thesis about procrastination

Understanding procrastination: A case of a study skills course

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• Published: 22 March 2021
• Volume 24 , pages 589–606, ( 2021 )

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• T. Hailikari   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1355-2985 1 ,
• N. Katajavuori   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5093-2402 1 &
• H. Asikainen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3858-211X 1  

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Procrastination is consistently viewed as problematic to academic success and students’ general well-being. There are prevailing questions regarding the underlying and maintaining mechanisms of procrastination which are yet to be learnt. The aim of the present study was to combine different ways to explain procrastination and explore how students’ time and effort management skills, psychological flexibility and academic self-efficacy are connected to procrastination as they have been commonly addressed separately in previous studies. The data were collected from 135 students who participated in a voluntary time management and well-being course in autumn 2019. The results showed that students’ ability to organize their time and effort has the strongest association with procrastination out of the variables included in the study. Psychological flexibility also has a strong individual role in explaining procrastination along with time and effort management skills. Surprisingly, academic self-efficacy did not have a direct association with procrastination. Interestingly, our findings further suggest that time and effort management and psychological flexibility are closely related and appear to go hand in hand and, thus, both need to be considered when the aim is to reduce procrastination. The implications of the findings are further discussed.

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1 Introduction

Academic procrastination is very common among university students: almost all occasionally procrastinate in one or another domain of their studies, and approximately every second student regularly procrastinates (Rothblum et al., 1986 ; Steel, 2007 ). Considerable attention has been given to procrastination in university setting (Klassen et al., 2008 ). The student population is especially prone to procrastination, with an estimated prevalence of 50–95% (Steel, 2007 ). Procrastination may be defined as ‘the voluntary delay of an intended and necessary and/or [personally] important activity, despite expecting potential negative consequences that outweigh the positive consequences of the delay’ (Klingsieck, 2013 , 26). Typical for procrastination is that it is irrational and not imposed by external matters and it is often accompanied by subjective discomfort and negative consequences (Klingsieck, 2013 ). Procrastination is often associated with several negative factors, such as lower academic performance (Steel et al., 2001 ), increased stress (Sirois et al., 2003 ) and poorer mental health (Stead et al., 2010 ). Therefore, it is necessary to understand the causes and the factors that maintain procrastination in order to be able to reduce it. The challenge is that research in the area of procrastination often lacks a coherent, theoretical explanation of the behaviour (Glick et al., 2014 ) which has made it difficult to understand the phenomenon and to follow the research (e.g., Klingsieck, 2013 ; Schraw et al., 2007 ; Steel, 2007 ). Therefore, there are prevailing questions regarding the underlying and maintaining mechanisms of procrastination which are yet to be learnt (Katz et al., 2014 ; Visser et al., 2018 ).

The core characteristic of procrastination is the intention-action gap suggesting that the procrastinators often have good intentions, but the challenge lies in the implementation of these intentions (Dewitte and Lens, 2000 ). Thus, procrastination has traditionally been understood as a self-regulation or time management problem (Wolters et al., 2017 ). There is a strong body of evidence suggesting that lower levels of self-regulating behaviours are related to higher levels of procrastination, and thus self-regulation is one of the keys to understanding procrastination (Ferrari, 2001 ). However, Visser et al. ( 2018 ) suggest that procrastination is complex behaviour that involves both cognitive and emotional elements as well as evaluations of one’s own competence. Recent research suggests that instead of being purely a self-regulation or time management problem, procrastination is also strongly influenced by psychological factors, such as the low confidence in one’s own abilities to perform (Steel, 2007 ) and inability to cope with negative emotions that arise in challenging situations referring to the centrality of psychological flexibility in understanding procrastination (Dionne, 2016 ; Gagnon et al., 2016 ). In this article, we aim to bring together these central constructs that have usually been addressed separately in previous studies in order to understand the phenomenon of procrastination and its underlying mechanisms better.

1.1 Factors explaining academic procrastination

There are several theoretical perspectives that have been used when exploring procrastination: the differential psychology perspective; the motivational and volitional psychology perspective; the clinical psychology perspective; and the situational perspective (Klingsieck, 2013 ). In the context of higher education, the motivational-volitional psychology and situational perspectives may be regarded as the most relevant because they provide tangible tools and theories for educational developers to try to influence students’ procrastination tendencies whereas the other perspectives focus more on aspects that are not so easily influenced, such as personality traits, depression or personality disorders. The motivational-volitional perspective is focused on the relationship between different motivational and volitional variables such as motivation, self-regulation, time management and learning strategies which are central in successful studying in higher education (Lindblom-Ylänne et al., 2015 ; Klingsieck, 2013 ). The situational perspective, on the other hand, focuses on procrastination evoked by situational features, such as the perceived difficulty of the task (Klingsieck, 2013 ). This situational perspective can be further extended to include the person’s reactions to the challenges posed by the situation.

From the motivational-volitional perspective, academic procrastination has been found to be related to lower levels of self-regulation and academic self-efficacy and is associated with higher levels of stress and anxiety (e.g., Ferrari et al., 2005 ; Howell et al., 2006 ; Schraw et al., 2007 ; Wolters, 2003 ). Klassen et al. ( 2008 ) state that among all the variables that have been investigated in relation to academic procrastination, self-regulation, self-efficacy, and self-esteem have received the most attention (see e.g., Cassady and Johnson, 2002 ; Chun Chu and Choi, 2005 ; Ferrari, 2001 ; Howell et al., 2006 ; Steel, 2007 ; Wolters, 2003 ). Procrastination has traditionally been considered to be a form of self-regulation failure, as a weakness of will and low ability to organise own studying (e.g., Ferrari, 2001 ; Senecal et al., 1995 ; Steel, 2007 ) and, thus, one common theory is that procrastination results from a person’s inability to manage time (Burka and Yuen, 1982 ; Glick and Orsillo, 2015 ).

1.2 Time and effort management skills behind procrastination

Research focusing on exploring university students’ study progress has consistently shown that time and effort management skills are among the most crucial factors (e.g., Ariely and Wertenbroch, 2002 ; Entwistle, 2009 ; Haarala-Muhonen et al., 2011 ; Häfner et al., 2015 ; Pintrich, 2004 ). In the higher education context, time and effort management skills refer to students’ ability to set goals for themselves and to study according to their goals, to manage their time usage and to prioritise the tasks to be conducted (Entwistle et al., 2001 ). It has further been suggested that time and effort management skills provide a foundation for cognitive engagement and student achievement as they refer to how much the students are willing to invest in their learning (Appleton et al., 2008; Fredricks et al., 2004). Previous studies indicate that many higher education students struggle with time and effort management skills (Parpala et al., 2010 ) and that these skills remain constant throughout the studies and are hard to change (Parpala et al., 2017a ). Many students study without study schedules and thus fail to pass the courses because they run out of preparation time, such as for exams (Asikainen et al., 2013 ). Thus, many interventions to reduce procrastination have focused on improving time management skills (e.g., Ariely and Wertenbroch, 2002 ; Häfner et al., 2015 ; Levrini and Prevatt, 2012 ).

There are also critical voices claiming that time and effort management skills, or lack thereof, are not enough to explain the phenomena and that research focusing on the role of time and effort management skills in procrastination does not take the persons’ internal experiences enough into account (Glick and Orsillo, 2015 ). It has been suggested that when exploring factors that maintain and cause procrastination, we have to widen the perspective to include a broader theory of regulation of inner experiences, namely, psychological flexibility (Hayes, 2004 ; Hayes et al., 2012 ). Recent studies concerning procrastination have brought up the importance of psychological flexibility in decreasing procrastination and suggest that procrastination may also result from person’s psychological inflexibility (Eisenbeck et al., 2019 ; Gagnon et al., 2016 ; Glick et al., 2014 ; Scent and Boes, 2014 ).

1.3 Psychological flexibility and academic self-efficacy beliefs

Psychological flexibility refers to one’s ability to be consciously present, confronting and accepting the negative experiences, emotions and thoughts one might have, and being able to take action about achieving one’s own goals despite unpleasant feelings and thoughts, and further, being able to react to negative feelings and thoughts from a new perspective (Chawla and Ostafin, 2007 ; Hayes et al., 2006 ). Thus, it is a central factor influencing the way students react in a stressful and challenging situation. Procrastinators often fail to regulate their actions in situations that are challenging and involve high levels of stress and cognitive workload and avoiding the unpleasant feelings generated by the situation (Ferrari, 2001 ). This experiential avoidance, or an unwillingness to encounter unpleasant experiences, such as anxiety, is a key component of psychological inflexibility (Sutcliff et al., 2019 ). Tasks that are considered to be difficult and challenging and do not provide instant rewards tend to be delayed and avoided (Blunt and Pychyl, 2000 ; Sirois and Pychyl, 2013 ; Steel, 2007 ). Escaping from stressful and aversive situations might relieve stress and are thus rewarding. As an example, students are always faced with a trade-off when choosing between procrastinating or studying (Kirby et al., 2005 ; Olsen et al., 2018 ) . One alternative is to complete the challenging academic tasks on time which leads to delayed rewards in the form of achieving academic and career goals (see e.g., Sutcliff et al., 2019 ). These goals often strongly align with students' values. However, students always have an alternative to choose an immediate, positive reinforcers in the form of avoidance or escape from negative internal experiences elicited by challenging tasks, such as engaging in social or leisure activities that are not related to the task at hand. Consequently, a number of recent studies have suggested that procrastination is strongly characterised by avoidant tendencies and aversive experiences and is thus mainly involved with the person’s ability to deal with negative emotions, in addition to their time and effort management skills (Sirois, 2014 ; Ticeand Bratslavsky, 2000 ; Hailikari et al., submitted).

Psychological flexibility is thought to be constructed of six core psychological processes, which are cognitive defusion, self-as-context, being present, acceptance, values and committed actions (Hayes et al., 2012 ). These processes include the ability to observe and recognise ones’ own thoughts and seeing them just as thoughts rather than truths; keeping a flexible perspective-taking attitude on one’s thinking and feeling; the ability to remain in the present moment and be mindful of thoughts, feelings, and sensations without judging them; confronting negative thoughts and emotions without attempting to change them; clarifying one’s hopes, values and goals in life and finally, doing and taking actions which are consistent with one’s hopes, values and goals (Flaxman et al., 2013 ; Hayes et al., 2012 ). Each of these processes is a psychological skill that can be enhanced in different life domains.

Previous research has clearly shown a link between high levels of procrastination and psychological inflexibility. Eisenbeck et al. ( 2019 ) found that procrastination and psychological distress were associated with psychological inflexibility and further, psychological inflexibility mediated the relationship between general psychological distress and procrastination. The role of psychological flexibility’s sub-processes in procrastination among university students has also been studied, and it was found that committed actions were moderately negatively correlated with procrastination suggesting that committed action could be a promising variable in the study of procrastination (Gagnon et al. 2016 ). Another study showed that procrastination was negatively and moderately related to lower levels of acceptance, adding support to the negative link between psychological flexibility and procrastination (Glick et al., 2014 ). The significance of psychological flexibility in the university context has been studied less, but recent research in this context showed that psychological flexibility has a strong relationship with student engagement and study progression (Asikainen, 2018 ; Asikainen et al., 2018 ).

