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Progress in the utilization of water hyacinth as effective biomass material

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• Published: 28 July 2023

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• Asep Bayu Dani Nandiyanto 1 ,
• Risti Ragadhita 1 ,
• Siti Nur Hofifah 1 ,
• Dwi Fitria Al Husaeni 1 ,
• Dwi Novia Al Husaeni 1 ,
• Meli Fiandini 1 ,
• Senny Luckiardi 2 ,
• Eddy Soeryanto Soegoto 2 ,
• Arif Darmawan 3 &
• Muhammad Aziz 4  

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Water hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes ) is considered a prospective free-floating aquatic plant potentially used to address current issues on food, energy, and the environment. It can grow quickly and easily in various tropical and subtropical environments as long as it has access to adequate light and water to support photosynthetic growth. Ecosystems are threatened by their invasive growth and remarkable capacity for adaptation. However, managing this plant can result in valuable products. This paper demonstrates particle technologies that might be used to utilize water hyacinths, including brake pads, fertilizer, bioenergy, animal feed, phytoremediation agents, bioplastics, and adsorbents. This study is accompanied by a discussion based on the conducted experiments and currently available literature, providing readers with a clearer understanding. Water hyacinth's capacity to absorb macro- and micro-nutrients, nitrogen, and phosphorus makes it a good plant for phytoremediation. The prospect of producing cellulose makes it prospective as a biomass energy source and livestock feeding. Further, it can be transformed into high-cellulose content particles for applications in bioplastics, brake pads, and adsorbents. The current reports regarding education of water hyacinth to student also were added. Finally, issues and suggestions for future development related to the use of water hyacinths are discussed. This study is expected to provide comprehensive knowledge on how to turn invasive water hyacinth plants into valuable products.

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1 Introduction

Water hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes ) is one of the invasive species that lives and reproduces in the aquatic environment. It is a free-floating aquatic plant that typically flourishes in stagnant swamps, lakes, reservoirs, and rivers (Jirawattanasomkul et al., 2021 ). It poses a threat to socio-economics and biological diversities at the environmental, individual, and genetic levels (Colautti & MacIsaac, 2004 ). Its rapid growth creates a global concern because uncontrolled growth can clog water bodies and disrupt power plants. In addition, water hyacinths can prevent sunlight from reaching water bodies and lower oxygen levels, disturbing the aquatic ecology due to a lack of oxygen from the atmosphere (Madikizela, 2021 ).

Water hyacinth is classified as a weed or nuisance plant due to its rapid proliferation in aquatic ecosystems. Before expanding, it persists in small numbers. Water hyacinths are incredibly prevalent, especially in reservoirs, ponds, lakes, and fish farm ponds. The utilization of water hyacinths is quite broad in scope, but research is still urgently required to prevent the spread of water hyacinths and turn them into valuable goods. Various methods for using and managing water hyacinths have been reported and examined (Ajithram et al., 2021 ; Ali et al., 2020 ; Duenas et al., 2018 ; Elenwo & Akankali, 2019 ; Ilo et al., 2020 ; Leguizamo et al., 2017 ; Mishra & Maiti, 2017 ; Pandey, 2020 ; Priya & Selvan, 2017 ; Ting et al., 2018 ; Yan et al., 2017 ; Zolnikov & Ortiz, 2018 ). Unfortunately, current publications only provide incomplete descriptions of effective use in one particular case and some theoretical perspectives. This study's major goal was to demonstrate how technologies can be applied to manufacture products from water hyacinths, including animal feed, fertilizer, bioenergy, brake pads, bioplastics, phytoremediation agents, and adsorbents (see Fig.  1 ). Additionally, several new findings obtained in the experimental results are explained in every section. This study brought the discussion based on the literature to a close with experiments that can help readers gain a better understanding and perspective. This study is expected to provide comprehensive knowledge on using invasive water hyacinth species to produce beneficial products.

Potential applications of water hyacinth

In addition, although the paper shows several applications, as shown in Fig.  1 , this study is limited to discussion and description of some potential applications of water hyacinths. In fact, many applications are available such as bioenergy (i.e., biogas, biofuel, biodiesel, bioethanol), animal feed stock, water treatment, soil remediation, crafts, medicine, production of new materials and fertilizers.

The benefits of this study are being able to document the potential and sustainable application of water hyacinths to control the massive growth of water hyacinth and an environmental conservation method.

The review highlights several applications, including bioplastics, brake pads, animal feed, bioenergy, and waste water treatment (i.e., phytoremediation and adsorption), as well as important education aspects to support its management and utilization. We also added current reports regarding education of water hyacinth to student.

This study also compiles all the possible ways to control the growth of water hyacinth through a potential, safe, and sustainable holistic approach. It also focuses on the role of naturally growing plants to pave the way for further afforestation programs (Yadav et al., 2021 ). Therefore, the benefits of this study include comprehensive documentation of the potential and sustainable application of water hyacinth as a method of controlling the massive growth of water hyacinth and environmental conservation and deep exploration of the educational potential of water hyacinths, providing educators with ideas, methodologies, and case studies to integrate this aquatic plant into their teaching and learning activities.

This study also has a bibliometric analysis study on water hyacinth research. Thus, this research is also expected to help and become a source for other researchers in conducting and determining research topics based on related topics.

The current study’s roadmap regarding water hyacinth use is explained in Fig.  2 . The trend of water hyacinth research is exploring the potential use of water hyacinth (such as wastewater treatment, fertilizers, bioenergy, handicrafts, potassium sources, composite fillers, biochar, and animal feed) as an effort to control the invasive growth of water hyacinth (Hofifah & Nandiyanto, 2024 ; Nandiyanto et al., 2024 ). In detail, several research trends on water hyacinths are explained as follows:

In the first ten years (1971–1980), the water hyacinth was introduced through several publications, including many publications that informed general ecology and the life history of the water hyacinth. The papers also discussed that water hyacinth is an aquatic plant that floats in tropical waters and subtropics and is known as one of the most serious pest plants; thus, it is necessary to control the inhibition of this pest plant. In addition, they informed the macronutrient content (such as inorganic and organic) of water hyacinth, which is useful as a feed ingredient, and discussed that the waters where water hyacinth plants grow affect the physical properties of water (such as temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), and alkalinity).

In the second decade (1981–1990), the application of water hyacinth plants has been extensively studied for municipal wastewater treatment, irrigation, drainage, and water along with many other uses (such as animal feed, source of fresh water through evapotranspiration, source of methane, fertilizer, and compost). Water hyacinth plants are proven very efficient to be efficient in wastewater treatment. It can be implemented to prevent eutrophication by removing biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), NH 3 , and PO 4 . Not only it has the potential to recycle wastewater but also the potential application of water hyacinth in air recycling ecological systems is also informed.

In the third ten years (1991–2000), the use of macrophyte plants for municipal wastewater treatment grew rapidly. For example, water hyacinths are used to purify three effluents (nitrogen, phosphorus, chemical oxygen demand (COD), and suspended solids) containing high levels of ammonia nitrogen. In addition to water treatment, water hyacinth is used to purify chlorophenoxy acid (CPH) and s-triazine herbicides, accumulated in sediments. During this year, efforts to inhibit the growth of water hyacinth as an aquatic weed have been studied. One of the efforts to control the inhibition of water hyacinth growth was carried out through biological and chemical control.

In the fourth ten years (2001–2010), researchers have focused on the use of water hyacinth for long-term conservation for the rehabilitation and management of lakes, management of ecosystems polluted by heavy metals (such as cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, and lead) and industrial management of wastewater (such as treating wastewater from dairy, tanneries, sugar factories, pulp and paper industries, palm oil mills, and refineries) through phytoremediation and adsorption methods. In these years, water hyacinth has been informed of its prospect of becoming a very valuable resource as a substrate for mushroom production. However, in promoting the use of water hyacinth biomass as a substrate for mushroom cultivation, it is also necessary to assess the food safety of the mushrooms produced. This is because water hyacinths and mushrooms accumulate various mineral elements. Furthermore, the potential use of water hyacinths as a source of potassium to produce potassium salts has been reported through the process of extracting and extracting potassium from water hyacinths.

In the fifth ten years (2011–2020), research trends in water hyacinth span this year were still related to the utilization of water hyacinth biomass as fish and livestock feed, fertilizer, and fuel energy (such as biofuel). Water hyacinth can be harvested and used economically for fish and livestock feed. In addition to fuel energy, dry water hyacinth biomass can also be made into briquettes, which are suitable as additional fuel in coal-fired power plants. Water hyacinth was also studied to absorb petroleum hydrocarbons; thus, it can be used in the phytoremediation of polluted ecosystems contaminated by crude oil. To increase the added value of water hyacinth, this plant is also used as an alternative source in the manufacture of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) because it has a high cellulose content. In addition to making CMC, water hyacinths were used as a raw material for handicrafts to replace paper. Water hyacinth has also been studied for its application as an effective, efficient, inexpensive biofilter for wastewater treatment from fish farming; thus, small and medium farmers can adopt this treatment system to aim for sustainable employment from this activity.

In the sixth ten years (2021–present), most of the research trends for water hyacinth were the same as the previous year; namely, the detection of invasive plant species in aquatic ecosystems using various instruments (for example, geographic information systems (GIS) and earth observation applications (EO)), recycling of biomass (animal feed, compost, biochar, bioadsorbent, composite filler, magnetic bioadsorbent with a combination of inorganic and inorganic materials), and multifunctional engineering to reduce pollutants in the form of heavy metals, metalloids, and organic compounds. Water hyacinth has been widely studied because it can fulfill various sustainable development goals (SDGs) related to clean and safe water, land protection, ecosystem, and biodiversity conservation, climate action, increased industrialization, and public awareness. In addition to the techniques for utilizing water hyacinth plants, research trends on assessing the economic value of water hyacinth plants are no less important. This economic analysis can be used to provide evidence of the effectiveness of water hyacinth biological control. Economic analysis studies also show that robust and cost-effective economic analysis is made possible by good record-keeping and generalizable models that can demonstrate management effectiveness and improve the social efficiency of invasive species control.

The roadmap of the current study regarding the use of water hyacinths. Data was obtained using the Scopus database with keywords “water hyacinth” and “ecosystem” analyzed on July 2023

2.1 Raw materials

Several materials were used: water hyacinth (from Cirata dam, Purwakarta, Indonesia), pure water, curcumin (extracted from turmeric purchased from a local market in Bandung, Indonesia), acetic acid, glycerol, Bisphenol A-epichlorohydrin (technical grade, P.T. Justus Kimiaraya, Indonesia), cycloaliphatic amine (technical grade, P.T. Justus Kimiaraya, Indonesia), and iron (III) chloride hexahydrate (FeCl 3 , Sigma-Aldrich; as a model for metal ion).

2.2 Phytoremediation

Water hyacinths were washed and cleaned from impurities to ensure the absence of pests, such as insect eggs. Metal salt solution (45-ppm FeCl 3 in 2.5 L) was put in a glass batch reactor (dimensions of 25 × 15 × 14.5 cm for length, width, and height, respectively) containing water hyacinths. The water hyacinth was exposed to the solution for two weeks at room temperature and pressure (controlled light for 12 h/d). The growth of water hyacinths was monitored (length of the petiole and the width of the leaf blade), and an aliquot sample from the glass batch reactor was taken for chemical content analysis using UV–Vis spectroscopy (Model 7205; JENWAY; Cole-Parmer; U.S.; between 280 and 600 nm). The UV–Vis spectrophotometer results were normalized and extracted using Beer Law to get the actual concentration (Pratiwi & Nandiyanto, 2021 ).

2.3 Nutrient analysis

Proximate analysis on the determination of moisture, ash, and crude fiber content was carried out using the gravimetric method. Analysis of fat, protein, and carbohydrate contents was performed using the Soxhlet, Kjeldahl, and Luff-Schoorl methods, respectively. Thermal Gravimetric analysis of the samples was performed on a NETZSCH Company, Germany, STA449F3 synchronous thermal analyzer (25–600 °C; a heating rate of 20 °C/min).

2.4 Energy content analysis

To analyze the energy content in the water hyacinth, 50 mg of the water hyacinth was introduced into a thermogravimetric analyzer (TG–DTA; DTG60A TA60WS, Shimadzu Corp., Japan) under atmospheric conditions (the heating rate of 10 °C/min; between 25 and 600 °C; holding time at the targeted temperature of 10 min). Information regarding TG–DTA was explained in the previous study (Nandiyanto, 2017 ).

An adiabatic bomb calorimeter in a pressure-resistant reactor (ASTM D 5865–13) was used to measure the calorific value of the water hyacinth (which was dried before the analysis). The water hyacinth sample was exposed to 99.5% pure oxygen for 10 min. A current passed through an ignition wire (inserted inside the bomb) ignited the sample. The reactor was submerged in water and covered by a jacket to prevent heat loss. The heat generated from the combustion was used to heat the water, and the transformed heat was measured.

2.5 Water hyacinth particle production

Water hyacinth (i.e., stems and leaves) was washed, cut into pieces, dried using sunlight for 3 h, re-dried using an electrical furnace at 150 °C for 2–3 h to remove physically attached water, saw-milled (to get particles), and put into sieve test mesh (ASTM D1921) to get fine particles with a specific size (i.e., 500, 250, 100, 74, and 60 μm)). Detailed information on the preparation of particles is reported in the previous study (Nandiyanto et al., 2018 ). The particle size and morphology of the material were investigated using a digital microscope. Fourier transforms infrared spectrometer (FTIR, FTIR-6600, Jasco Corp.; Japan) was used to analyze chemical content. Data obtained from FTIR was then compared to the FTIR dataset available in the literature (Nandiyanto et al., 2019 , 2023b ). To support the analysis of the surface area and porous structure, nitrogen sorption measurement (BET Nova 4200e; Quantachrome Instruments Corp., US; operated at 77 K) was conducted.

2.6 Bioplastic production

Water hyacinth particles were mixed with cornstarch particles (a composition ratio of 15:0.1; 15:1.0; 15:1.5; and 15:2.0), water, glycerol, and acetic acid. The mixture was heated and stirred for 20 min at 60 °C until it thickened. The thickened mixture was then poured into the mold and dried at room temperature to obtain brownish-yellow bioplastics. The prepared bioplastics were observed using a digital microscope (BXAW-AX-BC, China) to determine the morphology and structure of the bioplastics. To analyze the chemical structure of bioplastics, FTIR (FTIR-4600, Jasco Corp., Japan). A biodegradation test was done by immersing bioplastics in water. Detailed information regarding the preparation with its biodegradation analysis of bioplastics is presented in the previous studies (Nandiyanto et al., 2020a , 2020b , 2021d , 2022a , 2022b , 2022d ; Triawan et al., 2020 ).

2.7 Brake pads production

Water hyacinth particles were mixed with bisphenol A-epichlorohydrin and cycloaliphatic amine (the mass ratios of 6/5/5; 9/5/5; 3/5/5), poured into a silicone mold (dimensions of 4 × 3 × 1 cm for length, width, and thickness, respectively), and dried at room temperature and pressure for one week. Detailed information for the preparation of brake pads is reported in previous reports (Anggraeni et al., 2022a , 2022b ; Nandiyanto et al., 2021b , 2021c , 2022c , 2022d , 2022e ). The prepared brake pad was then put into the compression test using a micro screw mount (Model I ALX-J, China) with a digital force meter (model HP-500, serial number H5001909262), the puncture test using a shore durometer (Shore A hardness, In Size, China), and friction test using sandpaper (Dae Sung CC-80Cw, Daesung Abrasive Co., Ltd., Korea) with 5 kg mass pressure (20 min at a speed of 18 cm/s) for understanding wear rate ( M ) and friction coefficient ( μ )). The wear rate was determined using Eq. ( 1 ):

where Ma and Mb are the mass of the brake pad in initial and final conditions after the friction test (g), and t is the testing time (s). A is the cross-sectional area of the brake pad in contact with the sandpaper (cm 2 ).

2.8 Adsorption analysis

For the adsorbent, water hyacinth particles with a specific size were put into a 150-mL glass reactor containing curcumin solution (i.e., concentrations of 100, 80, 60, 40, and 20 ppm; as a model of dye). The suspension was mixed (at 500 rpm for 120 min) at ambient conditions with a constant pH (approximately pH 7). An aliquot of the mixed suspension was taken and filtered through a pore size of 0.22-µm nylon membrane syringe. The filtrate was analyzed using a UV–Vis spectrophotometer (Model 7205; JENWAY; Cole-Parmer; U.S.; between 250 and 500 nm). The UV–Vis spectrometry results were normalized and extracted using the Beer Law to get the actual concentration (Pratiwi & Nandiyanto, 2021 ). Ten adsorption isotherm models were used to evaluate the phenomenon during the adsorption process (i.e., Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, Dubinin–Radushkevich, Fowler–Guggenheim, Hill-Deboer, Jovanovic, Harkin–Jura, Flory–Huggins, and Halsey). The mathematical analysis and its interpretation of the models are explained in the previous studies (Ragadhita & Nandiyanto, 2021 ).

2.9 Education references

We collected data on the theme of education in Indonesia about water hyacinth through a literature study. Data on various articles and books indexed by google scholar were searched and collected through the vosviewer application. The keyword used was "education in Indonesia about water hyacinth". The searched data were limited to only the last 5 years. The development of research on water hyacinth education over the last 5 years obtained as many as 996 articles and book data. After that, several sample article data were taken to be analyzed and discussed.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 current progress in the management of water hyacinth as invasive species.

Invasive species are alien species that live and breed in the aquatic area until they become a threat to biological diversity (Colautti & MacIsaac, 2004 ). The introduced species must generally survive in small populations before becoming invasive. The invasion happened because of competition to get resources, which can significantly change the functions and processes in ecosystems (Duenas et al., 2018 ), transform the balance of the ecosystem, and lead to environmental damage and economic losses. Invasive species possibly reduce biodiversity, causing the extinction of species and habitats (Evans et al., 2016 ).

Many types of invasive species live in water bodies, such as water hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes ), creeping water primrose ( Ludwigia adscendens ), flowering pickerel weeds ( Monochoria vaginalis ), African water weeds ( Monochoria africana ), water lettuce ( Pistia stratiotes L. ), lesser bulrush ( Typha angustifolia ), Kariba weeds ( Salvinia molesta ), mosquito fern ( Azolla pinnata ), and yellow velvetleaf ( Limnocharis fava ). These aquatic species occupy the same niche in the water area, causing direct interactions with the ecosystem (Pandey, 2012 ). One of the most well-known invasive aquatic plants is the water hyacinth. It causes a lot of economic loss in agriculture and husbandry due to its quick invasion of the area. It appears randomly everywhere, competing with cultivated plants for water, sunlight, nutrients, and space. It can destroy native habitats and threaten native plants, organisms, and animals in water bodies. To control water hyacinths in the ecosystem, many researchers reported controlling nutrients (Karouach et al., 2022 ; Yan et al., 2017 ) in the water as well as adding natural enemies (e.g., Neocetina. Spp ) (Elenwo & Akankali, 2019 ) and herbicides (Portilla & Lawler, 2020 ). However, since water hyacinths easily proliferate and have high resistance to extreme planting conditions, controlling their growth is challenging.

