what is historical review in research

Buy Me a Coffee

Home » Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Historical Research

Definition:

Historical research is the process of investigating and studying past events, people, and societies using a variety of sources and methods. This type of research aims to reconstruct and interpret the past based on the available evidence.

Types of Historical Research

There are several types of historical research, including:

Descriptive Research

This type of historical research focuses on describing events, people, or cultures in detail. It can involve examining artifacts, documents, or other sources of information to create a detailed account of what happened or existed.

Analytical Research

This type of historical research aims to explain why events, people, or cultures occurred in a certain way. It involves analyzing data to identify patterns, causes, and effects, and making interpretations based on this analysis.

Comparative Research

This type of historical research involves comparing two or more events, people, or cultures to identify similarities and differences. This can help researchers understand the unique characteristics of each and how they interacted with each other.

Interpretive Research

This type of historical research focuses on interpreting the meaning of past events, people, or cultures. It can involve analyzing cultural symbols, beliefs, and practices to understand their significance in a particular historical context.

Quantitative Research

This type of historical research involves using statistical methods to analyze historical data. It can involve examining demographic information, economic indicators, or other quantitative data to identify patterns and trends.

Qualitative Research

This type of historical research involves examining non-numerical data such as personal accounts, letters, or diaries. It can provide insights into the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period.

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods are as follows:

Archival research : This involves analyzing documents and records that have been preserved over time, such as government records, diaries, letters, newspapers, and photographs. Archival research is often conducted in libraries, archives, and museums.
Oral history : This involves conducting interviews with individuals who have lived through a particular historical period or event. Oral history can provide a unique perspective on past events and can help to fill gaps in the historical record.
Artifact analysis: This involves examining physical objects from the past, such as tools, clothing, and artwork, to gain insights into past cultures and practices.
Secondary sources: This involves analyzing published works, such as books, articles, and academic papers, that discuss past events and cultures. Secondary sources can provide context and insights into the historical period being studied.
Statistical analysis : This involves analyzing numerical data from the past, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends.
Fieldwork : This involves conducting on-site research in a particular location, such as visiting a historical site or conducting ethnographic research in a particular community. Fieldwork can provide a firsthand understanding of the culture and environment being studied.
Content analysis: This involves analyzing the content of media from the past, such as films, television programs, and advertisements, to gain insights into cultural attitudes and beliefs.

Data Analysis Methods

Content analysis : This involves analyzing the content of written or visual material, such as books, newspapers, or photographs, to identify patterns and themes. Content analysis can be used to identify changes in cultural values and beliefs over time.
Textual analysis : This involves analyzing written texts, such as letters or diaries, to understand the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period. Textual analysis can provide insights into how people lived and thought in the past.
Discourse analysis : This involves analyzing how language is used to construct meaning and power relations in a particular historical period. Discourse analysis can help to identify how social and political ideologies were constructed and maintained over time.
Statistical analysis: This involves using statistical methods to analyze numerical data, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends. Statistical analysis can help to identify changes in population demographics, economic conditions, and other factors over time.
Comparative analysis : This involves comparing data from two or more historical periods or events to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can help to identify patterns and trends that may not be apparent from analyzing data from a single historical period.
Qualitative analysis: This involves analyzing non-numerical data, such as oral history interviews or ethnographic field notes, to identify themes and patterns. Qualitative analysis can provide a rich understanding of the experiences and perspectives of individuals in the past.

Historical Research Methodology

Here are the general steps involved in historical research methodology:

Define the research question: Start by identifying a research question that you want to answer through your historical research. This question should be focused, specific, and relevant to your research goals.
Review the literature: Conduct a review of the existing literature on the topic of your research question. This can involve reading books, articles, and academic papers to gain a thorough understanding of the existing research.
Develop a research design : Develop a research design that outlines the methods you will use to collect and analyze data. This design should be based on the research question and should be feasible given the resources and time available.
Collect data: Use the methods outlined in your research design to collect data on past events, people, and cultures. This can involve archival research, oral history interviews, artifact analysis, and other data collection methods.
Analyze data : Analyze the data you have collected using the methods outlined in your research design. This can involve content analysis, textual analysis, statistical analysis, and other data analysis methods.
Interpret findings : Use the results of your data analysis to draw meaningful insights and conclusions related to your research question. These insights should be grounded in the data and should be relevant to the research goals.
Communicate results: Communicate your findings through a research report, academic paper, or other means. This should be done in a clear, concise, and well-organized manner, with appropriate citations and references to the literature.

Applications of Historical Research

Historical research has a wide range of applications in various fields, including:

Education : Historical research can be used to develop curriculum materials that reflect a more accurate and inclusive representation of history. It can also be used to provide students with a deeper understanding of past events and cultures.
Museums : Historical research is used to develop exhibits, programs, and other materials for museums. It can provide a more accurate and engaging presentation of historical events and artifacts.
Public policy : Historical research is used to inform public policy decisions by providing insights into the historical context of current issues. It can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of past policies and programs.
Business : Historical research can be used by businesses to understand the evolution of their industry and to identify trends that may affect their future success. It can also be used to develop marketing strategies that resonate with customers’ historical interests and values.
Law : Historical research is used in legal proceedings to provide evidence and context for cases involving historical events or practices. It can also be used to inform the development of new laws and policies.
Genealogy : Historical research can be used by individuals to trace their family history and to understand their ancestral roots.
Cultural preservation : Historical research is used to preserve cultural heritage by documenting and interpreting past events, practices, and traditions. It can also be used to identify and preserve historical landmarks and artifacts.

Examples of Historical Research

Examples of Historical Research are as follows:

Examining the history of race relations in the United States: Historical research could be used to explore the historical roots of racial inequality and injustice in the United States. This could help inform current efforts to address systemic racism and promote social justice.
Tracing the evolution of political ideologies: Historical research could be used to study the development of political ideologies over time. This could help to contextualize current political debates and provide insights into the origins and evolution of political beliefs and values.
Analyzing the impact of technology on society : Historical research could be used to explore the impact of technology on society over time. This could include examining the impact of previous technological revolutions (such as the industrial revolution) on society, as well as studying the current impact of emerging technologies on society and the environment.
Documenting the history of marginalized communities : Historical research could be used to document the history of marginalized communities (such as LGBTQ+ communities or indigenous communities). This could help to preserve cultural heritage, promote social justice, and promote a more inclusive understanding of history.

Purpose of Historical Research

The purpose of historical research is to study the past in order to gain a better understanding of the present and to inform future decision-making. Some specific purposes of historical research include:

To understand the origins of current events, practices, and institutions : Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
To develop a more accurate and inclusive understanding of history : Historical research can be used to correct inaccuracies and biases in historical narratives. By exploring different perspectives and sources of information, we can develop a more complete and nuanced understanding of history.
To inform decision-making: Historical research can be used to inform decision-making in various fields, including education, public policy, business, and law. By understanding the historical context of current issues, we can make more informed decisions about how to address them.
To preserve cultural heritage : Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage, including traditions, practices, and artifacts. By understanding the historical significance of these cultural elements, we can work to preserve them for future generations.
To stimulate curiosity and critical thinking: Historical research can be used to stimulate curiosity and critical thinking about the past. By exploring different historical perspectives and interpretations, we can develop a more critical and reflective approach to understanding history and its relevance to the present.

When to use Historical Research

Historical research can be useful in a variety of contexts. Here are some examples of when historical research might be particularly appropriate:

When examining the historical roots of current events: Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
When examining the historical context of a particular topic : Historical research can be used to explore the historical context of a particular topic, such as a social issue, political debate, or scientific development. By understanding the historical context, we can gain a more nuanced understanding of the topic and its significance.
When exploring the evolution of a particular field or discipline : Historical research can be used to explore the evolution of a particular field or discipline, such as medicine, law, or art. By understanding the historical development of the field, we can gain a better understanding of its current state and future directions.
When examining the impact of past events on current society : Historical research can be used to examine the impact of past events (such as wars, revolutions, or social movements) on current society. By understanding the historical context and impact of these events, we can gain insights into current social and political issues.
When studying the cultural heritage of a particular community or group : Historical research can be used to document and preserve the cultural heritage of a particular community or group. By understanding the historical significance of cultural practices, traditions, and artifacts, we can work to preserve them for future generations.

Characteristics of Historical Research

The following are some characteristics of historical research:

Focus on the past : Historical research focuses on events, people, and phenomena of the past. It seeks to understand how things developed over time and how they relate to current events.
Reliance on primary sources: Historical research relies on primary sources such as letters, diaries, newspapers, government documents, and other artifacts from the period being studied. These sources provide firsthand accounts of events and can help researchers gain a more accurate understanding of the past.
Interpretation of data : Historical research involves interpretation of data from primary sources. Researchers analyze and interpret data to draw conclusions about the past.
Use of multiple sources: Historical research often involves using multiple sources of data to gain a more complete understanding of the past. By examining a range of sources, researchers can cross-reference information and validate their findings.
Importance of context: Historical research emphasizes the importance of context. Researchers analyze the historical context in which events occurred and consider how that context influenced people’s actions and decisions.
Subjectivity : Historical research is inherently subjective, as researchers interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own perspectives and biases. Researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis.
Importance of historical significance: Historical research emphasizes the importance of historical significance. Researchers consider the historical significance of events, people, and phenomena and their impact on the present and future.
Use of qualitative methods : Historical research often uses qualitative methods such as content analysis, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis to analyze data and draw conclusions about the past.

Advantages of Historical Research

There are several advantages to historical research:

Provides a deeper understanding of the past : Historical research can provide a more comprehensive understanding of past events and how they have shaped current social, political, and economic conditions. This can help individuals and organizations make informed decisions about the future.
Helps preserve cultural heritage: Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage. By studying the history of a particular culture, researchers can gain insights into the cultural practices and beliefs that have shaped that culture over time.
Provides insights into long-term trends : Historical research can provide insights into long-term trends and patterns. By studying historical data over time, researchers can identify patterns and trends that may be difficult to discern from short-term data.
Facilitates the development of hypotheses: Historical research can facilitate the development of hypotheses about how past events have influenced current conditions. These hypotheses can be tested using other research methods, such as experiments or surveys.
Helps identify root causes of social problems : Historical research can help identify the root causes of social problems. By studying the historical context in which these problems developed, researchers can gain a better understanding of how they emerged and what factors may have contributed to their development.
Provides a source of inspiration: Historical research can provide a source of inspiration for individuals and organizations seeking to address current social, political, and economic challenges. By studying the accomplishments and struggles of past generations, researchers can gain insights into how to address current challenges.

Limitations of Historical Research

Some Limitations of Historical Research are as follows:

Reliance on incomplete or biased data: Historical research is often limited by the availability and quality of data. Many primary sources have been lost, destroyed, or are inaccessible, making it difficult to get a complete picture of historical events. Additionally, some primary sources may be biased or represent only one perspective on an event.
Difficulty in generalizing findings: Historical research is often specific to a particular time and place and may not be easily generalized to other contexts. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions about human behavior or social phenomena.
Lack of control over variables : Historical research often lacks control over variables. Researchers cannot manipulate or control historical events, making it difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Subjectivity of interpretation : Historical research is often subjective because researchers must interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own biases and perspectives. Different researchers may interpret the same data differently, leading to different conclusions.
Limited ability to test hypotheses: Historical research is often limited in its ability to test hypotheses. Because the events being studied have already occurred, researchers cannot manipulate variables or conduct experiments to test their hypotheses.
Lack of objectivity: Historical research is often subjective, and researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis. However, it can be difficult to maintain objectivity when studying events that are emotionally charged or controversial.
Limited generalizability: Historical research is often limited in its generalizability, as the events and conditions being studied may be specific to a particular time and place. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions that apply to other contexts or time periods.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

Documentary Research – Types, Methods and...

Scientific Research – Types, Purpose and Guide

Original Research – Definition, Examples, Guide

Humanities Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Artistic Research – Methods, Types and Examples

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

Knowledge Base

Methodology

How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

Search for relevant literature
Evaluate sources
Identify themes, debates, and gaps
Outline the structure
Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.

Quick Run-through
Step 1 & 2

When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

Academic style
Vague sentences
Style consistency

See an example

Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

Your university’s library catalogue
Google Scholar
Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
EconLit (economics)
Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

What question or problem is the author addressing?
What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
What are the key theories, models, and methods?
Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
What are the results and conclusions of the study?
How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

The only proofreading tool specialized in correcting academic writing - try for free!

The academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts and by native English editors. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students.

Try for free

To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

Most research has focused on young women.
There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes.

Open Google Slides Download PowerPoint

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Sampling methods
Simple random sampling
Stratified sampling
Cluster sampling
Likert scales
Reproducibility

Statistics

Null hypothesis
Statistical power
Probability distribution
Effect size
Poisson distribution

Research bias

Optimism bias
Cognitive bias
Implicit bias
Hawthorne effect
Anchoring bias
Explicit bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An annotated bibliography is a list of source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a paper .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, September 11). How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates. Scribbr. Retrieved April 15, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/literature-review/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, what is a theoretical framework | guide to organizing, what is a research methodology | steps & tips, how to write a research proposal | examples & templates, what is your plagiarism score.