A recent study by Jeffords et al. ( 2018 ), showed that psychological flexibility is closely related to self-efficacy. Self-efficacy has often been studied previously, focusing on procrastination with results showing an inverse relationship with procrastination (Howell and Watson, 2007; Steel, 2007 ; Wolters, 2003 ). Academic Self-efficacy beliefs describe students’ beliefs in their own capabilities to learn new things and to complete given tasks successfully (Bandura, 1997 ). According to the study by Jeffords et al. ( 2018 ) students who reported greater psychological flexibility felt more efficacious in their ability to complete their studies, whereas students who reported greater inflexibility also reported feeling less efficacious. Similar findings have been reported in relation to students’ time and effort management skills. Bembenutty ( 2009 ) showed that college students who have greater academic self-efficacy also tend to show increased management of their time and study environment (see also Burlison et al., 2009 ; Park and Sperling, 2012 ). Academic Self-efficacy beliefs have been proposed as a possible explanation for procrastination in the academic context, indicating that low academic self-efficacy beliefs are associated with an increased tendency to procrastinate (Judge and Bono, 2001 ). If one’s academic self-efficacy beliefs are low, the motivation to initiate work or to commit to required action should also be low, resulting in avoidance behaviour and consequently procrastination (Grunschel et al. 2013 ). On the other hand, students who believe that they can and will do well are more likely to be motivated to self-regulate, persist and engage in studying (Pintrich and Schunk, 2002 ; Zimmerman, 2000 ). Academic Self-efficacy beliefs have been found to be among the strongest predictive factors of performance in various domains (e.g., Lane and Lane, 2001 ; Pajares, 1996 ). Thus, when exploring the maintaining factors of procrastination, it is important to include academic self-efficacy.

1.4 Aim of the study

Taken together, previous research suggests that time and effort management skills, psychological flexibility and self-efficacy are all closely related to procrastination. Although the studies in this area support a tentative connection between these factors, it is far from conclusive. To our knowledge, no previous study has brought together these central constructs in explaining procrastination. They have been explored separately as they represent different research traditions. The aim of the present study is to include all these variables and explore their interrelations and how they together predict procrastination among students that experiences challenges with their study skills. There is a need to understand the underlying mechanisms of procrastination and which constructs are especially important if the aim is to reduce procrastination among higher education students. This research focuses on answering the following research question: How are university students’ time and effort management skills, psychological flexibility and self-efficacy associated with (a) each other and (b) to their reported level of procrastination.

2 Methodology

2.1 participants.

The data were collected from students studying arts and humanities at a Finnish university. Prolonged study times are a great challenge at the Faculty of Arts and Humanities (Kurri, 2006 ). Recent research also suggests that students procrastinate more in the field of arts and humanities compared to other academic fields (Nordby et al., 2017 ). The data came from the students who participated in a voluntary time management and well-being course, and who were willing/eager to improve their study skills. This course was advertised for students who have challenges with their time-management and well-being. A total of 149 students voluntarily participated in the study and answered the questionnaire in autumn 2019. Students responded to the questionnaires at the beginning of the course as a part of their pre-assignment. Of these students, 14 were excluded because their answers had many missing values concerning the measured dimensions (> 50%). Thus, a total of 135 students provided the data. In the questionnaire, the students were asked to evaluate their own time and effort management skills, academic self-efficacy, tendency to procrastinate and psychological flexibility. Of these students, 22 were male students and 110 female students. Two students identified as ‘other gender’, and one did not answer this question. Approximately a quarter of the students in the Faculty of Arts are male and, thus, the sample distribution is similar to the population. The average age of the participants was 28.1 years (SD = 7.62).

2.2 Instruments

We used two scales, focusing on time and effort management skills and academic self-efficacy, from the HowULearn questionnaire (Parpala and Lindblom-Ylänen, 2012 ). HowULearn -questionnaire and its scales are widely used and validated in Finnish and international contexts (e.g., Cheung et al., 2020; Parpala et al., 2010 ; Postareff et al., 2018; Ruohoniemi et al., 2017 ; Rytkönen et al., 2012). The HowULearn questionnaire has also been translated in the context of Danish higher education (Herrmann et al., 2017 ). Time and effort management skills are measured with four items on a Likert-scale from 1 to 5 (e.g. 'I am generally systematic and organised in my studies’). Concerning students’ academic self-efficacy, we used a scale from HowULearn questionnaire which has been constructed based on (Pintrich and Garcia ( 1991 ) Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ). Five items, using a Likert scale from 1 to 5, were modified to suit the academic self-efficacy. As it is applied here, academic self-efficacy refers to students’ appraisal of their ability to master academic tasks including their judgements about their ability to accomplish a task as well as their confidence in their skill to perform that task. Based on these items, an academic self-efficacy scale for constructed (5 items, e.g., ‘I believe I will do well in my studies as long as I make an effort’). Psychological flexibility was measured according to the work-related acceptance and action questionnaire (WAAQ) (Bond et al., 2013) which was recently developed to fit the higher education context in Finland (7 items, e.g., ‘My worries do not prevent me from succeeding in my studies’ (Asikainen, 2018 ). The items used a 7-point Likert scale (1 = totally disagree, 7 = totally agree). Procrastination was measured with a short version of the Pure procrastination scale (PPS) (Svartdahl and Steel, 2017 ) using a 5-point Likert scale (5 items, e.g.,’ In preparation for some deadlines, I often waste time by doing other things’). This short version of the original pure procrastination scale has been proven to be a robust instrument to measure academic procrastination (Svartdahl et al., 2017; see also Klein et al., 2019 ).

2.3 Statistical analysis

Missing value analysis was conducted on the items measuring the scales. There were only four separate missing values concerning different items and, thus, these were replaced with means. The relationships between the scales were analysed with Pearson’s correlation analysis. In addition, linear regression analysis was conducted on the scales measuring academic self-efficacy, time and effort management (= organised studying) and psychological flexibility explaining procrastination. In addition, the students were then divided into three score groups (low/medium/high) based on their scores measuring time and effort management and psychological flexibility where the middle group was formed using the mean + − a half standard deviation. The groups were combined and thus, six score groups were conducted. The differences in these groups in procrastination was analysed with One-way ANOVA and Tukey’s test.

According to the Cronbach alpha analysis, the scales measuring psychological flexibility, procrastination and academic self-efficacy had very good reliability (α = 0.83–0.90). The reliability for the scale measuring time and effort management can be regarded as acceptable (see Table 1 ). Adding more items to measure the same dimension, would most probably have increased the alpha on Organised studying (Taber 2018). However, as the scale has been used in many previous studies with good reliability (Herrmann et al., 2017 ; Parpala et al., 2010 ; Ruohoniemi et al., 2017 ) its use can be considered to be acceptable.

The correlational analysis showed that there was a clear relationship between procrastination, psychological flexibility, academic self-efficacy and time and effort management skills. Procrastination was statistically significantly and negatively correlated with time and effort management skills (r =  − 0.584, p  < 0.001), academic self-efficacy ( p  =  − 0.358, p  < 0.001) and psychological flexibility (r =  − 0.461, p  < 0.001). In addition, academic self-efficacy was positively related to psychological flexibility ( p  = 0.322, p  < 0,001) and time and effort management skills ( p  = 0.357, p  < 0.001). In addition, time and effort management skills and psychological flexibility correlated positively with each other (r = 0.332, p  < 0.001). The correlations can be seen in Table 2 .

3.1 Regression analysis

A linear regression model was conducted with psychological flexibility, time and effort management and academic self-efficacy as predictors of procrastination. As presented in Table 3 , time and effort management skills, psychological flexibility and academic self-efficacy explained a significant level of variance in procrastination (Adjusted R Square = 0.382). Both time and effort management (t =  − 5.63, p  < 0.001) and psychological flexibility (t =  − 3.06, p  = 0.003) explained the variance in procrastination statistically significantly meaning that students who reported greater use of time and effort management strategies and higher psychological flexibility reported less tendency to procrastinate. Academic self-efficacy failed to emerge as an individual predictor of procrastination t =  − 1.04, p  = 0.301). The results of the regression analysis can be seen in Table 3 .

3.2 Differences in score groups

The One-way ANOVA of the score groups showed that there were differences in experiences of procrastination according to the score groups. According to the Tukey’s test, the group with a high score on time and effort management as well as psychological flexibility scored statistically significantly lower on procrastination than the other score groups (see Table 4 ). In addition, the group with a low score in time and effort management as well as on psychological flexibility scored higher in procrastination than the group scoring average on time and effort management and high on psychological flexibility as well as the group scoring high on time and effort management and average on psychological flexibility. The group scoring average on time and effort management and low on psychological flexibility also scored statistically significantly higher on procrastination than the group scoring high on time and effort management and average on psychological flexibility.

4 Discussion

Procrastination is consistently viewed as problematic to academic success and students’ general well-being (Steel, 2007 ). Students’ time management skills as well as ability to manage their own actions despite the negative feelings have been identified as central factors associated with procrastination along with students’ academic self-efficacy beliefs. To this point, however, only a few studies have included all these measures and compared their impact on procrastination. Thus, an aim with the present study was to explore how students’ time and effort management skills, psychological flexibility and academic self-efficacy are interrelated and associated with procrastination as they have been commonly addressed separately in previous studies.

Designed to address this limitation, our findings support three noteworthy findings regarding academic procrastination among students who experience problems in their time management skills. Firstly, our findings show that students’ ability to organise their time and effort had the strongest association with procrastination out of the variables included in the study. Secondly, our findings indicate that psychological flexibility has a strong individual role in explaining procrastination along with time and effort management skills, although to a slightly smaller degree. And thirdly, our findings suggest that these two constructs appear to be closely related and clearly go hand in hand and, thus, both need to be considered. In the remainder of this section, we review the findings that support these points, identify implications for research and practice, and discuss some limitations to these conclusions.

Time management has been repeatedly identified in previous studies as a major factor contributing to procrastination (Ferrari, 2001 ; Senécal et al., 1995 ; Steel, 2007 ; Wolters, 2003 ). Our findings add to this work by showing that in our study time and effort management skills were strongly related to self-reported level of procrastination and explained the largest variance of procrastination in the regression. This finding implies that students’ time and effort management skills can be used to understand their self-reported levels of academic procrastination. However, it appears that time and effort management skills alone are not enough to explain the phenomenon of procrastination as we assumed. In our study, psychological flexibility also had a strong individual role in explaining large variation of procrastination. This is in line with the recent research suggesting that psychological flexibility is also a central construct explaining procrastination (Dionne, 2016 ; Gagnon et al. 2016 ). These two factors were also strongly correlated with each other as well as with academic self-efficacy beliefs which suggests that they share common variance. Their central role was further explained by regression analysis which showed that together they explained almost 40% of the variance in procrastination. Interestingly, in the present study academic self-efficacy beliefs did not have a direct association with procrastination. This finding is in contrast with previous studies showing that lower self-efficacy beliefs are associated with an increased tendency to procrastinate (Judge and Bono, 2001 ; Wolters, 2003 ). However, some studies have similarly reported a non-significant association between self-efficacy and procrastination. For example, Klassen et al. ( 2010 ) showed with Canadian and Singaporean students that although procrastination negatively and significantly correlated with academic self-efficacy, in the regression model there was no association between academic self-efficacy and procrastination. Only self-efficacy for self-regulation and self-esteem had a significant relationship with procrastination (Klassen et al., 2010 ). This finding is very similar to our result. The most likely explanation for the result is that time and effort management skills and psychological flexibility have a more direct and stronger relationship with procrastination than academic self-efficacy even though it is closely related to all these constructs. It might be that if one is committed to value-based actions which are at the core of psychological flexibility, the negative thoughts one might have about oneself may not be hindering one’s goal-based actions (Hayes et al., 2006 ). This is an interesting finding, and it would be useful to study it in more detail in subsequent studies.