One of the best strategies is to make them consumable products. Water hyacinth is a free-floating aquatic plant that usually grows in swamps, lakes, reservoirs, and rivers with a steady flow (see Fig.  3 a). It is a biomass that has great potential to be utilized. Many reports have documented the use of water hyacinth for numerous beneficial products. Because of its high crude protein content, water hyacinth was employed as food for ruminants, pigs, geese, ducks, and fish (Wimalarathne & Perera, 2019 ). Additionally, it is employed in producing bioenergy, biogas, briquettes, fertilizer, and arts and crafts. It is even well-introduced to students in their education from elementary through high school. (Harun et al., 2021 ). According to some publications, water hyacinths can also be used for phytoremediation to take out organic (Madikizela, 2021 ) and heavy metals [e.g., cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), chrome (Cr), cadmium (Cd), and copper (Cu)] (Nazir et al., 2020 ; Pandey, 2016 ) from water. The next sections of the article give a discussion based on experimental results compared to recent literature.

a Photograph image of water hyacinth, b development of Publication number, and c Network visualization of Publications on "Water Hyacinth" and "Ecosystem" (from 2017 to 2022). The inserted table at the bottom right is the publication data

Information on water hyacinths has been distributed to students since elementary school due to the major concern regarding water hyacinth management. On the official website of the Indonesian Directorate General of Education, for instance, this material is included in the curriculum and even developed into a project-based learning program. In Indonesia, water hyacinths are explained to elementary school students as eutrophication and the potential used as conventional craft products. Following that, in the 2013 curriculum, water hyacinth-related learning has been given to 7 th -grade middle school students. Specifically, water hyacinth is introduced in the section on biomass energy combined with information on plants, agricultural waste, forestry waste, human waste, and livestock manure treatment. The topic (regarding "Relations of Interaction and Natural Appearance") was also available to discuss the advantages of water hyacinths, including their usage as animal feed, handicraft materials, and floral arrangement support. Water hyacinth has been used to foster student entrepreneurship, encouragement, and innovation (Syamsi & Fitrihidajati, 2021 ). Discussion about water hyacinths was re-introduced to 10 th -grade senior high school students. In extracurriculars, students are taught to convert water hyacinths into basic consumer goods, such as photo frames, flower vases, sandals, tote bags, and other souvenirs.

To support the explanation in this paper, computational literature review analysis was employed to comprehend the impacts of water hyacinth on the ecosystem as well as products that can be made from it. Detailed information for the computational literature review analysis used in this study is reported in the previous studies (Al Husaeni & Nandiyanto, 2022b ). This analysis has been widely employed in numerous research fields to understand current trends in certain areas of inquiry, such as engineering and mining (Al Husaeni & Nandiyanto, 2022a ; Mulyawati & Ramadhan, 2021 ; Nandiyanto et al., 2023a ), education (Al Husaeni et al., 2023 ; Al Husaeni & Nandiyanto, 2023 ; Bilad, 2022 ; Nordin, 2022 ; Ragadhita & Nandiyanto, 2022a ; Shidiq et al . , 2021 ; Sudarjat, 2023 ; Wirzal & Putra, 2022 ), health (Hamidah et al., 2020 ; Saputra et al., 2022 ), agriculture and biotechnology (Hirawan et al., 2022 ; Luckyardi et al . , 2022 ; Mudzakir et al., 2022 ; Riandi et al., 2022 ; Soegoto et al., 2022 ), chemistry, chemical engineering, and material science (Kurniati et al., 2022 ; Nandiyanto & Al Husaeni, 2021 ; Nandiyanto et al., 2021a , 2022a , 2022d , 2022e ; Saputra et al., 2022 ; Setiyo et al., 2021 ; Shidiq, 2021 ; Wiendartun et al., 2022 ). The analysis current progress using keywords of “Water Hyacinth" and "Ecosystem" found 993 articles. This can become the novelty in this study since the literature review analysis was completed by computational literature review analysis for searching research papers for supporting the experiments and discussion. A research matrix is shown in the attached table in Fig.  3 , with a total number of citations of 9,660. The publications had 1932 citations per year and 9.73 citations per year. The collected data had an h-index of 45 and a g-index of 70, implying a relatively good level of metrics for the productivity and impact of citations from publications. Table 1 shows the popular articles (taken on January 2023 using VOSviewer with google scholar database). This data confirms the importance of research on water hyacinths to the ecosystem.

Figure  3 b shows the progress in the publications between 2017 and 2022. Research has increased since 2019, implying increasing concerns regarding water hyacinths, especially facing the issues of this aquatic plant in the ecosystem. Figure  3 c presents the network visualization of Publications from 2017 to 2022, showing a strong connection in different colors of the nodes in the visualization, including several groups:

Aquatic weed, biodiversity, biological control, biological control agent, ecological impact, ecosystem, ecosystem service, Eichhornia crassipe , freshwater ecosystem, invasion, invasive plant, invasive water hyacinth, macrophyte, proliferation, rivers, and wetlands.

Aquatic plant, aqueous solution, characterization, effectiveness, Eichhornia crassipes , environment, heavy metal, phytoremediation, plant, wastewater, water, water hyacinth, water hyacinth plant, and water lettuce.

Concentration, fish, infestation, lake, lake ecosystem, lake tana, Lake Victoria, presence, spread, water body, water ecosystem, water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipe , water hyacinth infestation, and water quality.

Aquatic ecosystem, biomass, compost, ecological, Eichhornia, growth, performance, soil, water hyacinth biomass, water hyacinth compost, and water hyacinth invasion.

Biogas production, Eichornia crassipe , and weed.

Eichornia crassipe .

Based on the above results, water hyacinths have connections to the research in the aquatic ecosystem, water treatment, and lake. Compared to the environmental impact, research on managing water hyacinths is relatively less, informing the need for comprehending reports to solve issues in the water hyacinth invasion.

3.2 Phytoremediation

Water plants, especially water hyacinth, have been widely studied for phytoremediation (Pandey, 2012 ; Rezania et al., 2015 ; Ting et al., 2018 ) for removing organic, inorganic, and heavy metal pollutants in water. Current reports on the utilization of water hyacinths for phytoremediation for removing chemicals (such as nitrogen, phosphorous, ammonia, Fe, Cu, Cr, Zn, Pb, Cd, and Ni), as well as connection to the COD, total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), total suspended solids (TSS), BOD, and DO, are presented in Table 2 .

Different from other reports, the present study has a novelty in analyzing directly the growth of water hyacinth under the existence of iron in the water medium. Iron ion was selected as a model since it creates agriculture, industries, and municipal problems. The permissible iron concentration in water is less than 10 ppm (Kumar et al., 2017 ). This study used an initial concentration of iron ions of 45 ppm. Figure  4 shows the phytoremediation results of water hyacinth under iron-contaminated water. Figure  4 a is the Vis spectrum results, and Fig.  4 b is the analysis of concentration using Beer Law (taken at a wavelength of 325 nm). Figure  4 c is a visualization of the sample during the phytoremediation. After going through phytoremediation for 14 days, the concentration of iron decreased significantly, as shown by decreasing the visible spectrum for the solution before and after 14 days of phytoremediation (see Fig.  4 a). The Beer Law analysis from the visible spectrum of the phytoremediation process replies to the decreases in the concentration from 45 to 12 ppm of iron (see Fig.  4 b). The successful phytoremediation was shown by the effectiveness of iron removal in water at about 38% after two weeks of phytoremediation. The decreases in concentration are due to the ability of the roots of the water hyacinth plant to absorb pollutants accumulated in water (Newete et al., 2016 ). These pollutants are accumulated as dissolved materials in the accumulator plant parts (Ali et al., 2020 ).

a The result of the visible spectrum of the water hyacinth phytoremediation test under iron-contaminated water, b analysis of iron concentrations after phytoremediation, c visualization of the decrease in iron concentrations for 14 days after phytoremediation, d appearance of water hyacinth leaves before phytoremediation, and e appearance of water hyacinth leaves after phytoremediation

The successful phytoremediation was supported by observing the growth of water hyacinths (see Fig.  5 ). The growth of the petiole size and leaf blade width (see Fig.  5 ) were obtained daily with a total elongation of more than 3 cm within 14 days. Almost no impact on the additional contaminant in the water was found, showing the metabolic stability of water hyacinths under extreme conditions (Nguyen et al., 2021 ). The water hyacinth plant continued to grow; however, yellow spots were found on the leaves (see Fig.  4 e), which is different from the healthy leaf (presented in Fig.  4 d). It is suspected that the spots are caused by an accumulation of iron absorbed (Kneen et al., 1990 ), but further research is still required to investigate deeply for this case. During the growth in 14 days, the total water loss due to the water hyacinths absorption and water evaporation was about 1.2 L (from a total of 5 L of the reactor). It is relatively large, informing great photosynthesis for supporting their growth by absorbing carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide, and nutrients.

Leaf growth during phytoremediation

Based on the phytoremediation process carried out in this study, iron metal absorbed by water hyacinth roots was translocated to other organs until it accumulated in these organs (in roots, petioles, and leaf blades). The results of this study correlate with the results of another study by Ndimele et al. ( 2013 ), which compared the absorption of Fe and Cu by water hyacinths, and reported that Fe and Cu could accumulate in the roots and leaves of water hyacinths. These results indicate that the potential for absorption and accumulation of Fe by water hyacinth is higher than that of Cu. The results of this study are also in line with the research of Hasani et al. ( 2021 ), who examined iron phytoremediation in the waters of former sand mines in Lampung, Indonesia. The results of research by Hasani et al. ( 2021 ) showed that water hyacinths can absorb up to 97.96% of iron in water with only 50% of water hyacinths submerged in water. Also in the phytoremediation process, the absorption of Fe metal occurs simultaneously with the absorption of nutrients. Sufficient levels of nutrients in the waters will increase the ability of photosynthesis. Thus, the absorption of nutrients and metal Fe by water hyacinth is greater. Another study examined the ability of water hyacinth to remediate kitchen waste water, and the result was that water hyacinth was able to absorb iron with the highest bioconcentration factor (BCF) of 8,363.40 compared to other metals such as nickel, zinc, and mercury contained in kitchen waste water (Parwin & Karar Paul, 2019 ).

3.3 Nutrition in water hyacinths

The nutritional content of water hyacinth is presented in the table attached in Fig.  6 . Dried water hyacinth contains water (83.51%), ash (3.20%), fat (0.19%), protein (3.5%), carbohydrate (5.13%), and crude fiber (4.06%). Another study showed that the proximate analysis of water hyacinth contains moisture (89.20%), ash (18.20%), protein (8.20%), lipid (2.20%), fiber (21.42%), and carbohydrate (49.98%). The results demonstrate that water hyacinths have a high moisture content (> 80%). The moisture content of any food is an indicator of its stability and susceptibility to microbial contamination. Because of its high moisture content, water hyacinth may have a limited shelf life. Because of the high moisture content, dehydration would raise the relative concentrations of the other food ingredients and improve the shelf-life/preservation of the water hyacinth meal (Suleiman et al., 2020 ). For more details, a comparison of the nutritional value of water hyacinth with other floating plants is presented in Table 3 (Banerjee and Matai, 1990). The nutrient composition (such as ash, fat, protein, carbohydrates, and fiber) of water hyacinth in this study has a lower value than some other floating plants.

Thermal analysis results of stems and leaves of raw water hyacinth

Based on other studies, due to its high levels of cellulose and hemicellulose, water hyacinth is suitable to be used as an alternative to animal feed (Harun et al., 2021 ; Wimalarathne & Perera, 2019 ). This finding is also supported by other research on the use of water hyacinths for animal feed, such as goats (Abegunde et al., 2017 ), sheep (Mekuriaw et al., 2018 ), pigs (Akankali & Elenwo, 2019 ), ducks (Jianbo et al., 2008 ), rabbits (Hassan et al., 2015 ; Moses et al., 2021 ), and fish (Emshaw et al., 2021 ; Hailu et al., 2020 ). Processing water hyacinths for certain animal feed usually varies. Usually, the entire plant is utilized. However, some users remove the roots to avoid possible metal contamination (Moses et al., 2021 ).

The use of water hyacinth as an animal feedstock has been well-reported (Table 4 ). In Srilanka, water hyacinth is used as feed for ruminants, pigs, ducks, geese, and fish because of its high crude protein content (Wimalarathne & Perera, 2019 ). In China, for pig livestock feed, water hyacinths are usually processed through boiling, chopping, and mixing other ingredients such as vegetable scraps, rice bran, copra meal, and salt. In Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand, water hyacinths are used for pigs, ducks, and fish. However, water hyacinths are cooked without other ingredients before being fed to the animals. For catfish feed, water hyacinth is used as an additional nutrition. Water hyacinths can be used as livestock feed either in fresh form or as silage with straw instead of grass (Malik, 2007 ). In short, water hyacinth can be used as a supplemental feed that replaces the high-cost main feed with a cost-effective source.

3.4 Biomass energy

To meet the increasing energy demand, new energy sources must be considered. Renewable energy sources should be a viable alternative to fossil-fueled energy sources (Satriawan et al., 2021 ; Setiyo et al., 2021 ), such as hydroelectric, geothermal, wind, solar, and biomass-based power. Aquatic plants, such as water hyacinths, are promising biomass for renewable energy in future instead of land plants (Mishima et al., 2008 ). Currently, the literature that studied water hyacinth as a candidate energy source is summarized in Table 5 .

Figure  6 shows the thermal analysis curve on dried stems and leaves of water hyacinths from 25 to 600 °C at a heating rate of 20 °C/min. Along with the TGA-DTA curves, the heating process can be divided into four stages, namely the water evaporation stage, the devolatilization and combustion stage, the carbonization and decomposition stage, and the stable stage. The details of the three stages are discussed in the following (Luo et al., 2011 ; Wauton & Ogbeide, 2019 ):

Temperature between 50 and 120 °C. A decrease in the initial curve up to 47% in the stem and 23% in the leaf occurs, associated with the evaporation of moisture absorbed by the sample. The amount of water in the stem is higher than in the leaf. This is in line with the existence of water in the proximate analysis (see attached table in Fig.  6 ). However, the sample was raw (not dried) in the proximate analysis.

Temperature between 120 and 330 °C. The decomposition of hemicellulose, lignin, and fiber occurs. The decomposition temperatures of the original crude fiber and the pure cellulose fiber were 202 and 253 °C, respectively. The mass removal rate in this temperature range was 2% for both stem and leaf samples. This result is in line with the existence of organic components (such as lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and fibers) in the proximate analysis (see attached table in Fig.  6 )

Temperature between 330 and 380 °C. It indicates the carbonization and decomposition stage. All organic compounds were converted into carbon material (if there is not enough oxygen) and gasses (carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide if there is enough oxygen) (Nandiyanto, 2020 ).

Temperature higher than 380 °C. It indicates the presence of carbonaceous material (Ragadhita & Nandiyanto, 2022b ).

Based on the calorific value analysis results, dried water hyacinth had a gross calorific value of 12.87 kJ/kg (0.01287 MJ/Kg) with a water content of 30%. In the literature (Cheng et al., 2010 ), the heating values of water hyacinth for leaves, stems, and roots are 14,930; 13,520; and 8,460 kJ/kg, respectively. The calorific value of water hyacinth was 14,550 kJ/kg (Munjeri et al., 2016 ). When compared with the calorific value of other aquatic plants and conventional fuels (such as diesel and gasoline), as shown in Table 6 (Arefin et al., 2021 ), the energy value of water hyacinths in this study is still relatively low or does not approach the calorific value of conventional fuels. The relatively small calorific value of water hyacinth is due to the water content in the water hyacinths that is relatively large, reaching 83% of raw water hyacinths (see nutrient content in the attached table in Fig.  6 ) and 30% for dried water hyacinth (water hyacinth adsorb water from surrounding). Therefore, additional techniques must be added to improve the calorific value since the water content is very influential on the calorific value. If the water content is high, then the calorific value is low. Less water content correlates to the obtainment of better calorific value. The calorific value is the most important quality parameter that greatly determines fuel quality (Gill et al., 2018 ).

3.5 Physicochemical properties of water hyacinth microparticles

Figure  7 presents the physicochemical properties of water hyacinth particles characterized by the microscope, the sieve test, and the FTIR analysis. The water hyacinth particles were prepared using a combination of drying and saw-milling process (see Fig.  7 a) using a similar method to the previous studies (Nandiyanto et al., 2018 ). The sieve test analysis using ASTM D1921 revealed the prepared particles having sizes of between 60 and 300 μm (see Fig.  7 b). The average sizes are 150 µm with a standard deviation of 24.61 µm. To confirm the pore structure in the particles, surface area analysis (Fig.  7 c) with BJH pore analysis (Fig.  7 d) was measured. The surface area of the particles was 26.149 m 2 /g with a pore volume of 0.033 cm 3 /g, and a pore radius of 1.704 nm, informing the particles were dense with no meso and macropore structure.

Physicochemical analysis of water hyacinth particles: a Microscope image analysis, b particle size distribution using ASTM D1921, c Nitrogen sorption analysis, d BJH pore size analysis, and e FTIR analysis results. The attached table on the bottom right shows the peaks in the FTIR analysis

The FTIR analysis for understanding the chemical structure and functional groups of water hyacinth particles is presented in Fig.  7 e. Detailed information regarding the dataset for FTIR is presented in previous studies (Nandiyanto et al., 2019 , 2023b ). Detailed peaks are shown in the paneled table in Fig.  7 . The typical absorption peaks of water hyacinth-based particles appear at 3412.19, 2928.04, 1627.97, 1375.29, 1251.84, and 1035.81 cm −1 . The broad absorption peak at 3412.19 cm −1 is the absorption of the OH group, confirming the particles contain water and can easily adsorb more water. The sharp absorption at 2928.04 cm −1 is the C-H bond on CH 2 in cellulose (Tibolla et al., 2014 ). The presence of stretching C–O of the cellulose structure is observed in the absorption region of 1035.81 cm −1 (Sundari & Ramesh, 2012 ). The absorption at 1627.97 cm −1 indicates the presence of C=O bonds which indicates the presence of lignin and hemicellulose. The peak in the 1375.29 cm −1 region corresponds to the C–H and C–O groups of the aromatic ring in lignin. Then, the presence of ester, ether, or phenolic compounds was indicated by a peak at 1251.84 cm −1 (Nguyen et al., 2021 ; Tibolla et al., 2014 ). In addition, a broad peak between 2000 and 2300 corresponds to nitrogen content (Nandiyanto et al., 2019 , 2023b ). The data is in good agreement with the nutrition data (the attached table in Fig.  6 ) that showed the highest content of water hyacinth is water (83.51%), followed by ash content (3.20%), fat content (0.19%), protein content (3.5%), carbohydrate content (5.13%), and crude fiber (4.06%).

3.6 Bioplastics

The synthesis of bioplastics based on biodegradable materials has generated a lot of interest. Starch-based bioplastics are one of the most interesting materials. Many reports indicate the successful fabrication of starch-based bioplastics (see Table 7 ). However, the manufacture of starch-based bioplastics (without reinforcing materials) has weaknesses such as mechanical properties, hydrophilicity, and resistance to water and humidity. Therefore, to overcome this problem, bioplastics with reinforcing materials using water hyacinth are added. Different from other reports, to minimize the possible existence of void spaces between the water hyacinth particles, the experiment was supported by the additional glycerol and starch, which is the novelty of the production of the present bioplastic.

Figure  8 a depicts the appearance of bioplastics made from cornstarch combined with water hyacinths. The color appearance of the final bioplastic product is brownish. The morphology of bioplastics has an inhomogeneous and agglomerated surface structure. Figure  8 b depicts the appearance of bioplastics after three weeks of immersion. Mold was found on the surface of the bioplastics, accompanied by discoloration and cracks of the bioplastics (see Fig.  8 b in the red and orange circle areas).

a Microscope image of bioplastic sample made from corn starch and water hyacinth, b Microscope image of bioplastic surface with fungus for three weeks, c Mechanical properties of various composition bioplastics, and d FTIR results of bioplastics made from corn starch and water hyacinth, bioplastic immersed in water for seven days, and bioplastic surface with fungus for three weeks

Figure  8 c describes the compressive strength of bioplastics made from water hyacinth combined with cornstarch. Water hyacinth's content directly impacts the compressive strength (from 43 to 69 MPa). Additional cornstarch can give the highest compression test since cornstarch binds the water hyacinth particles. However, too much cornstarch can negatively impact the decrease of mechanical strength. Water hyacinth has fibers that can bring better mechanical properties. However, too less cornstarch resulted in inhomogeneous bioplastics. The lack of homogeneity in bioplastics weakens the interfacial bond between the fiber surface and the matrix, potentially decreasing the mechanical properties of bioplastics (Sumrith & Dangtungee, 2019 ). Another study showed that organic growing bags with a composition of 155 g of coconut fiber and 505 g water hyacinth (A3B3) has a compressive strength of 0.020 kg/cm 2 (0.00196133 MPa) (Lutfi et al., 2020 ). Based on the research results of Lutfi et al. ( 2020 ), the bioplastics produced from the previous research show better mechanical characteristics. A puncture test was carried out to confirm the compressive test results. Bioplastics using water hyacinth/cornstarch ratios of 15/0.5; 15/1.0; 15/2.0 had puncture test results of 54.57; 57.71; and 65.71, respectively. The addition of water hyacinth affects the hardness of bioplastics. Bioplastics become brittle and stiff when water hyacinths s are used in large quantities. Furthermore, water hyacinth contains cellulose and lignin, a dry, hard, and easily brittle material (Sumrith & Dangtungee, 2019 ).