College of Arts and Sciences

History and American Studies

What courses will I take as an History major?
What can I do with my History degree?
History 485
History Resources
What will I learn from my American Studies major?
What courses will I take as an American Studies major?
What can I do with my American Studies degree?
American Studies 485
For Prospective Students
Student Research Grants
Honors and Award Recipients
Phi Alpha Theta

Alumni Intros

Internships

Literature Review Guidelines

Literature review (historiographic essay): making sense of what has been written on your topic., goals of a literature review:.

Before doing work in primary sources, historians must know what has been written on their topic. They must be familiar with theories and arguments–as well as facts–that appear in secondary sources.

Before you proceed with your research project, you too must be familiar with the literature: you do not want to waste time on theories that others have disproved and you want to take full advantage of what others have argued. You want to be able to discuss and analyze your topic.

Your literature review will demonstrate your familiarity with your topic’s secondary literature.

GUIDELINES FOR A LITERATURE REVIEW:

1) LENGTH: 8-10 pages of text for Senior Theses (485) (consult with your professor for other classes), with either footnotes or endnotes and with a works-consulted bibliography. [See also the citation guide on this site.]

2) NUMBER OF WORKS REVIEWED: Depends on the assignment, but for Senior Theses (485), at least ten is typical.

3) CHOOSING WORKS:

Your literature review must include enough works to provide evidence of both the breadth and the depth of the research on your topic or, at least, one important angle of it. The number of works necessary to do this will depend on your topic. For most topics, AT LEAST TEN works (mostly books but also significant scholarly articles) are necessary, although you will not necessarily give all of them equal treatment in your paper (e.g., some might appear in notes rather than the essay). 4) ORGANIZING/ARRANGING THE LITERATURE:

As you uncover the literature (i.e., secondary writing) on your topic, you should determine how the various pieces relate to each other. Your ability to do so will demonstrate your understanding of the evolution of literature.

You might determine that the literature makes sense when divided by time period, by methodology, by sources, by discipline, by thematic focus, by race, ethnicity, and/or gender of author, or by political ideology. This list is not exhaustive. You might also decide to subdivide categories based on other criteria. There is no “rule” on divisions—historians wrote the literature without consulting each other and without regard to the goal of fitting into a neat, obvious organization useful to students.

The key step is to FIGURE OUT the most logical, clarifying angle. Do not arbitrarily choose a categorization; use the one that the literature seems to fall into. How do you do that? For every source, you should note its thesis, date, author background, methodology, and sources. Does a pattern appear when you consider such information from each of your sources? If so, you have a possible thesis about the literature. If not, you might still have a thesis.

Consider: Are there missing elements in the literature? For example, no works published during a particular (usually fairly lengthy) time period? Or do studies appear after long neglect of a topic? Do interpretations change at some point? Does the major methodology being used change? Do interpretations vary based on sources used?

Follow these links for more help on analyzing historiography and historical perspective .

5) CONTENTS OF LITERATURE REVIEW:

The literature review is a research paper with three ingredients:

a) A brief discussion of the issue (the person, event, idea). [While this section should be brief, it needs to set up the thesis and literature that follow.] b) Your thesis about the literature c) A clear argument, using the works on topic as evidence, i.e., you discuss the sources in relation to your thesis, not as a separate topic.

These ingredients must be presented in an essay with an introduction, body, and conclusion.

6) ARGUING YOUR THESIS:

The thesis of a literature review should not only describe how the literature has evolved, but also provide a clear evaluation of that literature. You should assess the literature in terms of the quality of either individual works or categories of works. For instance, you might argue that a certain approach (e.g. social history, cultural history, or another) is better because it deals with a more complex view of the issue or because they use a wider array of source materials more effectively. You should also ensure that you integrate that evaluation throughout your argument. Doing so might include negative assessments of some works in order to reinforce your argument regarding the positive qualities of other works and approaches to the topic.

Within each group, you should provide essential information about each work: the author’s thesis, the work’s title and date, the author’s supporting arguments and major evidence.

In most cases, arranging the sources chronologically by publication date within each section makes the most sense because earlier works influenced later ones in one way or another. Reference to publication date also indicates that you are aware of this significant historiographical element.

As you discuss each work, DO NOT FORGET WHY YOU ARE DISCUSSING IT. YOU ARE PRESENTING AND SUPPORTING A THESIS ABOUT THE LITERATURE.

When discussing a particular work for the first time, you should refer to it by the author’s full name, the work’s title, and year of publication (either in parentheses after the title or worked into the sentence).

For example, “The field of slavery studies has recently been transformed by Ben Johnson’s The New Slave (2001)” and “Joe Doe argues in his 1997 study, Slavery in America, that . . . .”

Your paper should always note secondary sources’ relationship to each other, particularly in terms of your thesis about the literature (e.g., “Unlike Smith’s work, Mary Brown’s analysis reaches the conclusion that . . . .” and “Because of Anderson’s reliance on the president’s personal papers, his interpretation differs from Barry’s”). The various pieces of the literature are “related” to each other, so you need to indicate to the reader some of that relationship. (It helps the reader follow your thesis, and it convinces the reader that you know what you are talking about.)

7) DOCUMENTATION:

Each source you discuss in your paper must be documented using footnotes/endnotes and a bibliography. Providing author and title and date in the paper is not sufficient. Use correct Turabian/Chicago Manual of Style form. [See Bibliography and Footnotes/Endnotes pages.]

In addition, further supporting, but less significant, sources should be included in content foot or endnotes . (e.g., “For a similar argument to Ben Johnson’s, see John Terry, The Slave Who Was New (New York: W. W. Norton, 1985), 3-45.”)

8 ) CONCLUSION OF LITERATURE REVIEW:

Your conclusion should not only reiterate your argument (thesis), but also discuss questions that remain unanswered by the literature. What has the literature accomplished? What has not been studied? What debates need to be settled?

Additional writing guidelines

How have History & American Studies majors built careers after earning their degrees? Learn more by clicking the image above.

Literature Review: The What, Why and How-to Guide — Introduction

Getting Started
How to Pick a Topic
Strategies to Find Sources
Evaluating Sources & Lit. Reviews
Tips for Writing Literature Reviews
Writing Literature Review: Useful Sites
Citation Resources
Other Academic Writings

What are Literature Reviews?

So, what is a literature review? "A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries." Taylor, D. The literature review: A few tips on conducting it . University of Toronto Health Sciences Writing Centre.

Goals of Literature Reviews

What are the goals of creating a Literature Review? A literature could be written to accomplish different aims:

To develop a theory or evaluate an existing theory
To summarize the historical or existing state of a research topic
Identify a problem in a field of research

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1997). Writing narrative literature reviews . Review of General Psychology , 1 (3), 311-320.

What kinds of sources require a Literature Review?

A research paper assigned in a course
A thesis or dissertation
A grant proposal
An article intended for publication in a journal

All these instances require you to collect what has been written about your research topic so that you can demonstrate how your own research sheds new light on the topic.

Types of Literature Reviews

What kinds of literature reviews are written?

Narrative review: The purpose of this type of review is to describe the current state of the research on a specific topic/research and to offer a critical analysis of the literature reviewed. Studies are grouped by research/theoretical categories, and themes and trends, strengths and weakness, and gaps are identified. The review ends with a conclusion section which summarizes the findings regarding the state of the research of the specific study, the gaps identify and if applicable, explains how the author's research will address gaps identify in the review and expand the knowledge on the topic reviewed.

Example : Predictors and Outcomes of U.S. Quality Maternity Leave: A Review and Conceptual Framework: 10.1177/08948453211037398

Systematic review : "The authors of a systematic review use a specific procedure to search the research literature, select the studies to include in their review, and critically evaluate the studies they find." (p. 139). Nelson, L. K. (2013). Research in Communication Sciences and Disorders . Plural Publishing.

Example : The effect of leave policies on increasing fertility: a systematic review: 10.1057/s41599-022-01270-w

Meta-analysis : "Meta-analysis is a method of reviewing research findings in a quantitative fashion by transforming the data from individual studies into what is called an effect size and then pooling and analyzing this information. The basic goal in meta-analysis is to explain why different outcomes have occurred in different studies." (p. 197). Roberts, M. C., & Ilardi, S. S. (2003). Handbook of Research Methods in Clinical Psychology . Blackwell Publishing.

Example : Employment Instability and Fertility in Europe: A Meta-Analysis: 10.1215/00703370-9164737

Meta-synthesis : "Qualitative meta-synthesis is a type of qualitative study that uses as data the findings from other qualitative studies linked by the same or related topic." (p.312). Zimmer, L. (2006). Qualitative meta-synthesis: A question of dialoguing with texts . Journal of Advanced Nursing , 53 (3), 311-318.

Example : Women’s perspectives on career successes and barriers: A qualitative meta-synthesis: 10.1177/05390184221113735

Literature Reviews in the Health Sciences

UConn Health subject guide on systematic reviews Explanation of the different review types used in health sciences literature as well as tools to help you find the right review type
<< Previous: Getting Started
Next: How to Pick a Topic >>
Last Updated: Sep 21, 2022 2:16 PM
URL: https://guides.lib.uconn.edu/literaturereview

The Princeton Guide to Historical Research

Zachary Schrag

Before you purchase audiobooks and ebooks

Please note that audiobooks and ebooks purchased from this site must be accessed on the Princeton University Press app. After you make your purchase, you will receive an email with instructions on how to download the app. Learn more about audio and ebooks .

Support your local independent bookstore.

United States
United Kingdom

The essential handbook for doing historical research in the twenty-first century

Skills for Scholars

Look Inside
Request Exam Copy
Download Cover

The Princeton Guide to Historical Research provides students, scholars, and professionals with the skills they need to practice the historian’s craft in the digital age, while never losing sight of the fundamental values and techniques that have defined historical scholarship for centuries. Zachary Schrag begins by explaining how to ask good questions and then guides readers step-by-step through all phases of historical research, from narrowing a topic and locating sources to taking notes, crafting a narrative, and connecting one’s work to existing scholarship. He shows how researchers extract knowledge from the widest range of sources, such as government documents, newspapers, unpublished manuscripts, images, interviews, and datasets. He demonstrates how to use archives and libraries, read sources critically, present claims supported by evidence, tell compelling stories, and much more. Featuring a wealth of examples that illustrate the methods used by seasoned experts, The Princeton Guide to Historical Research reveals that, however varied the subject matter and sources, historians share basic tools in the quest to understand people and the choices they made.

Offers practical step-by-step guidance on how to do historical research, taking readers from initial questions to final publication
Connects new digital technologies to the traditional skills of the historian
Draws on hundreds of examples from a broad range of historical topics and approaches
Shares tips for researchers at every skill level

Skills for Scholars: The new tools of the trade

Awards and recognition.

Winner of the James Harvey Robinson Prize, American Historical Association
A Choice Outstanding Academic Title of the Year

Introduction: History Is for Everyone
History Is the Study of People and the Choices They Made
History Is a Means to Understand Today’s World
History Combines Storytelling and Analysis
History Is an Ongoing Debate
Autobiography
Everything Has a History
Narrative Expansion
From the Source
Public History
Research Agenda
Factual Questions
Interpretive Questions
Opposing Forces
Internal Contradictions
Competing Priorities
Determining Factors
Hidden or Contested Meanings
Before and After
Dialectics Create Questions, Not Answers
Copy Other Works
History Big and Small
Pick Your People
Add and Subtract
Narrative versus Thematic Schemes
The Balky Time Machine
Local and Regional
Transnational and Global
Comparative
What Is New about Your Approach?
Are You Working in a Specific Theoretical Tradition?
What Have Others Written?
Are Others Working on It?
What Might Your Critics Say?
Primary versus Secondary Sources
Balancing Your Use of Secondary Sources
Sets of Sources
Sources as Records of the Powerful
No Source Speaks for Itself
Languages and Specialized Reading
Choose Sources That You Love
Workaday Documents
Specialized Periodicals
Criminal Investigations and Trials
Official Reports
Letters and Petitions
Institutional Records
Scholarship
Motion Pictures and Recordings
Buildings and Plans
The Working Bibliography
The Open Web
Limits of the Open Web
Bibliographic Databases
Full-Text Databases
Oral History
What Is an Archive?
Archives and Access
Read the Finding Aid
Follow the Rules
Work with Archivists
Types of Cameras
How Much to Shoot?
Managing Expectations
Duck, Duck, Goose
Credibility
Avoid Catastrophe
Complete Tasks—Ideally Just Once, and in the Right Order
Maintain Momentum
Kinds of Software
Word Processors
Means of Entry
A Good Day’s Work
Word Count Is Your Friend
Managing Research Assistants
Research Diary
When to Stop
Note-Taking as Mining
Note-Taking as Assembly
Identify the Source, So You Can Go Back and Consult if Needed
Distinguish Others’ Words and Ideas from Your Own
Allow Sorting and Retrieval of Related Pieces of Information
Provide the Right Level of Detail
Notebooks and Index Cards
Word Processors for Note-Taking
Plain Text and Markdown
Reference Managers
Note-Taking Apps
Relational Databases
Spreadsheets
Glossaries and Alphabetical Lists
Image Catalogs
Other Specialized Formats
The Working Draft
Variants: The Ten- and Thirty-Page Papers
Thesis Statement
Historiography
Sections as Independent Essays
Topic Sentences
Answering Questions
Invisible Bullet Points
The Perils of Policy Prescriptions
A Model (T) Outline
Flexibility
Protagonists
Antagonists
Bit Players
The Shape of the Story
The Controlling Idea
Alchemy: Turning Sources to Stories
Turning Points
Counterfactuals
Point of View
Symbolic Details
Combinations
Speculation
Is Your Jargon Really Necessary?
Defining Terms
Word Choice as Analysis
Period Vocabulary or Anachronism?
Integrate Images into Your Story
Put Numbers in Context
Summarize Data in Tables and Graphs
Why We Cite
Citation Styles
Active Verbs
People as Subjects
Signposting
First Person
Putting It Aside
Reverse Outlining
Auditing Your Word Budget
Writing for the Ear
Conferences
Social Media
Coauthorship
Tough, Fair, and Encouraging
Manuscript and Book Reviews
Journal Articles
Book chapters
Websites and Social Media
Museums and Historic Sites
Press Appearances and Op-Eds
Law and Policy
Graphic History, Movies, and Broadway Musicals
Acknowledgments

"This volume is a complete and sophisticated addition to any scholar’s library and a boon to the curious layperson. . . . [A] major achievement."— Choice Reviews

"This book is quite simply a gem. . . . Schrag’s accessible style and comprehensive treatment of the field make this book a valuable resource."—Alan Sears, Canadian Journal of History

"A tour de force that will help all of us be more capable historians. This wholly readable, delightful book is packed with good advice that will benefit seasoned scholars and novice researchers alike."—Nancy Weiss Malkiel, author of "Keep the Damned Women Out": The Struggle for Coeducation

"An essential and overdue contribution. Schrag's guide offers a lucid breakdown of what historians do and provides plenty of examples."—Jessica Mack, Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, George Mason University

"Extraordinarily useful. If there is another book that takes apart as many elements of the historian's craft the way that Schrag does and provides so many examples, I am not aware of it."—James Goodman, author of But Where Is the Lamb?