As a third noteworthy finding, our findings provide insight into the relations between time and effort management and psychological flexibility as factors contributing to procrastination. Psychological flexibility and time and effort management skills appear to go hand in hand. When the students were divided to three groups based on their scores on psychological flexibility and time and effort management, the largest groups were the ones in which both time and effort managements skills and psychological flexibility were either low or high. The groups where one of these measures would be high and the other would be low were the smallest in implicating their close relationship. Therefore, it seems that if a person rates his/her time and effort management skills highly, he/she rates his/her psychological flexibility high as well. Also, significant correlations between these measures support this notion. A significant positive correlation between time and effort management and psychological flexibility has also been found in previous study (Asikainen et al., 2019 ). Interestingly, the group that rated both time and effort management and psychological flexibility highly rated their tendency to procrastinate as markedly low compared to other groups. The opposite phenomenon was true for the group that rated their time and effort management skills and psychological flexibility low. This group rated their tendency to procrastinate very highly. Interestingly, if the rating on one of these measures, especially on time and effort management studying was lower, the tendency to procrastinate increased drastically. Although this conclusion fits with common-sense expectations regarding these constructs and their relationship, our findings are the first to establish this relationship empirically.

One implication of this finding is that future efforts to remediate students’ procrastination should account for both these factors. Only when accounting for both time and effort management and psychological flexibility can students’ procrastination be understood. Instead of taking procrastination merely as a self-regulation problem, it is also strongly influenced by a person’s inability to cope with negative emotions that arise in challenging situations (Eisenbeck et al., 2019 ; Gagnon et al., 2016 ; Glick et al., 2014 ). It may be suggested that time and effort management support psychological flexibility. Some studies on time allocation suggest that psychological flexibility process includes allocating one’s time to important and value-based actions in everyday life (Kashdan and Rottenberg, 2010 ). Thus, when time is allocated to support value-based action well-being also increases (Sheldon et al., 2010 ). Thinking about your own values and setting goals can also be considered to be a central part of both time and effort management (Entwistle and McCune, 2004 ) and psychological flexibility (Hayes et al., 2006 ). Thus, we could suggest that when practising psychological flexibility, time management is a part of the process in which one needs to plan how to allocate time to support one’s own personal values. Fostering students’ psychological flexibility as well as time and effort managements skills, could be a promising tool to decrease procrastination. As procrastinators often fail to regulate their actions in challenging or stressful situations (Ferrari, 2001 ), it might be that psychological flexibility could be a central construct. More attention should be paid to encouraging students to pursue value-based committed actions, despite the negative thoughts and feelings one might have. Thus, students’ capacity to cope with their negative thoughts and emotions should be enhanced during their studying (Asikainen, 2018 ).

4.1 Limitations

There are also some limitations that should be addressed. The participants consisted of a selected sample of students which most probably influenced the results. The students took part in a time management and well-being course which was directed especially at those students who had experienced problems with their studies. Thus, the sample of the students in this study was selected and most probably consisted mostly of students who were eager and motivated to improve their time management skills and studying. That might also explain why the time and effort management skills were the strongest explanatory variable of procrastination in the present study. Thus, these results of the study are not generalisable to general student population and the selected sample most probably influenced the results. More research is still needed with a bigger and more representative population. Studies should also explore the role of time and effort management skills in procrastination with a more representative student population. The number of participants was rather low which gave limited opportunities for analysis. For example, the number of students in different score groups was rather low, and in some cases too low for the analysis. Therefore, the results should be interpreted with care. Still, we wanted to include the One Way Anova analysis in our study as it clearly showed that psychological flexibility and time and effort management skills are aligned with each other and students with high scores in both of these dimensions report much less procrastination than other students. Furthermore, one major limitation of the study is that the data are based solely on self-reports. This means that we have measured students’ experiences of these variables. However, we used validated questionnaires which have been shown to be reliable in measuring these constructs and thus, we argue that these results also bring valuable insights to research in procrastination which should be further explored. Future research should also include other measures such as accumulation of credits to see how these measures relate to students’ study progression. In addition, our data are also cross-sectional in nature and thus represents only one particular timeframe. Thus, it is not possible to draw any conclusions regarding the predictive value of the variables. In future research we should also include longitudinal data to explore more closely the relationship between these measures. Despite of the numerous limitations in our study, we argue that this paper provides a novel exploration of these predictors of procrastination together which has not been provided in previous studies.

4.2 Practical implications and conclusions

One promising way to support students’ psychological flexibility and learning processes could be to combine study skills courses, such as time and effort management intervention courses with acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT)-based intervention courses, in which students could practise tolerating stress and negative thoughts as well as developing their time and effort management. Recent studies (Asikainen et al., 2019 ) have shown that this kind of ACT-interventions including reflection of one’s own study processes and practising new ways to study, in this way practising new ways to study, can enhance students’ psychological flexibility and time and effort management and in this way, foster students’ well-being and study skills. ACT-based intervention has shown to have multiple positive effects on students’ well-being and studying (Asikainen et al., 2019 ; Levin et al. 2017 ; Räsänen et al. 2016 ). In addition, ACT-based training can help students to manage psychological inflexibility and encourage persistence behaviour, which in turn is likely to have a positive impact on students’ self-efficacy and further, to their academic performance (Jeffords et al. 2018 ). Earlier studies have found that ACT-based interventions targeted at students who suffer from procrastination can decrease experiences of procrastination (Scent and Boes, 2014 ; Wang et al., 2015 ). One study has suggested that different core processes of psychological flexibility have different effects on procrastination. That is, although all the components correlate with procrastination, acceptance and committed actions significantly predict experiences of procrastination (Gagnon et al., 2016 ). Thus, it seems that being more open and accepting of one’s emotional experiences or thoughts and being willing to engage in difficult activities to persist in the direction of important values is important in reducing procrastination.

As time and effort management in our study was the predominant factor associated with procrastination, we suggest that time management should be promoted for higher education students. It has been shown that many students have trouble with time management (Parpala et al., 2010 ). Many studies have shown that different time management strategies are beneficial for different students. These include things like setting goals and planning how to achieve these (Häfner et al., 2015 ), setting deadlines (Ariely and Wertenbroch, 2002 ) and monitoring time use (Asikainen et al., 2019 ). These skills should be enhanced during university study because it has been shown that time and effort management skills remain rather constant without a conscious effort to influence them (Lindblom-Ylänne et al., 2017 ).

To conclude, our study brings novel insights into the underlying mechanisms of procrastination. Our study showed that both psychological flexibility and time management are important factors influencing procrastination, and furthermore, they appear to be closely related factors and together influence procrastination behavior. Thus, both these factors should be considered when the focus is on reducing procrastination. Students who tend to procrastinate might benefit from trainings that focus on training both time management skills and psychological flexibility and not focusing on only either one. This might produce the best results.

Data availability

The data is available on demand.

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Hailikari, T., Katajavuori, N. & Asikainen, H. Understanding procrastination: A case of a study skills course. Soc Psychol Educ 24 , 589–606 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-021-09621-2

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Procrastination in University Students: A Proposal of a Theoretical Model

Luis araya-castillo.

1 Facultad de Ingeniería y Empresa, Universidad Católica Silva Henríquez, Santiago 8330225, Chile

Mildred Burgos

2 Escuela de Administración y Negocios, Universidad Miguel de Cervantes, Santiago 8320170, Chile

Patricia González

3 Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Miguel de Cervantes, Santiago 8320170, Chile

Yuracid Rivera

4 Facultad de Administración y Negocios, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Providencia 7500912, Chile

Nicolás Barrientos

Víctor yáñez jara.

5 Instituto de Salud Pública, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago 7591538, Chile

Francisco Ganga-Contreras

6 Facultad de Educación y Humanidades, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica 1000007, Chile

Walter Sáez

Procrastination is a phenomenon that affects university students and consists of not finishing a task or finishing it late, which has a direct impact on their academic performance. This is relevant because, in a context of high competition, higher education institutions and their decision-makers need to be aware of the factors that influence university students’ procrastination in order to implement actions that favor student attraction and retention. Based on the above, this research aims to propose a theoretical model of procrastination in university students, based on the literature review and content validation assessment through a semi-structured questionnaire. The proposed model is made up of nine dimensions: Psychological, Physiological, Social, Academic, Leisure, Time Management, Resources, Labor, and Environmental. Dimensions were obtained based on adequate levels of content validity provided by the literature and the questionnaire. In the future, the research proposes to study the way in which these dimensions are present in procrastination and design a scale that allows for their measurement.

1. Introduction

In our daily lives, we have to perform multiple tasks in different areas. This leads people to two paths: carrying out the task as soon as possible or postponing it; the latter being part of the tendency to delay the start or completion of a task [ 1 ], an act also known as procrastination [ 2 ]. This situation is not isolated: some research studies have found that the majority of people who procrastinate are young adults, [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. Studies conducted in Latin America concluded that approximately 61% of people show some level of procrastination, while 20% do so on a regular basis [ 6 , 7 ]. This behavior is therefore present in a large majority of people, affecting areas of life such as work, health, and academia [ 8 ]. However, the fact that most affected people are young raises questions about the influence of procrastination in academia and higher education, a system that is relevant to every society. So much so that some people believe that the wealth or poverty of countries depends to a large extent on the quality of their higher education [ 9 ] as it is considered a key element in economic prosperity [ 10 ], vital for social progress [ 11 ], the central link in developing talent and culture [ 12 ], and essential for sustainable development and improvement of people’s well-being [ 13 ].

The above serves as a context for the purpose of this study, which is to propose a theoretical model of the factors involved in academic procrastination in university students. This is relevant because education basically focuses on the progressive development of students’ knowledge and skills, and on the creation of an environment of safety and healthy interaction among students, professors, and the rest of the people in the institution [ 14 , 15 , 16 ]. Understanding the factors that explain procrastinating behavior is not only relevant for students and universities but also for society as a whole, since, among all sectors, higher education is the one that relates the most to the growth of a society and its socio-economic development [ 17 ].

Therefore, this research studies the higher education sector in a way that is rigorous, practical, and functional for public policymakers and managers [ 18 ]. This analysis does not only have implications for Chile, as it shows that education has similar dynamics in other countries, except perhaps in low-income countries [ 19 ]. In order to meet the study aim, a literature review on academic procrastination was carried out based on a multidimensional approach, reviewing theories and areas of application in Latin American countries since 2008. As a result, six major dimensions were identified that cover the related aspects. Results were transferred to a semi-structured questionnaire for content validation and then applied to a theoretical sample. The responses identified nine dimensions, of which four are repeated from the theory (psychological, academic, physiological, and environmental dimensions) and five are highlighted from the questionnaire (social, time management, resources, leisure, and labor dimensions).