Figure  8 d is the FTIR analysis results for the bioplastic during the biodegradation process. The change in the immersed bioplastic after 14 days was found at the peak of about 2100 cm −1 , informing the decomposition of some chemical structures. The possible released component is the nitrogen compound (Nandiyanto et al., 2019 , 2023b ) used by fungi for its growth. The results of this study are also in line with the results of a study by Rop et al. ( 2019 ), which stated that cellulose water hyacinth used as a polymer hydrogel can biodegrade and has the potential to absorb and retain water.

The results of the biodegradability testing of bioplastic are shown in Fig.  9 . The tests were carried out using the immersion method in water. The test results showed that mass loss was found. More additional cornstarch led to the obtainment of less mass loss, which is because cornstarch has impacts on the formation of denser structures in the bioplastics. The decay dimension of the bioplastics under various compositions of water hyacinth and cornstarch are almost the same. Although there are some differences, the values are not so high (between 0.15 and 0.17 g/cm 2 ). The dissolution and decomposition of bioplastics in water are confirmed by the FTIR pattern (Fig.  8 d) and the appearance of fungi on the surface (Fig.  8 b). The cellulose, lignin content, and some nutrients (as shown in the attached table in Fig.  6 ) in the water hyacinth's body lead to the water hyacinth prospectively consumed by microorganisms for their growth (Ilo et al., 2020 ). Also, the ability of water hyacinth components to adsorb water and other chemical components makes the prepared bioplastics easily degraded, in which detailed information regarding the prospective water hyacinth particles for adsorbing chemical components is explained in the next section of this paper. The higher capability of bioplastic in adsorbing water correlates to a better biodegradation rate (Chaiwarit et al., 2022 ).

Biodegradability of the bioplastics

3.7 Brake pads

Brake pads are a type of composite material usually composed of reinforcement material embedded in a matrix along with some other backing material. The reinforcement constituents in brake lining pad composites impart the desired high friction properties required by automotive pads to function properly as motion stoppers (Idris et al., 2015 ). Currently, fabrication and performance evaluation of composite materials for wear resistance applications utilize agro-waste as reinforcement material. Bio-reinforcement has long been regarded as a potential candidate to replace inorganic reinforcement in composite-based materials, thereby assisting in resolving environmental issues and gaining an economic advantage (Supri et al., 2011 ). Water hyacinth has been widely used as a reinforcing material in composite due to its cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin contents. Several studies reported the potential of water hyacinth as a filler and reinforcement material in various types of composite materials, summarized in Table 8 . Several studies have reported using water hyacinth as a reinforcement for brake linings, biobased composites, concrete confinement, and others. But, this study focuses on using water hyacinth as reinforcement for brake pads. Different from other reports, as presented in Table 8 , the present brake pads were produced by compacting water hyacinth with resin and hardener. The possible hardening process at room temperature is the main idea for not adding heat during the polymerization. Thus, the water hyacinth particles as the main reinforcing agent for the brake pad can be maintained, and the optimal mechanical properties of the brake pad from water hyacinth can be obtained.

Figure  10 a shows the as-prepared brake pads from water hyacinth particles with epoxy resin. Figure  10 b shows a microscope image of the prepared brake pads. The mixed water hyacinth particles packed with the epoxy matrix were found. Various amounts of water hyacinth were used and tested to evaluate the compressive strength of the prepared brake pads (Fig.  10 c) and mass loss during the friction test (Fig.  10 d). The results of the compressive test of each sample are shown in Fig.  10 c. The compressive strength of the brake pads prepared using the ratios of water hyacinth/resin/hardener of 3/5/5; 6/5/5; and 9/5/5, respectively, peaked at 424.9; 408.6; and 431.6 MPa. The brake pads from the 3/5/5 ratio reached a steady of 290 MPa, while other brake pads were stable at around 250 MPa. The puncture test confirmed all samples to have 84%. All samples could withstand the applied pressure. The brake pads remain strong. No cracks were found, and only a few indentations were left in contact with the pressing surface, informing that water hyacinth particles are a good reinforcing component for composite. The reinforcing material on the brake pads could withstand the compressive loads given collectively (Nandiyanto et al., 2022a ). These characteristics occur because epoxy resin's polymerization at room temperature strongly binds water hyacinth powder. Water hyacinth with cellulose fibers (57%), hemicellulose (25.6%), and lignin (4.1%) (Tanpichai et al., 2019 ) bring better mechanical properties to the brake pads. However, too much water hyacinth added to the composite has no big impact on the mechanical properties. It is because there is an optimum condition for compact interaction and binding between water hyacinth and resin.

As-prepared brake pads from water hyacinth particles and epoxy resin: a a photograph image, b a high-magnified microscope image of the surface of the brake pad, c compressive tests, d mass loss during friction test

Figure  10 d shows the mass loss curves during the friction test. In the friction test, water hyacinth brake pads were rubbed against sandpaper as a brake disk model. The friction between the brake pad and sandpaper converts kinetic into heat energy. Dust was produced from this friction, resulting in wear and a decrease in the mass of the brake pads. The brake pads prepared using the ratios of water hyacinth/resin/hardener of 3/5/5; 6/5/5; and 9/5/5 had wear rates of 4.76; 5.09; and 2.91, respectively. The presence of more water hyacinth contributes to a lower mass loss rate (see Fig.  10 d). Water hyacinth particles as reinforcement increase the bond strength between polymer resins. The abundant water hyacinth reinforcement embedded in the resin increases the force and energy required to decompose the brake pad matrix into smaller particles. Thus, more content of water hyacinth particles on the brake pads reduces the level of wear of the brake pads. However, too much amount of water hyacinth had issues with the existence of a high wear rate. The more amounts of water hyacinth particles correlate to the inhomogeneous surface. Indeed, this condition makes an unstable structure when friction is applied. The heat generated during the friction test raises the surface temperature of the brake pads, softening the resin (Nandiyanto et al., 2021b ). When the resin is softened, the water hyacinth-resin bonding decreases. The results obtained from compression and friction tests are in line with the results of Arivendan et al. ( 2022 ). Their experiments are the same as those found in this study. The strength of the mechanical brake pads they make increases with the increasing amount of water hyacinth added, but when the amount of water hyacinth is more than 30%, the mechanical strength decreases (due to the agglomeration effect of water hyacinth). When compared with the results of other studies, Flores Ramirez et al. ( 2015 ) used water hyacinth fiber in a polyester resin composite with a concentration of 5–10% and explained that the addition of water hyacinth to polyester resin did not adversely affect the thermal composite and could even strengthen the mechanical qualities. These results are the same as the results from previous study in that water hyacinth fiber strengthens brake pads based on a polymer resin matrix. The cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin contents in water hyacinths cause this fiber to have good strength. Thus, further research is needed to analyze brake pads' optimum composition of water hyacinth particles.

3.8 Adsorbent

Water hyacinth contains cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin which have hydroxyl functional groups, making it potentially used as an adsorbent in an aqueous solution. Many reports showed water hyacinth's successful adsorption process (see Table 9 ). They explained the successful adsorption; however, they did not mention what phenomena were taking place during the adsorption process. The novelty of this study was to demonstrate the effectiveness of the adsorption process using water hyacinth microparticles and to explain their adsorption mechanism.

Figure  11 displays the adsorption ability of water hyacinth particles for adsorbing curcumin. Figure  11 a presents the result of the visible spectrum analysis, showing the concentration decreases along with the adsorption process time. Figure  11 b shows a curve of decreasing curcumin concentration, which is confirmed by the physical appearance of decolorization in Fig.  11 c.

Adsorption ability of curcumin solution by water hyacinth a results of the visible spectrum of water hyacinth adsorption test under curcumin solution, b analysis of curcumin concentrations after adsorption, c visualization of the decrease in curcumin concentrations during the adsorption process

Curcumin was used as a model for adsorptive. Its molecular size (about 1.4 nm) effectively describes the phenomena during adsorption. This study used three particle sizes to ensure the mechanism happening during the adsorption process. Then, to support the adsorption analysis, 10 isotherm models such as Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, Dubinin–Radushkevich, Fowler–Guggenheim, Hill-Deboer, Jovanovic, Harkin Jura, Flory–Huggins, and Halsey were used. The calculation was also compared to the nitrogen sorption analysis, shown in Fig.  7 c, d, which confirmed the particles have no macro and mesoporous structure. Thus, all adsorption processes will be done on the outer surface of the adsorbent. Detailed isotherm parameters gained from the experiments are presented in Table 10 . Detailed fitting analysis for understanding the calculation of isotherm adsorption is explained in the previous studies (Ragadhita & Nandiyanto, 2021 ).

Based on the adsorption results, the suitability of the adsorption isotherm model was analyzed by comparing the coefficient values of each adsorption isotherm model. The isotherm model was tested by regression analysis to get the correlation coefficient value ( R 2 ). Based on the value of R 2 in the range of more than 0.80, sequentially, the five most suitable models were the Jovanovic isotherm ( R 2  = 0.9672) > Harkin–Jura ( R 2  = 0.9258) > Langmuir ( R 2  = 0.9144) > Freundlich ( R 2  = 0.8264) > Halsey ( R 2  = 0.8264) (see Table 9 ). Meanwhile, the other five models (such as Temkin, Dubinin–Radushkevich, Fowler–Guggenheim, Hill-Deboer, and Flory–Huggins) are not recommended to explain the adsorption process (see Table 9 ).

An illustration of the adsorption process on the surface of water hyacinth-based bio adsorbent is depicted in Fig.  12 . Based on the Jovanovic, Langmuir, and Halsey models, the adsorption process follows monolayer coverage. Based on Freundlich and Harkin–Jura's models, the adsorption process forms multilayer and monolayer coverage. Due to the formation of monolayer and multilayer coverage, the adsorption process follows a cooperative process (see the value of 1/ n  > 1 in the Freundlich model). Therefore, during the adsorption process, physical and chemical interactions occur simultaneously. Physisorption occurs because of weak van der Waals bonds between the adsorbent surface and the adsorbate. Physically, the adsorbate diffuses across the adsorbent surface without any interaction with the adsorbent. Chemisorption occurs among the adsorbates in forming the upper layer, forming cooperative adsorption.

Adsorption process between water hyacinth-based adsorbent and curcumin (as adsorbate)

The results of this study are in line with the fact that water hyacinth has the potential to be used as an adsorbent material for absorbing waste in water (such as organic or inorganic waste) as reported by Mohammad et al. ( 2022 ). Mohammad et al. ( 2022 ) reported the adsorption process in wastewater contaminated with medicinal waste with activated carbon derived from water hyacinths. Research results from Alam et al. ( 2015 ) showed that the adsorption was fast, and the equilibrium time was estimated to be 120 min. The pH of the drug solution strongly impacts on the amount of drug adsorbed, where the optimal pH value is 8. The percentage of drug adsorbed at the original pH approaches obtained at the optimal pH. Then, the adsorption isotherms were fitted with the Langmuir, Freundlich, and Redlich-Peterson isotherm models, and the Langmuir model showed the best fit describing drug adsorption as one of the monolayer forms on adsorption sites that are energy equal and homogeneously distributed. An important adsorption parameter is the adsorption capacity of Langmuir, where the Q max value is 122.47 mg/g. Kumar and Chauhan ( 2019 ) also elaborated on the development of chemically modified dry hyacinth roots (DWHR) as an adsorbent to remove chromium (VI) from synthetic aqueous solutions whose results showed that The DWHR removed chromium (VI) from the synthetic aqueous solution at maximum removal efficiency of 95.43% from the conducted batch adsorption at optimized parameters (i.e., pH 3.0, adsorbent dose = 14.0 g/L, adsorbent size = 150 µ, adsorbate concentration = 10.0 mg/l, temperature = 25 ± 5 °C, agitation speed = 200 rpm) after 2 h contact time. The DWHR has a maximum adsorption capacity of 1.28 mg/g. Other researchers also investigate the effect of different parameters, i.e., adsorbent dosage, contact time, pH of the solution, initial dye concentration, and temperature, in adsorption studies of congo red dye solutions using carbon synthesized adsorbents from water hyacinth stem and leaf. The results showed that the observed Langmuir isotherms were the most suitable, with maximum adsorption capacity of 14.367 mg/g and 13.908 mg/g at 50 °C and contact time of 60 min, and initial dye concentration of 50 mg/L (Extross et al., 2023 ). Based on the results of several studies that have been described, the use of water hyacinths as an adsorbent in this study has better results than previous studies in terms of its relatively larger adsorption capacity.

3.9 Education for water hyacinth

Education for understanding of water hyacinth and its impact on environment is provided at various levels of education. In Indonesia, it starts from kindergarten to tertiary education and even the community, in which this can be obtained from the official website in Indonesian directorate general of education (see https://ayoguruberbagi.kemdikbud.go.id/artikel/mengajarkan-cara-mengolah-sampah-eceng-gondok-di-masa-pandemi/ ). Most of territory in Indonesia consists of water, and water hyacinth plants do grow in water areas. This plant is important to be taught because it has several advantages and disadvantages in realistic life. This plant can be processed into various products and can even become a commercial products that can increase income and national economic growth. To elementary school students, water hyacinths are introduced as a eutrofication and possibly used as traditional crafting materials. Then, the education of water hyacinth has been reported more in class VII in middle school based on the 2013 curriculum. Water hyacinths have been introduced in the section of biomass energy, which can be from plants, agricultural waste, forest waste, human waste, and livestock manure. Water hyacinths also were introduced in topic 5 for "relations of interaction and natural appearance", in which the topic discussed the benefits of water hyacinths including their uses for animal feed as well as handicraft materials and flower arrangement support. This topic is important for improving student creativity as well as student encouragement and entrepreneurship. Discussion about water hyacinths was re-introduced in class X. In extracurricular school, students are taught to use water hyacinths for simple products, such as photo frames, flower vases, sandals, tote bags, and other souvenirs. Another discussion on water hyacinths is reported in the use of biomass energy. Education about water hyacinth has been also implemented in various countries. Although most countries provide education about these plants at the research level, unlike Indonesia, they start from various levels of education, confirmed by few research developments on water hyacinth found with specific discussions at every level of education. Detailed information regarding the education of water hyacinth is explained in detail in literature (Fiandini et al., 2023 ).

Water hyacinth is considered to be a promising valuable species in future. With the support of available technologies, water hyacinths can be converted from invasive species that endanger the ecosystem into prospective and valuable products. A summary of the current progress in utilizing water hyacinths is presented in Fig.  13 , which can be done in three general ways, including the combustion process, the direct use, and the drying process with particle preparation. The processes are the following:

Direct utilization of water hyacinths can be useful for phytoremediation because water hyacinth has an excellent performance in absorbing pollutants such as metals (i.e., Pb, Zn, Ni, Hg, Cr, and As), organic pollutants, and inorganic pollutants (i.e., nitrogen and phosphorus) in water (see R1).

Direct combustion is carried out to generate energy because water hyacinth has enormous potential to be used as an energy source due to its low lignin and high cellulose and hemicellulose contents (see R2). For some cases, direct burning of water hyacinth plants is not recommended due to their low density, low calorific value per unit volume, and high water content, informing the need for pretreatment, such as an additional drying process. Other processes derived from direct burning are by adding treatments to produce briquette (see R3), which effectively increase the thermal value of water hyacinth biomass. Furthermore, water hyacinth's direct combustion process (also known as the carbonization process) produces carbon material (see R4). The carbonization process removes non-carbon compounds, thus, organic components and cellulose decompose into carbon. This carbon material derived from water hyacinth can be used as an adsorbent, fertilizer, and even supercapacitor and other carbon-related applications (see R5). Also, the carbonization process can be combined with the briquette production technique to produce briquettes (see R6).

Additional drying and particle preparation process can also be used to convert water hyacinth into other useful products (see R7). Drying is a process carried out to remove the water content contained in the substance to get excellent sub-products for the next treatment. For example, the dried water hyacinth and its powder form can be used for components in the briquette production process (see R8). Chopped and dried water hyacinth, and further proceeding into powder forms, can be used for animal feed and fertilizer (see R9). The water hyacinth that has been dried and/or ground can be used directly for adsorbent (see R10). In addition, mixing additives with water hyacinth is known to produce new and sustainable materials such as bioplastics and brake pads (see R11). To make bioplastics, water hyacinth needs to be added with plasticizer additives such as glycerol. Meanwhile, water hyacinth needs to be added with additives such as resin and catalyst to make brake pads. The dried water hyacinth can also be used for bio-fuel using fermentation or pyrolysis process (see R12).

Water hyacinth has a significant amount of carbon content. Cellulose and hemicellulose can be fermented or put into pyrolysis to obtain bio-fuel (see R13). Utilization of water hyacinth through drying and particle preparation can also be done to support this fermentation and pyrolysis process (see R12).

Summary of the current progress in the utilization of water hyacinth

This paper is expected to become integrated information for demonstrating how to utilize invasive water hyacinth species to become useful products. Indeed, this is prospective for solving current issues regarding food, energy, and the environment (wastewater treatment). This must be supported by transferring education to student to support more innovations in future.

Data availability

All authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are from authors’ experiments and all relevant data are included in the article.

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Nandiyanto, A.B.D., Ragadhita, R., Hofifah, S.N. et al. Progress in the utilization of water hyacinth as effective biomass material. Environ Dev Sustain (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-03655-6

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Impact of water hyacinth on rural livelihoods: the case of Lake Tana, Amhara region, Ethiopia

Yilebes a. damtie.

a Department of Development and Environment Management, University of Gondar, Ethiopia

b Institute of Disaster Risk Management and Food Security Studies, Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia

Arega B. Berlie

c Department of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia

Gashaw M. Gessese

Associated data.

Data included in article/supplementary material/referenced in article.

Water hyacinth covers a significant portion of Lake Tana affecting the livelihoods of thousands of rural households. The general objective of the study was to assess the impact of water hyacinth on the livelihoods of rural households living around Lake Tana. Quasi-experimental research design was applied to achieve the specified objectives of the study. Data was collected from 413 survey households, thirteen key informants, six focus group discussions and field observation. Descriptive statistics and propensity score matching (PSM) using STATA 15.0 were used for data analysis. Results of the study revealed that crop, livestock, and fishery production are the most important livelihood strategies of the study area accounting for 99.3, 95.2 and 9% of the sample households, respectively. The average annual crop production of the households was 2629.1 kg of rice equivalent. However, the weed affected the crop production of 34.1% of the sample households through covering the agricultural land and making the land preparation difficult. In addition, the weed affected 36.6% of the households’ livestock production. The impact was revealed in covering the grazing land, causing disease and/or death of the livestock and elevating the livestock production cost. Furthermore, water hyacinth was found as a reason for the reduction of fish population, blockage of fishing entry sites and disruption of the transport system. A statistically significant reduction of fish production, 45.7% in wet season and 49.9% in dry season, was generated because of water hyacinth. The PSM result showed that the water hyacinth significantly decreased the crop production (278.7–475.4kg of rice equivalent) and livestock production (0.083–0.114 TLU) of the affected households. The study recommended management of water hyacinth to control the impacts on rural livelihoods and further studies towards medication of water hyacinth cased livestock diseases and the possible ways of the weeds consumption as a feed.