"This is an engaging guide to being a good historian and all that entails."—Diana Seave Greenwald, Assistant Curator of the Collection, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum

"Impressive and engaging. Schrag gracefully incorporates the voices of dozens, if not hundreds, of fellow historians. This gives the book a welcome conversational feeling, as if the reader were overhearing a lively discussion among friendly historians."—Sarah Dry, author of Waters of the World: The Story of the Scientists Who Unraveled the Mysteries of Our Oceans, Atmosphere, and Ice Sheets and Made the Planet Whole

"This is a breathtaking book—wide-ranging, wonderfully written, and extremely useful. Every page brims with fascinating, well-chosen illustrations of creative research, writing, and reasoning that teach and inspire."—Amy C. Offner, author of Sorting Out the Mixed Economy

historyprofessor.org website, maintained by Zachary M. Schrag, Professor of History at George Mason University

Stay connected for new books and special offers. Subscribe to receive a welcome discount for your next order.

ebook & Audiobook Cart

HIST 300 - Introduction to Historical Studies: Historiographic Essay (Literature Review)

Getting Started
Ask-a-Librarian
Annotated Bibliography
Spartanburg Community College Annotated Bibliography Examples
Historiographic Essay (Literature Review)
Types of Searches
Developing Keywords and Related Ideas
Evaluating Websites for Credibility
Search Strategies for Books
Specialized Reference Resources - Definitions
Finding Credible Sources
Online Statistical Resources
Finding Articles from Citations
Primary Sources for China scholarship
Important Journals on Modern China
U.K. Parliamentary Papers
Historic Newspapers and Digital Newspaper Collections
Objectivity and Bias - Newspapers
How to Google for Primary Sources
Using Google and Google Scholar
Chicago Style Citation Basics
New York Times - complimentary online access
Library Session Online Evaluation Links

What is a Historiographic Essay / Historiographic Review?

A Historiographic Essay (also known as a Historiographic Review or, outside of the history discipline, a Literature Review ) is a systematic and comprehensive analysis of books, scholarly articles, and other sources relevant to a specific topic that provides a base of knowledge. Literature reviews are designed to identify and critique the existing literature on a topic, justifying your research by exposing gaps in current research.

This investigation should provide a description, summary, and critical evaluation of works related to the research problem or question, and should also add to the overall knowledge of the topic as well as demonstrating how your research will fit within a larger field of study. A literature review should offer critical analysis of the current research on a topic and that analysis should direct your research objective. This should not be confused with a book review or an annotated bibliography; both are research tools but very different in purpose and scope. A Literature Review can be a stand alone element or part of a larger end product, so be sure you know your assignment. Finally, don't forget to document your process, and keep track of your citations!

Process of a Literature Review

The process of writing a literature review is not necessarily a linear process, you will often have to loop back and refine your topic, try new searches and altar your plans. The info graphic above illustrates this process. It also reminds you to continually keep track of your research by citing sources and creating a bibliography.

Know what the review is for; each assignment will offer the purpose for the review. For example, is it for “background”, or a “pro and con discussion”, "integration", “summarizing”, etc.
Create a “search plan”, decide where you will search for information, what type of information you will need.
Research - Preform Searches; choose sources and collect information to use in your paper. Make sure you cite the sources used.
Think - Analyze information in a systematic manner and begin your literature review (e.g., summarize, synthesize, etc.). Make sure you cite the sources used.
Complete - Write your paper, proof & revise and create your finished bibliography.

Elements in a Literature Review

Elements in a Literature Review txt of infographic

What to Avoid

<< Previous: Spartanburg Community College Annotated Bibliography Examples
Next: Basic & Advanced Searching with Boolean >>
Last Updated: Feb 21, 2024 2:30 PM
URL: https://uscupstate.libguides.com/hist300-historicalstudies

Historical Research Method: Home

What is historical research.

Historical research or historiography , "attempts to systematically recapture the complex nuances, the people,meanings,events,and even ideas of the past that have influenced and shaped the present". (Berg & Lure, 2012, p. 305 )

Historical research relies on a wide variety of sources, both primary & secondary including unpublished material.

Primary Sources

Eyewitness accounts of events
Can be oral or written testimony
Found in public records & legal documents, minutes of meetings, corporate records, recordings, letters, diaries, journals, drawings.
Located in university archives, libraries or privately run collections such as local historical society.

Secondary Sources

Can be oral or written
Secondhand accounts of events
Found in textbooks, encyclopedias, journal articles, newspapers, biographies and other media such as films or tape recordings.

Steps in Historical Research

Historical research involves the following steps:

Identify an idea, topic or research question
Conduct a background literature review
Refine the research idea and questions
Determine that historical methods will be the method used
Identify and locate primary and secondary data sources
Evaluate the authenticity and accuracy of source materials
Analyze the date and develop a narrative exposition of the findings.

(Berg & Lune, 2012, p.311)

Locating Information: Libraries

In addition to raw data and unpublished manuscripts, libraries also hold back copies of journals and newspapers.

Western Australia
ECU Library
Curtin University
Murdoch University
Notre Dame University
State Library of W.A.
Trove Books, images, historic newspapers, maps, music, archives and more
WorldCat Can limit to archival and downloadable

Locating information - Archives

National Archives of Australia
UK Government Web Archive
National Archives (U.S.)
Nursing History: Historical Methodology Produced by the AAHN

Key Sources

Pandora PANDORA, Australia's Web Archive was established by the National Library in 1996 and is a collection of historic online publications relating to Australia and Australians. Online publications and web sites are selected for inclusion in the collection with the purpose of providing long-term and persistent access to them.
Directory of Archives in Australia
RSL Living History The Listening Post is the official organ of the RSL in Western Australia and was first published in December 1921. The first two decades of the Listening Post, are now available online for viewing with more scheduled releases throughout the year.
Internet Archive Digital library of Internet sites and other cultural artifacts in digital form. Free access to researchers, historians, scholars, and the general public.
Repositories of primary sources
The national union catalog of manuscript collections (United States)
National Technical Information Service (U.S.) Provides access to a large collection of historical and current government technical reports that exists in many academic, public, government, and corporate libraries.
A history of nursing Four vols available online
British Journal of Nursing The journal contains a wide range of information about hospitals, wards, staff, patients, illness and diseases, medicine and treatments, hospital equipment and events.
Directory of history of medicine colections U.S. National Library of medicine. National Institutes of Health
The Australian Nursing and Midwifery History Project
Nursing Studies Index An annotated guide to reported studies, research methods, and historical and biographical materials in periodicals, books, and pamphlets published in English. Prepared by Yale University.
Early experieneces in Australasia: Primary sources and personal nattatives, 1788-1901 Provides a unique and personal view of events in the region from the arrival of the first settlers through to Australian Federation at the close of the nineteenth century. Includes first-person accounts, including letters and diaries, narratives, and other primary source materials.

Locating Information: Museums

Alfred Archives Alfred Hospital, Melbourne
Florence Nightingale Museum (U.K.) London
London Museums of Health & Medicine
National Museum Australia. Research Centre National Museum Australia
Nursing Museum Royal Brisbane & Women's Hospital
Virtual Museum South Australian Medical Heritage Society
W.A. Medical Museum Harvey House, King Edward Memorial Hospital

Locating Information: Historical Societies

Directory of Australian Historical Societies at Society hill Extensive list of historical societies throughout Australia
Royal Australian Historical Society Sydney
Royal Western Australian Historical Society

Next: Research Methodology Books >>
Research Methodology Books
Research This link opens in a new window
Last Updated: Feb 7, 2024 10:52 AM
URL: https://ecu.au.libguides.com/historical-research-method

Edith Cowan University acknowledges and respects the Noongar people, who are the traditional custodians of the land upon which its campuses stand and its programs operate. In particular ECU pays its respects to the Elders, past and present, of the Noongar people, and embrace their culture, wisdom and knowledge.

Articles & Journals
Books & e-Books
Citation Tools & Tips
Course Reserve Materials
Dissertations & Theses
E-Newspapers & Magazines
Evaluating Information
Library Collections
Reference Materials
Research Guides
Videos, Images & More
Borrowing & Access
View Library Account
Computers, Printing & Scanning Services
Accessibility Services
Services for Undergraduate Students
Services for Graduate Students
Services for Distance Learners
Services for Faculty & Staff
Services for Alumni
Services for Community Members
Book A Research Appointment
Library Presentation Student Survey
Off Campus Access & Technical Support
Resources for Writing
Campus Guide to Copyright
Teaching Support
Gifts & Donations
Location & Hours
Library News
TexShare Policy
Strategic Plan
{{guide_search}}

What is History For?

What is historical research, purpose of historical research, steps in historical research.

Books & E-books
Related Guides

The systematic collection and evaluation of data to describe, explain, and understand actions or events that occurred sometime in the past.
There is no manipulation or control of variables as in experimental research.
An attempt is made to reconstruct what happened during a certain period of time as completely and accurately as possible.
To learn from past successes and failures.
Learn how things were done in the past and apply them to current or future events.
To assist in prediction.
Lead to the confirmation or rejection of relational hypotheses.
Understand the present practices and policies by understanding the history surrounding them.

Historical research involves the following steps:

Defining the Problem
Numerical records
Oral statements
Summarizing information obtained from historical sources
What was meant by the author?
How much credibility can be given to the author?
What was the author trying to say?
How could the authors word be interpreted?
Does the document contain bias of any sort?
Who wrote the document?
For what purpose was the document written?
When was the document written?
Where was the document written?
Under what conditions was the document written?
Do different forms or versions of the document exist?
<< Previous: Home
Next: Primary vs. Secondary Sources >>
Last Updated: Sep 19, 2023 1:54 PM
URL: https://library.untdallas.edu/HIST

Contact Us:

Social Media:

Hours: Mon.-Thur.: 8:00-8:00 | Fri -Sat: 8:00-5:00 | Sun: 12:00-5:00 Directions & Maps to the Library | Privacy Statement

Search Menu
Advance articles
AHR Interview
History Unclassified
Author Guidelines
Submission Site
Join the AHR Community
About The American Historical Review
About the American Historical Association
Editorial Board
Advertising and Corporate Services
Self-Archiving Policy
Dispatch Dates
Journals on Oxford Academic
Books on Oxford Academic

Mark Bradley

Editorial board

About the journal

The American Historical Review (AHR) is the official publication of the American Historical Association (AHA). The AHR has been the journal of record for the historical profession in the United States since 1895 …

Published on behalf of the American Historical Association

The AHA is the largest professional organization devoted to the discipline of history in all fields. Membership dues support the publication of the AHR .

Join today!

Prize-Winning Articles

2020 Letitia Woods Brown Memorial Article Prize

" Historians and Ethics: Finding Anne Moody ," by Françoise N. Hamlin

2020 Theodore C. Blegen Award, Forest History Society

" The Walrus and the Bureaucrat: Energy, Ecology, and Making the State in the Russian and American Arctic, 1870-1950 " by Bathsheba Demuth

History Lab

The AHR History Lab is an experimental space to reimagine contemporary historical practice in the 21st century.

History in Focus

History in Focus is a podcast by the American Historical Review . Go behind the scenes with the world's leading history journal as we explore the who, what, how, and why of doing history in the 21st century.

Latest articles

Affiliations

Online ISSN 1937-5239
Print ISSN 0002-8762
Copyright © 2024 The American Historical Association
About Oxford Academic
Publish journals with us
University press partners
What we publish
New features
Open access
Institutional account management
Rights and permissions
Get help with access
Accessibility
Advertising
Media enquiries
Oxford University Press
Oxford Languages
University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
Cookie settings
Cookie policy
Privacy policy
Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

Study at Cambridge

About the university, research at cambridge.