1.1. Procrastination

Procrastination is a relatively old phenomenon, as psychologist William James already recognized the emotional cost generated in people who suffered from it more than 120 years ago [ 20 ]. Lay [ 21 ] pointed out that procrastination considers importance to the individual whose action is being postponed, while Milgram, Mey-Tal, and Levison [ 22 ] discussed whether the performance of a task is voluntary or imposed, and Steel [ 2 ] wondered whether the person is aware of the negative consequences of this postponement [ 23 ].

Along these lines, Steel and Ferrari [ 5 ] defined procrastination as an insufficiency in self-regulation processes that causes the voluntary delay of planned activities [ 24 ] or an ineffective lifestyle that leads to a failure in the fulfillment and commitment to set targets. In this light, procrastination involves the action of not finishing a task or finishing it late, and this process is generally accompanied by feelings of nervousness or restlessness, and discouragement [ 25 ].

This habit is considered destructive since the cost of such behavior may cause psychological stress due to overexertion to meet deadlines [ 26 ], when not fulfilling responsibilities may lead to negative consequences and when the positive consequences of performing the task are higher [ 27 , 28 ].

The literature on the topic has been intensified in recent years, with several descriptive studies relating procrastination to other variables [ 24 ], including its status during the COVID-19 pandemic [ 29 ].

1.2. Procrastination in the Academic Field

In the academic field, procrastination can be defined as a behavior that involves always or almost always postponing the start or completion of academic tasks, or always or almost always experiencing problematic levels of anxiety associated with such postponement [ 30 ]. Likewise, Álvarez-Blas [ 31 ] defined academic procrastination as an unnecessary and unjustified delay in study-related tasks. In line with this, Schouwenburg [ 32 ] pointed out that there are two types of academic procrastination: sporadic and chronic. Sporadic academic procrastination refers to a one-off behavior while chronic academic procrastination is the generalized habit of delaying studying [ 33 ].

Literature relates procrastination to other (moderating or controlling) variables, such as self-efficacy [ 34 ], fear of failure [ 35 ] task aversion [ 36 ], lack of self-regulation [ 37 ], or disruptive classroom behavior [ 38 ], among others. Likewise, different studies have found that academic procrastination is associated with factors generated by academic tasks and limited time planning skills [ 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 ].

Other research studies aimed at understanding and explaining the manifestations of procrastination in everyday and academic life have associated them with mental representations; this may be because students may be imagining something that is not explicit or observable in the environment, but that is a problem that they somehow need to solve [ 45 ]. In line with this argument, a study conducted in Ecuador links performance and emotional regulation as predictors of academic procrastination in university students, with no difference between men and women [ 46 ].

Other authors have also shown a negative correlation between academic performance and university procrastination [ 47 , 48 , 49 ]. Although an ideal university student is successful, the demands of higher education lead to a high percentage of students not being able to achieve academic success due to procrastinating behavior among other issues [ 50 ].

In line with this, Cardona [ 51 ] mentioned that academic procrastination entails various consequences, including poor academic performance, demotivation, burnout, academic stress, and even dropping out of school. This is relevant as an estimated 80% to 90% of university students show dilatory behaviors at some point [ 24 ].

It is therefore possible to argue that there are multiple factors associated with dropping out and/or academic failure in higher education, and the emphasis on a specific factor depends on the authors’ perspective [ 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 ].

The postponement of responsibilities is a phenomenon characteristic of modern societies. Academic procrastination is a variable of interest in the context of higher education due to the consequences of homework avoidance at the university. Academic procrastination has been studied by different disciplines or explanatory models, mainly in the field of psychology. However, since this is a phenomenon of human behavior, it is to be assumed that there are other factors that intervene in this condition.

Rosario et al. [ 61 ] conducted research on this variable in non-Latin American contexts and found out that about 20% of adults admit to procrastinating in routine tasks, about 25% of the adult non-student population report that procrastination is a significant problem, and in 40% of cases it has caused financial loss at both personal and organizational levels.

As for academic procrastination, studies by Tice and Baumeister [ 62 ] and Landry [ 63 ] have proven the extent of the problem, where approximately 20% of United States college students show persistent academic procrastination, while behaviors associated with procrastination are observed in more than 80% of them. Additionally, studies such as those by Rothblum, Solomon, and Murakami [ 64 ], Rothblum [ 65 ] and Tice and Baumeister [ 62 ] show that academic procrastination is significantly related to poor academic performance, personal stress, and physical health in college students [ 63 ]. These authors identify influential factors such as performance, personal stress, and health.

While there is a great deal of research on academic procrastination in Latin America, there is little research on the specific elements associated with the concept. Therefore, it is necessary to find reliable information and data to determine the variables that influence academic procrastination in detail, considering the students’ environment, cultural context, and socio-demographic variables, among others. This also explains the interest in the theoretical review of the variable in order to find the elements that influence the concept.

2. Materials and Methods

This research is of a conclusive descriptive nature and a cross-sectional or sectional cut [ 66 ]. The aim of this study is to suggest a theoretical model for university procrastination based on background information from the literature, and validate it by applying a semi-structured questionnaire to a theoretical sample. To search for dimensions of the theoretical model of procrastination in university students, a literature review was carried out on different scales applied to this topic in the Scopus and Scielo databases, using the concepts (in English and Spanish) of “procrastination scales”, “academic procrastination”, “university procrastination”, and “student procrastination”, and focusing on the research in Latin American countries between 2008 and 2022. Scopus is used because it is the multidisciplinary database with the largest number of journals, in addition to having a strong Latin American presence in its catalog [ 67 ]. Scielo, on the other hand, is used because it is a regional database that integrates geographic collections from Latin American and African countries, whose main purpose is to make science generated in these territories visible [ 68 , 69 ]. The literature review made it possible to identify a series of factors that were grouped into six dimensions proposed by the researchers, determined mainly by their closeness or linkage to the concept according to the research reviewed. The results of this search were used later in an online questionnaire (conducted on the SurveyMonkey platform) completed mainly by students belonging to a group of Chilean universities located in the metropolitan region who volunteered to do so. The survey was applied from August 2017 to August 2019, and its dissemination was carried out through different academic networks that the authors have in the universities of the metropolitan region. A total of 320 responses were obtained from those invited to participate. All participating subjects gave their informed consent at the time of answering the questionnaire. The sample was non-probabilistic by convenience and consisted of students from different universities, programs, and modes of study. In the questionnaire, respondents were asked to write down the factors that best represent procrastination in academic tasks. This information allowed us to identify the dimensions and items that should be considered in the model proposal. Content validity was understood as the degree to which the measure captures the domain of the concept under study [ 70 ]. Content validity is relevant in the development stage of the measurement instrument as it shows that the indicators included in the survey are a representative sample of the set to be used [ 71 ]. Figure 1 summarizes the above steps.

Summary of research stages.

Sample Description

The sample consisted of 320 people living in Chile, 62.19% of whom are female and 37.81% are male. The age ranges from 18 to 62 years and most respondents (79.69%) live in the metropolitan region, 8.13% in Valparaíso, 4.69% in the Bío-Bío region, 3.13% in the Araucanía region, 0.63% in the Tarapacá region, and 0.31% in the Coquimbo region. Respondents were also asked to specifically report their municipality of residence. The most frequently reported municipalities are Santiago, Puente Alto, La Florida, Ñuñoa, Maipú, Cerrillos, Quilicura, Lampa, Paine, Pudahuel, Renca, Maule, etc. As for their nationality, 96.88% are Chilean, while 3.12% are foreign nationals. The level of education of the sample was as follows: 63.75% of respondents have not completed a university undergraduate degree, 9.69% have completed a university undergraduate degree, 7.50% have completed secondary education, 5.63% have not completed a university postgraduate degree, 3.75% have completed a higher level technical degree, 3.44% have not completed a higher level technical degree, 2.50% have not completed studies at a professional institute, 2.19% have completed studies at a professional institute, and 1.55% have completed a university postgraduate degree. As for the level of undergraduate study, the most frequently reported degrees by respondents were audit, commercial engineering, psychology, human resources, social work, and accounting. As for employment, 44.69% of respondents are students, 40% study and work, 8.75% work, 4.06% are unemployed job seekers, and 2.50% are not in paid employment. As for the level of household income, 18% have an income between USD 0 and 336 (CLP 0 and 300,000), 29.93% have an income between USD 336 and 672 (CLP 300,000 and 600,000), 20.44% have an income between USD 672 and 1008 (CLP 600,000 and 900,000), 14.75% have an income between USD 1008 and 1344 (CLP 900,000 and 1,200,000), and 16.88% have an income over USD 1680 (CLP 1,500,000). In terms of the composition of the family unit, respondents report a range from two to five members.

3.1. Literature Review

Based on the literature review and the search of a multidimensional approach to the variable, theoretical advances and areas of application of academic procrastination were reviewed. The aim was to carry out a complete review of the literature regarding studies that suggest and/or validate models (scales) of university procrastination and their dimensions in Latin-American countries. This is shown in Table 1 .

Previous Scales on Procrastination.

Following the literature review, a total of 37 papers were found that use models with scales. This is the background for proposing the theoretical model: “Procrastination of University Students” (PUS). The PUS model is multidimensional and reflexive, as the latent variable (procrastination construct in university students) causes the observed variables (procrastination dimensions) [ 102 ]. The first proposal of the theoretical model is composed of 6 dimensions linked to procrastination in higher education students; namely: (1) Psychological; (2) Physiological; (3) Socio-demographic; (4) Academic; (5) Cultural; and (6) Environmental. The theoretical model considers the dimensions that are mostly incorporated by the studies in the academic literature, as well as the aspects or elements considered by each study. Table 2 shows detailed information on the dimensions, considered aspects, and authors.

Proposal for a Theoretical Model of Procrastination in University Students.

The six proposed dimensions cover all the relevant aspects reviewed in the literature; therefore, they can be used for content validation. The results show that the “Psychological” dimension includes factors such as motivation, personality dimensions, emotional intelligence, time management, and so on. The “Physiological” dimension is composed of biological variables: anxiety, self-regulation of learning, and vigor, among others. The “Socio-demographic” dimension is made up of aspects, such as gender, age, socio-economic and demographic variables. The “Academic” dimension includes control variables, distance learning, academic performance, level of education, dropping out, academic performance, GPA, study habits, and academic satisfaction, among others. The “Cultural” dimension mainly contains personal individual elements. Lastly, the “Environmental” dimension involves aspects such as risk factors, difficulties in performing tasks, lack of time, levels of dedication, and peer influence.

3.2. Questionnaire

The literature review yielded six dimensions that theoretically link a number of elements with procrastination in university students. These dimensions were assessed through a semi-structured online questionnaire on a sample of 320 respondents studying in Chilean universities. Respondents were asked to write down the factors or dimensions that best represent procrastination in academic tasks and relate them to a number of items on the topic.

As background information, respondents were asked several questions about how they deal with tasks on a daily basis from the point of view of procrastination. Table 3 shows the results when the respondents were asked to choose an item with which they most identify. From a total of 309 responses, 60.95% of respondents identified most with “I do my tasks in order of priority”; 19.37% with “I do my tasks whenever I have time”; 16.51% with “I do my tasks depending on the backlog”; 1.9% with “I do not do any task”; and 1.27% with “I only do the tasks I manage to get done”.