Impact; PSM; Rural livelihoods; Water hyacinth.

1. Introduction

Capital assets are invested by the people to employ diverse livelihood strategies with an interest in achieving their targeted livelihood outcome ( Baumann and Sinha, 2001 ). According to Nicol (2000) water creates part of the required natural asset to run livelihoods by households. Though the extent varies from high to low, almost all livelihoods use water as an input ( WB, 2006 ). The rural livelihood strategies could fail or impaired due to the existence of vulnerability contexts in water bodies. Because of high dependence on agriculture and animal husbandry, failure of crop and animal production will be devastating to the rural households ( Wiseman et al., 2010 ). Water hyacinth among the aquatic invasive weeds delivers a significant threat to water resources that have an active economic engagement ( Arp et al., 2017 ).

Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms , is an aquatic weed native to the Amazon in tropical South America ( Labrada et al., 1995 ; Coetzee et al., 2017 ). It is a perennial aquatic herb belonging to a family Pontederiaceae ( Herfjord et al., 1994 ; Practical Action, 2006 ; Patel, 2012 ; Jana, 2015 ). Water hyacinth is the worst aquatic plant on the earth with fast productivity capacity ( Tham, 2012 ; Saleh, 2016 ). The weed is a fast grower which doubles its population within two weeks ( Jana, 2015 ). Presently, it has conquered all tropical and subtropical countries of the world ( Tham, 2012 ). The weed is becoming a critical challenge for a number of countries in the African continent including Ethiopia ( Labrada, 1996 ). Water hyacinth is one of the 35 invasive weed species identified in Ethiopia ( Shiferaw et al., 2018 ). The weed's appearance on Lake Tana, the largest Lake of the country, was declared in 2011 ( Ejigu and Ayele, 2018 ; Kibret and Worqlul, 2018 ). Plenty of negative impacts are posed by water hyacinth on aquatic ecosystems and local livelihoods with varied levels of influence ( Patel, 2012 ; Rakotoarisoa et al., 2015 ).

Strategies are the ways in which households utilize and combine their assets to obtain food, income and other goods and services, in the context in which they live ( WFP, 2009 ). The influence of the vulnerability condition ranges to the livelihood strategies that in turn hamper outcomes. The water hyacinth plays a similar role towards affecting households’ livelihood strategies. The water hyacinth weed negatively affects the activities of the people with direct and indirect dependence on the infested water bodies ecosystem ( Ayalew et al., 2020 ). The hazards impact differs across livelihoods context and effective hazard impact assessment must be in consideration of livelihoods analysis ( Lawrence et al., 2007 ). Therefore, local livelihood change analysis is vital to capture the impact of hazards on affected households ( Lawrence et al., 2007 ; Vaitla et al., 2012 ).

Scholars from different disciplines attempt to capture the impact of water hyacinth on rural livelihoods. The works of Adan and Onywere (2010) , Tewabe et al. (2017) , Bufebo and Elias (2018) , Hiruy (2019) and Alemu (2018) are examples on the issue. However, most of the available literatures on the impact of water hyacinth on livelihoods are qualitative. How far the water hyacinth weed influenced the livelihoods is not well captured. In addition, these studies are conducted to observe the impact of the weed across some specific types of livelihood strategies. Specially, most of these studies were focused on fishery whereas crop and livestock production were left undiscovered. Meanwhile, fragmented studies on water hyacinth analysis have failed to display the full picture of the weed's impact on rural livelihood strategies.

Bufebo and Elias (2018) noted the importance of studying the livelihood impacts of invasive alien species including water hyacinth should be studied across the country, Ethiopia. Hence, further studies are required to maintain the water hyacinth to an unproblematic extent and sustain water bodies ( Mengist and Moges, 2019 ). In recognition of the gap points, it is vital to identify and estimate the rural livelihoods impact of water hyacinth across its infestation of water bodies along the plan and implementation of its management strategies. Research projects on water hyacinth impacts are critical to broaden the existing knowledge on invasive species ( Villamagna and Murphy, 2010 ). For that reason, the purpose of this study was designed to analyze the impacts of water hyacinth on rural livelihoods with evidence of its abundance in Lake Tana water body of Amhara national regional state in Ethiopia.

2. Study area description

The study area, Lake Tana, is a tropical lake situated in the north-western part of Ethiopian highlands ( Vijverberg et al., 2009 ). Lake Tana is about 563km far from Addis Ababa which is the capital city of Ethiopia ( UNESCO, 2015 ). Administratively, the lake is found in the Amhara National Regional State (ANRS) of Ethiopia. The absolute location of the lake extends from 11°25′07″-12°29′18″ north and 36°54′01'' - 37°47′20″ east ( UNESCO, 2015 ). Lake Tana is the largest lake in the country and it is found at an altitude of 1830m above sea level ( Vijverberg et al., 2009 ; Mundt, 2011 ). The average temperature of the Lake Tana basin is 20 °C ( Abebe et al., 2017 ) while the rainfall of the basin extends from 816 up to 2344mm ( ADSWE, 2015 ). Lake Tana basin is a home for numerous biodiversity resources. The basin delivers a comfortable place for various flora and fauna. Cultural heritages and waterfalls in the Blue Nile basin are well acknowledged and are good sources of the region's economy ( Mundt, 2011 ). Lake Tana basin holds an endemic fish species that are unique across the world. Among 27 fish species in the Lake Basin, 20 of them are endemic to the area ( Tewabe, 2015 ).

Like the rest of the country, 88.6% of the population in Amhara National Regional State reside in rural areas and their economy is dependent on subsistence agriculture ( ANRS, 2011 ). As a natural resource, Lake Tana supports the settlement and livelihoods of many people. About 2 million people live near Lake Tana and its catchment including the town of Bahir Dar ( Vijverberg et al., 2009 ). In other information, Ejigu and Ayele (2018) pointed out that Lake Tana and its watershed provides livelihood security for 5 million people. More specifically, Lake Tana and neighboring wetlands deliver a livelihood for more than 500,000 people both directly and indirectly ( Vijverberg et al., 2009 ). The Lake supports various livelihoods though agriculture is the dominant one ( Goshu and Aynalem, 2017 ). Among the different livelihood strategies, fishing is the major livelihood of the surrounding people. However, because of different natural and human made calamities these resources are in danger not only the fish resource but also the entire lake as well.

Livelihoods are influenced by locations and resources available in the area that determine opportunities available to the people ( Ajala, 2008 ). Patterns of livelihoods are usually shown in livelihood zone maps and it is the first step for livelihood based analysis ( FEG, 2006 ). Livelihood zone is a geographical area at which people engage in the same pattern of livelihoods and access to market ( Holzmann, 2008 ). According to a report generated by USAID (2018) areas around Lake Tana fall under two livelihood zones: Tana Zuria Livelihood Zone (TZA) and Tana Zuria Rice Livelihood Zone (TZR) (see Figure 1 ). The two livelihood zones used to be one primarily and letter on split into two in recognition of the rice production which is a distinctive characteristic for TZR ( USAID, 2017 ).

Locational map of the study area based on livelihood zones. Source: Authors compilation using ET_LHZ_2018.

3. Methodology

Quasi-experimental research design was applied to achieve the objective of the study. Combinations of different methods of research, what Murray (2001) called mixed methods research are effective in conducting livelihood research. Hence, both qualitative and quantitative research methods were applied for the livelihoods analysis. The study was conducted in Lake Tana because of two reasons. Primarily, high proliferation of water hyacinth is available on Lake Tana ( Ejigu and Ayele, 2018 ; Kibret and Worqlul, 2018 ). Secondly, the study fills the multidisciplinary and quantitative data needed on Lake Tana towards the weed and its impacts ( Asmare, 2017 ; Shiferaw et al., 2018 ). The study used multi-stage sampling techniques to select the sample households. Firstly, two districts (Fogera and Gondar Zuria) among the nine districts affected by water hyacinth were selected randomly. Secondly, from the thirty rural kebele administrations (RKAs) six RKAs that are adjacent to the lake were randomly selected. Finally, the systematic random sampling technique was used to select the sample households proportionally to the total population. The sample size determination formula forwarded by Cochran (1963) when target population is unknown was used to set the sample size. Based on the equation the minimum sample size was found as 384. Key informants and focus group discussants were selected purposively from offices and RKAs that are related to the issue of water hyacinth.

Primary data were collected from household survey, key informants interview, focus group discussion and observation. To assess the impact of water hyacinth on rural livelihoods, a survey on 413 randomly selected households was practiced. The survey involved 220 water hyacinth infested and 193 non-infested households. Beside six focus group discussions, one per sample RKA, were employed with community representatives. In addition, thirteen interviews were conducted with experts and officials working on the issue of water hyacinth and rural livelihoods. Furthermore, direct observations were conducted to cross check the data obtained from the other data collection sources. The observations were made on water hyacinth infested areas to visualize the weeds characteristics and its impact on the rural livelihoods. Data of the study was collected from May 20–30, 2021. In addition, document review was conducted to collect data from articles, reports and other documents from government offices written on the issue of water hyacinth and rural livelihoods to capture secondary data and complement the primary sources. The reviewed articles were selected based on being published in reputable journals and not being old. Reports and government documents were taken from credible sources.

The best picture of livelihoods can be witnessed at individual and household level. Individuals can engage in various activities, however, the real impacts of these activities are shown at household level ( Messer and Townsley, 2003 ). Thus, the level of analysis in this study was household. Holzmann (2008) noted that the effects of water hyacinth as a shock are specific to different livelihoods. Varieties of livelihood strategies are available and it is the responsibility of the investigators to choose the most appropriate one to the context of the study. Considering the different livelihood strategies, this study analyzed the impact of the weed on crop, livestock and fishery production in the area.

There is no simple algorithm for the measurement of livelihoods ( Scoones, 1998 ). In consideration of a difficulty in measuring the livelihoods, the study selected appropriate analysis methods. Quantitative data analysis pertaining the effect of water hyacinth on rural livelihood was analyzed by using descriptive statistics such as percentage, frequencies and tables. The crop production of the households was measured by rice equivalent while tropical livestock unit (TLU) and kilogram respectively measured the livestock and fishery productions. Propensity score matching model (PSM) was applied to show the impact of water hyacinth on rural livelihoods. The PSM analysis was conducted the by psmatch2 analysis program using STATA 15.0 analysis software. However, the impact of the weed on fishing was not analyzed by PSM because the weed affects all of the fish producer households and it was not possible to have a control group. Therefore, paired sample t-test was applied to compare the fish production difference before and after water hyacinth introduction. In addition, an independent sample t-test was used to assess the significance of crop and livestock production difference on the water hyacinth affected and non-affected households. Thematic analysis was used in order to triangulate the quantitative data collected from the survey. It was used for elaboration of analysis that numbers do not give complete description of the phenomena at data analysis and interpretation stage.

3.1. Livelihood production estimation methods

The crop production of the households was expressed in terms of rice equivalent in kg. Summation of different crop types with a difference in price and nutrient value is meaningless. Therefore, we need to project the crop production into a common product. For this study, the crops of diverse types were transferred into rice equivalent due to two main reasons. Primarily rice is an international crop and secondly it is a widely cultivated crop in the study area with the majority of the households. The calorie values of the crop types taken from EHNRI (1998) and WFP (2000) were vested to estimate the rice equivalent of the crops. The following equation was used to estimate the rice equivalent of each crop

The livestock production of the rural households was measured in terms of Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU). A livestock conversion factor given by Storck et al. (1991) was used to construct the TLU. In addition, the fishery production of the households was estimated in kilograms of fish catch per annum.

3.2. Propensity score matching (PSM) model

The PSM model was used to show the difference in livelihoods outcome among water hyacinth affected and non-affected households residing around Lake Tana. This model was selected because there is no baseline data to compare the impact of water hyacinth in the study area and to reduce participant's selection bias. The PSM analysis was conducted in consideration of the five steps of PSM recommended by Caliendo and Kopeinig (2005) that are stated below.

Estimating the Propensity Score: Propensity score estimation is the primary step in the implementation of PSM ( Heinrich et al., 2010a ). Two basic decisions must be done in the propensity score estimation. The first decision is towards the selection of the model for the score estimation while the second is determination of variables to be included in the model ( Caliendo and Kopeinig, 2008 ). For dummy treatment variables (1 water hyacinth affected and 0 non-affected) logit and probit models are frequently used for propensity score estimation and show no strong difference is available between the two models ( Heinrich et al., 2010a ). For this study, a probit model was selected to estimate the propensity score after checking the fitness of both probit and logit models on the data of the study. The multicollinearity problem was detected by variance inflation factor (VIF) for continuous variables and contingency coefficient (CC) for the categorical variables. Furthermore, the fitness of the model was checked by a goodness-of-fit test to assess whether the model fit to this type of data or not.

Impact evaluation analysis through PSM requires three types of variables: treatment, outcome and covariates. Based on the investigators knowledge on previous empirical studies and institutional situations, the variables were selected for the model. As shown in Table 1 , the study identified the treatment, outcome, and covariate variables with their appropriate level of measurement.

Table 1

Treatment, covariate and outcome variables of the study.

Matching Algorithms Choice: Next to propensity score estimation, the researchers have to choose the matching algorithm. Matching of water hyacinth affected and non-affected group households can be conducted based on propensity scores using various matching algorithms: nearest neighbor, caliper matching, radius matching and kernel matching ( Heinrich et al., 2010a ). In this study, the choice of matching algorithm was built on the performance criteria such as number of insignificant variables after matching, low pseudo R 2 after match, high number of matched sample size and lower standard bias.

Check Overlap/Common Support: The common support condition was determined after the treatment and control groups property scores are plotted. Sample households in regions without overlap were excluded from the coming analysis ( Jalan and Ravallion, 2003 ). The overall region of the control and treatment groups can be observed using the mirror histogram and density distribution plots of the two group propensity scores ( Heinrich et al., 2010a ; Staffa and Zurakowski, 2018 ). Households beyond the region of common support were removed from the analysis. This study managed identification of common support region among treatment and control groups by using maximum and minimum values.

Matching Quality Evaluation and Effect Estimation: Balancing tests were conducted to check the balanced distribution of the covariates across the water hyacinth affected and non-affected groups. The purpose of the tests is to check the balance of the propensity scores distribution across the two groups. The common tests to check the matching quality of the PSM model are standardized bias, t-test, stratification test, joint significance and Pseudo-R 2 .

The percentage of covariates bias reduction was calculated as 100 (1- Bias after matching/Bias before matching). After matching of the covariates, bias reductions beyond 20% are taken as large ( Rosenbaum and Rubin, 1985 ). A two-sample t-test was used to check if there are significant differences between the means of the covariates of both the treated and control groups. Although some level of statistically significant difference can be found before matching, it is not expected after matching since the covariates balance the treatment and control groups. The t-test aims to measure the statistical significance of the two groups ( Caliendo and Kopeinig, 2005 ).

The stratification test categorize the propensity scores of the treatment and control group households in to blocks of equal score range and checks for the existence of the statistically significant difference across the mean score of the two groups blocks using t-test ( Dehejia and Wahba, 2002 ; Caliendo and Kopeinig, 2005 ). Finally, the joint significance and pseudo-R 2 were checked. The pseudo-R 2 result indicates the extent of being water hyacinth affected explained by covariate regressor variables. Low pseudo-R 2 and insignificant joint effect is expected after matching of the propensity scores ( Caliendo and Kopeinig, 2005 ).

The result of impact estimation cannot be interpreted without the standard errors that deliver the level of errors in the estimates generated. However, analysis of treatment significance and the level of standard errors is not an easy task. This is due to the fact that estimation of treatment effect variance requires estimation of variance from propensity score generation, common support region selection and the order of the treated individuals matching ( Caliendo and Kopeinig, 2005 ; Heinrich et al., 2010b ). Usually the bootstrapping method is applied to obtain the standard errors in PSM analysis. In general, the bootstrap relies on sampling from the analysis sample with replacement, replicating the analysis multiple times. The standard error is the standard deviation of the estimated-impact estimate across replications ( Heinrich et al., 2010a ). In this study, standard error was estimated by bootstrapping with 100 replications.

Sensitivity Analysis: Some variables will be affected by water hyacinth treatment (outcome) while others will not be affected at all (covariate). Difference among water hyacinth affected and non-affected households before the treatment is an overt bias and shall be measured where failure to capture the pretreatment difference will result in hidden bias. The PSM analysis shall successfully identify and measure covariate and outcome variables. The extent of the hidden bias influence on the impact estimation generated is tested by sensitivity analysis ( McFadden, 2015 ). The bounding approach (rbounds) was used to analyze the influence of the hidden bias on the matching conducted. The analysis was computed only for significant outcome variables.

4. Results and discussion

Water hyacinth impact analysis was conducted in three rural livelihood strategies: crop production, livestock production and fishery that have direct link with water hyacinth. The analysis was managed by using the descriptive statistics and propensity score matching (PSM) econometric model.

4.1. Agricultural production in Lake Tana

The study area is under Tana Zuria Rice (TZR) and Tana Zuria (TZA) livelihood zones. The two livelihood zones used to be under the same livelihood zone and they share similar characteristics. The demarcation was done in recognition of rice production which is typical in Tana Zuria Rice livelihood zone ( USAID, 2017 ). Crop production is the backbone of the rural households economy in the study area and 99.3% of the households were found engaged in the strategy. The characteristic of production is mostly traditional using animal power and small equipment despite some use of fertilizer, pesticide and herbicides. The study sample households possessed a mean agricultural land of 0.91ha and 0.34ha of irrigated land.

The rich water resources in Lake Tana and the surrounding areas enable the households to practice irrigation and flood recession agriculture beside the rain-fed one. The Lake Tana by itself and its tributaries of Reb and Gumara help 59% of the households to practice small-scale irrigation. In addition, about 20% of the households were found engaged in recession agriculture. The common productions in the study were onion, rice, maize, teff, chickpea and garlic in descending order of production quantity. The production of all the crops was converted into rice equivalent and the crop production of the households was estimated in terms of rice equivalent. The mean annual crop production of the households was 2629.1 kg of rice equivalent. The t-test result in Table 2 showed a statistically significant difference in the crop production of the water hyacinth infested (1798.1kg) and non-infested (3043.1kg) households. The strategy has incurred more than half (55.2%) of the total income of the households which was 14724 ETB per annum.

Table 2

Crop production among water hyacinth infested and non-infested households.

Livestock is the second most important livelihood in Lake Tana surrounding areas and 95.2% of the respondents practice this strategy. The study area is familiar with the well-known cattle variety, Fogera breed. The majority (84.5%) of the livestock producers implement free grazing while 7.1% and 8.4% practice modern production and a combination of free grazing and modern respectively. The sample households mainly possess livestock of cattle, sheep, goats and poultry whereas a limited number of households own equines (donkeys, horses, and mules) and honey bees. The mean livestock holding of the households was 4.02 TLU. The water hyacinth affected and non-affected households showed a statistically significant difference (t = 1.6779, P < 0.1) in livestock holding ( Table 3 ).

Table 3

Livestock production of water hyacinth infested and non-infested households.

Households produce livestock in pursuit of food, income and labor. Livestock is a good source of income for the households especially for housewives. A mean annual income of 5274 ETB representing 19.8% of the total income was found from selling of livestock and livestock products per annum. The livestock products of meat, milk, butter, cheese, honey and egg take the food basket of the rural households. In addition, the livestock especially the oxen used to implement agricultural activities like plowing of the agricultural land and threshing of crops usually managed by oxen.