Undergraduate courses
Events and open days
Fees and finance
Postgraduate courses
How to apply
Postgraduate events
Fees and funding
International students
Continuing education
Executive and professional education
Courses in education
How the University and Colleges work
Term dates and calendars
Visiting the University
Annual reports
Equality and diversity
A global university
Public engagement
Give to Cambridge
For Cambridge students
For our researchers
Business and enterprise
Colleges & departments
Email & phone search
Museums & collections
Student information

Department of History and Philosophy of Science

About the Department overview
How to find the Department
Annual Report
Video and audio
HPS Discussion email list
Becoming a Visiting Scholar or Visiting Student overview
Visitor fee payment
Becoming an Affiliate
Applying for research grants and post-doctoral fellowships
Administration overview
Information for new staff
Information for examiners and assessors overview
Operation of the HPS plagiarism policy
Information for supervisors overview
Supervising Part IB and Part II students
Supervising MPhil and Part III students
Supervising PhD students
People overview
Teaching Officers
Research Fellows and Teaching Associates
Professional Services Staff
PhD Students
Research overview
Research projects overview
Natural History in the Age of Revolutions, 1776–1848
In the Shadow of the Tree: The Diagrammatics of Relatedness as Scientific, Scholarly and Popular Practice
The Many Births of the Test-Tube Baby
Culture at the Macro-Scale: Boundaries, Barriers and Endogenous Change
Making Climate History overview
Project summary
Workstreams
Works cited and project literature
Research and teaching fellowships
Histories of Artificial Intelligence: A Genealogy of Power overview
From Collection to Cultivation: Historical Perspectives on Crop Diversity and Food Security overview
Call for papers
How Collections End: Objects, Meaning and Loss in Laboratories and Museums
Tools in Materials Research
Epsilon: A Collaborative Digital Framework for Nineteenth-Century Letters of Science
Contingency in the History and Philosophy of Science
Industrial Patronage and the Cold War University
FlyBase: Communicating Drosophila Genetics on Paper and Online, 1970–2000
The Lost Museums of Cambridge Science, 1865–1936
From Hansa to Lufthansa: Transportation Technologies and the Mobility of Knowledge in Germanic Lands and Beyond, 1300–2018
Medical Publishers, Obscenity Law and the Business of Sexual Knowledge in Victorian Britain
Kinds of Intelligence
Varieties of Social Knowledge
The Vesalius Census
Histories of Biodiversity and Agriculture
Investigating Fake Scientific Instruments in the Whipple Museum Collection
Before HIV: Homosex and Venereal Disease, c.1939–1984
The Casebooks Project
Generation to Reproduction
The Darwin Correspondence Project
History of Medicine overview
Events overview
Past events
Philosophy of Science overview
Study HPS overview
Undergraduate study overview
Introducing History and Philosophy of Science
Frequently asked questions
Routes into History and Philosophy of Science
Part II overview
Distribution of Part II marks
BBS options
Postgraduate study overview
Why study HPS at Cambridge?
MPhil in History and Philosophy of Science and Medicine overview
A typical day for an MPhil student
MPhil in Health, Medicine and Society
PhD in History and Philosophy of Science overview
Part-time PhD

PhD placement record

Funding for postgraduate students
Student information overview
Timetable overview
Primary source seminars
Research methods seminars
Writing support seminars
Dissertation seminars
BBS Part II overview
Early Medicine
Modern Medicine and Biomedical Sciences
Philosophy of Science and Medicine
Ethics of Medicine
Philosophy and Ethics of Medicine
Part III and MPhil
Single-paper options
Part IB students' guide overview
About the course
Supervisions
Libraries and readings
Scheme of examination
Part II students' guide overview
Primary sources
Dissertation
Key dates and deadlines
Advice overview
Examination advice
Learning strategies and exam skills
Advice from students
Part III students' guide overview
Essays and dissertation
Subject areas
MPhil students' guide overview
PhD students' guide overview
Welcome to new PhDs
Registration exercise and annual reviews
Your supervisor and advisor
Progress log
Intermission and working away from Cambridge
The PhD thesis
Submitting your thesis
Examination
News and events overview
Seminars and reading groups overview
Departmental Seminars
Coffee with Scientists
Cabinet of Natural History overview
Publications
History of Medicine Seminars
The Anthropocene
Calculating People
Measurement Reading Group
Teaching Global HPSTM
Pragmatism Reading Group
Foundations of Physics Reading Group
Atmospheric Humanities Reading Group
Values in Science Reading Group
HPS Workshop
Postgraduate Seminars overview
Images of Science
Language Groups overview
Latin Therapy overview
Bibliography of Latin language resources
Fun with Latin
Archive overview
Lent Term 2024
Michaelmas Term 2023
Easter Term 2023
Lent Term 2023
Michaelmas Term 2022
Easter Term 2022
Lent Term 2022
Michaelmas Term 2021
Easter Term 2021
Lent Term 2021
Michaelmas Term 2020
Easter Term 2020
Lent Term 2020
Michaelmas Term 2019
Easter Term 2019
Lent Term 2019
Michaelmas Term 2018
Easter Term 2018
Lent Term 2018
Michaelmas Term 2017
Easter Term 2017
Lent Term 2017
Michaelmas Term 2016
Easter Term 2016
Lent Term 2016
Michaelmas Term 2015
Postgraduate and postdoc training overview
Induction sessions
Academic skills and career development
Print & Material Sources
Other events and resources

Tools and techniques for historical research

About the Department
News and events

If you are just starting out in HPS, this will be the first time for many years – perhaps ever – that you have done substantial library or museum based research. The number of general studies may seem overwhelming, yet digging out specific material relevant to your topic may seem like finding needles in a haystack. Before turning to the specific entries that make up this guide, there are a few general points that apply more widely.

Planning your research

Because good research and good writing go hand in hand, probably the single most important key to successful research is having a good topic. For that, all you need at the beginning are two things: (a) a problem that you are genuinely interested in and (b) a specific issue, controversy, technique, instrument, person, etc. that is likely to offer a fruitful way forward for exploring your problem. In the early stages, it's often a good idea to be general about (a) and very specific about (b). So you might be interested in why people decide to become doctors, and decide to look at the early career of a single practitioner from the early nineteenth century, when the evidence for this kind of question happens to be unusually good. You can get lots of advice from people in the Department about places to look for topics, especially if you combine this with reading in areas of potential interest. Remember that you're more likely to get good advice if you're able to mesh your interests with something that a potential supervisor knows about. HPS is such a broad field that it's impossible for any department to cover all aspects of it with an equal degree of expertise. It can be reassuring to know that your topic will evolve as your research develops, although it is vital that you establish some basic parameters relatively quickly. Otherwise you will end up doing the research for two, three or even four research papers or dissertations, when all you need is the material for one.

Before beginning detailed work, it's obviously a good idea to read some of the secondary literature surrounding your subject. The more general books are listed on the reading lists for the Part II lecture courses, and some of the specialist literature is listed in these research guides. This doesn't need to involve an exhaustive search, at least not at this stage, but you do need to master the fundamentals of what's been done if you're going to be in a position to judge the relevance of anything you find. If there are lectures being offered in your topic, make sure to attend them; and if they are offered later in the year, try to see if you can obtain a preliminary bibliography from the lecturer.

After that, it's usually a good idea to immerse yourself in your main primary sources as soon as possible. If you are studying a museum object, this is the time to look at it closely; if you're writing about a debate, get together the main papers relevant to it and give them a close read; if you're writing about a specific experiment, look at the published papers, the laboratory notebook, and the relevant letters. Don't spend hours in the early stages of research ferreting out hard-to-find details, unless you're absolutely positive that they are of central importance to the viability of your topic. Start to get a feel for the material you have, and the questions that might be explored further. Make an outline of the main topics that you hope to cover, organized along what you see as the most interesting themes (and remember, 'background' is not usually an interesting theme on its own).

At this stage, research can go in many different directions. At some point, you'll want to read more about the techniques other historians have used for exploring similar questions. Most fields have an established repertoire of ways of approaching problems, and you need to know what these are, especially if you decide to reject them. One of the advantages of an interdisciplinary field like HPS is that you are exposed to different and often conflicting ways of tackling similar questions. Remember that this is true within history itself, and you need to be aware of alternatives. This may well involve looking further afield, at classic books or articles that are not specifically on 'your' subject. For example, it may be that you could find some helpful ideas for a study of modern scientific portraiture in a book on the eighteenth century. The best books dealing with educational maps may not be on the astronomical ones you are studying, but on ones used for teaching classical geography. See where the inspiration for works you admire comes from, and have a look at the sources they have used. This will help you develop the kind of focussed questions that make for a successful piece of work.

As you develop an outline and begin to think through your topic in more detail, you'll be in good position to plan possible lines of research. Don't try to find out everything about your topic: pick those aspects that are likely to prove most fruitful for the direction your essay seems to be heading. For example, it may be worth spending a long time searching for biographical details about a person if their career and life are central to your analysis; but in many other cases, such issues may not be very important. If your interest is in the reception of a work, it is likely to be more fruitful to learn a lot about a few commentaries or reviews (where they appeared, who wrote them, and so forth) than to gather in randomly all the comments you can find.

Follow up hints in other people's footnotes. Works that are otherwise dull or outdated in approach are sometimes based on very solid research. One secondary reference to a crucial letter or newspaper article can save you hours of mindless trawling, and lead you straight to the information you need. Moreover, good historians often signal questions or sources that they think would be worth investigating further.

Remember that the best history almost always depends on developing new approaches and interpretations, not on knowing about a secret archive no one has used before. If you give your work time to develop, and combine research with writing, you will discover new sources, and (better still) a fresh importance for material that has supposedly been known for a long time. As you become familiar with your topic, you are likely to find that evidence you dug out at the beginning of your project is much more significant than you thought it was. In historical research, the most important evidence often isn't sitting there on the surface – it's something you need to dig out through close reading and an understanding of the situation in which the document you are studying was written, or in which the object was produced. This is especially true of instruments, paintings and other non-textual sources.

Some standard reference works

Your research should become more focussed as time goes on. Don't just gather randomly: you should always have at least some idea of why you are looking for something, and what you might hope to find. Make guesses, follow up hunches, see if an idea you have has the possibility to work out. At the beginning, it can be valuable to learn the full range of what is available, but eventually you should be following up specific issues, a bit like a detective tracing the clues to a mystery. It is at this stage of research, which is often best done in conjunction with writing up sections of your project, that knowing where to find answers to specific questions is most useful. There is nothing more disheartening than spending a week to find a crucial fact, only to discover that it's been sitting on the shelf next to you all term. The Whipple has a wide variety of guides, biographical dictionaries and bibliographies, so spend a few minutes early on looking at the reference shelves.

Every major country has a national biographical dictionary (the new version of the British one is the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , available 2004 online). For better-known scientists, a good place to start is Charles C. Gillispie (ed.) Dictionary of Scientific Biography (1970–1980). There are more specialized dictionaries for every scientific field, from entomology to astronomy. The University Library has a huge selection of biographical sources; ask your supervisor about the best ones for your purpose.

Preliminary searching for book titles and other bibliographical information is now often best done online, and every historian should know how to use the British Library's online search facility; COPAC (the UK national library database); and WorldCat (an international database). All of these are accessible through the HPS Whipple Library website (under 'other catalogues'). At the time of writing, the University Library is remains one of the few libraries of its size to have many of its records not available online, so remember that you have to check the green guard-book catalogues (and the supplementary catalogues) for most items published before 1977. It is hoped that this situation will be rectified soon. There are also numerous bibliographies for individual sciences and subjects, together with catalogues of relevant manuscripts. Most of these are listed elsewhere in this guide.

As questions arise, you will want to be able to access books and articles by other historians that touch upon your subject. There are many sources for this listed elsewhere in this guide, but you should definitely know about the Isis Current Bibliography and The Wellcome Bibliography for the History of Medicine . Both are available online, the former through the RLG History of Science, Technology and Medicine database, the latter through the website of the Wellcome Library.

Libraries and museums

Finally, a word in praise of libraries and museums. As the comments above make clear, the internet is invaluable for searching for specific pieces of information. If you need a bibliographical reference or a general reading list from a course at another university, it is an excellent place to begin. If you are looking for the source of an unidentified quotation, typing it into Google (or an appropriate database held by the University Library) will often turn up the source in seconds. Many academic journals are now online, as are the texts of many books, though not always in a paginated or citable form.

For almost all historical topics, however, libraries filled with printed books and journals will remain the principal tools for research, just as museums will continue to be essential to any work dealing with the material culture of past science. The reason for this is simple: what is on the internet is the result of decisions by people in the past decade, while libraries and museums are the product of a continuous history of collecting over several thousand years. Cambridge has some of the best collections for the history of science anywhere. Despite what is often said, this is not because of the famous manuscripts or showpiece books (these are mostly available in other ways), but because of the depth and range of its collections across the whole field. The Whipple Library is small and friendly, and has an unparalleled selection of secondary works selected over many years – don't just go for specific titles you've found in the catalogue, try browsing around, and ask the librarians for help if you can't see what you are looking for. Explore the Whipple Museum and talk to the curator and the staff. There are rich troves of material in these departmental collections, on topics ranging from phrenology and microscopy to the early development of pocket calculators. Become familiar with what the University Library has to offer: it is large and sometimes idiosyncratic, but worth getting to know well if you are at all serious about research. It is a fantastic instrument for studying the human past – the historian's equivalent of CERN or the Hubble Telescope. And all you need to get in is a student ID.