Respondents’ Results on How they Deal with Tasks.

In order to validate the content of the first proposal of the Theoretical Model “Procrastination of University Students”, the following question was asked: “What are the dimensions that best represent procrastination in academic tasks?” A total of 320 responses were collected, covering nine dimensions, from which four are repeated in the literature review and five enhanced their importance thanks to the questionnaire. The dimensions are Psychological, Social, Academic, Physiological, Time Management, Leisure, Resources, Environmental, and Labor. Table 4 shows the importance given by respondents to each dimension and its component elements.

Percentage of importance for each dimension and its associated factors.

The dimension that best represents procrastination in academic tasks according to the respondents was the Psychological one, with 22.91% of preferences, and the “lack of motivation” factor was the most chosen one (22.24%). This was followed by the Social dimension, with 19.34% of preferences, with the factor “family aspects” as the most relevant with 28.83%. In third place was the Academic dimension with 13.15%, where the “educational model” was the most representative factor with 21.85% of preferences. The Physiological dimension reported 12.28% of preferences, where “physiological needs” was the most relevant factor (26.6%). Time Management ranked fifth among the dimensions, with 9.58%, and “lack of time” as the dominant factor with 40.91%. The Leisure dimension emerged as a new dimension with 9.28% of preferences, with “recreational activities” as the most chosen factor (30.03%). Resources and Environmental dimensions showed similar percentages, with 5.31% and 5.10%, respectively, where “economic resources” dominated the former (84.43%), and “conflictive environment” the latter (41.03%). The Labor dimension least represented procrastination according to the respondents, with “workload” as the dominant factor with 70% of preferences.

3.3. Limitations

Owlia and Aspinwall [ 103 ] established that validity comprises two aspects: quantitative validity and qualitative validity. Qualitative validity identifies the dimensions linked to procrastination in the literature and reviews their validity through a questionnaire. Qualitative validity determines whether the measures capture the key factors of an unobservable construct, which is also in line with content validity. The latter is relevant for full validation and the subsequent scaling of the PUS model. Future research studies are expected to collect information through individual interviews, focus groups, and expert opinions, seeking to achieve category saturation [ 104 ]. The proposal, therefore, is to use qualitative tools as they allow for analyzing phenomena in greater depth than quantitative tools [ 105 ]. The proposal includes the following: fifteen in-depth interviews to be conducted to find out students’ perceptions of the procrastination construct and the dimensions that they consider relevant in evaluation; four focus groups to study and analyze students’ perceptions in interaction; and four experts in university procrastination can also participate, who should be asked to evaluate the proposed scale for procrastination in university students. This information will be used to validate the results obtained from the semi-structured online questionnaires applied to the students.

4. Conclusions

This research studies the factors that influence procrastination among university students in Latin America on this topic because none of the previous studies have covered the factors affecting this concept. The aim was to collect information in relation to the actions that have an impact on the backlog of academic tasks. After data collection, the dimensions that directly affect the student’s procrastination were considered through a repetitive search, and the content validity was given by the questionnaire. The analysis seems to conclude that the factors that mainly influence university students to postpone the fulfillment of an obligation or the development of action have to do with the psychological, social, and academic dimensions and the factors that integrate them.

These results are in line with other international studies that deem these dimensions relevant. Even so, they also highlight areas such as resources and labor, which for a certain percentage of students are distracting elements that prevent the fulfillment of their academic tasks. This is not a novelty, since due to the configuration of higher education systems in Latin America (and in Chile), many students must work in order to pay for their university studies, making both roles compatible. Academic procrastination is not a subject of the establishment of a repertoire of activities but is rather a self-regulatory model that includes aspects such as autonomous learning goals.

The aim of the research was to propose a theoretical model of procrastination in university students, which was achieved by means of quantitative instruments. However, the model still needs to corroborate its full validation through qualitative methods in order to carry out the corresponding factorial analysis, which will make the model reliable and accurately prove that procrastination in university students is explained by the aforementioned dimensions. This is not a trivial task, as a scale measuring procrastination in university students can finally be developed.

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.A.-C.; Methodology, M.B.; Validation, V.Y.J.; Formal analysis, N.B.; Investigation, P.G. and Y.R.; Writing—review & editing, F.G.-C. and W.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and ethics committee review and approval was waived, as the survey was made available on an online platform for potential respondents to answer voluntarily. The survey was developed following institutional protocols and regulations for this type of research.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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What Is Procrastination?

Putting off tasks we don't enjoy is common, despite the consequences

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Why Do You Procrastinate?

Types of procrastination.

• The Negative Impact
• Strategies to Stop

Procrastination is the act of delaying or putting off tasks until the last minute, or past their deadline. Some researchers define procrastination as a "form of self-regulation failure characterized by the irrational delay of tasks despite potentially negative consequences."

According to Joseph Ferrari, a professor of psychology at DePaul University in Chicago and author of "Still Procrastinating: The No Regret Guide to Getting It Done," around 20% of U.S. adults are chronic procrastinators.

No matter how well-organized and committed you are, chances are that you have found yourself frittering away hours on trivial pursuits (watching TV, updating your Facebook status, shopping online) when you should have been spending that time on work or school-related projects.

Whether you're putting off finishing a project for work, avoiding homework assignments, or ignoring household chores, procrastination can have a major impact on your job, your grades, and your life.

In most cases, procrastination is not a sign of a serious problem. It's a common tendency that most people give in to at some point or another.

Remember that time that you thought you had a week left to finish a project that was really due the next day? How about the time you decided not to clean up your apartment because you "didn't feel like doing it right now?"

We often assume that projects won't take as long to finish as they really will, which can lead to a false sense of security when we believe that we still have plenty of time to complete these tasks.

One of the biggest factors contributing to procrastination is the notion that we have to feel inspired or motivated to work on a task at a particular moment.

The reality is that if you wait until you're in the right frame of mind to do certain tasks (especially undesirable ones), you will probably find that the right time simply never comes along and the task never gets completed.

The following are a few other factors that cause procrastination.

Researchers suggest that procrastination can be particularly pronounced among students. A 2007 meta analysis published in the Psychological Bulletin found that a whopping 80% to 95% of college students procrastinated on a regular basis, particularly when it came to completing assignments and coursework.  

According to researchers, there are some major cognitive distortions that lead to academic procrastination.   Students tend to:

• Overestimate how much time they have left to perform tasks
• Overestimate how motivated they will be in the future
• Underestimate how long certain activities will take to complete
• Mistakenly assume that they need to be in the right frame of mind to work on a project

Present Bias

The present bias is a phenomenon observed in human behavior that may result in procrastination. The present bias means that we tend to be motivated more by immediate gratification or rewards than we are by long-term rewards. This is why it feels good in the moment to procrastinate.

For example, the immediate reward of staying in bed and watching TV is more appealing than the long-term reward of publishing a blog post, which would take much longer to accomplish.

Procrastination can also be a result of depression . Feelings of hopelessness , helplessness, and a lack of energy can make it difficult to start (and finish) the simplest task. Depression can also lead to self-doubt . When you can't figure out how to tackle a project or feel insecure about your abilities, you might find it easier to put it off.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Procrastination is also pretty common in people with obsessive-compulsive disorder . One reason is that OCD is often linked with maladaptive perfectionism, which causes fears about making new mistakes, doubts about whether you are doing something correctly, and worry over others' expectations of you.

People with OCD also often have a propensity toward indecision, causing them to procrastinate rather than make a decision.

Many adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) struggle with procrastination. When you're so distracted by outside stimuli, as well as internal thoughts, it can be hard to get started on a task, especially if that task is difficult or not interesting to you.

Is Procrastination a Mental Illness?

Procrastination itself is not a mental illness. But in some cases, it may be symptomatic of an underlying mental health condition such as depression, OCD, or ADHD.

We often come up with a number of excuses or rationalizations to justify our behavior. According to researchers, there are 15 key reasons why people say they procrastinate:

• Not knowing what needs to be done
• Not knowing how to do something
• Not wanting to do something
• Not caring if it gets done or not
• Not caring when something gets done
• Not feeling in the mood to do it
• Being in the habit of waiting until the last minute
• Believing that you work better under pressure
• Thinking that you can finish it at the last minute
• Lacking the initiative to get started
• Blaming sickness or poor health
• Waiting for the right moment
• Needing time to think about the task
• Delaying one task in favor of working on another

Press Play for Advice On Completing Tasks

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Some researchers classify two types of procrastinators: passive and active procrastinators.

• Passive procrastinators : Delay the task because they have trouble making decisions and acting on them
• Active procrastinators : Delay the task purposefully because working under pressure allows them to "feel challenged and motivated"

Others define the types of procrastinators based on different behavioral styles of procrastination, including:

• Perfectionist : Puts off tasks out of the fear of not being able to complete a task perfectly
• Dreamer : Puts off tasks because they are not good at paying attention to detail
• Defier : Doesn't believe someone should dictate their time schedule
• Worrier : Puts off tasks out of fear of change or leaving the comfort of "the known"
• Crisis-maker : Puts off tasks because they like working under pressure
• Overdoer : Takes on too much and struggles with finding time to start and complete task

Procrastinators vs. Non-Procrastinators

"Non-procrastinators focus on the task that needs to be done. They have a stronger personal identity and are less concerned about what psychologists call 'social esteem'—how others like us—as opposed to self-esteem which is how we feel about ourselves," explained Dr. Ferrari in an interview with the American Psychological Association (APA).  

According to psychologist Piers Steel, people who don't procrastinate tend to be high in the personality trait known as conscientiousness , one of the broad dispositions identified by the Big Five theory of personality. People who are high in conscientiousness also tend to be high in other areas including self-discipline, persistence, and personal responsibility.

The Negative Impact of Procrastination

It is only in cases where procrastination becomes chronic and begins to have a serious impact on a person's daily life that it becomes a more serious issue. In such instances, it's not just a matter of having poor time management skills, it's a major part of their lifestyle.

Perhaps they pay their bills late, don't start work on big projects until the night before the deadline, delay gift shopping until the day before a birthday, and even file their income tax returns late.

Unfortunately, this procrastination can have a serious impact on a number of life areas, including a person's mental health and social, professional, and financial well-being:

• Higher levels of stress and illness
• Increased burden placed on social relationships
• Resentment from friends, family, co-workers, and fellow students
• Consequences of delinquent bills and income tax returns

How to Overcome Procrastination

You might find yourself wondering, How can I stop procrastinating?

Fortunately, there are a number of different things you can do to fight procrastination and start getting things done on time. Consider these your procrastination exercises:

• Make a to-do list : To help keep you on track, consider placing a due date next to each item.
• Take baby steps : Break down the items on your list into small, manageable steps so that your tasks don’t seem so overwhelming.
• Recognize the warning signs : Pay attention to any thoughts of procrastination and do your best to resist the urge. If you begin to think about procrastinating, force yourself to spend a few minutes working on your task.
• Eliminate distraction : Ask yourself what pulls your attention away the most—whether it's Instagram, Facebook updates, or the local news—and turn off those sources of distraction.
• Pat yourself on the back : When you finish an item on your to-do list on time, congratulate yourself and reward yourself by indulging in something you find fun.    