4.2. Impact of water hyacinth on agricultural livelihoods

Crop production is one of the rural livelihoods impacted by water hyacinth and it was evidenced by 34.1% of the households. During the summer season, the weed meets a suitable environment for proliferation and covers the nearby agricultural land. The agricultural land owned by 33.4% of the sample respondents was covered by water hyacinth and on average 0.41ha of land owned by the affected households was covered by the weed. The expansion of the weed on the agricultural land delivers a number of interrelated impacts. Primarily, the crop production of the households, especially crops cultivated around the lake like rice has been reduced. The average cost of the crop reduction due to water hyacinth was estimated as 19819.3 ETB per annum. A study conducted by Hiruy (2019) has also reported a reduction in productivity and quantity of crop production due to water hyacinth invasion on agricultural lands.

In addition, the control initiatives of the weed on the agricultural land create an extra workload for the households. The 29% sample households reported that they spend a mean of five working hours (152 min) to remove the weed from their agricultural land (see Figure 2 ). Furthermore, the root of the weed makes the agricultural land compacted and difficult for plowing while the collected weed makes the agricultural land fragile. The results of this study towards crop production are similar to what has been reported by Tewabe et al. (2017) . In line with this finding, Alemu (2018) has reported that water hyacinth makes agricultural land preparation difficult and demands an extra labor force.

Manual control initiatives of water hyacinth in the Lake Tana. Source: Images taken during field observation, 2021.

As of the crop production, the impacts of the weed were shown on livelihood production too. Among the households engaged in livestock production, 36.6 % have reported the influence of the weed in this strategy. The impact of the weed on the livestock sector was manifested in different forms. Since 84.5% of the households practice free grazing based livestock production, the existence of private and communal grazing land is necessary. However, 29.3% of the respondents reported that the weed covers and destroys their grazing land that lead them to interrelated complex problems: purchasing of supplementary feed, consumption of the weed as a feed, sickness and death of livestock. The coverage of grassland by the weed enforces the rural households to purchase supplementary feed to complement the grassland gap. The households invested a mean of 1546.6 ETB to purchase the supplementary feed that replaces the lost grassland due to the weed coverage. The weed also clogs the watering points of our livestock and it forces us to travel further to find water for the livestock.

On the other hand, 33.7% of the households let their livestock feed the weed despite already knowing that the weed is not suitable for the livestock (see Figure 3 ). In this regard, one focus group discussant aged 30 years from Wagetera rural kebele administration stated the problems in the following ways.

I allow my livestock to feed Enboch [water hyacinth] though the weed is not suitable for their health. I did it deliberately because I do not have any choice to survive my livestock. This is due to the fact that my grazing land is totally covered by this dangerous weed. Unless the community including me fights against the weed, I may not have livestock for the future. However, my livelihood is totally dependent in one way or the other on the livestock and livestock products (Focus group participant, 2021).

Livestock feeding water hyacinth weed in the Lake Tana. Source: Images taken during field observation, 2021.

Tewabe (2015) differently presented that the livestock shall not directly feed the water hyacinth weed, since it has a high amount of tannin content despite 95% of the weed is water. The intercellular space of water hyacinth that is filled with air is also believed to be the cause of livestock disease manifested in the gut bloating and continuous diarrhea. In order to remove similar impacts cutting of the weed into pieces that help to remove the air contained in the weed stake is recommended. The weed is also blamed for creating a suitable environment and increasing the breeding of the internal parasites in the lake and surrounding wetlands that are responsible for weight loss and death of the livestock ( Ayalew et al., 2020 ).

The non-suitability of the water hyacinth weed was understood as a cause of sickness and death for many of the livestock. The 30% of sample households reported that they have visited veterinary service for weed caused diseases and cost an average of 317.6 ETB for the medication of their livestock. Furthermore, 18.2% of households witnessed a death of livestock because of water hyacinth and the mean estimated cost of the loss was 19026.6 ETB. In addition, the weed was found responsible for the reduction of livestock productivity. Hiruy (2019) in his study at Lake Tana showed that feeding of water hyacinth weed was resulted in sickness of livestock, thinning of excrement and tastelessness of milk. A key informant aged 40 from Nabega rural kebele administration noted the situation as follows.

Many households visit our animal health center in need of water hyacinth caused by livestock medication. Unfortunately, the types of diseases occurring to the livestock due to the weed are not well known and there is no direct medication to cure the livestock disease (Key informants interview, 2021).

4.3. Impact of water hyacinth on fishery production

The survey results revealed that the fish production is usually implemented by canoe and gill net while some people used motor boats, cast net ( menze ), fyke net ( keffo ), fishing hock ( mekaten ) and others for the purpose. Even though there are many fish varieties in the lake, the common types of fish caught are Tilapia, Catfish and Labeoarbus. Most of the fishers engaged in fishing as a part-time job besides crop and livestock activities. According to Kibret (2017) , the current fish production in Lake Tana is about 1000 tons despite having a potential of 13,000 tons of production. These days, the reduction of fish production is strongly supported by the existence of water hyacinth in the lake environment.

Among the total respondents, 9% were found engaged in fishing. In contrast, 24% of the respondents used to be fishers ahead of water hyacinth introduction in Lake Tana. The result revealed the decrease in the number of fishers in Lake Tana surrounding households and water hyacinth appear as a major reason to halt fishing in the study area. Despite lack of interest in fishing, reduced fish stock, increased fishing cost and personal problems were also contributing factors for the decreased number of fishers; water hyacinth took the lion share pointed out by 61.4% of the ex-fisherman respondents. The households abandoned the fishery livelihood because of a number of serious problems triggered by the water hyacinth weed.

The current fisheries have an ample experience in fishing ranging from one up to thirty years with an average experience of 9.3 years. The key informants’ interview and the survey result showed that there is a reduction in the quantity of fish catch and income gained from the strategy. The extent of mean fish production decline was 37.3kg in wet season and 35.9kg in dry season per each catch day. The reduction covers 45.7% and 49.9% of the total production both in wet and dry seasons, respectively. The paired sample t-test result revealed that the amount of fish production during the study period, 2021, has shown a statistically significant reduction as compared to before water hyacinth production both in wet and dry season ( Table 4 ). The extent of fish production decline in this study is higher than a reduction of 13kg per catch day reported by Ayalew et al. (2020) in Lake Tana though the proportion of fish catch reduction (46.4%) was almost similar. The possible reason for the high disparity could be the type of fish producers included in the study. In this study, most of the fishers with small equipment and canoe were out of business and the one included in the study are fishers with the better capacity including boats. On the other hand, the households who have stopped fishing due to water hyacinth have reported an estimated annual income loss of 1,000 to 50,000 ETB per annum (mean = 16,089ETB) from fishing.

Table 4

Impact of water hyacinth on fishery production in kg (n = 37).

∗∗P < 0.05, ∗P < 0.1.

One possible reason for the decline of fish catch in the study is the reduction of fish population in the area. The proliferation of the weed on the lakeshore, the tributary river mouths and wetlands are responsible for the fish population and fish catch reduction in the area. Despite a variety of fish species available in the lake, Oreochromis niloticus and Labeobarbus were the most seriously affected species ( Ayalew et al., 2020 ). The lakeshore is a suitable area for the reproduction of fish because of its warm temperature, low wave disturbance and better existence of nutrients that are the feed of the fish. However, the water hyacinth weed is also located in the lakeshore with high amounts and affects the fish reproduction. The dense mates of water hyacinth around the lakeshore makes the fish entangle and destruct the migration of fish to their spawning habitat. In addition, the fast growth of the weed occurs with the consumption of nutrients which are also a fish feed ( Alemu, 2018 ; Ayalew et al., 2020 ). Therefore, the reproduction of the fish becomes difficult in water hyacinth infested areas of the lake and even the fish become dead or small in size because of the weeds tick biomass and long roots ( Alemu, 2018 ).

The other major challenge faced by water hyacinth is the blocking of the fishing ground access points. The huge mates of the weed laid on the lakeshore cover the entry points to the lake. Around 8.5% of the respondents affirmed that their access to Lake Tana is blocked by the weed. In addition, blocking of waterways and prevention of navigation in the infested parts of the lake was reported by 8.1% of the sample households. Figure 4 shows a stacked boat in the middle of a thick water hyacinth mat. The tick and fragment mats of the weed make the transportation and fishing in the lake a tiresome job. The problem is severe on fishers with canoes that are a common transportation resource made of papyrus. These days most of the fishers with canoe are out of the business and the fishers engaged using boats are struggling to conduct the fishery.

Fishing boat stacked in thick water hyacinth mat. Source: Image taken during field observation, 2021.

The other challenge posed by the weed is the entanglement of the weed on the fishing net. The endangered weed can cause investment of extra time and work load for the fisherman. The fishers reported that they spend an average of 279.1 min to detach the entangled water hyacinth from the net in each catch day. The loss and damage of the fish net is another problem associated with the entanglement of fragmented weed. The sample households revealed that they spend a mean of 4797.1 ETB to replace the lost net and 3942.8 ETB to repair the damaged fishing net. In another study, Hiruy (2019) has found damage to fishing nets and reduction of fish production due to the weed in Lake Tana reported by 70% of respondents.

4.4. Econometric model results

The impact of water hyacinth on crop and livestock production was estimated using a propensity score matching (PSM) model. The weed impact on the crop and livestock production of the households was found different. In this regard, two separate PSM analyses were conducted to reveal the impacts of water hyacinth on the two rural livelihoods.

4.4.1. Estimation of propensity scores

The probit regression models were employed to estimate the propensity scores using 12 covariate variables. The matching of the water hyacinth affected and non-affected group households were managed using the propensity scores generated. Before running the regression analysis, the correlation problem among variables was checked by variance inflation factor (VIF) and contingency coefficient (CC) multicollinearity tests. The tests showed that there was no strong correlation among explanatory covariate variables. Classification tables, the Hosmer and Lemeshow test, pseudo R 2 and Pearson chi-square test were used to observe the fitness of the model. The Pseudo R 2 values of the two outcome variables (crop production and livestock production) explained 22.9% and 18.4% of the total variations of the models, respectively. In addition, the likelihood ratio of the results of the two outcome variables was P < 0.01 significance level indicating that the models are fitted to run the regression analysis.

The probit model showed the pseudo R 2 value for the crop and livestock productions were 0.2292 and 0.1839, respectively. This implies that the covariate variables in the two probit models represent 22.92% and 18.39% of the total variance of being impacted by water hyacinth. In addition, the likelihood ratio of the result was significant at less than one percent probability level for both crop and livestock production models which indicates the significance of the models to run the regression analysis.

The probit regression model (see Table 5 ) showed that the impact of water hyacinth on the crop production was determined by distance to Lake Tana and being in Tana Zuria (TZA) livelihood zone negatively while age of the household age and distance to animal health center affect it positively. On the other hand, livestock production impact of the weed was significantly influenced by only two variables negatively: distance to Lake Tana and being in Tana Zuria (TZA) livelihood zone.

Table 5

Probit regression model results of water hyacinth on crop and livestock production.

∗∗P < 0.05, ∗∗∗P < 0.01, D-Distance, HH-Household Head.

4.4.2. Common support identification

The PSM analysis is based on an assumption of enough regions of common support among the affected and non affected households. The region of common support for the affected and non-affected households was identified by looking for the maximum-minimum values. Those households beyond the region were excluded from the analysis. As Table 6 shows the mean propensity scores for the crop and livestock PSM analysis were 0.335 and 0.374 in order of their appearance. The region of common support was 0.058–0.973 for crop impacts analysis and 0.068 to 0.935 for the livestock production impacts analysis. Among the total sample, 24 treated households in the crop impact analysis and 6 from livestock impact analysis were found off-support and excluded from the analysis.

Table 6

Propensity scores distribution.

4.4.3. Matching quality test

The quality of the matching is the guarantee to run the impact estimation across the water hyacinth affected and non-affected households. The balancing test aimed to assess the premise: the distribution of the covariates after the matching shall be the same after the matching of the propensity scores. Different testing procedures ensured that the estimations' balancing powers were maintained. The mean standardized bias between matched and mismatched households is reduced, and equality of means is tested using the t-test and the chi-square test for joint significance of the variables used (see Table 7 ).

Table 7

The joint significant test result.

The standardized bias results for the models were within the acceptable limit of less than 20%. The crop production impact PSM model showed a standardized bias of 25.7 and 4.1% before and after matching. Similarly, the standardized bias for the livestock impact PSM model was 17.9% before the matching and 3.2% after matching of the covariates. As a result of the matching process, the treatment and control samples have a high degree of covariate balance that is ready to utilize in the estimated procedure. On the other hand, the t-test used to assess the quality of the matching and no variable is expected to have a p-value of less than 0.05 after the matching is conducted. The result showed that no covariate variable had a statistically significant difference after matching on the two models while seven variables for the crop and five for livestock impact analysis used to be significant ahead of propensity scores matching.

Moreover, the stratification test assesses the balance of covariates across the blocks of equal size. The result showed that the balancing property is satisfied and there is no significant difference across the five blocks of water hyacinth affected and non-affected households in the two models. Finally, the joint significance and pseudo R 2 scores of the two models were checked. If the pseudo R 2 decreases and approaches 0, it indicates that a successful balance has been reached. However, there is no standard for determining how much of a reduction in pseudo R 2 is reasonable ( Staffa and Zurakowski, 2018 ). The pseudo-R 2 value for crop impacts analysis has been reduced to 1% and to 1.2% for the livestock production impacts analysis. On both of the PSM models, the likelihood ratio (LR) results after matching were insignificant indicating the covariates are not determining the water hyacinth impact on crop and livestock production of the households.

4.4.4. Treatment effect on the treated (ATT)

The average treatment effect of water hyacinth on rural livelihoods of the households was estimated by using the three different estimation algorithms:kernel-based matching (KBM), nearest neighbor (NNM), and radius or caliper (RM) methods. The standard error of the impact estimation was calculated using bootstrapping method with 100 replications. The pre-treatment differences between the treated and untreated groups were controlled using PSM. The differences in the crop production and livestock production were regarded as the impacts of the water hyacinth on rural livelihoods of the households.

The result presented in Table 8 divulged that water hyacinth has negatively affected the rural livelihoods of the households in the study area. Being water hyacinth infested was found with a reduction of 475.4, 287.6 and 278.7kg of rice equivalent crop production by NNM, RM and KM, respectively. The percentage of reduction represents 25.6, 17.3 and 16.8% of the total crop production in the three matching algorithms. Also, the livestock production reduced by 3.84, 3.85 and 3.82% covering 2.96 up to 2.17% in the three matching algorithms employed. Both the crop and livestock production difference among the water hyacinth affected and non-affected households was found statistically insignificant at less than 10% significance level.

Table 8

Impact of water hyacinth on rural livelihoods.

∗P < 0.1.

Source: computed from survey data (2021).

4.4.5. Sensitivity analysis

The final step of the PSM model was sensitivity analysis that checks whether the impact estimated from the model is influenced by hidden bias because of unmeasured variables or not. Unmeasured pre-treatment difference across the treatment and control groups is hidden bias ( McFadden, 2015 ). According to Mulatu et al. (2017) propensity scores estimation operates with an assumption that all appropriate covariates are included in the estimation model and there is insignificant influence of the hidden bias/unmeasured variables.

As Rosenbaum (2002) points out, sensitivity analysis for insignificant impacts on the outcome variable is not a useful tool for testing. As a result, the significant and lower bound outcome variables are evaluated using sensitivity analysis. That is, the p-critical values are significant for crop and livestock production outcome variables estimated at various levels of gamma critical values, indicating that we have taken into account relevant covariates that influenced both participation and outcome variables. Even with the critical gamma value set to 10, it was not possible to obtain the critical gamma value where the calculated ATT is questioned for both crop and livestock impacts analysis. Based on the sensitivity analysis results of the study, it is possible to conclude that the impacts of water hyacinth on crop and livestock rural livelihoods are not sensitive to hidden bias.

5. Conclusions and the way forward

The purpose of the study was designed to analyze the impact of water hyacinth on rural livelihoods of households around Lake Tana. The study identified crop, livestock and fishery production as the prominent livelihoods delivering food and income for the rural households. Water hyacinth was found responsible in disrupting the rural livelihoods asset bases, their implementations and outcomes. The weed affected 34.1% and 36.6% of crop and livestock producer households in the study area. The average treatment effect of water hyacinth on crop and livestock production was 278.7 up to 475.4 kg of rice equivalent and 0.083 up to 0.114 TLU, respectively. The weed was able to produce a statistically significant difference among water hyacinth affected and non-affected households on agricultural production. Even though the Lake has a huge potential in fish production, only 9% of the households engage in the strategy and water hyacinth takes the largest share in the decline of fishers and fish production in the study area. The fish production was decreased by almost half due to the introduction of water hyacinth in Lake Tana. The study concludes that the weed affected the rural livelihoods of the households in the study area and water hyacinth control measures shall be designed and implemented by responsible stakeholders to protect the rural livelihoods. Moreover, researchers shall conduct further study on the health impacts of water hyacinth on livestock, the medication of water hyacinth caused livestock disease and the possible way of utilizing water hyacinth as a livestock feed.

Declarations

Author contribution statement.

Yilebes A. Damtie; Arega B. Berlie; Gashaw M. Gessese: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data; Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data; Wrote the paper.

Funding statement

This work was supported by University of Gondar and Bahir Dar University.

Data availability statement

Declaration of interests statement.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

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Earth Matters

Seven things you didn’t know about water hyacinth.

1) In most of the world, water hyacinth ( Eichhonria crassipes ) — a fast-growing, aquatic plant — is loathed for its ability to reproduce so quickly that it can blanket large portions of lakes and ponds with a thick mat of vegetation.

2) In a lake with strongly entrenched water hyacinth, plants interlock into such dense masses that they are sturdy enough to hold people walking on them. On Inle Lake in Burma , people turn mats of water hyacinth into floating islands and grow vegetables and flowers on them.

3) Lakes that are overrun by water hyacinths undergo dramatic transformations. Submerged native plants became shaded and often die. The resulting decay processes depletes dissolved oxygen in the water and leads to fish kills. Boat travel can become impossible with severe infestations.

4) Water hyacinth is native to South America, the only continent where natural predators such as weevils and moths keep it at bay.

5) Cutting a water hyacinth plant into pieces will not kill it. The plants can reproduce using a process called fragmentation . Each plant also produces thousands of seeds each year.

6) The invasive plant is currently considered an invasive weed in more than 50 countries (including Central and North America, Asia, Europe, and Africa). Climate change may allow them to spread even farther.

7) Scientists use satellites to monitor lakes infested with water hyacinth. A NASA DEVELOP group recently devised an automated technique for monitoring water hyacinth in Lake Victoria’s Winam Gulf , an area that has struggled with water hyacinth infestation for decades. The researchers used satellite data collected by the OLI , MODIS , and MSI sensors. Winam Gulf communities have struggled with water hyacinth infestation for more than a decade. Learn more about the project in the video below.

Editor’s Note: DEVELOP , part of NASA’s Applied Sciences Program , addresses environmental and public policy issues through interdisciplinary research projects. To highlight the program’s work, the Earth Matters blog occasionally highlights some of the most interesting topics that DEVELOP teams are pursuing.

This entry was posted on Wednesday, June 1st, 2016 at 2:40 pm and is filed under Uncategorized . You can follow any responses to this entry through the RSS 2.0 feed. Both comments and pings are currently closed.

3 Responses to “Seven Things You Didn’t Know About Water Hyacinth”

I saw these on a bayou tour in Louisiana. The guide was saying what a bane they were to the waterways. What can be done now that they are lose in so many of the wrong places?

helo sir, i think to combat with this problem of water hyacinth…we should utilize its two very promising features like: its high biomass production ability and its high phytoremdiation potential.

