.

This approach has the potential to reduce long-haul (i.e., intercontinental) travel in particular, which contributes the majority of emissions. If intercontinental travel is unavoidable, the study authors suggest maximizing the time spent at the travel destination: by visiting the institutes of collaborators in the country, for example, and by choosing train or bus connections during such visits.

These choices not only make astronomy meetings greener, but they also can make astronomy more inclusive as a discipline, Gokus said. The researchers' findings and suggestions could be applied to other academic disciplines as well.

Traveling to meetings is often more challenging for those from less-wealthy institutes; those farther from North American and European hubs; people who have to manage complex visa bureaucracies; researchers with disabilities; and those with caretaking responsibilities, she explained.

In her own space sciences research at WashU, Gokus focuses on the high-energy emission of active galactic nuclei, in particular blazars. She is interested in the processes occurring in their jets and studies their flux and spectral variability using instruments that cover the entire electromagnetic spectrum.

"What is great about making meetings more sustainable is that it can easily go hand in hand with making astronomy more inclusive as well," Gokus said. "By making use of technology to connect virtually, we can foster a more inclusive collaborative approach, which can help us advance our understanding of the universe further. It is important that we work together as a community to achieve this goal, because there is no Planet B."

• Sustainability
• Environmental Policy
• Air Quality
• Travel and Recreation
• Environmental Policies
• STEM Education
• Space Policy
• Automobile emissions control
• Climate change mitigation
• Climate model
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
• Ocean acidification
• Air pollution
• Tropospheric ozone

Story Source:

Materials provided by Washington University in St. Louis . Original written by Talia Ogliore. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Andrea Gokus, Knud Jahnke, Paul M Woods, Vanessa A Moss, Volker Ossenkopf-Okada, Elena Sacchi, Adam R H Stevens, Leonard Burtscher, Cenk Kayhan, Hannah Dalgleish, Victoria Grinberg, Travis A Rector, Jan Rybizki, Jacob White. Astronomy’s climate emissions: Global travel to scientific meetings in 2019 . PNAS Nexus , 2024; 3 (5) DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae143

Cite This Page :

Explore More

• 'Doubling' in Origin of Cancer Cells
• New Catalyst for Using Captured Carbon
• Random Robots Are More Reliable
• Significant Discovery in Teleportation Research
• Orangutan Treats Wound With Pain-Relieving Plant
• 75,000-Year-Old Neanderthal from Burial Cave
• Anticoagulant With an On-Off Switch
• Sleep Resets Brain Connections -- At First
• Far-Reaching Effects of Exercise
• Hidden Connections Between Brain and Body

Trending Topics

Strange & offbeat.

• New! Member Benefit New! Member Benefit
• Featured Analytics Hub
• Resources Resources
• Member Directory
• Networking Communities
• Advertise, Exhibit, Sponsor
• Find or Post Jobs

• Learn and Engage Learn and Engage
• Bridge Program

• Compare AACSB-Accredited Schools
• Explore Programs

• Advocacy Advocacy
• Featured AACSB Announces 2024 Class of Influential Leaders
• Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Belonging
• Influential Leaders
• Innovations That Inspire
• Connect With Us Connect With Us
• Accredited School Search
• Accreditation
• Learning and Events
• Advertise, Sponsor, Exhibit
• Tips and Advice
• Is Business School Right for Me?

Adapting the Curriculum for the Future of Business

• The University of Illinois’ Gies College of Business used the reaccreditation process to assess where it is now and identify strategies it will pursue in the coming year.
• The college is creating more offerings that are accessible online and that appeal to a wide range of tech-savvy learners who are looking for flexible learning models.
• The school also is investing in specialized faculty—some of them alumni—who possess deep knowledge in high-demand areas.

  Business schools are facing pressure to adapt to a rapidly changing business environment marked by technological advancements, globalization, and emerging high-growth industries. This requires us to take a critical look at how and what we teach.

To thrive in the years to come, business schools must find ways to reach new learners, meet them where they are, and deliver instruction that is more personal, engaging, and impactful than they can find elsewhere.