Prem R, Scheel TE, Weigelt O, Hoffmann K, Korunka C. Procrastination in daily working life: A diary study on within-person processes that link work characteristics to workplace procrastination . Front Psychol . 2018;9:1087. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01087

American Psychological Association. The Psychology of Procrastination: Why People Put Off Important Tasks Until the Last Minute . 2010.

Bisin A, Hyndman K. Present-bias, procrastination and deadlines in a field experiment . Games and Economic Behavior. 2020;119:339-357. doi:10.1016/j.geb.2019.11.010

Steel P. The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure . Psychol Bull . 2007;133(1):65-94. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 

Ferrari, Joseph & Johnson, Judith & McCown, William. (1995). Procrastination and Task Avoidance - Theory, Research and Treatment . doi: 10.1007/978-1-4899-0227-6

Beutel ME, Klein EM, Aufenanger S, et al. Procrastination, distress and life satisfaction across the age range - A German representative community study .  PLoS One . 2016;11(2):e0148054. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0148054

Limburg K, Watson HJ, Hagger MS, Egan SJ.  The relationship between perfectionism and psychopathology: A meta-analysis .  J Clin Psychol.  2017;73(10):1301-1326. doi:10.1002/jclp.22435

Altgassen M, Scheres A, Edel MA.  Prospective memory (partially) mediates the link between ADHD symptoms and procrastination .  Atten Defic Hyperact Disord . 2019;11(1):59-71. doi:10.1007/s12402-018-0273-x

Tuckman BW, Abry DA, Smith DR. (2008). Learning and Motivation Strategies: Your Guide to Success (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Zohar AH, Shimone LP, Hen M. Active and passive procrastination in terms of temperament and character .  PeerJ . 2019;7:e6988. doi:10.7717/peerj.6988

American Psychological Association. The first step to overcoming procrastination: Know thyself .

Svartdal F, Nemtcan E. Past negative consequences of unnecessary delay as a marker of procrastination . Front Psychol. 2022;13. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.787337

Schrager S, Sadowski E. Getting more done: Strategies to increase scholarly productivity .  J Grad Med Educ . 2016;8(1):10-13. doi:10.4300/JGME-D-15-00165.1

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 12 October 2021

Writing group program reduces academic procrastination: a quasi-experimental study

• Bhina Patria   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1419-4240 1 &
• Latifatul Laili 1 , 2  

BMC Psychology volume  9 , Article number:  157 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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Procrastination is a common problem in higher education. It leads to negative consequences on students’ health and academic achievement. Nevertheless, research concerning interventions has not yet produced consistent results. This study aims to examine the effectiveness of a writing group program on reducing academic procrastination.

This study was a quasi-experimental study with a one-group pretest-posttest design using double pretests. A double pretest design was used to ensure the internal validity of the experiment. Twenty graduate students followed a 15-days writing group program consisted of a training session and four sessions of writing groups. A thesis procrastination scale was used to measure the intervention’s effects.

The writing group program helped students to set a writing target, discussed writing progress, and provided social support to their colleagues. The results showed that the intervention program could significantly decrease academic procrastination.

The present study demonstrated that a writing group could potentially reduce academic procrastination. Thus, students could benefit from a writing group when working on their master thesis. A thesis preparation course that provides information about goal-setting strategy and the principles of effective writing habits (i.e., behavioral, artisanal, social and emotional habits), might also assist students in writing their thesis. Further research is needed, preferably through the provision of a control group, a randomized assignment and a larger sample.

Peer Review reports

Academic procrastination is common among students in higher education. Studies showed that about half of undergraduates and graduate students were procrastinating on academic tasks [ 1 , 2 ]. Steel and Klingsieck [ 3 ] defined academic procrastination as intentionally delaying completion of an assignment related to learning-behavior despite its negative consequences. Final year students show higher levels of procrastination than first-year students [ 4 , 5 ]. Around 40–60% of graduate students are procrastinated on writing a term paper, studying for examinations, and weekly reading assignments [ 1 ]. A cross sectional study revealed that graduate students procrastinated more on writing term papers than other tasks [ 6 ]. Solomon and Rothblum [ 4 ] also found approximately 45% students procrastinated on completing their term papers. Another study revealed that students in second year and third year are more procrastinated on completing the task than first year student [ 7 ]. Puspitasari [ 8 ] reported that the majority of graduate students mostly procrastinate on their master thesis. Most of them (94%) have a high or average level of procrastination.

A Master Thesis is a complex and long term assignment. Students develop scientific ideas and research methods using statistical analysis into a manuscript using a specific academic style [ 9 ]. Graduate students are more prone to procrastination, especially at the end of their study while writing their thesis. Unlike short term project (e.g. writing a term paper, quiz, reading report), in a long term project, people optimize their effort at the beginning, but along the way, they tend to either not finish or delay their tasks [ 10 ]. According to behavioral approach, procrastinator prefer to choose short term rewards so they get immediate pleasure than have long term task [ 11 ].

Studies showed that procrastination has negative consequences on students’ health and academic achievement. Procrastination is associated with poor academic performance [ 12 ], academic misconduct [ 13 ], burnout [ 14 ], and depression [ 15 , 16 ]. Apart from these negative consequences, studies designed to study how to decrease procrastination are still scarce [ 3 , 17 , 18 ]. This study, therefore, aimed to develop an intervention for academic procrastination.

Thesis writing is not only a complicated process but also an individual assignment [ 19 ]; therefore, it needs sufficient social support. A study found that loneliness could increase students’ procrastination [ 20 ]. Dupont et al. [ 21 ] stated that there is a frustration period when completing a thesis that makes students feel lonely and might lead them to give up their studies. Furthermore, when writing a thesis, students reported that they felt anxious and disappointed with their writing [ 22 ].

Results from earlier studies demonstrated a strong and consistent association between social support, goal setting, and lower levels of procrastination. Setting proximal goals could reduce procrastination [ 23 ]. Another study also found that goal clarification decreased impulsiveness and academic procrastination [ 24 ]. Social support from peers significantly decreases procrastination [ 21 , 25 ]. One way to reduce procrastination is to use social support systems by developing a writing group.

A writing group is an environment that provides opportunities to share writing needs and concerns and to get constructive feedback and support [ 26 , 27 , 28 ]. Students can tell their writing goals, obstacles while pursuing the goals, listen and give support to others. A writing group produces several positive outcomes. It improves students’ writing proficiency [ 26 , 29 ] and thus improves students’ confidence in writing [ 30 ]. A writing group also improves motivation, attachment, and cooperation [ 31 , 32 ]. However, previous studies have not examined the effectiveness of a writing group on reducing procrastination. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of a writing group program on reducing students’ academic procrastination. Given that writing group produces several positive outcomes—such as the provision of feedback and support; improves students’ writing proficiency, confidence, and motivation—it is expected that the intervention program will decrease students’ academic procrastination.

Participant

This quasi-experimental study involved 20 graduate students of psychology—sixteen female and four male. The students were working on their thesis in the third ( n = 10), fourth ( n = 8), or fifth ( n = 2) semester. The average age was 27.5 ( SD = 5.16) years old.

This study evaluated a one-group of 20 graduate students in a pretest-posttest study design. Participants followed a writing group program, namely GROWTH or Group for Writing Thesis. A double pretest design was used to ensure there was no threats to internal validity, i.e., maturation, testing, and regression artifacts [ 33 ]. A double pretest design is an improved version of one-group pretest-posttest design [ 33 , p. 110]. The double pretest design ensures a better causal inference because the condition between Pretest 1 and Pretest 2 could be regarded as a control condition. While the condition between Pretest 2 and Posttest 1 could be regarded as an intervention condition. Causal relationship could be inferred when there is no significant difference between Pretest 1 and Pretest 2, and there is a significant difference between Pretest 2 and Posttest 1. A second posttest was added to investigate the delayed effect of the intervention.

The intervention was developed based on motivation, goal-setting, and group-support theories [ 9 , 34 , 35 ]. The program consisted of five sessions, which lasted for 15 days. Before beginning the experiment, ethical clearance was sought from the faculty’s institutional review board.

The GROWTH program consisted of one training session followed by four sessions of writing groups. The writing groups session were conducted twice a week. Each group session consisted of three parts: a preface, a group learning process, and a concluding session. Participant were divided into five writing groups based on the similarity of the thesis research method, i.e., qualitative and mixed method (2 groups), experimental study (1 group), correlational study (1 group), and scale development (1 group). The program was led by a facilitator and assisted by five co-facilitators (one for each writing group). There was also an observer for each writing group. The observers monitored the process of the intervention, participant’s reaction, and evaluate whether the goals of the writing group session was achieved.

A training for the facilitator, co-facilitators, and observers were conducted to make sure the process of intervention in each group was standardized. In the training, they learned about the intervention procedure. A try-out was also held where the facilitator and co-facilitators performed the intervention and evaluated the protocol. The intervention timeline are provided in Table 1 . The total duration of the intervention meeting was 16 h 30 min. This consisted of 5 h 45 min of the training session and four group meetings; each lasted for 135 min. The total cost for the intervention was $1,300; this includes the $350 cost for refreshments. The interval between Pretest 1 and Pretest 2 was 4 days. Pretest 2 was administered in the first day of the intervention. Posttest 1 was administered right after the completion of the intervention—14 days after Pretest 2.

In the training session, the students were trained to set SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, and Time based) goals, to assess their BASE (Behavior, Artisanal, Social, and Emotional) Habits [ 34 , 35 ], and to develop writing habits and routines. The students also learned how a writing group worked.

After the training session, the students were expected to work independently on their thesis, write a daily reflective journal to monitor themselves, write a specific target on their thesis that they want to achieve on a particular day, report whether the target was met or not, and how the writing process went. The writing group sessions consisted of three parts: a preliminary session, a group session, and a concluding session. The facilitator led the preface and conclusion session in a large group, while the individual group sessions were led by co-facilitator in small groups. In the small group sessions, the students shared their writing experience and challenges and whether their targets were achieved or not. The co-facilitator encouraged the students to give feedback and to support each other during the session. At the end of the session, the co-facilitator highlighted the students’ progress. This was important to make the students focus on their growth, feel safe, and comfortable in the group.

Data collection and instruments

The procrastination scale was modified from the measurement used in previous studies [ 8 , 36 ]. The scale was self reported consisting four aspects of procrastination—behavior, cognitive, affective, and motivational. There were 25 items with five options, ranging from ‘very unlikely’ to ‘very likely’. This modified version is valid and reliable based on the Aiken’s V coefficient (0.56–0.94) and Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient (0.845).

Data analysis

To assess the effectiveness of the intervention, we compared the results of the procrastination scale before and after the training. The data were analyzed using ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) repeated measures [ 37 ]. The hypothesis would be answered by comparing the second pretest (Pretest 2) scores with posttest scores. The scores should decrease after the intervention so that it could be concluded that the hypothesis was accepted. The comparison between Pretest 1 and Pretest 2 was to assure the internal validity [ 33 ]. The comparison between Posttest 1 and Posttest 2 scores was also analyzed to investigate the delayed effects of the intervention after two weeks.