Study History and Philosophy of Science

Undergraduate study

Postgraduate study

Library and Museum

Whipple Library

Whipple Museum

Museum Collections Portal

Research projects

History of Medicine

Philosophy of Science

Contact the University
Accessibility
Freedom of information
Privacy policy and cookies
Statement on Modern Slavery
Terms and conditions
University A-Z
Undergraduate
Postgraduate
Research news
About research at Cambridge
Spotlight on...

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Publications
Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

Advanced Search
Journal List
J Grad Med Educ
v.14(4); 2022 Aug

Narrative Reviews: Flexible, Rigorous, and Practical

Javeed sukhera.

Javeed Sukhera, MD, PhD, FRCPC , is Chair/Chief, Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Living and Hartford Hospital

Introduction

Narrative reviews are a type of knowledge synthesis grounded in a distinct research tradition. They are often framed as non-systematic, which implies that there is a hierarchy of evidence placing narrative reviews below other review forms. 1 However, narrative reviews are highly useful to medical educators and researchers. While a systematic review often focuses on a narrow question in a specific context, with a prespecified method to synthesize findings from similar studies, a narrative review can include a wide variety of studies and provide an overall summary, with interpretation and critique. 1 Examples of narrative review types include state-of-the-art, critical, and integrative reviews, among many others.

Foundations

Narrative reviews are situated within diverse disciplines in the social sciences and humanities. Most forms of narrative reviews align with subjectivist and interpretivist paradigms. These worldviews emphasize that reality is subjective and dynamic. They contrast with the positivist and post-positivist worldviews that are the foundations of systematic reviews: a single reality can be known through experimental research. Unlike systematic reviews, narrative reviews offer researchers the ability to synthesize multiple points of view and harness unique review team perspectives, which will shape the analysis. Therefore, insights gained from a narrative review will vary depending on the individual, organizational, or historical contexts in which the review was conducted. 1 - 5

Why Choose a Narrative Review?

Narrative reviews allow researchers to describe what is known on a topic while conducting a subjective examination and critique of an entire body of literature. Authors can describe the topic's current status while providing insights on advancing the field, new theories, or current evidence viewed from different or unusual perspectives. 3 Therefore, such reviews can be useful by exploring topics that are under-researched as well as for new insights or ways of thinking regarding well-developed, robustly researched fields.

Narrative reviews are often useful for topics that require a meaningful synthesis of research evidence that may be complex or broad and that require detailed, nuanced description and interpretation. 1 See Boxes 1 and 2 for resources on writing a narrative review as well as a case example of a program director's use of a narrative review for an interprofessional education experience. This Journal of Graduate Medical Education (JGME) special review series will continue to use the Case of Dr. Smith to consider the same question using different review methodologies.

Box 1 The Case of Dr. Smith

Dr. Smith, a program director, has been tasked to develop an interprofessional education (IPE) experience for the residency program. Dr. Smith decides that conducting a literature review would be a savvy way to examine the existing evidence and generate a publication useful to others. Using PubMed and a general subject search with “interprofessional education,” Dr. Smith identifies 24 000 matches. Dr. Smith begins to randomly sample the papers and notes the huge diversity of types and approaches: randomized trials, qualitative investigations, critical perspectives, and more.

Dr. Smith decides to do a meta-narrative review, because she notes that there are tensions and contradictions in the ways in which IPE is discussed by different health professions education communities, such as in nursing literature vs in medical journals.

Box 2 Resources

Ferrari R. Writing narrative style literature reviews. Med Writing . 2015;24(4):230-235. doi: 10.1179/2047480615Z.000000000329

Green BN, Johnson CD, Adams A. Writing narrative literature reviews for peer-reviewed journals: secrets of the trade. J Chiropr Med . 2006;5(3):101-117. doi: 10.1016/S0899-3467(07)60142-6

Gregory AT, Denniss AR. An introduction to writing narrative and systematic reviews—tasks, tips and traps for aspiring authors. Heart Lung Circ . 2018;27(7):893-898. doi: 10.1016/j.hlc.2018.03.027

Murphy CM. Writing an effective review article. J Med Toxicol . 2012;8(2):89-90. doi: 10.1007/s13181-012-0234-2

Process and Rigor

While each type of narrative review has its own associated markers of rigor, the following guidelines are broadly applicable to narrative reviews and can help readers critically appraise their quality. These principles may also guide researchers who wish to conduct narrative reviews. When engaging with a narrative review as a reader or a researcher, scholars are advised to be conversant with the following 5 foundational elements of narrative reviews.

Rationale for a Narrative Review

First, scholars should consider the framing of the research question. Does the topic being studied align with the type of knowledge synthesis performed through a narrative review? Authors should have a clear research question and a specific audience target. Authors should also provide a rationale for why a narrative review method was chosen. 6 The manuscript should include the initial research question as well as details about any iterative refinements to the question.

Clarity of Boundaries, Scope, and Definitions

Second, although narrative reviews do not typically involve strict predetermined inclusion or exclusion criteria, scholars should explicitly demarcate the boundaries and scope of their topic. They should also clearly define key terms related to the topic and research question and any definitions used. Authors should elaborate why they chose a particular definition if others were available. As narrative reviews are flexible, the initial scope may change through the review process. In such circumstances, authors should provide reasonable justification for the evolution of inclusion and exclusion criteria and a description of how this affected the literature search.

Justification for Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Third, authors of narrative reviews should explain which search terms and databases were included in the synthesis and why. For example, did authors include research studies from a particular database, time frame, or study design? Did they include commentaries or empirical articles? Did they include grey literature such as trade publications, reports, or digital media? Each of the authors' choices should be outlined with appropriate reasoning. 7 Narrative reviews tend to be iterative and involve multiple cycles of searching, analysis, and interpretation. High-quality narrative reviews usually include pivotal or seminal papers that address the phenomenon of interest and other manuscripts that are relevant to the research question.

Reflexivity and a Saturation/Sufficiency Statement

Fourth, narrative reviews should clearly specify any factors that may have shaped the authors' interpretations and analysis. One fundamental distinction between narrative and non-narrative reviews is that narrative reviews explicitly recognize that they may not include all relevant literature on a topic. Since narrative reviews do not aim to be inclusive of all literature addressing the phenomenon of interest, a justification for the selection of manuscripts must be included. Authors should carefully outline how researchers conducted analyses and how they determined that sufficient analysis and interpretation was achieved. This latter concept is similar to considerations of saturation or thematic sufficiency in primary qualitative research. 8

Details on Analysis and Interpretation

Lastly, since several different categories of reviews fall under the narrative review umbrella, the analysis conducted in a narrative review varies by type. Regardless of the type of narrative review carried out, authors should clearly describe how analyses were conducted and provide justification for their approach. Narrative reviews are enhanced when researchers are explicit about how their perspectives and experiences informed problem identification, interpretation, and analysis. Given that authors' unique perspectives shape the selection of literature and its interpretation, narrative reviews may be reproduced, but different authors will likely yield different insights and interpretations.

Distinctive Methods and Subtypes

The narrative review has been commonly framed as an umbrella term that includes several different subtypes of reviews. These narrative medicine subtypes share the goals of deepening an understanding of a topic, while describing why researchers chose to explore and analyze the topic in a specific way.

There are several subtypes of narrative reviews with distinctive methodologies; each offers a unique way of approaching the research question and analyzing and interpreting the literature. This article will describe some common narrative review types that will also be discussed in upcoming JGME special articles on reviews: state-of-the-art , meta-ethnographic , critical , and theory integration reviews.

A state-of-the-art review attempts to summarize the research concerning a specific topic along a timeline of significant changes in understanding or research orientations. By focusing on such turning points in the history of evolving understandings of a phenomenon, state-of-the-art reviews offer a summary of the current state of understanding, how such an understanding was developed, and an idea of future directions. A state-of-the art review seeks to offer a 3-part description: where are we now in our understanding, how did we get here, and where should we go next?

A meta-ethnographic review involves choosing and interpreting qualitative research evidence about a specific topic. Working exclusively with qualitative data, this type of knowledge synthesis aims to generate new insights or new conclusions about a topic. It draws together insights and analyses from existing publications of qualitative research to construct new knowledge that spans across these individual, and often small scale, studies.

A meta-narrative review seeks to explore and make sense of contradictions and tensions within the literature. A meta-narrative review maps how a certain topic is understood in distinct ways, conducts a focused search to describe and compare narratives, and then seeks to make sense of how such narratives are interpreted across different disciplines or historical contexts, as part of the analysis. 9

A critical review is a narrative synthesis of literature that brings an interpretative lens: the review is shaped by a theory, a critical point of view, or perspectives from other domains to inform the literature analysis. Critical reviews involve an interpretative process that combines the reviewer's theoretical premise with existing theories and models to allow for synthesis and interpretation of diverse studies. First, reviewers develop and outline their interpretive theoretical position, which is informed by individual knowledge and experience. Next, a noncomprehensive search is completed to capture and identify dominant themes focused on a research question. 8 , 10

An integrative review typically has 1 of 2 different orientations. Empirical integrative reviews analyze and synthesize publications of evidence-based studies with diverse methodologies. In contrast, theoretical integrative reviews conduct an analysis of the available theories addressing a phenomenon, critically appraise those theories, and propose an advancement in the development of those theories. Both types of integrative reviews follow a multistage approach including problem identification, searching, evaluation, analysis, and presentation. 11

Strengths and Weaknesses

Narrative reviews have many strengths. They are flexible and practical, and ideally provide a readable, relevant synthesis of a diverse literature. Narrative reviews are often helpful for teaching or learning about a topic because they deliver a general overview. They are also useful for setting the stage for future research, as they offer an interpretation of the literature, note gaps, and critique research to date.

Such reviews may be useful for providing general background; however, a more comprehensive form of review may be necessary. Narrative reviews do not offer an evidence-based synthesis for focused questions, nor do they offer definitive guideline statements. All types of narrative reviews offer interpretations that are open to critique and will vary depending on the author team or context of the review.

Conclusions

Well-done narrative reviews provide a readable, thoughtful, and practical synthesis on a topic. They allow review authors to advance new ideas while describing and interpreting literature in the field. Narrative reviews do not aim to be systematic syntheses that answer a specific, highly focused question; instead, they offer carefully thought out and rigorous interpretations of a body of knowledge. Such reviews will not provide an exhaustive, comprehensive review of the literature; however, they are useful for a rich and meaningful summary of a topic.

Peer Review – A Historical Perspective

PEER REVIEW: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

An imperfect but still relevant pillar of scientific publishing

A short history

Peer review is a relatively recent innovation in the history of scientific publication. The first journal (which is still in print!) was launched in 1665 by the Royal Society in London, ( Phil Trans R Soc B ), while peer review as we know of began in the mid 1970s. So how did we get here?

Essentially, the scientific community of the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries was a small, select group of men and women (mostly men, though), who would regularly communicate via short articles, personal letters, public and private presentations, and, of course, full length books (e.g. On the Origin of Species , C. Darwin). As the community expanded and professionalized, the ways in which published communications were disseminated slowly began to change. Journal editors would publish work that they deemed interesting, or that arose from members of the learned society associated with the journal.

It’s fascinating to me that when Watson and Crick submitted their famous ‘double helix’ paper to Nature in 1953, the letter accompanying the article pretty much said something like “we and our colleagues at the Laboratory for Molecular Biology deem this appropriate for Nature ” and the journal editors complied (a subsequent editor of Nature , John Maddox, wrote that “the Crick and Watson paper could not have been refereed: its correctness is self-evident. No referee working in the field (Linus Pauling?) could have kept his mouth shut once he saw the structure…”)

These early ways of assessing whether a scientific communication should be published were inherently ad hominem , justified by the fact that the hominem in question was an expert (or at least “well-versed”) in the relevant field. This process invested a lot of power in the hands of a distinguished few, hoping for objectivity that would most likely have been lacking if, for example, a communication was considered in competition with the expert’s own work.

It seems common sensible to us now that a chummy network of pals recommending each other’s work for publication is no way to conduct science objectively. As the scientific enterprise boomed in the 20th century, and subspecialties blossomed, it became increasingly difficult for journal editors to make informed decisions about what to publish by themselves. The process of seeking input from knowledgeable peers began to gain currency, and by the time of the launch of the journal Cell in 1974 by Ben Lewin , it was common practice to send papers for review prior to publication.

Modern peer review

In brief, this entails a series of communications between the handling editor for a submitted manuscript and a small number (typically 3-4) of experts in the field who are asked to comment on the scientific integrity of the study and to put forward their opinion of the importance or “significance”) of the advance reported. The editor will then send the reviewers’ comments back to the author with a decision on the manuscript – either “accept”, “revise” or “reject”.