At the University of Illinois’ Gies College of Business in Urbana-Champaign, we recently underwent AACSB’s reaccreditation process. This experience gave us a chance to take stock of where we’ve been, where we want to go, and how we want to get there. It allowed us to reassess priorities, gauge our progress, and redouble our efforts. It also reinforced our belief that we’re headed in the right direction.

I think the entire business school community should consider taking a similar pause for reflection—whether as part of an accreditation effort or as a component of ongoing strategic planning. By identifying our strengths, addressing our weaknesses, and looking toward the future, we can collectively prepare our students and our institutions to thrive.

What We Learned

For the Gies College, reaccreditation provided the perfect opportunity for reflection and evaluation. In particular, it gave us clarity in four specific areas.

It showed us how our investments in strategic curricular innovation and management have paid off. In early 2022, we created a Content and Educational Portfolio Strategy unit charged with ensuring that our content is grounded in research and focused on learning objectives and outcomes. This unit has helped departments and individual faculty create materials that are based on learning theory and provide consistent experiences across courses. We are pleased with our results so far and plan to continue investing in this area as we roll into our next accreditation cycle.

It helped us identify challenges and opportunities. These include hiring and developing faulty, diversifying our mix of international students, and maintaining educational quality and meaningful networks in online programs. Because we offer extensive online programming, that last challenge is especially important for us. We know that online learners have very different educational experiences than traditional undergraduates, so we look for ways to make those experiences engaging and give alumni reasons to stay connected with our school.

It led us to consider how we incorporate societal impact into our strategic goals. AACSB encourages schools to select one or two areas of focus and measure the impact of their scholarship, programming, and engagement activities in these areas. While we believe many of the activities at Gies already have positive social, economic, and environmental impacts, we realized we could improve how well we set our goals and measure our results.

When we identify our strengths, address our weaknesses, and look toward the future, we can collectively prepare our students and our institutions to thrive.

It highlighted three key strategies we should follow in the coming year. We have determined that we must broaden the appeal and accessibility of our offerings, invest in specialized faculty, and embrace innovative teaching methods.

I believe, in fact, that all business schools could benefit from adopting these three strategies. Here, I outline the plans that Gies is making and offer suggestions for other schools interested in following the same path.

Creating Accessible Offerings

Today’s business school curriculum needs to appeal to a wide range of tech-savvy learners—from young adults to seasoned professionals—who are looking for flexible learning models that fit into their busy lives. We must meet them where they are. Nowadays, that could be online, on the road, or around the globe in their full-time jobs.

At the Gies College, we recognized this shift eight years ago and began diversifying our offerings beyond traditional on-campus degrees. We first directed our time and resources toward creating a more accessible offering with global reach, and we launched our online iMBA in 2016. To date, more than 5,600 graduates have earned an MBA through our online program, and 3,700 more currently are enrolled in the program.

We learned from this experience that there’s a nearly insatiable demand for all types of flexible, affordable learning. This realization inspired us to expand our online offerings to three advanced degrees; so far, these have served more than 5,300 learners from 97 countries. We’ve also launched 13 fully online graduate certificates and moved our business minor online to make it more accessible to all students on campus. This past year, nearly 3,000 University of Illinois students were enrolled in the business minor, up from about 1,600 students four years ago.

One of our key strategies has been making certificates and degrees stackable. This modular approach allows learners to test the waters of online education and use bite-sized chunks of knowledge to explore new interests and develop valuable skills.

My advice for other schools: Center your strategies on the evolving needs of learners. Determine what aligns with your institutional goals and how you can best serve the learners in your sphere of influence. By improving accessibility, you will be able to attract a much larger, high-performing global student population.

Capitalizing on Specialized Knowledge

As the business world becomes more complex—driven by a global workforce, new technologies, and evolving market dynamics—business schools must adapt their curricula strategically. This often means investing in specialized faculty and centers of excellence. At Gies College, we have found four ways to benefit from our deep knowledge in specific areas.