Very nice article. Water hyacinth is a bane to fishermen seeking their livelihoods in riparian areas and delta regions the world over. I’ve seen water hyacinth flushed out to sea by heavy rains which survived in the ocean for many days. It’s a plant that clogs waterways used by local fishermen for transportation. Methods like those created by the DEVELOP team are the first steps in working with stakeholders to identify where water hyacinth is most a problem. Its partnerships like these which can help local and regional stakeholders to tackle this invasive plant. Terrific article!

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The Diverse Applications of Water Hyacinth with main focus on Sustainable Energy and Production for New Era: An overview

2014, Renewable and sustainable energy reviews

Water hyacinth was introduced as an ornamental crop in many countries more than a century ago, due to its attractive appearance and aesthetical value in the environment. Unfortunately, the flowers developed into invasive species due to their adaptability for a wide range of fresh water ecosystems and their interference with human activities. In the 21st century, they were considered as an alternative to fossil fuels, as many researchers found them capable of converting their content into fuel energy at less cost and recognized as an eco-friendly product. As water hyacinth is among the group of fastest growing plants, its biomass has the potential to become a potential renewable energy source and replace conventional fossil fuels, perhaps during the next decade. This is an essential mission to overcome the depletion of energy sources and also to fulfill the increasing demand of world energy. Instead of fuel energy, the dried biomass can also be fabricated as briquettes, which is suitable as co-firing agent in coal power plant. Thus, in future compacted biomass residues produced in the form of briquettes may decrease the dependence of coal to provide more energy- The other application of water hyacinth into a co-compost material such as soil amendment to the sandy soil, can improve hydro-physical, chemical parameters of soil and will supply the growing crops with several nutrients. Water hyacinth has also drawn attention due to its bioremediation ability, capable of removing pollutants from domestic and industrial waste water effluents. Thus, the issue of water hyacinth should be evaluated from energy, engineering as well as environmental perspectives. In this review, the potential uses of water hyacinth are being classified and discussed.

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Water hyacinth is a perennial aquatic weed that can be utilized effectively rather than spending energy in eradicating them. It is the source of N, P, K which is essential for the growth of plants. In India, locally available horticulture wastes and grasses are fed to cattle predominantly. Water hyacinth in the dried form or as ensilage may be given as cattle feed due to high protein content in it. The amino acid profile of water hyacinth makes it suitable to be used as pig feed. When Water hyacinth is used as poultry feed, it increases the egg laying ratio and boosts cell mediated immunity of the poultry. Water hyacinth can be used as an alternative of soy bean meal in fish feed which reduces the feed cost. Water hyacinth is also used to make paper, cardboards, disposable cups, plates and variety of products for human use. Water hyacinth thus becoming potential raw material for making valuable products to meet the sustainable solution for water hyacinth management.

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Eichhornia crassipas commonly known as Water hyacinth has got considerable attention as the world worst alien invasive weed. It is an aquatic plant and its rapid growth and colonization is a serious threat to the aquatic biodiversity and a major challenge for water utilization in power generation, navigation, irrigation, recreational activities and the utmost economic threat. Its control and management is laborious and very expensive, however the actual application of water hyacinth is potentially beneficial and useful in a number of the sector. This review was under taken to highlight the possible utilization of Water Hyacinth as well as its adverse effect on the environment.

Journal of Agroforestry and Environment

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Despite the fact that people are more familiar with its drawbacks, water hyacinth has a variety of uses. This study aims to assess local inhabitants' opinions of water hyacinth and its sustainable, environmentally beneficial uses. In order to perform the study properly, we moved on to the study areas that are closer to Roa beel and a questionnaire with seven components and seven parameters was used. The Roa Beel is situated in the Chandpur Union neighborhood of the Kishoregonj district's Katiadi Upazila, Kishoreganj, Bangladesh. During the rainy season, excessive water hyacinth was found in the study region, and people of the villages of Sheker Para, Purbo Para, and Modinas Para in the Kishoregonj district were surveyed. The study assesses the locals' perceptions of their knowledge and understanding of water hyacinth, their management techniques, the benefits and drawbacks of water hyacinth, and their actual use of it in their daily lives as well as in various sectional activities like fishing, livestock rearing, agricultural farming, particularly in floating agricultural practices, and for industrial purposes. A surplus of water hyacinth in the beel can be utilized to create a promising industry for the region, especially if it is converted into affordable, environmentally acceptable animal feed, bio-fertilizer, and biogas. Undoubtedly, this will improve local environmental management efforts and provide more opportunity for local unemployed people to find employment.

A. Westerhof (ed.). Papier en water / Water and paper. Rijswijk: Gentenaar & Torley Publishers

Rene Teijgeler

The water hyacinth is an aggressive plant, which has been a terrible nuisance on almost all continents for more than 100 years. The problem has now grown to such proportions that governments are at their wits end. There isn't one method of control that offers solace in the long term, except perhaps an integrated approach. Within this a modest role has been set aside for the production of hand made paper from the biomass of the water hyacinth. A development organization in Bangladesh originally came up with the idea to try out the water hyacinth. In fact, the water hyacinth contains too much water and many impurities, which are difficult to remove, but eventually it has become possible to produce a paper of reasonable quality.

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International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

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The present research work was undertaken to study the potential of water hyacinth in generation of biogas; after a microbial pre-treatment. Water hyacinth, an aquatic weed is often associated with uncontrolled growth and eutrophication. Culture of Phanerochaete chrysosporium, a lingocellulytic fungus was used for microbial pre-treatment. Performance evaluation, in terms of biogas production was checked in 2m 3 Modified Deenbandhu biogas plant, which is fitted with a stirrer on its side to remove scum formation in digester. The biogas production from the water hyacinth was only 1.92% more than that of cattle dung but the methane content of the biogas from the water hyacinth was 10.71% higher than that of cattle dung. The average NPK content of the digested slurry of the water hyacinth was 38.55%, 10.52% and 137.14% more than that of digested slurry of cattle dung respectively. This will help to sort out the problems of cooking fuel, lightening, aquatic weed disposal, waste management and sanitation etc.

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Utilizing water hyacinths for weaving: innovation in activity in thailand's bueng kho hai community.

© 2023 IIETA. This article is published by IIETA and is licensed under the CC BY 4.0 license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ).

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In Southeast Asia, water hyacinths pose a significant threat to freshwater ecosystems, proliferating as invasive species. This study explores an innovative approach to leverage these natural resources in the creative economy, extending local wisdom through the craft of wickerwork. Qualitative research methods were employed to examine the unique weaving techniques of the Bueng Kho Hai community, known for transforming water hyacinths into wickerwork products. Data was collected through an array of techniques, including document analysis, field studies, preliminary surveys, structured and unstructured interviews, participatory and non-participatory observations, and group discussions. Rooted in traditional weaving practices and guided by meticulous experimentation, an eco-friendly fabric was developed, comprising a unique blend of 40% water hyacinth fiber and 60% cotton. This blend symbolizes the community's efforts to reconcile the preservation of local handicrafts and the Thai way of life with environmental conservation. It presents a cost-effective and scalable method contributing to sustainable development. The study highlights the untapped potential of indigenous knowledge in advocating sustainability and provides insights into local innovation that could be replicated in diverse contexts. This abstract elucidates the implementation of research methods and the specific data gleaned from each source, offering readers a comprehensive understanding of the study's methodology. Furthermore, it underscores the significant implications of the research for environmental conservation and the preservation of local handicrafts and Thai culture, emphasizing the environmental benefits of this unique blend.

wickerwork production, water hyacinth fiber, Thai handicrafts, eco-friendly design, sustainable materials, community innovation, indigenous knowledge, Bueng Kho Hai community

The development of human civilization has been shaped by inventiveness as well as adaptability to the natural resources that were available at the time. The skill of wickerwork dates back some four thousand years, and it has been made using materials such as bamboo and rattan. Thai basketry, a distinguishing attribute of agricultural cultures, has always been sensitive to the use of local resources, generating patterns that appeal to aesthetics, usefulness, religious rites, and cultural customs. This has resulted in the production of designs that are unique to Thailand.

In recent years, Thailand, along with other locations such as Lake Victoria in Kenya, has come up against a problem in terms of its ecology as a direct result of the growth of water hyacinths. These non-native aquatic plants represent significant threats to the health of freshwater ecosystems, including adverse effects on fisheries, water quality, and even irrigation systems. Despite this, the inventiveness of humans has come up with ways to turn this challenge into an opportunity. Other places are researching the possibilities of water hyacinth as a bioenergy resource, organic fertilizer, and even a base material for handicrafts [1]. In Thailand, skilled artists have cleverly combined water hyacinth into traditional wickerwork. This adaptability illustrates the durability of human cultures by demonstrating their capacity to generate novel solutions to the problems posed by the environment.

In recent decades, rapid advancements in technology and industry, in addition to rising global populations and increasing urbanisation, have brought mankind face-to-face with a number of significant difficulties, including those pertaining to the availability of water, food, energy, and a sustainable environment. In the context of Thailand, the water problem stands out as a noteworthy one due to the fact that it is intricately connected to the other three predicaments. It is abundantly clear that water is necessary for the production of both food and energy, and it is clear that environmental concerns extend to the protection of water quality and the management of associated challenges. This study presents a novel strategy to reuse the biological leftovers of the water hyacinth plant, which is known scientifically as Eichhornia crassipes. The goal of the study is to address the obstacles that have been presented. The goal is to turn dried water hyacinth stalks into materials of consistently high quality that are appropriate for use in handicrafts [2]. This will be accomplished by utilizing automated equipment specialized for processing dried water hyacinth stalks. This programme not only provides a long-term solution to environmental problems, but it also helps local handicraft enterprises by providing a more efficient and affordable alternative to the conventional manual processes that are now in use.

Introduced to Thailand in 1901 by King Rama V as an ornamental addition, the water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) soon transformed from a benign decorative freshwater plant to an environmental concern, rapidly plaguing and deteriorating freshwater habitats. Its swift proliferation across water bodies earned it an infamous reputation as an environmental menace. However, the silver lining to this ecological challenge has been the ongoing research into its untapped potential. Despite the fact that its fast spread has given it a reputation as an environmental hazard. For instance, the high cellulose content of water hyacinth fibers, which may reach up to 62.15%, paves the way for the creation of reinforced polymer composite materials that are ideal for applications that need less weight. These fibers have been extracted using new mechanical methods rather than the usual retting procedures, and they have been used in the development of environmentally friendly handcraft goods such as table mats, which are gaining favor among customers in cities like Bangkok. In addition, the use of these items not only satisfies the desire that customers have for environmentally friendly products but also helps the local economy by providing a novel approach to a plant that has historically been troublesome. It's interesting to note that the widespread development of water hyacinth also has an effect on the local species. For example, the presence of these plants has caused certain species of waterbirds, such as the Little blue heron and the Common moorhen, to modify the ways in which they forage for food. This study highlights the adaptability of water hyacinth by illustrating how it has evolved from an environmental obstacle into a model for environmentally responsible innovation and ecological harmony [3-6].

Handicrafts play an important part in the economy of Pathum Thani, which is located in the middle of Thailand. These handicrafts exemplify the ideals of the circular economy and sustainability. Recently, there has been an increased emphasis placed on the design of environmentally friendly furniture that makes use of waste materials and has an emphasis on recycling and reusing [7]. In spite of the fact that water hyacinth continues to be a dominant material in the area, local artists are investigating the possibility of using hybrid laminated composites. They want to manufacture environmentally friendly materials that are appropriate for a variety of structural purposes by using different types of fibers, such as coir [8]. This forward-thinking strategy not only highlights the region's illustrious handcraft heritage but also tackles environmental concerns by reusing trash and incorporating environmentally friendly materials.

It is essential to develop and make designs that appeal to current preferences and put an emphasis on both beauty and sustainability if the business of water hyacinth wickerwork is going to see a revitalization. The usage of water hyacinth should not be justified merely by its visual appeal, rather its environmental benefits as an alternative that is kind to the environment should be emphasized [9]. This environmentally friendly method tackles the problems that are caused by the overgrowth of water hyacinths in aquatic habitats while also capitalizing on the plant's potential for use in the creation of reinforced polymer composites [10].

The Pathum Beyond the realm of traditional handicrafts, the water hyacinth industry in Thani, which is well known for its handcrafted goods like purses and home décor, has unrealized potential. It is crucial to provide a connection between craftspeople and customers, making certain that products are in line with modern desires while preserving the rich crafting tradition [11].

Nevertheless, difficulties are in the horizon for the sector. The attraction and demand for water hyacinth goods have slightly decreased as a result of factors such as market saturation, shifting consumer preferences, and a perceived lack of innovation in the industry. As the focus of the world moves towards sustainability, there is an urgent need for the sector to innovate, broadening its offers to include items with value additions, such as bioenergy solutions [12]. In a market environment that is always shifting, it will be essential for the industry to embrace innovation and adaptation in order to maintain its continuous development and relevance.

This research investigates the cultural and creative industries throughout Asia, with a particular emphasis on the weaving practises of water hyacinth in Pathum Thani, Thailand. The artists of Pathum Thani, who may be found tucked away amid the bustling fabric of the cultural industries of Asia, have established themselves not just as keepers of heritage but also as trailblazers in their own right. They have invented a combination of water hyacinth fiber and cotton, which has resulted in an eco-friendly fabric that can be used in a variety of design applications. This was accomplished by skilfully merging indigenous knowledge with current processes. This synergy is a monument to the community's combined dedication to sustainability and innovation, and it aligns perfectly with the needs of the current market [13].

In addition, the purpose of this investigation is to dissect the more far-reaching implications of such innovations on the economic dynamics of local communities, environmental sustainability, and the treasured preservation of cultural heritage. The intentions here are multifaceted, much like those of many cultural sectors across Asia, including the preservation of centuries-old artistic practices, the creation of economically viable paths, the successful navigation of the ebb and flow of the global market, and the accomplishment of larger societal objectives. By using this perspective, the research is able to draw interesting similarities with other cultural epicenters in Asia, shedding light on the same aspirations held by the region's cultural sectors as well as the inherent difficulties they face [13].

Investigate the innovative approach of water hyacinth fiber and cotton to create an eco-friendly fabric with potential applications in design.

2.1 Fabric-making process using water hyacinth

The Research conceptual framework delves into the production of water hyacinth fabric (Figure 1). This exploration focuses on the detailed manufacturing process, the fabric's inherent attributes, and its potential market value. Within this process, water hyacinth fiber is spun into yarn, accentuating the fabric's sustainability while highlighting its eco-friendliness. This approach also presents a solution to agricultural waste by using it as a primary material for fabric.

The journey from ideation to the final product is multifaceted. Both textiles and final products are designed with a balance of aesthetic and functional qualities. The fabric's unique characteristics offer opportunities for establishing a distinct brand or product identity. Textile machinery plays an indispensable role, in ensuring production efficiency and top-tier quality. Furthermore, this fabric lends itself to the creation of distinctive furniture designs, resulting in either market-ready prototypes or finished products.

Figure 1 . Research conceptual framework

Upholding quality is of paramount importance. The production process strictly adheres to textile testing standards, ensuring the fabric meets safety and quality criteria. Similarly, the produced furniture aligns with set standards, guaranteeing durability and safety. The resultant furniture product is tailored to meet market preferences.

From harvesting to processing, this sequence outlines the transformation of water hyacinth into fabric. If a deep dive into the entire procedure is the aim, detailing these stages becomes essential. However, a summarized version suffices if the spotlight rests on the conceptual framework and its broader applications.

Potential stakeholders must understand the fabric's texture, resilience, eco-consciousness, and aesthetics. This may appear redundant to water hyacinth fabric experts, but it delivers significant information to a larger audience.

2.2 Environmental benefits

Figure 2 . Pathum Thani is strategically located in Thailand's central region, bordered by various provinces and the vital Chao Phraya River. This river not only supports agriculture but also significantly influences the day-to-day life of the locals

Figure 2 looks into the several districts that comprise the Pathum Thani province, known for combining urban growth and natural splendor. For example, the Sam Khok District is known for its long history of agricultural production and its strong sense of community. Mueang District is Pathum Thani's busy epicenter with business and residential zones. The Lat Lum Kaeo District is an example of how contemporary urban growth can live with the splendor of nature. The Nong Suar District is distinguished by its verdant landscapes and calm bodies of water. At the same time, the Khlong Luang District is renowned for its status as an intellectual center due to the presence of many educational and research facilities.

The Thanyaburi District is always bustling with activity, as seen by the lively marketplaces and robust community life. However, the Lam Luk Ka District is the one that genuinely attracts the interest of visitors with its enormous wetlands, which are a haven for birdwatchers owing to the abundance of bird species found there. A region of great relevance to this investigation is Bueng Kho Hai, which is located inside Lam Luk Ka. Its one-of-a-kind ecosystem highlights community-led efforts to develop sustainable products while preserving the surrounding environment. These community-based endeavors, particularly in places like Bueng Kho Hai, shed light on the possibilities for bringing economic goals and ecological responsibilities into harmony:

• Sustainable Resource. Water hyacinth's rapid growth makes it a promising renewable resource.
• Reduces Water Pollution. Harnessing water hyacinth, known for its invasive growth in waterways, aids in mitigating its spread and curbing water pollution (Figure 3).
• Biodegradable. Crafted products from water hyacinth fabric decompose naturally, reducing landfill waste.
• Potential for Local Economy. Cultivating and processing water hyacinth into fabric can usher in economic opportunities for the local populace (Figure 4).

Figure 3 . Plants hold potential for innovative applications like weaving and eco-friendly packaging

Figure 4 . Possibility for the regional economy. The local community may benefit economically from water hyacinth cultivation and processing into fabric

3.1 Scope of study

The weaving skills used in the Bueng Kho Hai village, along with the community's dedication to being good stewards of the environment, make this a particularly interesting case study. It is admirable that they have developed a novel strategy to turn water hyacinth, a plant that has the potential to cause problems, into valued handmade items. Research has proven that water hyacinth has the potential to be turned into cellulose nanocrystals; this demonstrates the community's versatility in making use of the plant for a variety of uses that are environmentally friendly [14].

The research investigates a number of distinct subcommunities that exist inside the Bueng Kho Hai community. This includes both the village academics and the village weavers, in addition to the larger populace engaged in the manufacture of wickerwork. A method of this level of specificity seeks to get an understanding of the intertwined contributions that various practices make to the culture, economics, and long-term viability of the local community.

The research attempts to gain insights that may be applicable to other communities in the area by concentrating on this particular community and its unique circumstances. It's possible that this may serve as a model for more comprehensive approaches to sustainable development and environmental preservation. The community of Bueng Kho Hai in Thailand is an excellent example of how traditional weaving methods may be combined with concerns for the environment. It is interesting that they have made an attempt to transform an invasive plant into valued artisan goods that are in demand all around Thailand. This research illustrates the resiliency of the town as well as the cooperative spirit that exists there, highlighting the city's twin quest of economic advancement as well as cultural preservation.

Figure 5 . Comprehensive overview of the project's various impacts on society and the environment. Complete overview of the project's multiple effects on other parts of society and the environment

This picture depicts the development of the area as well as its significance in a variety of different ways (Figure 5). The necessity of protecting the environment is brought to light in item number one. It displays the region's dedication to the preservation of the natural environment. The second illustration illustrates the crucial importance that agricultural communities play in the region, while the third illustration examines the differences and similarities between urban and rural communities. The fourth point emphasizes how important it is for communities to continue their education and build up their capabilities. The importance of forming connections is highlighted in point number 5. The importance of connecting the many different players in this field is underlined. Because of these visuals, we have a much better understanding of the significance of the relationships between the many factors in this region.

3.2 Area boundary

The region of Bueng Kho Hai in Pathum Thani province is significant because of its proximity to the Chao Phraya River, its agricultural resources, and its pioneering approach to the use of water hyacinths in the manufacture of wickerwork and environmentally friendly design. Because of the community's dedication to the maintenance of local customs and the protection of the local environment, it is an essential component of the region.