The move to peer review by a broader range of anonymous reviewers was a move toward greater equity in the likelihood of less well-known scientists having their work published in prestigious publications. Unsurprisingly, though, the transition to regular peer review was not without some resistance, especially from those who benefited most from the old system: in a review of Melinda Baldwin’s recent book “Making nature ”, former deputy editor of Nature Peter Newmark wrote that “in 1974 .. I was invited — or rather summoned — to meet Max Perutz at the Medical Research Council’s Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge. … Perutz came straight to the point. Why, he asked, had Nature started to peer review papers from the laboratory when previously they were published without peer review? Indeed, he continued, as all papers sent to Nature are checked by members of the board, peer review is unnecessary. “

So, peer review eventually took off. From about the 1970s and well into the early 1990s — that is, prior to the age of email — reviewers would be sent paper copies of the manuscript with high quality glossy photographs (or later, CD-ROMs) of the data/figures. Reviewers were not asked whether they wanted to review, they were simply summarily assigned the job (checking obituaries would sometimes be useful before deciding to send a paper to a certain expert in the field). Reviewers would send in their type-written (occasionally even handwritten) comments by snailmail or fax and eventually the editors would send back an annotated manuscript to the authors to revise. Editorial assistants would cut up the reviews (yes, with scissors!) and photocopy an assembled set of paragraphs after editors had bracketed the points that they wished to be passed on to the author. Interestingly a return to this sort of ‘editing’ of reviewer reports and compiling into one document is now in practice at eLife , though this now also involves re-engagement of the reviewers themselves to agree with the overall recommendation.

Now of course, online review – and indeed online publication – is disrupting the publishing enterprise all over again. Papers are longer and more interdisciplinary than ever. It is becoming an impossibility to actually review a paper with terabytes of data in any meaningful sense. Meanwhile the growing sense that peer review takes too long, isn’t transparent, and is an unfair division of labor and costs means that other publishing models are taking hold. Pre-print publication in repositories such as arXiv and bioRxiv are allowing scientists to release their work to the public as soon as they wish although readers must be wary that the claims have not necessarily been evaluated by impartial judges.

The future of peer review?

So it behooves us to ask, what value does peer review still have? Is it outdated and we need to replace it with something else? Or can we improve it to fit the needs of the 21st century?

At its best, peer review provides a measure of quality control for the scientific literature, helping authors to make the best case for their exciting new discoveries. Readers, funders, industry, and the public can read the paper and trust the results, turning those insights into the building blocks for the next advance for society. And frankly, the other reason it’s important is that the journals that are most prestigious and most likely to result in job offers, promotions and grants should you publish in them, still require it. So being adept at writing reviews and interpreting them are important skills to hone from a pragmatic standpoint.

It’s this issue of improving peer review that we aim to address with the accompanying CommKit article [ Peer Review – Best Practices ]. Right now, it’s still an important requirement of being a scientist, and many of the issues we can cite with peer review as currently practiced boil down to badly written reviews, badly-behaved peer reviewers, and editors who are unable to parse the results of this badly-done process. If we could re-set the system so that reviews are constructive , timely and objective , then the scientific community would be better off for it.

Nonetheless, there are many issues that remain , so I would posit that while being good practitioners of peer review, we can also think about ways to disrupt the system. Much has been written on this topic so I will end here with links to some other interesting viewpoints (of particular note: whether peer review can improve the reproducibility of research; increasing transparency of the process; the unfair business models of publishing; and, of course, the importance of training peer reviewers ). But reminding ourselves that scientific publishing has had many guises in the last 400 years, and peer review has only been part of the equation for the past 40-odd years should give us hope that we can pursue new ways of evaluating the scientific literature that better address the needs of the scientific community and society at large.

But at the very least, let’s commit to being as conscientious and constructive as possible when agreeing to review a manuscript. You can start by checking out the CommKit!

With many thanks to Diana Chien, MIT CommLab, Mike Orella, MIT MechE CommLab, Akshata Sonni & Chris Gerry, Broad CommLab, members of the scipub working group at Broad, and to Geoffrey North, Editor of Current Biology, for useful discussions.

Quick links

Make a Gift
Directories

The Historical Review

What is the Historical Review?

The Historical Review at UW, or the Historical Review for short, is the UW's only undergraduate journal showcasing research and writing in the field of history. We are run by students and each issue features articles by UW students. The Historical Review is published once a year in the spring quarter.

How do I submit papers and/or get involved?

Please check the submissions page of our website for details on how to submit papers. You do not have to be a declared History major or minor to submit! If you are interested in joining our team, see the Join Us page ; recruitment for editors and executive board members starts late summer.

To learn more about the Historical Review at UW, please visit our website .

The Historical Review Current & Past Issues

Volume 3 | Spring 2023
Volume 2 | Spring 2022
Volume 1 | Spring 2021
Facebook
Twitter
Instagram
Mailing List
More ways to connect

Covering books and digital resources across all fields of history

ISSN 1749-8155

Black Africans in Renaissance Europe

This book might come as a surprise for non-specialists, since black Africans are identified with slave trade to the Americas, while the Renaissance is regarded as a purely European phenomenon, centred on a largely homogeneous ethnicity. Neither of these assertions is true, and this excellent book helps to deconstruct such historical stereotypes. Europe received black Africans regularly and in significant numbers from the mid-fifteenth century onwards. The Mediterranean was a cross-cultural and inter-ethnic space even before Classical Greece. The Renaissance reflected not only the rediscovery of classical culture, but also the influx of techniques and ideas brought by the Arabs. Intercontinental navigation revealed simultaneous processes of cultural renovation, which helped to reshape Europe.

At the outset of the volume, Kate Lowe defines the editors’ key question: how were the main stereotypes concerning black people established in this period? She provides several examples relating to the main set of prejudices: the African was generally identified as a naked person who would mutilate his/her face and body with scarification, piercings, and tattoos; he/she would be considered as carefree and characterized by immoderate laughter, unaware of his/her condition, lazy and sexually promiscuous, physically strong, a good musician or dancer. Lowe recognizes the existence of noble or ennobled black men in European courts, but she stresses the role of black people as a necessary counter-image in the construction of European whiteness and ‘civilization’ (a notion coined in the eighteenth century). This is a necessary starting point, although some of the chapters develop a more nuanced vision of race relations in this period.

Anne Marie Jordan, for instance, has a fine chapter on slaves in the Lisbon court of Queen Catherine of Austria, where mainly women and children of different ethnic origins were used as musicians, cooks, pastry chefs, housekeepers, pages, or servants in royal apothecaries, kitchens, gardens, and stables. Jordan points out how white Moorish slaves were favoured because of skin colour prejudices, but black slaves were considered trustworthy for religious reasons. The black slaves were a sign of social prestige and distinction in a cosmopolitan court: this feature explains why Catherine spent so much money clothing and offering them as exotic gifts to her favourite ladies and relatives in other European courts. The representation of small black slaves in the portraits of Iberian princesses, as in the painting of Juana de Austria by Cristóvão de Morais, reinforced their image as symbols of empire building.

Jorge Fonseca presents the results of his research on sixteenth-century Southern Portugal, where he estimates a total of six to seven per cent of blacks in the population, mainly in urban areas, in contrast with the Northern region, where blacks were scarce. His analysis of the perceptions of black people by Nicholas Cleynaerts, a Flemish scholar who taught in Louvain, Paris, and Salamanca, spending several years in Portugal as tutor of infant Henry (the future cardinal and General Inquisitor), is less convincing. The scholar is presented as an ‘exotic visitor’, which is misplaced, since he belonged to the international Renaissance elite who circulated between different European countries. Cleynaerts bought young slaves and taught them as assistants. His observation that they were like ‘monkeys’ (meaning capable of imitating but not of creating) is considered by Fonseca as a sign of the contrast between two societies, the Flemish and the Portuguese, the first unaware of black people, the second used to them. It is disputable that Cleynaerts’ classification of the young slaves as ‘monkeys’ was his own, and not influenced by the Portuguese, but the implicit assumption that the Portuguese were less ‘racist’ than the Flemish is questionable.

Didier Lahon proposes an interesting analysis of the mixed confraternity of Nossa Senhora do Rosário in Lisbon, which split into two branches of white and black members. The conflict that existed between them for more than one century, and the final victory of the white branch in 1646, is interpreted as a shift from a relatively tolerant society, open to manumission (one of the privileges of the confraternity) and to intervention against bad treatment of slaves, to a more rigid and intolerant society in the seventeenth century. The implementation of the obligatory baptism of slaves throughout the second half of the sixteenth century is also reconstituted in detail. The analysis of the impact of the notion of blood purity in Portugal is much less convincing, with a deficient chronology and huge gaps, while comprehensive studies are ignored. The idea that the Iberian Peninsula dealt with the presence of Moors, Jews, and New Christians as an anomaly from 1350 onwards is simply wrong, as Maria José Ferro Tavares and Maria Filomena Lopes de Barros have demonstrated.

Thomas Earle focuses his study on the work of Afonso Álvares, a mulatto poet and playwright, cautiously alerting the reader to the lack of evidence to prove that they were one and the same person. Álvares is one of the few mixed-race intellectuals in Europe in the sixteenth century. He wrote satirical poems and four plays based on saints’ lives, commissioned by the Augustinian canons of São Vicente de Fora in Lisbon. Earle discusses the quality of the plays and convincingly refuses the historical devaluation of the writer, who has been seen as a minor disciple of Gil Vicente. A particularly interesting section concerns the polemic in satirical redondilhas between Afonso Álvares and another poet, António Ribeiro Chiado. Álvares accused Chiado of low birth and immorality. Chiado insulted Álvares in racist terms, accusing him of being a mulatto, son of a black woman, a slave freed by marriage. Álvares underlined the nobility of his father—whose identity was never disclosed; it might have been Dom Afonso de Portugal, bishop of Évora, in whose household Álvares was educated. In his plays, Álvares reflects the dominant anti-Semitic mood. There is sufficient material here for a deeper reflection on the racial prejudices of the Portuguese Renaissance society and on the conflicting mechanisms of social promotion among subaltern groups.

Jeremy Lawrence presents a very good overview of the Black Africans in Spanish literature, identifying the main ideas: dehumanization of slaves as chattels, defined by bestiality, nakedness, lascivious vulgarity, burlesque behaviour, pidgin language. He focuses his study on the ‘habla de negros’ enlarging the already significant bibliography on the subject (the crucial study by Paul Teyssier on Gil Vicente could have been mentioned). The author selects less known texts and provides two excellent critical editions of pliegos in the appendix. The originality and subversive meaning of the poems is brought out clearly in this chapter, since they staged strong black characters with unconventional relations with white women. Baltasar Fra-Molinero is another author who has extensively written on blacks in Spanish literature, and has contributed to changing the field. He has shown how this marginal and neglected topic played an important role in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Here he concentrates on Juan Latino, the only black Latinist, scholar, and writer in the European Renaissance, who lived in Granada. He has previously pointed out how Juan Latino reflected on the black condition and refused a social hierarchy based on skin colour prejudices. Fra-Molinero analyses now the poem Austrias Carmen , dedicated by Juan Latino to Juan de Austria after his victory over Morisco insurrection in Granada, known as the War of the Alpujarras (1568–1572). In the text, Latino searched to establish the dignity of all black Africans, relating them to biblical Ethiopia and refusing the idea of natural slavery. He imagines white people subordinated in Ethiopia (a reversed irony) and exalts blackness in the final verses.

Debra Blumenthal addresses a very interesting issue: the role of a black African confraternity in Valencia founded in 1472 by forty black freedmen that collected alms and negotiated contracts of manumission on behalf of their fellows in captivity. She knows the context of slave trade in Valencia well, the variety of the black community in the town, and the functions of the confraternity (‘casa dels negres’) as shelter, hospice, and hospital. She analyses two cases of manumission, concerning Ursola and Johana, in which all the financial, juridical, and social difficulties are analysed, as well as the subsequent barriers to full integration.

Aurelia Marín Casares, who has written a very good book on slavery in Granada, presents here part of her enquiry into free and freed black Africans in the region. She has identified most of their occupations: men were stable workers, esparto workers, smelters and casters in foundries, carriers and vendors of water or firewood, bakers, butchers, hod carriers, builders, diggers, pavers; women were housewives, farmers, embroiders, maids, taverns and inns employees, sorceresses. The author details the confraternities created by blacks and mulattos in Granada. The notion of blackness and the different types of black people do not become clear in this article, however, since in many cases Moriscos were considered black by the Christian population.

The ‘Italian section’ is one of the most interesting in the book. Paul Kaplan argues that Isabella d’Este and Andrea Mantegna created a new iconographic type: the black attendant to a white European protagonist. In his opinion, Judith’s servant was depicted as black for the first time by Mantegna in a drawing from 1492. As the author points out, this idea of displaying black servants to suggest the universal reach of imperial power had already been coined by Frederick II. Kaplan stresses the diffusion of this idea among European rulers, namely the Aragonese kings of Naples or the ruling houses of Ferrara, Mantua, and Milan, in which black servants were used as human accessories and depicted as such. The only problem in this stimulating chapter is the uniform definition of ‘blackness’, while in several paintings (see for example the Allegory of Virtue by Correggio) there is a gradation of skin colour from black to brown.

John Brakett suggests that Alessandro de’ Medici, the first duke of Florence (1529–1537) was of mixed race, an illegitimate son of Lorenzo de’ Medici, duke of Nemours and ruler of Urbino (and a direct descendent of Lorenzo ‘il Magnifico’ and Cosimo ‘il Vecchio’) and a peasant woman, a freed slave, generally considered as a ‘Moor’, but now depicted as a Black African. The argument is based not on new documents but on the analysis of the set of images of Alessandro de’ Medici. The problem lies in the final conclusion: the author considers that there was no intellectual racism in the sixteenth century, since the duke was murdered under the accusation of being a tyrant, but his racial status was not used in political debate or in denigration of his memory, which proves the supremacy of the innate quality of princes. This is an open issue: as the author mentions in his text, the duke was nicknamed ‘the Moor’ and ‘the mule’ of the Medici in his lifetime, which suggests a more complicated picture.