Table 2 shows that the highest level of procrastination is found in Pretest 2, while the lowest is in Posttest 2.

Figures 1 and 2 depicts the procrastination scores before and after the intervention. There is a slight increase in the procrastination levels from Pretest 1 to Pretest 2. The figure also indicates a decrease in procrastination level after the intervention—between Pretest 2 and Posttest 1. The decrease continues from Posttest 1 to Posttest 2 at a nearly similar point difference.

Violin plot of academic procrastination. Violin plot of academic procrastination

Level of academic procrastination. Level of academic procrastination with individual data points

To assess the differences between the mean scores (Pretest 1, Pretest 2, Posttest 1, and Posttest 2), repeated-measures ANOVA was used. The post-hoc comparisons was calculated with Bonferroni method. Maulchly’s test was conducted to check whether the data violates the assumption of sphericity. The result showed that the assumption of sphericity was violated, \(X^2(5) = 12.169\) , p = 0.033. To produce a valid F -ratio, a correction based on the Greenhouse-Geisser estimate of sphericity was conducted \((\epsilon = 0.688 )\) [ 37 , 38 ]. The results show that there was a significant effect of writing group program on procrastination F (2.065, 39.226) = 7.854, p = 0.001.

The results of post hoc tests (Table 3 ) showed a significant difference in academic procrastination levels between Pretest 2 and Posttest 1 ( MD = \(-5\) , p = 0.004), between Posttest 1 and Posttest 2 ( MD = \(-5,3,\) p = 0.01), and between Pretest 2 and Posttest 2 ( MD = \(-10.30\) , p = 0.001). This indicated that the intervention program significantly reduced academic procrastination. Additionally, there was no significant difference between Pretest 1 and Pretest 2 ( MD = 3.00, p = 0.049), which indicated there were no threats to internal validity, i.e., maturation and regression artifact.

The effect size of the contrast—Pretest 2 versus Posttest 2—was calculated based on the mean squares of the intervention program and the mean squares of the error term [ 37 , 39 ]. The result showed that \(r_{contrast} = 1.053\) ; this represented a large effect [ 37 ]. Therefore the effects of the intervention program on academic procrastination represented a significant finding.

This quasi-experiment confirmed that writing group intervention program—Group for Writing Thesis or GROWTH—could potentially reduce academic procrastination. This result may be explained by the intervention program that was focused on three main activities that reduce academic procrastination, i.e., training, participation in a writing group, and independent activities. In the training session, the students learned the nature of a thesis, SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, Time-based) goals, and BASE Habits. These activities made the students aware that writing a master thesis is a long process. It took a lot of time and energy, so students had to apply specific strategies. The strategy used in the training was to breaking down thesis writing into smaller task lists. These lists became short term targets to guide students as they wrote. According to Mühlberger and Traut-Mattausch [ 40 ], target development is effective for diminishing procrastination. The target forming helps to bridge the gap between intention and task accomplishment [ 41 ]. Svartdal et al. [ 42 ] said that when people have more available time to do the task, procrastinators tend to delay the task. In this training, the target enacts as a barrier or a reminder for not delaying the task.

SMART goals, furthermore, were applied to make thesis writing more structured. Students set short term targets, specified the necessary activities and their duration, prioritized the activities, and finally organized all of them into a daily schedule. Students shared and gave feedback to one another in their groups. They had to make sure that the target and the schedule were clear and achievable. A previous study showed that SMART goals could decrease procrastination effectively [ 24 ].

In the training session, students also learned about new writing habits. The BASE habits—consisted of behavioral, artisanal, social, and emotional habits—are the main pillars of writing productivity [ 34 , 35 ]. This concept facilitated students to evaluate their strengths and to use it to overcome academic procrastination. Previous studies showed that a personal strengths-based approach was effective in overcoming academic procrastination [ 43 , 44 ]. Awareness toward personal strengths was crucial in evaluating students’ current state of mind. They could optimize their strengths by maintaining activities that utilized their strengths in their daily writing routine.

On the other hand, students could evaluate their weaknesses based on BASE habits and act upon them. For example, some students realized that they lacked in social habits and concentration while working on their thesis. The students afterward increased activities related to emotional habits, e.g., practicing relaxation or sharing their difficulties when working on their thesis. Meanwhile, some students found themselves good at artisanal habits. They could maintain this by joining a research workshop, discussing with an experienced researcher, and reading books about scientific writing.

Groups for Thesis Writing inspired students to benefit from the social environment by having regular meetings. Instead of viewing thesis writing as an individual activity, students could get mental and academic support from other group members. A growing body of research showed the positive impacts of social support on procrastination [ 21 , 45 , 46 ]. Nichols and Jenkinson [ 47 ] mentioned four characteristics of an effective support group, such as (1) the decrease of isolation through social interaction, (2) chance to release emotion and discussion, (3) conversation leading to more constructive and balanced perspective, and (4) improvement of coping skills through learning from member experiences. Group for Writing Thesis intervention fulfilled those four characteristics.

After setting goals and daily activities, the next step was implementing it into action. This action was the most critical process. As individuals, students tried to stick with their goals and daily planning. Sometimes they succeeded in reaching their target, but sometimes they found it hard to achieve it. While the students were writing a thesis, they faced some unplanned tasks, distractions, and obstacles along the way. König et al. [ 48 ] mentioned that setting goals are not enough to change behavior; goal adaptation is essential. Goal adaptation emphasizes the value of flexibility; it gives someone a chance to reevaluate the target, whether it is still relevant to him or her, or needs to be modified. This adaptation is also an opportunity to get creative, seeking another way to solve the difficulties.

The students monitored their actions every day. They wrote their daily targets and decided when they should achieve it. They also reflected on their experience by writing their feelings, thinking, challenges, and opportunities. Some students wrote about their feeling of failure when the target was unmet. When people could not meet the goals, it might lead them to have negative feelings such as powerlessness and the fear of failure.

Walker [ 46 ] highlighted that procrastination treatment should be focused on the powerlessness experience. In this study, students expressed that in the past, they had set goals and monthly plans, but often failed to implement them. They thought that setting goals was fruitless, gave up on planning, and procrastinated. According to Haghbin et al. [ 49 ], the fear of failure could contribute to procrastination. In this writing group, students evaluated their goal achievement, reflected on the obstacles before them, and set new targets. This process encouraged them to achieve their goals, and they could modify or start a new target instead of giving up. The students also received positive feedback and support from other members of the group. This positive environment helped the students view failure as part of the nature of writing a thesis.

On the other hand, daily monitoring encouraged the students to focus more on the process and less on the outcome; therefore, they experienced daily success instead of feeling a failure when the goals were not achievable. Krause and Freund [ 50 ] believed that being process-focused was more helpful in reducing the fear of failure and keeping students in pursuit of their goals rather than being outcome-focused.

The participants in this study were graduates students from three different cohorts. Therefore, there could be an effect of the cohort on academic procrastination. Even though they were from different cohorts, they shared a similar characteristic—they were working on their master thesis. Further analysis also showed that there is no difference in academic procrastination between those cohorts. Consequently, we have no reason to believe that the participants’ cohort matters. Due to the limited sample size, caution must be applied, as the findings might not apply to broader population. Generalization should be limited to the participant, treatment, output, and setting that similar to this study [ 50 ]. To conclude, the present study demonstrated that a writing group could potentially reduce academic procrastination. Thus, students could benefit from a writing group when working on their master thesis. A thesis preparation course that provides information about BASE habits and SMART goals could also assist students in writing the thesis. There is abundant room for further progress in determining the effects of each components of the intervention program on procrastination level. For example, further research should be undertaken to investigate whether writing a daily reflective journal had a dominant effects on procrastination level compared to other components. Additionally, future investigations aiming for a better causal inference would benefit from having a control group, a randomized assignment, and a larger sample.

Availability of data and materials

The data sets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Analysis of variance

Behavior, artisanal, social, and emotional

Group for writing thesis

Specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, time-based

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The study was funded by the Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Contract number 2040/SD/PL.03.02/V/2018. The funding body had no involvement in the study design, data collection, analysis, and manuscript preparation.

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Patria, B., Laili, L. Writing group program reduces academic procrastination: a quasi-experimental study. BMC Psychol 9 , 157 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-021-00665-9

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Beating the Procrastination Demon: How to write that thesis

Procrastination refers to the act of delaying or postponing tasks or actions, often to the point of experiencing negative consequences. It is a common behavior that can result from a variety of factors, including lack of motivation, fear of failure, and poor time management skills. Procrastination can take many forms, such as engaging in distractions, constantly checking social media or email, or simply avoiding tasks altogether. It can lead to decreased productivity, increased stress, and missed deadlines, negatively impacting one's personal and professional life. Understanding the underlying causes of procrastination and developing effective strategies can be vital to achieving success and reaching goals.

It’s not uncommon for students to procrastinate. In fact, as many as 90% admit to doing it. A Google search for “I can’t write my thesis,” “thesis writer’s block,” or “how to stop procrastinating” returns scores of social media threads of desperate students asking if it’s possible to write 80 pages in a month or a week. 

So to understand how to avoid procrastinating, it’s key to understand why we do it in the first place. Because while, of course, the newest show on Netflix or another weekend of drinking Marg towers with friends sounds more fun than writing your dissertation, procrastination brings a feeling of guilt and dread. It’s hard to fully enjoy yourself when your thesis hangs over your head like a sword of Damocles. 

So why do we procrastinate, and how can we stop?

Why Do We Procrastinate?

There are many reasons people procrastinate, but for students, the two main causes are fear of failure and waiting to be motivated. Many people who fear failure are actually perfectionists. Some signs you might be a perfectionist include:

• You can’t start a task until you are sure you can execute it flawlessly
• You take much longer than usual to complete a task
• You focus on the final product instead of the process of creating it
• You don’t consider a task finished until it’s perfect in your eyes

Fear of failure can make it impossible to begin a task. If you don’t try, you can’t fail. Right? So instead of just getting started and writing a less-than-perfect thesis, many perfectionists find reasons to delay starting it. This fear causes perfectionism-induced procrastination, and it’s one reason many struggles with dissertation writing.

But perfectionism isn’t the only reason we procrastinate. It’s also easy to overestimate how motivated you will feel later. Maybe right now you are tired, hungry, or have other things to do, but you’re sure that tomorrow you’ll feel like writing that paper! You will not. You will find another reason not to write. Writing, especially a thesis, takes practice and should be done regularly, no matter how you feel. If you wait to feel inspired, you might never start writing. 

Overcoming Procrastination

So how do you overcome the desire to procrastinate? The drive behind your procrastination will slightly impact what techniques work best for you, but here are several that work pretty well regardless of why you’re finding it impossible to sit down at the computer and start writing. 

• Minimize Distractions

Distractions come in many forms, as any procrastinator knows. By minimizing your distractions, you can make it easier to focus. For example, some people find it easier to concentrate at home, while others prefer the library or cafe. 

Figure out what works for you and carve out a regular period each day to go there and work. To avoid online distractions that are present no matter where you work, consider temporarily blocking the websites most likely to distract you (social media, blogs, news, etc.) 

Similarly, leave your phone in another room while you work, or turn it on silent and place it face down where you can’t see it. 