The study methodology used a qualitative approach to conduct an in-depth inquiry and gain a better knowledge of the traditional water hyacinth weaving practices used in the community of Bueng Kho Hai. These practices entail weaving for ornamental purposes and manufacturing useful products like bags and baskets, as seen in (Figures 6 and 7). This strategy was developed to unearth the underlying concepts, beliefs, and procedures that form the basis of the community's one-of-a-kind approach to using water hyacinth, using the plant's inherent features to generate sustainable things that can be used daily.

Figure 6 . Dried water hyacinths can be processed using traditional methods

Figure 7 . Explore potential strategies for revitalizing and promoting traditional production processes, such as education and training programs and collaborations with designers and entrepreneurs to create innovative products that appeal to contemporary consumers

4.1 Data analysis

The data analysis process consists of several key steps as follows:

4.1.1 Data collection

Tools were employed to collect detailed data from various community sources. This included structured interviews with artisans, first-hand observations of traditional weaving practices, and document analysis.

4.1.2 Pre-processing

The gathered data underwent an organization phase to ensure it was primed for in-depth analysis, ensuring the information's accuracy and reliability.

4.1.3 Analytics

Techniques were harnessed to interpret the data, identifying trends and patterns concerning weaving techniques, material preferences, and cultural significance.

4.1.4 Visualization

Analysis results were translated into visual formats, such as charts or graphs, facilitating the comprehension of intricate data sets.

4.1.5 Performance and insights

The culmination of the analysis process led to the drawing of substantial conclusions. This offered insights into the community's weaving practices, innovative strategies, and overarching contribution to the local economy and sustainability.

4.2 Strategies for revitalization and promotion

Based on the insights gained from the data analysis, several potential strategies can be explored to revitalize and promote traditional production processes.

4.2.1 Education and training programs

Implementing comprehensive education and training programs can help preserve and enhance conventional weaving skills. This may include workshops, seminars, and hands-on training sessions led by experienced artisans.

4.2.2 Collaborations with designers and entrepreneurs

Forming collaborations with contemporary designers and entrepreneurs can lead to the creation of innovative products that appeal to modern consumers. This can broaden the market reach and add value to traditional crafts.

4.2.3 Marketing and branding

Effective marketing and branding strategies can promote the unique aspects of conventional wickerwork, emphasizing its eco-friendly nature and cultural significance. This can attract new customers and increase demand.

4.2.4 Support for sustainable practices

Encouraging and supporting sustainable practices can further enhance the appeal of traditional wickerwork. This includes the use of environmentally friendly materials and energy-efficient production methods.

The detailed analysis of data collected through sophisticated tools, as visualized in the provided pictures, offers valuable insights into the traditional weaving practices of the Bueng Kho Hai community. The understanding gained from this analysis can guide potential strategies for revitalizing and promoting these conventional production processes. By embracing education, innovation, collaboration, and sustainability, it is possible to preserve the rich cultural heritage while adapting to contemporary market demands and contributing to broader societal objectives.

4. 3 Methods and tools of the trade

This Section provides a detailed overview of the methodologies and instruments employed in this study.

4.3.1 Document analysis

Relevant documents, encompassing historical archives, government directives, past research projects, and news articles, were thoroughly investigated. This exploration traced the journey of water hyacinth in Thailand and charted the evolution of innovative weaving techniques.

4.3.2 Field research

Direct visits to the Bueng Kho Hai village offered invaluable firsthand observations of the weaving practices. These visits also fostered meaningful interactions with local inhabitants. The significance of community engagement became particularly evident, especially during collaborative group discussions.

4.3.3 Interviews

Both structured and open-ended interviews with community members yielded deep insights into their perspectives and experiences related to water hyacinth weaving. Notably, many of these interviews transitioned into broader group discussions, revealing diverse viewpoints and shared experiences.

4.3.4 Observational insights

Engaging in both participatory and non-participatory observation techniques allowed for a nuanced understanding of the intricacies of water hyacinth weaving. These sessions also granted a unique perspective on the dynamics and flow of group discussions.

4.3.5 Group dialogues

Facilitated group discussions among stakeholders and fostered a space of shared learning and collaboration. As captured in Figure 8, these discussions were pivotal in unearthing the community's weaving practices, challenges, and aspirations.

Figure 8 . Researchers urge stakeholders to share water hyacinth-weaving ideas, experiences, and opinions in groups. These talks help researchers comprehend weaving practices and provide vital insights

4.4 Alteration of water hyacinth stems and design procedure

The research delved deeper into the practical applications and innovations possible with water hyacinth fibers, expanding upon the foundational knowledge of traditional water hyacinth weaving techniques.

4.4.1 Water hyacinth production of fiber

Figure 9 depicts a significant aspect of the research the transformation of water hyacinth stems into a woven material. This is a multi-step procedure. Collecting water hyacinth plants from their aquatic environment. The process of separating the stems and allowing them to dry naturally. Extracting the fibers from the desiccated stems. Transforming these fibers into a format suitable for weaving. In addition to being eco-friendly, the resulting woven fabric possesses the required strength and pliability for a variety of applications, including the manufacture of furniture.

Figure 9 . Focuses on transforming water hyacinth stems into a woven fabric, an eco-friendly and sustainable material. This is accomplished through the production of hyacinth stems, which are used to create hyacinth-woven fabric

4.4.2 The use of water hyacinth fiber in the design of furniture

Water hyacinth, traditionally viewed as an invasive aquatic species, has emerged as a sustainable material with multifaceted applications. This section focuses on the utilization of water hyacinth fibers specifically for furniture construction.

Harnessing insights from the local community, who possess extensive experience with this plant, a comprehensive method was developed to transform these fibers into functional furniture. This process encompasses:

• Conceptualization Phase

Preliminary ideas emerge from brainstorming sessions, emphasizing the distinctive texture, durability, and adaptability of water hyacinth fibers.

• Prototyping

The abstract concept is translated into a tangible prototype, laying down the initial blueprint for the design.

• Community Engagement

This prototype is presented to the community for feedback. Their deep-rooted familiarity with water hyacinth enriches the design process, ensuring the prototype resonates with local sensibilities.

• Final Design

Community feedback is integrated, refining the design to achieve an equilibrium between aesthetic appeal and functional efficacy.

• Manufacturing

With the design blueprint in place, the transformation of water hyacinth fibers into eco-friendly furniture commences.

The innovative use of water hyacinth fibers in furniture design presents a sustainable alternative to conventional materials. Beyond being an aesthetic choice, this eco-friendly material embodies the ethos of the local community and emphasizes the adaptability of water hyacinths. While the referenced study discusses the broader applications and potential of water hyacinth, including its potential as an alternative energy source and environmental implications, this section underscores the plant's versatility, specifically in sustainable furniture practices (Figure 10) [15].

Figure 10 . The researcher uses community input to create an initial design

Based on the information provided in the article, the researchers investigated the potential for using water hyacinth fibers in the design and production of eco-friendly products. The research team observed and worked with local villagers in Pathum Thani province to learn about traditional weaving techniques and create innovative designs that cater to modern market needs.

The article indicates that producing water hyacinth fabric involves drying and spinning the stems into uniform strands, which are then combined with cotton yarn in various proportions to create materials with different properties. The resulting fabrics were found to be suitable for a range of applications, including furniture, bags, tablecloths, and curtains.

The weaving process employed in this study involves blending water hyacinth fibers with cotton yarn to create a range of versatile and eco-friendly fabrics. The research explores five distinct ratios for mixing water hyacinth fiber and cotton yarn to strike the right balance between flexibility and durability.

Figure 1 1 . Natural fiber derived from water hyacinth, as briefly described in the given proportions, results in a distinct fabric pattern resembling marble's appearance

Table 1. Comparison of the characteristics of fabrics made from water hyacinth and cotton strands in various proportions

Figure 11 visually illustrates the varying compositions of water hyacinth fiber and cotton yarn, providing a tangible understanding of their textures and appearances.

100% water hyacinth fiber, this composition emphasizes environmental sustainability, as demonstrated in Table 1. As a result, it possesses the highest ecological value possible. On the other hand, it might not have the same degree of flexibility and gentleness typically found in compositions containing cotton.

This composition, outlined in the second row of Table 1, strikes a balance between comfort and sustainability by utilizing 80% water hyacinth fiber and 20% cotton yarn. Compared to a composition consisting entirely of water hyacinth, the fabric's flexibility and softness significantly improve when cotton yarn makes up 20% of the design.

This blend offers a harmonious balance between eco-friendliness and user comfort, as shown in the third row of Table 1, and as a result, it is a versatile choice for a variety of applications. The water hyacinth fiber makes up 70% of the yarn, while the cotton yarn makes up 30%.

This blend, which is highlighted in the fourth row of Table 1, is geared towards maximizing comfort and flexibility, making it suitable for applications where user comfort is a priority. The water hyacinth fiber makes up sixty percent of the yarn, and the cotton yarn makes up forty percent.

Fifty percent water hyacinth fiber and 50 percent cotton yarn: The fifth row in Table 1 displays the most well-balanced blend of water hyacinth and cotton, which ensures the highest possible level of flexibility, softness, and durability.

In conclusion, the choice of fabric composition is determined by the desired equilibrium between comfort and sustainability, as outlined in Table 1.

Table 2. Comparing the weight and durability of water hyacinth cloth to traditional materials

Figure 1 2 . Using a 60:40 cotton-water hyacinth blend and a 70:30 water hyacinth-cotton yarn in creating lamps and furniture emphasizes the importance of size and type in furniture design while utilizing eco-friendly vegetable fibers

Water hyacinth's potential in the textile industry becomes more evident when its characteristics are compared to traditional materials. The density of textiles made from water hyacinth, as shown in Table 2, is noticeably lower compared to materials like cotton, silk, and linen. This is further illustrated in Figure 12, which showcases a blend of 60:40 cotton-water hyacinth and a 70:30 water hyacinth-cotton yarn used in lamp and furniture design, emphasizing the adaptability of water hyacinth fibers [16].

The tensile strength of water hyacinth fabric is closely comparable to that of cotton fabric, with figures standing at 250 Mpa and 280 Mpa, respectively. Additionally, water hyacinth fabric exhibits strong resistance against abrasion and color fading, marking it as an appealing and environmentally friendly option.

Research efforts have combined water hyacinth fiber and cotton yarn in various proportions aiming to produce textiles that are both eco-friendly and user-friendly. The ultimate goal was to identify the best combinations suitable for diverse design and industrial applications. An exemplary design highlighted in Figure 13, showcases a chair made using water hyacinth fabric, requiring 10 tons of water hyacinth stems in its production.

Figure 1 3 . A chair design that utilizes water hyacinth fabric requires 10 tons of water hyacinth stems for processing

Figure 1 4 . The vital role of improvements in life and community economies, focusing on eradicating poverty, providing clean water and sanitation, promoting decent work, and fostering economic growth to create a sustainable future

Figure 14 underscores the profound impact of such innovations on local community economies, emphasizing broader societal implications. Adopting sustainable materials like water hyacinths can shape a sustainable future by addressing challenges like poverty, ensuring clean water and sanitation access, and stimulating economic growth [17].

Figure 1 5 . Explore community-based decision-making, active participation in community development, and sharing the benefits of local production to contribute to a thriving and sustainable community

Furthermore, Figure 15 sheds light on the significance of community-based decision-making, accentuating the importance of active community involvement and the equitable distribution of production benefits.

In conclusion, the potential of water hyacinth fibers in eco-friendly product design and manufacturing is profound. Merging age-old craftsmanship with contemporary market needs, augmented by sustainable materials, can meet the increasing global demand for environmental responsibility.

Water hyacinths, an invasive species known to create significant ecological problems, have the potential to be transformed into a valuable resource for sustainable product development [18]. Communities can assist in preventing the spread of this invasive species and, in turn, minimize its adverse effects on water quality, native flora and fauna, and the overall health of aquatic ecosystems by utilizing water hyacinths in the wickerwork industry [19]. This can be realized by using water hyacinths to craft wickerwork products [20].

The exhibition "Transforming Water Hyacinths: Thai Weaving Innovation for Sustainable Development in Thailand" emphasizes the novel approach of using water hyacinths as a renewable resource for eco-friendly products. This strategy aligns with global trends that prioritize sustainability and environmentally conscious design [21]. In Thailand's Pathum Thani province, researchers partnered with local villagers to understand traditional weaving techniques and design patterns that meet the demands of contemporary markets [22]. By processing water hyacinth fibers and merging them with cotton yarn, they developed a spectrum of textiles suitable for various applications, including furniture, bags, tablecloths, and curtains [23]. The researchers also designed prototype furniture and displays, revealing the commercial potential of water hyacinth fabric.

Adopting water hyacinth fibers benefits local communities, conserves artisan traditions, and aids environmental conservation efforts. By repurposing an invasive species for sustainable product development, these communities can economically thrive and adapt age-old methods to satisfy modern market requirements [24-26]. This ensures eco-friendly materials remain competitive in global markets [27].

Future studies might delve into additional applications of water hyacinth fibers, such as packaging or construction materials [28]. Such applications could diminish plastic waste and reduce the carbon footprint of manufacturing processes. As the world confronts environmental challenges and the quest for sustainable development, innovative methods like the one described herein gain increasing importance.

Numerous advantages may be gained by exploring the possibility of employing water hyacinths as a resource for the creation of environmentally friendly products. Researchers may help local populations, protect traditional crafts, and contribute to efforts to make the world a more sustainable place if they investigate novel applications of invasive species.

In the framework of Transforming Water Hyacinths: Thai Weaving Innovation, Thailand, various routes of inquiry that might contribute to the growth, development, and sustainability of the water hyacinth weaving industry will be the focus of future research.

6.1 Advanced processing techniques

Investigate and develop innovative methods for processing water hyacinth fibers to improve their strength, durability, and versatility. This may include experimenting with different treatments, blending with other natural fibers, or incorporating new technologies in the production process.

6.2 Diversification of applications

Explore a wider range of applications for water hyacinth woven products, such as packaging materials, insulation, textiles, and construction materials. By diversifying the product portfolio, the industry can attract new markets and customers while reducing dependence on a single product type [29].

6.3 Sustainable dyeing and finishing processes

Examine eco-friendly dyeing and finishing techniques that can enhance the aesthetic appeal of water hyacinth woven products without causing harm to the environment. This research could focus on natural dyes derived from plants, minerals, or other sustainable sources.

6.4 Market research and consumer preferences

Conduct in-depth market research to understand consumer preferences and identify potential niches for water hyacinth woven products. This information can help guide product development, design, and marketing strategies to target potential customers better and increase market share [30].

6.5 Environmental impact assessment

Study the long-term environmental impacts of water hyacinth harvesting and processing on local ecosystems, aquatic life, and water quality. This research can help develop guidelines for sustainable harvesting and processing practices that minimize negative impacts on the environment [31].

6.6 Social and economic impact

Assess the social and economic impact of the water hyacinth weaving industry on local communities, including job creation, skill development, and income generation. This research can help identify strategies for maximizing the positive effects of the industry while addressing potential challenges and inequalities [32].

6.7 Policy and regulatory frame work

Investigate the current policy and regulatory framework governing the water hyacinth weaving industry and its environmental aspects. Identify gaps and propose recommendations for improvements that can foster sustainable growth and development in the sector.

6.8 Collaboration and knowledge sharing

Explore opportunities for collaboration and knowledge sharing among different stakeholders, such as researchers, local artisans, government agencies, and non-governmental organizations. This can foster innovation, capacity building, and the transfer of best practices within the industry.

By focusing on these future research topics, the water hyacinth weaving industry in Thailand can continue to evolve, adapt to market demands, and contribute to sustainable development and environmental conservation.

The innovative approach to repurposing water hyacinths, an invasive species in Southeast Asia, for sustainable product development forms the crux of this research. Researchers have explored the potential of water hyacinth fibers to create eco-friendly products by revitalizing traditional weaving techniques and aligning them with modern market needs.

The study emphasizes the importance of supporting local communities, preserving traditional crafts, and reducing environmental impact. By harnessing the potential of water hyacinths, communities can benefit economically while contributing to global sustainability efforts. This project is not only about innovation but also about the continuous adaptation of traditional techniques to ensure that eco-friendly materials remain competitive in an increasingly eco-conscious world.

One key aspect that adds depth to this research is the role of education. Education plays a pivotal role in the success of sustainable product development, particularly in the context of repurposing water hyacinths for eco-friendly products. It empowers local communities with the knowledge and skills required to innovate and adapt traditional techniques to contemporary market demands. By fostering collaboration between researchers, artisans, and educators, education acts as a bridge, connecting traditional wisdom with modern scientific understanding. The integration of educational programs in the process promotes awareness, builds capacity, and enhances the community's ability to engage with sustainable practices effectively. Moreover, education can inspire new generations to continue exploring and innovating within the realm of sustainability, ensuring the long-term growth and resilience of eco-friendly product development.

The article underscores the innovative use of Southeast Asia's water hyacinth overgrowth, transforming this invasive plant into valuable and sustainable products. Through collaboration between researchers and local communities and the integration of education, this study exemplifies how creative solutions can turn environmental challenges into opportunities for sustainable development.

The field of research offers promising paths for exploration, such as optimizing blends of water hyacinth fiber, scaling production, engaging local communities, analyzing market trends, and assessing long-term environmental impacts. These avenues, infused with educational strategies, can further contribute to environmental stewardship and present a responsible innovation and sustainable growth model aligned with global sustainability goals.

This investigation was supported by the Academic Promotion Fundamental Fund and Area-based Research Unit. In addition, the author would like to thank Mr. Krittin Wichittraitham for his invaluable counsel and assistance throughout the course of this study.

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How Does Water Hyacinth Harm the Local Ecosystem? Research Paper

Introduction, identification of waterhyacith, effects of waterhyacith on local ecosystems, degradation of water quality, control of waterhyacith.

Water hyacinth is a perennial aquatic plant which freely floats in tropical as well as sub-tropical waters. Water hyacinth is native in South America but has since been introduced to many regions. This plant has glossy, broad, ovate and thick leaves and rises up to 1 meter above the water surface.

Water hyacinth is among is among the fastest growing plants ever known and reproduces through stolons or runners that form daughter plants. There has been raging debate on the overall significance of water hyacinth on human society. Despite that the plant has some economic and ecological benefits; its adverse effects are overwhelming.

The presence of Waterhyacith has been associated with numerous economic and ecological damages. Water hyacinth has great harm on the local ecosystems. Water hyacinth degrades water quality and affects habitats for aquatic life. This research paper will explore, discuss and analyze how water hyacinth harms the local ecosystem.

Water hyacinth has been ranked as one of the worst invasive species. The reputation of water hyacinth has been doomed due to its ecological and economic effects. Being a native plant in South America, water hyacinth has spread to other regions of the world. Water hyacinth produces beautiful flowers, though its problems are higher. Water hyacinth can be easily identified since it freely floats on water surface.

This plant has dark green, shiny and glossy leaves. The leaves are elliptical and round in shape. The leaves of water hyacinth are approximately 6 inches wide alongside being waterproof. Another key feature of water hyacinth is that it rises over 3 feet above the water surface.

The roots of water hyacinth are distinctive and hang below water surface, whereby they have a feathery appearance. Despite the harmful effects of water hyacinth on ecosystems, the plant has very attractive flowers (Villamagna Murphy, 2010).

Water hyacinth has great harm on the local ecosystem and affects aquatic life and water quality. This plant blocks photosynthesis thus degrading water quality. The reduction of water quality through deprivation of oxygen has a cascading effect on aquatic life. Fish, plants and other sea life are adversely affected by this phenomenon. The biological diversity is greatly degraded by water hyacinth.

This is because water hyacinth has a negative effect on submersed plants. Water hyacinth also interferes with immersed plant communities through crushing and pushing them. By so doing, the general ecosystem is impacted. Animal communities are negatively affected through the elimination of plants as well as blocking the access of water which the animals rely on for nesting and shelter (Mariana et al, 2006).