Sergio Tognetti concentrates on the trade in black African slaves in fifteenth-century Florence. The percentage of East European slaves in North Italian cities was quite important by the end of the fourteenth century, mainly in Genoa (nearly ten per cent) due to the Genoese trading communities in the Black Sea, but the fall of Contantinople in 1453 ended this commercial exchange. The slave trade in black Africans spread throughout the fifteenth century, replacing the previous trade. Networks also changed, from Arab merchants to Portuguese ones. This careful research, based on the account books of the Cambini bank, shows the value of slaves (proving also how whiter skin was more appreciated than darker skin) and the overwhelming control of the market from Lisbon, confirming the role of Bartolomeo Marchionni as the biggest slave trader in those days.

The pastoral care of black Africans in Renaissance Italy is the subject of Nelson Minnich’s chapter. The zigzag policies of the Popes from Martin V to Paul III is well documented, with successive bulls prohibiting the African slave trade (1425) and black slavery (1462), then allowing the trade with captive people (1455, 1456, 1493), and finally condemning the enslavement of native American people (1537), while the citizens of Rome were authorized to hold slaves (1548). The creation of black confraternities in Naples, Palermo, and Messina was a result of the activity of different religious orders among slaves and freedmen. The access of black people (slaves and freedmen) to the sacraments of penance, communion, and marriage is well documented, while the ordination of black priests was very rare—one Ethiopian and one Congolese bishop, suggested by the Portuguese king in 1513, were exceptional cases.

Anu Korhonen addresses the crucial proverb ‘washing the Ethiopian white’ in Renaissance England. It became a metaphor for everything considered useless, irrational, and impossible. It was widespread in England, although the relatively frequent literary references to black people in literature were brief and stereotyped. Africans were explicitly related to apes, defined by unruly sexuality, a lack of reason, violence, and ugliness (English is the only language in which the same term, fair, is used for beauty and blondness). Although Korhonen quotes an impressive range of sources, some of them from a very early period, it would have been interesting to establish the turning point of the process of construction and diffusion of the stereotype.

Lorenz Seelig studies the fascinating case of the ‘Moor’s Head’ produced circa 1600 by the Nuremberg goldsmith Christoph Jamnitzer. It shows the features of a young African with full lips, broad nose, and curled hair, with a headband chased with eight ‘T’s. It as a heraldic work of art representing the armorial bearings of the Florentine Pucci family, coupled with the coat of arms of the Florentine Strozzi family. This splendid object, made of silver and rock crystal, is also a drinking vessel: the upper part of the head can be taken off, like a cover. Seelig relates the object to the German tradition of drinking vessels, the double sense of the word kopf and the practice of drinking from human skulls (relics of saints), which is documented until the late-eighteenth century. He points out that, outside of the ecclesiastical sphere, profane drinking vessels were considered signs of moral decadence such as in the tradition of fools’ head cups. Cups, jugs, or oil lamps were represented as black Africans (Seelig indicates an early example from the workshop of Andrea Ricci, circa 1500, with deformed face, open mouth, and protruding jaw to hold the wick). But on the other hand, Seelig points to the statues or cameos of the black Venus and black Diana, or the dignified sculptures of black prisoners and ambassadors (namely by Pietro Tacca, Pietro Francavilla, Francesco Bordoni, Nicolas Cordier, Francesco Caporale), relating to a notion of a rich Africa which contradicts the ideas of savagery and poverty. The only slippery moment in the article comes when Seelig points out a contradiction between the role of Roberto Pucci as commander of the order of Santo Stefano, responsible for chasing African pirates, and the attractive representation of the African head in his coat of arms. This is exactly the origin of the fashionable heraldry of African heads in many medieval coats of arms in Europe, following the crusades and the naval conflicts in Mediterranean.

Jean-Michel Massing writes a fascinating article on the representation of lip-plated Africans in Pierre Descelier’s world map of 1550. In his typical manner of detective research (perhaps inspired by the paradigma indiziario founded by Giovanni Morelli), Massing shows the crucial meaning of two figures of black men with enlarged lips, placed in central Africa, sitting opposite each other, probably bartering a gold nugget for a flowery plant. He reconstitutes the first accounts of the enlarged lips found in different parts of Africa, namely by Isidore of Seville, Rabanus Maurus, Vincent of Beauvis, and Alvise da Mosto. He traces the original image of the bartering scene, a woodcut from a Strasbourg edition of Ptolemy’s Geography published in 1522. He rightly interprets the scene as an expression of the notion that ‘such people’ have no idea of the true value of things. But it is at the beginning of the article, when Massing defines the circle of cartographers in Dieppe and the powerful ship-owners like Jean Ango, who created huge friezes in his house and his chapel representing peoples of different continents, that the most interesting hypothesis of the book is produced. Massing sustains that Northern Europeans recorded in their drawings the features and material culture of other peoples of the world (Africans, Indians, or Americans) with greater care than the southern Europeans, namely the Italians, who were looking for aesthetic solutions and became relatively blind to the rich variety of non-European people. This hypothesis requires further enquiry, but it raises a very interesting issue, related to the idea of the art of describing studied by Svetlana Alpers for a later period, in seventeenth century Dutch Art.

The only problem of this book is the unbalanced space dedicated to Southern and Northern Europe. We have thirteen chapters concerning Southern Europe (Portugal, Spain, and Italy), and three about the rest of Europe (England, France, and Germany). We already have a significant number of books and PhDs on black slaves and freedmen in Portugal and Spain (Saunders, Tinhorão, Lahon, Fonseca, Stella, Martín). We needed to have more information on Northern Europe to understand how black Africans circulated and stereotypes in this area developed. This would enable us to answer better the following questions: why was the theory of races born in Northern Europe from the 1730s to the 1850s (Linnæus, Camper, Cuvier, Gobineau)? What were the precedents of that theory, not only from a colonial point of view, but also through an internal European dynamic of contact with African people?

But we have to be fair with the editors of the volume: the books published on black Africans in Portugal and Spain have not been translated into English and some of their main authors were invited to participate; the final result is a truly excellent, well illustrated set of chapters, which raise new issues and provide much information and analysis.

A history of hypochondria wonders why we worry

In ‘a body made of glass,’ caroline crampton writes about the ways in which society has thought about diagnosis and delusion.

In the late 14th century, a spate of patients scattered across Europe developed an unusual delusion: They came to believe that their bodies were made of glass. Those suffering from this bizarre affliction were terrified of shattering — at least one of them insisted on sleeping in heaps of straw so as to prevent any mishaps. But to modern-day hypochondriacs, this archaic phobia might represent both a fear and a perverse fantasy. A glass person would be perilously breakable, but her condition would also be blissfully transparent.

The journalist Caroline Crampton often wishes that she could see her own insides. She is as desperate for knowledge of the darkest corners of her anatomy as she is terrified of her fragility. “I am a hypochondriac,” she writes in her new book, “ A Body Made of Glass: A Cultural History of Hypochondria .” “Or, at least, I worry that I am, which really amounts to the same thing.” She has suffered from this secondary malady since she was diagnosed with the primary malady of Hodgkin’s lymphoma as a teenager. After months of treatment, her doctors assured her that she was in remission — but a year later, the disease returned. Crampton beat it again, but her anxiety lingers to this day. Is her apprehension irrational?

“A Body Made of Glass” proposes that it is and it isn’t. On the one hand, Crampton often experiences symptoms that she later recognizes to be psychosomatic; on the other, her hyper-vigilance after her supposedly successful first cancer treatment enabled her to spot a suspicious lump the second time. “My fears about health are persistent and at times intrusive,” she concedes, “but they are not necessarily unwarranted.” She concludes that “diagnosable illness and hypochondria can coexist.” Although “we tend to think of hypochondria as shorthand for an illness that’s all in your head,” the people most worried about their health are very often the people who have the most reason to be.

Unfortunately, many of us have cause to brood on the indignities of embodiment. Crampton writes that “a serious illness is much easier to cope with if it can be slotted into a familiar structure with a beginning, middle, and end,” but she knows that the comforts of recovery and resolution are denied to the ever-increasing number of patients with chronic or autoimmune conditions. Like those conditions, hypochondria is “a plotless story.”

“Without a firm diagnosis for my unreliable symptoms, I am stuck in the first scene of the drama, endlessly looping around the same few lines of dialogue,” Crampton writes. “The compulsion to narrativize this experience is always there, but always thwarted.” There is no satisfying ending, no definitive interpretation of a vague pain or a mysterious twinge.

Indeed, there is no absolute agreement about what qualifies as diagnosis and what qualifies as delusion. In a society riddled with biases, credibility is not apportioned equally, and marginalized populations are often dismissed as hysterical. A host of studies have demonstrated that doctors are less likely to listen to women and non-White people, and Crampton knows that she is “taken more seriously in medical examinations” because she is White and upper middle class. The prejudice cuts both ways: Patients, too, rely on “irrelevant details like confidence, carriage, and body language” to determine whether a physician is trustworthy.

And of course, sickness itself — and therefore hypochondria — is a culturally specific construct that is always subject to revision. The catalogue of medically reputable diseases expands and contracts as research advances and outdated theories are debunked. “It is now possible to test for conditions that were previously undetectable,” Crampton writes. The novelist Marcel Proust was regarded by his contemporaries (and even his father) as deranged because he took such strenuous precautions to avoid fits of coughing, but contemporary medicine might have vindicated his concerns. One century’s hypochondriac is another’s confirmed patient.

In 1733, the physician George Cheyne described hypochondria as a “disease of civilization.” According to Crampton, he meant that it was “a consequence of the excesses of an imperial and consumerist society that had abandoned the simplicity of earlier human existence in favor of an indulgent diet and inactive lifestyle,” but hypochondria is also a disease of civilization because it increases as our knowledge does. The more we understand about the myriad ways our bodies can fail, the more we have to fear.

Because the boundaries delineating hypochondria from verifiable sickness are not fixed, it is difficult to pin down either notion with precision. Crampton acknowledges that her topic of choice “resists definition, like oil sliding over the surface of water.” She is right that hypochondria is a shifting target, but her refusal to venture even a provisional characterization can make for frustrating reading.

“A Body Made of Glass” is a product of impressively thorough research, but it is sometimes circuitous and digressive to the point of frenzy. It blends memoir and literary criticism with micro-histories of subjects of varying relevance, among them the emergence of quack medicine and the medieval theory of the humors.

“Hypochondria” is an old word but a relatively new concept, and it is not always clear whether Crampton’s book traces the history of the phenomenon or the history of the term. Sometimes, her concern is etymological: She informs us that the word first appeared in the Hippocratic Corpus, a collection of medical tracts produced and disseminated in ancient Greece, where it referred to “the place where hard ribs give way to soft abdomen.” Elsewhere, however, Crampton discusses not language but terror in the face of mortality. Her wide-ranging reflections touch on such eminences as John Donne, Molière and Charles Darwin, all of whom had both palpable ailments and debilitating anxiety about their palpable ailments. (It’s difficult to have the former without the latter, it turns out.)

Still, “A Body Made of Glass” is full of fascinating forays. If it is hard to read for its claims or conclusions, it can still be read for its many sobering observations about sickness — a misfortune that will eventually befall even the heartiest among us. After all, as Crampton darkly notes, “hypochondria is merely the human condition with the comforting fictions stripped away. Whether we choose to think about it all the time or not, we are all just one freak accident away from the end.”

Becca Rothfeld is the nonfiction book critic for The Washington Post and the author of “All Things Are Too Small: Essays in Praise of Excess.”

A Body Made of Glass

A Cultural History of Hypochondria

By Caroline Crampton

Ecco. 321 pp. $29.99

We are a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for us to earn fees by linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites.

Office of the Vice President for Research

Martín-estudillo named new director of obermann center for advanced studies.

Luis Martín-Estudillo , professor and collegiate scholar in the Department of Spanish and Portuguese in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, will serve as the next director of the Obermann Center for Advanced Studies (OCAS). His appointment will begin July 1.

“We are very excited that Professor Martín-Estudillo has agreed to lead the Obermann Center for Advanced Studies into its next chapter,” said Kristy Nabhan-Warren, associate vice president for research. “He brings a wealth of international connections, fresh ideas, and a proven track record of collaboration across units and disciplines here at Iowa and beyond. The search committee was deeply impressed with his vision for the center, and the campus feedback we solicited confirmed and amplified our excitement for new possibilities for OCAS.”

For more than four decades, the OCAS has served as an interdisciplinary hub for artists, scholars, and researchers who bridge campus with the larger world.

Situated on Church Street on the north end of campus, the center provides offices for six fellows-in-residence each semester, as well as funding for a major annual humanities conference, small group collaborations, and faculty book completion workshops, along with many other programs. The center is also a nexus for university-community activities, including lectures, workshops, and performances.

“I’m tremendously excited to lead a productive, inspiring center—one that is open to our whole community of researchers, scholars and artists at every stage of their studies and careers and attracts the presence of enriching national and international guests. I envision a global, interdisciplinary research center with a humanistic ethos,” said Martín-Estudillo.