First, we had our Department of Accountancy appoint its first-ever specialized faculty associate head. Part of his job is to oversee 36 instructors who integrate real-world experience into the classroom. These instructors, many of them alumni, are long-time industry professionals who have come back full-time to teach. Classified as specialized faculty, these “teaching-first” instructors are critically important to the learner experience. Because they don’t have heavy research agendas, they can take on much larger course loads and make an outsized impact on our learners.

To navigate the changing business landscape, you’ll likely need to hire new faculty experts and adjust your curriculum, but that doesn’t mean you need to start from scratch.

Second, we launched the Gies Business Health Initiative, capitalizing on the research of our professors who focus on areas such as health economics, operations, and analytics. In their work, they have examined the impact of climate change on wealth and longevity, and they have developed a model to help physicians and hospitals better rationalize state-of-the-art surgical care.

Third, we established the Disruption Lab, which explores disruptive technologies such as blockchain, NFTs, virtual reality, and quantum computing.

Fourth, we began tracking how our faculty research aligns with our institutional goals. For example, we discovered that more than 70 percent of our faculty—including many tenured professors—conduct research related to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

My advice for other schools: To navigate the changing business landscape, you’ll likely need to hire new faculty experts and adjust your curriculum, but that doesn’t mean you need to start from scratch to get in the game. Identify how your faculty’s current expertise aligns with emerging high-growth industries. Cultivate research excellence and innovation, and don’t be afraid to explore research areas that go beyond a business school’s typical topic areas. By codifying and branding these efforts, you can highlight the ways your curriculum anticipates major business trends.

And don’t hesitate to turn to your alumni for guidance and financial support. In our case, alumni have funded dozens of research grants over the last few years, including one that created the Gies Consumer and Small Business Credit Panel. This tool uses a dataset that combines individual-level data on small business loans, personal credit, and alternative credit to study topical subjects such as unequal access to financing by women and minorities.

Investing in Instructional Excellence

While it is essential to keep up with business and educational trends, we must be careful if we are simultaneously bringing in new faculty, expanding areas of expertise, and shifting to online learning models. We don’t want to create a mishmash of teaching methods and outcomes. It would be easy for us to be pulled in many different strategic directions, but we must maintain a laser focus on our collective goal—educating the next generation of business leaders.

One way we’ve prioritized instructional excellence at Gies is by expanding our Teaching and Learning (T&L) unit. This dedicated group provides expertise, advice, and support in instructional design, learning technologies, and best practices for teaching and learning. It helps faculty create new courses, certificates, videos, credentials, and other learning materials—taking them from course creation to delivery. The team also helps teachers structure courses in ways that mitigate test anxiety and make classes more effective.

It would be easy for us to be pulled in many different strategic directions, but we must maintain a laser focus on our collective goal—educating the next generation of business leaders.

In addition, the T&L unit provides a platform that faculty can use to explore innovative teaching methods and emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence. On the platform, faculty can find research on the impact of generative AI on online learning, information about scaling AI-powered feedback, and tips for developing an AI-assisted grading tool.

Many of our faculty already are exploring the possibilities of AI in education. For instance, Robert Brunner, Gies’ associate dean for innovation and chief disruption officer, is currently using AI technology to build his latest course on Emerging Technology and Disruption. Students in the course have the opportunity to learn from AI and understand how they can adapt it to advance their careers.

My advice for other schools: Recruit professors who have a passion for student engagement. At the same time, equip all faculty with the tools to excel in hybrid and online classrooms, and be certain that support is highly visible. Make it clear that a commitment to student engagement and an ease with technology can be factors in faculty advancement.

Innovating and Evolving

In summary, balancing strategic growth with a commitment to teaching excellence is critical to every business school’s success. By offering flexible, accessible learning models that cater to the diverse needs of today’s tech-savvy students, we can ensure our degrees and credentials remain relevant and impactful in the years to come.

Let’s continue to innovate, experiment, and evolve, meeting our learners where they are and empowering them to succeed in this dynamic business world.

• accreditation
• administration
• faculty engagement
• future of business education
• online learning