The effects of water hyacinth are enormous on the ecosystem. This can be attributed to the fast growing nature of the plant. Water hyacinth grows very dense to the point that a single acre of the weed weighs over 200 tons. This is a great catastrophe to the ecosystem in the sense that it blocks oxygen in the waters thus inhibiting aquatic life.

The thick and dense mats formed by water hyacinth overwhelm lakes and rivers thus inhibiting biological and economic process. The life of other plants and animals is jeopardized by the rapid growth of water hyacinth. The enormous growth and concentration of the plant decreases water flow as well as leads to oxygen depletion.

As a result, a good environment for mosquito breeding is developed. Native plant species are overwhelmed by the plant thus leading to their elimination. Based on these changes, water hyacinth alters the entire ecosystems which animals and plants rely on (Weijden and Bol, 2007).

Water hyacinth has a distinctive effect on water quality. Past research has shown that the dense mats formed by the plant have adverse effects on water quality. The plant forms dense and interlocking mats which affect the oxygen flow in the water. As a result of the dense and interlocking mats formed by the weed, the dissolved oxygen concentrations declines, hence degrading water quality.

A low level of phytoplankton productivity also takes place which in turn dooms water quality. The higher levels of sedimentation resulting from the dense mats as well as the complex root structure of water hyacinth also affect water quality.

Water hyacinth leads to high levels of evapo-transpiration rates due to the dense leaves of the plant. This is in comparison with the evaporation rates hence leading to heavy sedimentation (Villamagna Murphy, 2010).

The levels of temperatures and PH in waters are also affected by the plant. Water hyacinth destabilizes temperatures and PH levels in the lagoons. This scenario prevents stratification thus increasing mixing in water levels. This phenomenon affects water quality since oxygen levels are degraded. The rates and levels of photosynthesis are also greatly inhibited by water hyacinth.

Water hyacinth does not produce oxygen as compared to other submerged vegetation and phytoplankton. This leads to low levels of dissolved oxygen concentration thus negatively affecting water quality.

The capacity of the plant mats determines the level of oxygen concentrations. High concentrations of water hyacinth mats lead to low penetration levels of light into water columns thus inhibiting photosynthesis (Mariana et al, 2006).

Decrease in dissolved oxygen concentrations

Water hyacinth has been associated with the degradation of oxygen in water. This is in comparison with other aquatic invasive species like Sagittaria lancifolia and Hydrilla verticillata. Research has shown that water hyacinth greatly reduces oxygen concentration.

Water hyacinth has been categorized as the only plant leading to a massive decline in average levels of oxygen concentrations. An inverse relationship between water hyacinth and dissolved oxygen concentration has been identified. a significant decrease in the amount of dissolved oxygen beneath water hyacinth mats in relation to that of open water has also been established.

This offers a clear picture of the negative effects of the plant in decreasing dissolved oxygen concentration (Villamagna Murphy, 2010).

A point of concern is that the rate of decreasing oxygen concentration is not constant. The size of a water hyacinth mat that can cause a significant decrease in oxygen varies from one region to another.

Over 25% of cover in 0.05ha can decrease oxygen concentration to levels which threaten aquatic life mostly fish survival. Nevertheless, a negative relationship exists between dissolved oxygen and water hyacinth concentration (Streever, 1999).

In the case of dissolved oxygen, areas infested with water hyacinth usually demonstrate lower ranges as compared to waterhyacith free waters. Shorelines without the plants or with lower concentrations have high levels of dissolved oxygen. This is in comparison with water hyacinth free regions.

The absence or decline of dissolved oxygen has adverse effects on the ecosystem. Low levels of dissolved oxygen inhibit plant growth and survival of aquatic life. The low concentration of dissolved oxygen is a result of blockage by the water hyacinth mats.

The metabolic activities of aquatic life are jeopardized thus leading to extinction of some of the animals, plants and insects. This leads to loss of biodiversity, which is in this case a great harm to the ecosystem (Weijden and Bol, 2007).

Absorption of heavy metals

Alongside the decrease of oxygen concentration, water hyacinth absorbs heavy metals. Water hyacinth is dangerous in the sense that it absorbs large amounts of nutrients in the water column as well as heavy metals. This is a serious problem in relation to aquatic life.

The mercury concentrations of water hyacinth are very high. Research on water hyacinth in California indicated that water hyacinth leaves had same mercury levels as the sediments beneath. Poor disposal of the plant on the environment will definitely lead to contamination.

This will lead to ecological problems since animals and plants which depend on the contaminated environment will be affected. Nevertheless, the ability of water hyacinth to absorb large amounts of nutrients justifies its use as a tertiary or secondary biological alternative for waste water treatment (Streever, 1999).

Water hyacinth has a higher capacity of holding heavy solids as compared to shorelines without the plant. Water hyacinth waters have a higher turbidity as compared to clear waters. The levels of suspended solids in infested waters are alarming.

Water hyacinth traps phytoplankton and detritus which in turn affect water quality. Water which would have otherwise been fit for domestic use is rendered useless. High level of suspended solids inhibits zooplankton organisms hence decreasing energy transfer. The safety of human transport and other recreational activities in infested waters is jeopardized (Mariana et al, 2006).

Alteration of water PH levels

Water hyacinth affects pH levels and free carbon dioxide. PH levels are greatly decreased by the presence of water hyacinth. On the other hand, a high level of free carbon dioxide exists in areas infested with water hyacinth. In comparison with water hyacinth free shorelines, areas infested with the plant have a higher free carbon dioxide.

These high carbon dioxide levels are as a result of respiration, decay and the decomposition process of water hyacinth. Water hyacinth mats which are dense and large in size also prevents free entry of oxygen. This phenomenon is very harmful to aquatic and human life.

Oxygen demand for aquatic life is doomed, hence leading to death of some species. This leads to decline of biodiversity, thus illustrating the harm of the plant on the local ecosystem (Richard et al, 2011).

The high absorption rate of water hyacinth on nutrients is harmful to the environment. This is because it destabilizes PH level of the waters as well as the surrounding environment. The high absorption rate of nitrate, ammonium and phosphate can not only cause ecological harm but also affect aquatic and human life.

Despite that the high intake capacity is useful in reducing nutrient concentrations; it may lead to environmental contamination. Land on which the plant is disposed will be affected by the chemicals. This will have adverse effects on plants, animals and humans (Villamagna Murphy, 2010).

Depletion of Nutrients

Water hyacinth has a great impact on the ecosystem since it affects the overall nutrient composition. This may lead to the disappearance of some of the plant species or animal species which depend on them. Existence of water hyacinth leads to a high decrease in phosphorous and nitrogen. This calls for continuous control of the plant so as to counter its negative effects on the ecosystem.

Despite that waterhyacith provides phytoremediation, it leads to significant nutrient loss. This however depends on the concentration of water hyacinth. In light with this scenario, the decrease in nutrients affects the biological process of the plants and animals. Plant and animal loss will definitely occur thus demonstrating the effects of water hyacinth on the ecosystem and biodiversity (Streever, 1999).

The levels of nitrate concentration as a result of water hyacinth are lower compared to shorelines without water hyacinth. The average of nitrate concentration in water affected by water hyacinth is significantly lower as compared to that of shorelines free from the plant.

This is associated with absorption of nitrates by water hyacinth. The high capacity of nitrate absorption by water hyacinth is hazardous since it affects the overall concentrations of nitrates in the waters. This has great negative impacts on PH levels and also on the aquatic life (Weijden and Bol, 2007).

Increase in Water temperatures

Water temperatures in water hyacinth infested areas are slightly above average. Research shows that the average temperatures of water in areas infested with water hyacinth is higher compared to the shoreline temperatures. The difference in water temperature would not occur without the water hyacinth. This clearly shows the effects of water hyacinth in influencing water temperatures.

Higher water temperatures are attributed to the dense mats of the plant, which in turn hinders transfer of heat. Decay of organic matter resulting from the water hyacinth also leads to heat generation hence leading to temperature rise.

Temperature fluctuations in areas infested with water hyacinth is hereby a common phenomenon. Breeding of insects like mosquitoes is hereby likely as a result of the temperature changes (Richard et al, 2011).

Breeding of harmful insects

From another perspective, water hyacinth offers favorable conditions and environment for the breeding of mosquitoes and other animals and insects. The breeding of these insects like mosquitoes will definitely threaten human life since it leads to diseases.

Snails also get a prime habitat as a result of the water hyacinth. A good example of the snail species is the parasitic flatworm. This is a dangerous species of snails which causes schistosomiasis (Mariana et al, 2006).

Water hyacinth forms good breeding places for mosquitoes and other insects. The prolific and high growth of water hyacinth leads to excellent breeding areas for harmful insects like mosquitoes. Incidents of malaria, skin rash, encephalitis, cough; gastrointestinal disorders, bilharzias and schistosomiasis are very rampant in areas infested by water hyacinth.

Water hyacinth is harmful to aquatic life since it reduces the concentration of oxygen by de-oxygenating the water. Nutrients for young fish are also reduced. This is due to the high absorption rates of nutrients by water hyacinth.

The effects of water hyacinth are diverse and a catastrophe for aquatic life. The large and dense mats of water hyacinth block water supply and thus, affecting local subsidence fishing. This is an ecological disaster which calls for urgent measures in addressing the problem (Streever, 1999).

Inhibits fishing and transport

Water hyacinth has been blamed for starving subsistence farmers and will become a major problem if not controlled. This is associated with the diseases it enhances through the breeding of snails and mosquitoes which threaten humans.

The blocking or covering of waters by water hyacinth also inhibits fishing. Invasion of water hyacinth into waters associated with human activities can easily unbalance natural lifecycles. Aquatic life can hereby suffer a fatal blow as a result of the waterhyacith. This in turn contributes to loss of biodiversity (Weijden and Bol, 2007).

Lack of controlling and managing water hyacinth will lead to total coverage of ponds and lakes. This can have unprecedented effects on the local ecosystems. Covering of water deprive the native aquatic plants light and oxygen thus killing them.

Fish and other aquatic life will also be harmed since their food which consists of aquatic plants is no more. Death of aquatic plants and animals translates to loss of biodiversity (Villamagna Murphy, 2010).

Water hyacinth has a serious impact on local ecosystems in the sense that it inhibits free movement of aquatic life and humans. It has become common knowledge that water hyacinth inhibits water activities. For instance, boating, fishing and other human expeditions are also obstructed by water hyacinth.

The robust growth of water hyacinth outstrips other aquatic life. This leads to unnecessary competition for survival thus leading to near eradication of some of the species (Tacio, 2009).

The effects of water hyacinth on fishing and transportation are immediate. This is due to the thick mats and covering of the waters by the plant. Access to the beaches is hindered by waterhyacinth. This is due to the dense mats of the plant which hinder human transport. The dense mats formed by waterhyacinth hinter fishing. The movement of fish and other aquatic life is adversely affected by the water hyacinth.

This is an ecological problem in the sense that free movement of the aquatic life is hindered. On the other hand, water hyacinth inhibits irrigation, water treatment and water supply. These are natural and human processes which ought to be facilitated for sustainable coexistence.

Without proper water treatment and supply, biological and environmental catastrophes can emerge. For instance, the contaminated water is both harmful to humans and aquatic life. This is a clear manifestation of the hazardous nature of water hyacinth on the (Richard et al, 2011).

Reduction in biodiversity

Water hyacinth is an ecological disaster due to its prolific growth. This has resulted to its categorization as an ecological nuisance. The fast rate of growth of water hyacinth leads to covering of water surface thus affecting the growth and survival of other aquatic life. The fast proliferation of water hyacinth threatens the survival and development of aquatic species.

The effects of water hyacinth on water temperatures, photosynthesis, PH and nutrients are a serious threat to the survival of other aquatic life. For instance, the effects of water hyacinth in preventing penetration of light are unacceptable. Based on this phenomenon, the adverse effects of water hyacinth on the ecology are demonstrated (Mariana et al, 2006).

Water hyacinth has a serious effect on biological diversity. The prolific growth and spread of the plant has negative impacts on native submersed plants. Immersed plant communities are also altered by the growth of water hyacinth. This is because water hyacinth has fast growth and as a result pushes and crushes the native plants. Animal communities and other aquatic life are also altered by water hyacinth.

This is because the plant affects the local environments by altering temperatures, oxygen, PH and inhibiting penetration of light. By eliminating some of the plants, the animal communities are also affected. This is because the animals depend on the plants and vice verse.

Fish and other aquatic life usually disappear due to the changed environments in aspects of temperatures and PH. A serious human problem resulting from water hyacinth is that it results in the breeding of dangerous animals and insects.

For instance, areas infested with water hyacinth have higher chances of snakes and crocodiles. This ecological problem is a not only a threat to the human species but also to the entire biodiversity (Tacio, 2009).

Due to the adverse effects and harm of water hyacinth on the environment, there is the need for prevention and control. Research has established different ways in which the weed can be eliminated or managed. At present, there are different control approaches for controlling the rapid spread of water hyacinth. The harmful effects of water hyacinth on the ecology and economical prospects have called for its control.

Chemical, biological and physical control mechanisms have been established. Despite that each control mechanism has its benefits; they have also reported diverse weaknesses and drawbacks. Chemical through the use of herbicides affects communities and environment, thus the need to abandon it.

In addressing the problem of water hyacinth, there is a need to identify and administer the best control mechanism. Mechanical approaches of controlling water hyacinth have been widely used. In this approach, dredgers, mowers and other manual extraction methods are used. Nevertheless, this approach is costly and is not possible in large areas.

On the contrary, mechanical approaches for eradicating water hyacinth also offers only short-term solutions. Biological approach to eradication of water hyacinth is most favored due to its long-term and short-term effects. This is not only a sustainable but also an economical approach to controlling the weed (Tacio, 2009).

Manual or mechanical control

Physical control is mostly applied in short-term basis and in small scale. Mechanical methods are the best approach in providing short-term solutions. Nevertheless, this approach is costly and requires both machinery and human labor (NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2010).

Early control using physical means targets concentrated areas. Physical methods remove the weed from their mats and dump them on land to die. Manual removal of the weed has proved successful in small scale as especially in farm drains and dams. However, the high rate of growth of water hyacinth makes it hard to attain total eradication. This approach is only successful when the rate of removal is higher than the plant’s rate of re-growth. From another perspective, physical of manual removal is not successful in large scale. This is widely due to the higher costs and labor (Denise et al, 2007).

Research has shown that mechanical control of water hyacinth is at times effective. Large infestations of the weed have been manually eradicated though at a higher cost. The time and cost of eradicating water hyacinth through manual means is high. It order to attain success, the removal should be done before flowing and seed set of the water hyacinth (NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2010).

Chemical removal

The use of herbicides in the removal of water hyacinth has been overwhelming in recent days. Chemical removal of water hyacinth has proved successful, whereby it has been applied for years in different regions. The success rate of using chemical methods is higher as compared to manual methods.

Nevertheless, there has been high concern for the health of communities as well as the environment in relation to chemical removal. In areas where people wash and collect drinking water as well as fishing, chemical application can turn hazardous. A number of herbicides have been registered which help in the control of water hyacinth. High volume spraying is the most used approach in the application of herbicides.

Handgun power sprays from the banks or on a boat can be adopted in applying the herbicides. Aerial spraying of herbicides can also be considered for large infestations. Herbicides should be considered in growing season mostly in Spring so as to enhance effectiveness.

Spraying recklessly can result in environmental and human catastrophes. Spraying on heavy infestation leads to sinking of the mats, which eventually rot. This can result into ecological disasters through de-oxygenation of water hence potentially killing aquatic life like fish.

In this case, spraying should be consciously undertaken by spraying only portions like a third of the area at a time. Physical or manual removal of some of the weeds before spraying is also advantageous and sustainable (Denise et al, 2007).

Biological methods of removing water hyacinth have been the most recommended due to their sustainability and ecological friendliness. Biological researchers have identified insects which can be effectively used to combat the spread of water hyacinth.

Two weevil species including neochetna bruchi, neochetina eichhomiae and moth species, Xubida infusellus, and niphograpta albiguttalis have been discovered to help control water hyacinth. These insects have proved to be successful in destroying the spread of water hyacinth.

The insects which feed on leaves by creating small scars have great effect in controlling water hyacinth. The laying of eggs by the insects on the water hyacinth leads to infection by fungi and bacteria thus causing the plant to be waterlogged and ideas.

Nevertheless, the inactivity of these insects during winter makes it hard for them to be relied on. Neochetina bruchi on the other hand has proved to be reliable during winter hence complements the inactivity of the other insects (NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2010).

It is however notable that biological control can not be solely applied in control of the weed. Biological control only reduces the prolific growth of water hyacinth but does not lead to total eradication. Biological control ensures substantial reduction in growth rates and flowering thus countering the proliferation of water hyacinth.

The damages on the plants lead to sinking of the mats thus reducing their effects. Since chemical and mechanical control techniques are quite expensive and inefficient, biological removals offer the only suitable approach in controlling water hyacinth.

Researchers have confidence that biological methods are more resilient and effective as compared to the use of herbicides and mechanical control. This is the most sustainable approach to combating invasive water hyacinth, hence reducing their ecological damages (Denise et al, 2007).

Other control mechanisms to water hyacinth include cultural control, mulching, windrowing, and managing flood-stranded infestations. In the case of cultural control, nutrients run to infested areas should be limited. Reduction of water levels in dams and drains can significantly reduce water hyacinth.

Introduction of salty water into infested waterways can also help in combating the spread of water hyacinth. Flood-stranded infestations should be managed by using Earthmoving equipments to remove water hyacinth. This is applicable to verges and roads, which helps in breaking down the water hyacinth.

Windrowing water hyacinth with tractor-mounted blade is an effective approach to removing water hyacinth (NSW Department of Primary Industries, 2010).

The study has clearly demonstrated the harm of water hyacinth on the local ecosystems. Water hyacinth has greatly impacted on the physico-chemical environments thus affecting the ecosystems. Based on the research, water hyacinth affects local water temperatures, PH, concentration of dissolved oxygen, photosynthesis and nutrients in the water.

These influences have great harm on the local ecosystems by altering the normal environments for biological, cultural and economic activities. Aquatic life is adversely affected by the changes in the water environments thus leading to eradication of some species. Water hyacinth has led to significant reduction in biodiversity in infested areas due to the alteration of favorable conditions for survival aquatic plants and animals.

Based on these problems, effective water hyacinth control measures should be adopted. Chemical, biological, mechanical and cultural control methods should be considered. Cultural and biological methods of water hyacinth control are most sustainable hence the need for their prioritization.

Denise, B. et al. (2007). Undesirable Side-Effects of Water Hyacinth Control in Shallow Tropical Reservoir. Freshwater Biology . Vol 52 (6), p1120-1133.

Mariana, M. et al. (2006). An Experimental Study of Habitat Choice by Daphnia: Plants Signal Danger More than Refuge in Subtropical Lakes. Fresh Water Biology . Vol 51 (7), p1320-1330.

NSW Department of Primary Industries (2010). Water Hyacinth- Weed of National Significance . Web.

Richard, M. et al. (2011). Invasive Plants as Catalysts for the Spread of Human Parasites. Neobiota . 9.1156.

Streever, W. (1999). An International Perspective on Wetland Rehabilitation . London: Routledge.

Tacio, H. (2009). Water Hyacinth Ecological Value, Environmental Impacts . Web.

Villamagna, M. Murphy, R. (2010). Ecological and Socio-economic Impacts of Invasive Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes): A Review. Freshwater Biology . Vol 55 (2), p282-298.

Weijden, W. and Bol, L. (2007). Biological Globalization: Bio-Invasions and Their Impacts on Nature- The Economy and Public Health. New Jersey: McGraw Hill.

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Bibliography

IvyPanda . "How Does Water Hyacinth Harm the Local Ecosystem?" December 30, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/how-does-water-hyacinth-harm-the-local-ecosystem/.

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