Martín-Estudillo specializes in modern and contemporary Spanish cultural and intellectual history and criticism. He has also published broadly on early modern topics and visual culture. His scholarship has appeared in journals such as Goya, Hispanic Review, Journal of Spanish Cultural Studies, Ínsula, Bulletin of Hispanic Studies, Pasajes: Revista de Pensamiento Contemporáneo and Romance Quarterly . He is the Executive Editor of the Hispanic Issues book series and of the journal Hispanic Issues Online .

A recipient of three awards from the National Endowment for the Humanities, Martín-Estudillo has also won several awards from the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, including the Collegiate Teaching Award, the Dean's Scholar Award, the Collegiate Scholar Award.

His recently authored and edited books include: Filosofía y tiempo final (2011), The Rise of Euroskepticism: Europe and Its Critics in Spanish Culture (2018) Despertarse de Europa. Arte, literatura, euroescepticismo (2019) and Goya and the Mystery of Reading , for which he won the 2023 Goldberg Prize .

Martín-Estudillo will replace Teresa Mangum, professor in the Departments of Gender, Women's, and Sexuality Studies and English, who is retiring after serving as the OCAS director since 2010.

The OCAS is a unit of the Office of the Vice President for Research.

Read our research on: Gun Policy | International Conflict | Election 2024

Regions & Countries

Political typology quiz.

Notice: Beginning April 18th community groups will be temporarily unavailable for extended maintenance. Thank you for your understanding and cooperation.

Where do you fit in the political typology?

Are you a faith and flag conservative progressive left or somewhere in between.

Take our quiz to find out which one of our nine political typology groups is your best match, compared with a nationally representative survey of more than 10,000 U.S. adults by Pew Research Center. You may find some of these questions are difficult to answer. That’s OK. In those cases, pick the answer that comes closest to your view, even if it isn’t exactly right.

About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

Community News

Police & Courts
School News
Local Sports
National Sports
Letters To The Editor
Local Columns
Engagements
Anniversaries
Thanks and Spanks
Classifieds
Garage Sales
Statement of Values
Terms of Service
Submit News
Browse notices
Place a Notice

Today's Paper

Subscribe Today

Dulci-more to host west virginia musician saturday.

Dulci-More: Folk & Traditional Musicians will host Dave Haas at 7 p.m. Saturday at the Dale Shaffer Research Library of the Salem Historical Society, 239 S. Lundy Ave. Haas lives in Charleston, W.Va. (Submitted photo)

SALEM – Dulci-More: Folk & Traditional Musicians will host Dave Haas at 7 p.m. Saturday in the Meeting Room of the Dale Shaffer Research Library of the Salem Historical Society, 239 S. Lundy Ave. Parking is available in the municipal lot across Lundy. The building is handicapped accessible. Admission is $10 with an additional $5 covering all children in a family with a responsible adult.

Haas lives in Charleston, W.Va. and has been playing the mountain dulcimer since 1990. He teaches dulcimer in both private and group settings, and was the founding member of the “Almost Heaven Dulcimer Club” in Charleston. He loves to share the mountain dulcimer and its history with schools, churches, civic organizations, and has even brought the dulcimer to those in prison. He has taught and performed with the dulcimer in 16 states and is a popular instructor at dulcimer festivals.

Haas also plays the guitar and sings. He has released seven dulcimer instructional book/CDs, four instrumental dulcimer CDs, and a popular dulcimer chord chart. He performs solo and with others as a musical duo. Together with Bob Webb, he has released two CDs: Here Comes The Sun and Starry, Starry Night as a dulcimer/guitar duo. He also released What a Wonderful World and Going Home, featuring Bob Webb and his son, Mark Haas. All the CDs contain dulcimer instrumentals with mostly guitar accompaniment, providing an easy-listening mix of Old Time, Celtic, Christian and Contemporary music.

Haas also enjoyed teaching science as a Chemistry Professor at the University of Charleston (now a retired emeritus professor). One of his favorite teaching activities is to sing chemistry songs (on dulcimer and guitar) with his students. In addition, he plays the guitar, sings, and enjoys leading music on Christian retreat experiences such as Kairos Prison Ministry, The Walk To Emmaus, Cursillo, and Teens Encounter Christ (TEC).

Haas will also present a series of mountain dulcimer workshops in the Meeting Room of the Dale Shaffer Research Library from 12:30 to 5 p.m. Saturday. The workshops will be appropriate for advanced beginner to intermediate players. For information or to register for the workshops, contact Bill Schilling at 234-564-3852 or [email protected].

Haas performed for the Dulci-More Concert Series and gave workshops previously in March of 2013 and performed in May of 2023.

No advance tickets or reservations are needed for the concert series. Free refreshments are available during the intermission. Everyone is welcome to attend. For information or directions, contact Schilling at 234-564-3852 or [email protected] or visit www.dulcimore.org for information about the club.

Today's breaking news and more in your inbox

Daily Newsletter
Breaking News

WED/4-17 East Palestine The Way Station, Presbyterian Church, 109 W. Rebecca St., 9 a.m.-3 p.m. East Palestine ...

AREA BRIEFING

Food distribution Destiny House Church, 49345 Calcutta Smith Ferry Road, will hold its monthly food outreach from ...

New Cumberland Lions host past district governors at April meeting

TUE/4-16 Columbiana Area 17 (Mahoning and Columbiana counties) Workforce Development Board, 8 a.m., Best ...

Kendra Shasteen named CCCTC March Student of the Month

Starting at $4.39/week..

IMAGES

Historical research
Historical Research
PPT
Schematic presentation of the historical research process
FREE 7+ Historical Research Samples & Templates in PDF
14+ Literature Review Examples

VIDEO

Lec 1
Scientific View of History
What happened and why? Decline of Pakistan's economy
What is the history of our flagship project in Peru, the Lucero Property?
#Unveiling the# Extraordinary: #Mind-Blowing #Facts That Will Amaze You#by @lifelivingfacts3489
Historical Research in Education |For M.Ed (Advance Educational Research)| By Anil Kashyap

COMMENTS

Historical Research
Historical research is the process of investigating and studying past events, people, and societies using a variety of sources and methods. ... This question should be focused, specific, and relevant to your research goals. Review the literature: Conduct a review of the existing literature on the topic of your research question. This can ...
Types of Literature Reviews
Historical Review Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical reviews are focused on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomenon emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline.
The Literature Review as an Exercise in Historical Thinking
Abstract. Approaching a body of literature from a historical perspective is widely acknowledged as essential to conducting a literature review. Methodological guidance for approaching a body of literature from a historical perspective depends on familiarity with works historians have written about the practice of historical research.
How to Write a Literature Review
A Review of the Theoretical Literature" (Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.) Example literature review #2: "Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines" (Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and ...
Literature Review Guidelines
5) CONTENTS OF LITERATURE REVIEW: The literature review is a research paper with three ingredients: a) A brief discussion of the issue (the person, event, idea). [While this section should be brief, it needs to set up the thesis and literature that follow.] c) A clear argument, using the works on topic as evidence, i.e., you discuss the sources ...
PDF What is Historical Research?
With specific ways of dealing with the past, historical analysis involves. examining primary sources (first-hand accounts or documents [or artifacts] of an event or issue) as well as secondary sources (second-hand accounts written or told by others [e.g., other historians]) about the topic under study. Analysis requires placing issues and ...
PDF Literature Reviews What is a literature review? summary synthesis
Historical review: This type of literature review focuses on examining research throughout time, often starting with the first time the topic emerged in the literature and then examining how approaches to that topic have changed over time. The goal of this type of review is to provide historical context for the research question.
Literature Review: The What, Why and How-to Guide
Narrative review: The purpose of this type of review is to describe the current state of the research on a specific topic/research and to offer a critical analysis of the literature reviewed. Studies are grouped by research/theoretical categories, and themes and trends, strengths and weakness, and gaps are identified.
The Princeton Guide to Historical Research on JSTOR
Draws on hundreds of examples from a broad range of historical topics and approaches. Shares tips for researchers at every skill level. 978--691-21548-8. Sociology, History, Library Science. The essential handbook for doing historical research inthe twenty-first century The Princeton Guide toHistorical Research provides students, scholars ...
The Princeton Guide to Historical Research
The Princeton Guide to Historical Research provides students, scholars, and professionals with the skills they need to practice the historian's craft in the digital age, while never losing sight of the fundamental values and techniques that have defined historical scholarship for centuries. Zachary Schrag begins by explaining how to ask good questions and then guides readers step-by-step ...
LibGuides: HIST 300
A Historiographic Essay (also known as a Historiographic Review or, outside of the history discipline, a Literature Review) is a systematic and comprehensive analysis of books, scholarly articles, and other sources relevant to a specific topic that provides a base of knowledge.Literature reviews are designed to identify and critique the existing literature on a topic, justifying your research ...
Literature review as a research methodology: An ...
A systematic review can be explained as a research method and process for identifying and critically appraising relevant research, as well as for collecting and analyzing data from said research (Liberati et al., 2009). The aim of a systematic review is to identify all empirical evidence that fits the pre-specified inclusion criteria to answer ...
Home
Historical research involves the following steps: Identify an idea, topic or research question. Conduct a background literature review. Refine the research idea and questions. Determine that historical methods will be the method used. Identify and locate primary and secondary data sources. Evaluate the authenticity and accuracy of source materials.
UNT Dallas Library: History: History & Historical Research
Purpose of Historical Research. To learn from past successes and failures. Learn how things were done in the past and apply them to current or future events. To assist in prediction. Lead to the confirmation or rejection of relational hypotheses. Understand the present practices and policies by understanding the history surrounding them.
The English Historical Review
The English Historical Review publishes original and high-quality historical research. There is no 'typical' EHR article, but we provide some guidance here on the scope and qualities that the editors look for in current article submissions and that they are keen to encourage in future ones. We are committed to publishing the best work, in ...
The American Historical Review
The official journal of the American Historical Association. Publishes research that brings together scholarship from every major field of historical study. Articles include original interpretation and make a contribution to historical knowledge.
Research Guides: HIS 250: Historical Methods: Articles & Evaluation
While books and other materials are good to read and explore for a deeper interpretation of historical events, periods, and people, journal articles form the backbone of any academic endeavor or writing. It is in these works that authors and researchers "test out" various interpretations and hypothesis. For many, this is where they enter the ...
Tools and techniques for historical research
For almost all historical topics, however, libraries filled with printed books and journals will remain the principal tools for research, just as museums will continue to be essential to any work dealing with the material culture of past science. The reason for this is simple: what is on the internet is the result of decisions by people in the ...
Narrative Reviews: Flexible, Rigorous, and Practical
Introduction. Narrative reviews are a type of knowledge synthesis grounded in a distinct research tradition. They are often framed as non-systematic, which implies that there is a hierarchy of evidence placing narrative reviews below other review forms. 1 However, narrative reviews are highly useful to medical educators and researchers. While a systematic review often focuses on a narrow ...
Conducting research in daily life: A historical review
This is an extended and updated version of a historical review on research conducted. in daily life (Wilhelm, Perrez, & Pawlik, 2012), that we wrote for the Handbook of Research. Methods in Daily ...
Historical Design in Research
Historical research: This involves an extensive analysis of the past, including historical events, people, and documents. Insights are gained through the analysis of past events and historical data.
Peer Review
A short history. Peer review is a relatively recent innovation in the history of scientific publication. The first journal ... Peter Newmark wrote that "in 1974 .. I was invited — or rather summoned — to meet Max Perutz at the Medical Research Council's Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge. … Perutz came straight to the point.
The Historical Review
The Historical Review at UW, or the Historical Review for short, is the UW's only undergraduate journal showcasing research and writing in the field of history. We are run by students and each issue features articles by UW students. The Historical Review is published once a year in the spring quarter.
Guidance on Energy and Macronutrients across the Life Span
Poor nutrition is a major risk factor for disease. In this first review in a new series on nutrition, the authors provide an overview of nutritional guidance, with a focus on energy and ...
Conducting ethical misinformation research: Deception, dialogue, and
Misinformation research can present many ethical challenges to researchers. These challenges are not insurmountable, but recent research suggests that as a field, we should be adopting and reporting stronger ethical practices. In this review, we consider the three D's of ethical misinformation research; the need to balance deception with informed consent, the value of maintaining an open ...
Black Africans in Renaissance Europe
This careful research, based on the account books of the Cambini bank, shows the value of slaves (proving also how whiter skin was more appreciated than darker skin) and the overwhelming control of the market from Lisbon, confirming the role of Bartolomeo Marchionni as the biggest slave trader in those days.
Review
Review by Becca Rothfeld. ... "A Body Made of Glass" is a product of impressively thorough research, but it is sometimes circuitous and digressive to the point of frenzy. ... and it is not ...
Martín-Estudillo named new director of Obermann Center for Advanced
Photo credit: Ediciones Cátedra. Luis Martín-Estudillo, professor and collegiate scholar in the Department of Spanish and Portuguese in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, will serve as the next director of the Obermann Center for Advanced Studies (OCAS).His appointment will begin July 1. "We are very excited that Professor Martín-Estudillo has agreed to lead the Obermann Center for ...
Political Typology Quiz
About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions.
Dulci-More to host West Virginia musician Saturday
Dulci-More: Folk & Traditional Musicians will host Dave Haas at 7 p.m. Saturday at the Dale Shaffer Research Library of the Salem Historical Society, 239 S. Lundy Ave. Haas lives in Charleston, W ...