• Break It Down

A significant driver of procrastination is the feeling that a task is simply insurmountable. However, b breaking down your thesis into small steps, you can make each part of writing into an achievable daily goal. 

Make a schedule for yourself, then follow that as strictly as you can. Your calendar shouldn’t just say, “work on the thesis.” Instead, break it down into manageable chunks like “write three pages of the literature review” or “create two data tables for the methods section.” Then, just focus on the task you’ve been assigned today, and feel free to stop working for the day when you finish.

• Use Productivity and Writing Tools

Productivity tools are very popular— because many struggle with time management, not just thesis writers! A timer system like Kanban or Pomodoro blocks out time segments to be productive and then schedules breaks. 

Source management products like Endnote are also helpful for students who need assistance organizing their research and sources. Finally, AI grammar checkers and online editing services can offer a shortcut for improved writing and fast editing when you don’t have the time or energy to expend.

• Get Feedback

Obviously, your advisor will provide you with feedback periodically, but it can help you move forward when you’re stuck on getting another pair of eyes on your work. You can ask a peer or colleague to review some of your work to hear some feedback and get a fresh perspective. 

You can also use an editing service that provides substantive editing to see what suggestions they have for your work. Specialized academic editing services for thesis writing are particularly useful for this type of feedback. Online forums and social media can be another good way to find like-minded students researching and working on a dissertation. You can commiserate and share ideas.

Don’t Let Your Thesis Take Over Your Life

One of the most impactful things my (very frustrated) advisor said to me as I sat in his office for the thirtieth time, giving an excuse for why I didn’t have a draft, was, “this isn’t actually that important.” Honestly, I went home and cried after he said that to me. 

I was spending hours researching and thousands of dollars a semester on tuition. So how could my thesis, the culmination of all of these efforts, be insignificant? But after I dried my tears, I realized what he meant. 

A thesis is just a paper; you’ll probably write others, and the world will go on regardless. Two weeks later, I finally handed in my first draft. His words were the reality check I needed to get over the hump of perfectionism-induced procrastination. 

Regardless of your technique, remember that you’re not alone in struggling to start, write, or finish your dissertation. Writing a thesis is a monumental task, which is one reason students must complete it in the first place to prove they have acquired the skills to succeed at a higher level. But others have done it, I did it, and so can you!

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Procrastination

The art of writing is the art of applying the seat of the pants to the seat of the chair. —Mary Heaton Vorse

What this handout is about

This handout will help you understand why you procrastinate and offer strategies to combat this common writer’s ailment.

Introduction

Everyone procrastinates. We put things off because we don’t want to do them, or because we have too many other things on our plates. Putting things off—big or small—is part of being human. If you are reading this handout, however, it is likely that your procrastination is troubling you. You suspect that you could be a much better writer if only you didn’t put off writing projects until the last minute. You find that just when you have really gotten going on a paper, it’s time to turn it in; so, you never really have time to revise or proofread carefully. You love the rush of adrenaline you get when you finish a paper ten minutes before it’s due, but you (and your body) are getting tired of pulling all-nighters. You feel okay about procrastinating while in college, but you worry that this habit will follow you into your working life.

You can tell whether or not you need to do something about your procrastination by examining its consequences. Procrastination can have external consequences (you get a zero on the paper because you never turned it in) or internal consequences (you feel anxious much of the time, even when you are doing something that you enjoy). If you put off washing the dishes, but the dishes don’t bother you, who cares? When your procrastination leaves you feeling discouraged and overburdened, however, it is time to take action.

Is there hope?

If you think you are a hopeless procrastinator, take heart! No one is beyond help. The fact that you procrastinate does not mean that you are inherently lazy or inefficient. Your procrastination is not an untamable beast. It is a habit that has some specific origin, and it is a habit that you can overcome. This handout will help you begin to understand why you procrastinate and give you some strategies for turning things around. For most procrastinators, however, there are no quick fixes. You aren’t going to wake up tomorrow and never procrastinate again. But you might wake up tomorrow and do one or two simple things that will help you finish that draft a little earlier or with less stress.

You may not be surprised to learn that procrastinators tend to be self-critical. So, as you consider your procrastination and struggle to develop different work habits, try to be gentle with yourself. Punishing yourself every time you realize you have put something off won’t help you change. Rewarding yourself when you make progress will.

If you don’t care why you procrastinate—you just want to know what to do about it—then you might as well skip the next section of this handout and go right to the section labeled “What to do about it.” If you skip to the strategies, however, you may only end up more frustrated. Taking the time to learn about why you procrastinate may help you avoid the cycle whereby you swear up and down that you will never procrastinate again, only to find that the next time you have a paper due, you are up until 3 a.m. trying to complete the first (and only) draft—without knowing why or how you got there.

Why we do it

In order to stop putting off your writing assignments, it is important to understand why you tend to do so in the first place. Some of the reasons that people procrastinate include the following:

Because we are afraid

• Fear of failure: If you are scared that a particular piece of writing isn’t going to turn out well, then you may avoid working on it in order to avoid feeling the fear.
• Fear of success: Some procrastinators (the author of this handout included) fear that if they start working at their full capacity, they will turn into workaholics. Since we procrastinate compulsively, we assume that we will also write compulsively; we envision ourselves locked in a library carrel, hunched over the computer, barely eating and sleeping and never seeing friends or going out. The procrastinator who fears success may also assume that if they work too hard, they will become mean and cold to the people around them, thus losing their capacity to be friendly and to have fun. Finally, this type of procrastinator may think that if they stop procrastinating, then they will start writing better, which will increase other people’s expectations, thus ultimately increasing the amount of pressure they experience.
• Fear of losing autonomy: Some people delay writing projects as a way of maintaining their independence. When they receive a writing assignment, they procrastinate as a way of saying, “You can’t make me do this. I am my own person.” Procrastinating helps them feel more in control of situations (such as college) in which they believe that other people have authority.
• Fear of being alone: Other writers procrastinate because they want to feel constantly connected to other people. For instance, you may procrastinate until you are in such a bind that someone has to come and rescue you. Procrastination therefore ensures that other people will be involved in your life. You may also put off writing because you don’t want to be alone, and writing is oftentimes a solitary activity. In its worst form, procrastination itself can become a companion, constantly reminding you of all that you have to do.
• Fear of attachment: Rather than fearing separation, some people procrastinate in order to create a barrier between themselves and others. They may delay in order to create chaos in their lives, believing that the chaos will keep other people away.

Whether these fears appear in our conscious or subconscious minds, they paralyze us and keep us from taking action, until discomfort and anxiety overwhelms us and forces us to either a) get the piece of writing done or b) give up. (The preceding is a summary of Chapters 2-4 of Jane B. Burka and Lenora M. Yuen’s Procrastination: Why You Do It, What to Do About It.)

Because we expect ourselves to be perfect

Procrastination and perfectionism often go hand in hand. Perfectionists tend to procrastinate because they expect so much of themselves, and they are scared about whether or not they can meet those high standards. Perfectionists sometimes think that it is better to give a half-hearted effort and maintain the belief that they could have written a great paper, than to give a full effort and risk writing a mediocre paper. Procrastinating guarantees failure, but it helps perfectionists maintain their belief that they could have excelled if they had tried harder. Another pitfall for perfectionists is that they tend to ignore progress toward a goal. As long as the writing project is incomplete, they feel as though they aren’t getting anywhere, rather than recognizing that each paragraph moves them closer to a finished product.

Because we don’t like our writing

You may procrastinate on writing because you don’t like to re-read what you have written; you hate writing a first draft and then being forced to evaluate it, in all its imperfection. By procrastinating, you ensure that you don’t have time to read over your work, thus avoiding that uncomfortable moment.

Because we’re too busy

Practical concerns: jobs, other classes, etc.

Because it works

Unfortunately, procrastination helps reinforce itself. When we avoid doing something we dread (like writing) by doing something we enjoy (such as watching TV, hanging out with friends, etc.), we escape the dreaded task. Given such a choice, it’s no wonder that many of us choose to procrastinate. When we write a paper at the last minute and still manage to get a good grade, we feel all the more compelled to procrastinate next time around.

What to do about it

Now that you know a little bit about why you may have procrastinated in the past, let’s explore some of the strategies you might use to combat your procrastination tendencies, now and in the future. Experiment with whichever of these strategies appeals to you; if you try something and it doesn’t work, try something else! Be patient; improvement will come with practice.

Take an inventory

Figuring out exactly when and how you procrastinate can help you stop the behavior. It can be difficult to tell when you are procrastinating. Think about the clues that tell you that’s what you’re doing: for example, a nagging voice in your head, a visual image of what you are avoiding or the consequences of not doing it, physical ailments (stomach tightness, headaches, muscle tension), inability to concentrate, inability to enjoy what you are doing.

How do you procrastinate?

• Try to ignore the task, hoping against hope that it will go away?
• Over- or under-estimate the degree of difficulty that the task involves?
• Minimize the impact that your performance now may have on your future?
• Substitute something important for something really important? (For example, cleaning instead of writing your paper.)
• Let a short break become a long one, or an evening in which you do no work at all? (For example, claiming that you are going to watch TV for ½ hour, then watching it all night.)
• Focus on one part of the task, at the expense of the rest? (For example, keep working on the introduction, while putting off writing the body and conclusion).
• Spend too much time researching or choosing a topic

Once you better understand how you procrastinate, you will be better able to catch yourself doing it. Too often, we don’t even realize that we are procrastinating—until it’s too late.

Create a productive environment

If you have made the decision to stop delaying on a particular writing project, it is critical that you find a place to work where you have at least half a chance of actually getting some writing done. Your dorm room may not be the place where you are most productive. Ditto the computer lab. If you have a laptop computer, try going someplace where you can’t connect to the Internet (e-mail and the Web are the bane of the procrastinator’s existence—as you probably already know). If you are a procrastinator, then chances are you are already pretty exasperated; don’t risk frustrating yourself even more by trying to write in an environment that doesn’t meet your needs.

CAUTION: The most skilled procrastinators will be tempted to take this suggestion too far, spending an inordinate amount of time “creating a productive environment” (cleaning, filing, etc.) and not nearly enough time actually writing. Don’t fall into that trap! While cleaning and filing are indeed worthy and necessary activities, if you only do this when you have an approaching writing deadline, then you are procrastinating.

While you are thinking about where to write, consider also when you will write. When are you most alert? Is it at 8 a.m., mid-morning, mid-afternoon, early evening, or late at night? Try to schedule writing time when you know you will be at your best. Don’t worry about when you “should” be able to write; just focus on when you are able to write.

Challenge your myths

In order to break the procrastination habit, we need to get past the idea that in order to write, we must have all the information pertaining to the topic, and we must have optimal writing conditions. In reality, writers never have all the information, and conditions are never optimal.

Think of a writing project that you are currently putting off. On one side of a piece of paper, write down all the reasons for your delay. On the other side, argue (as convincingly as possible!) against the delay.

Myth #1: “I can’t function in a messy environment. I can’t possibly write this paper until I have cleaned my apartment.”

Challenge: There are no conditions that are necessary in order for you to write, save two: 1) You must have a writing implement (e.g., a keyboard or a pen) and 2) you must have someplace for writing to go, such as into a computer or onto a piece of paper. If, when faced with a writing project, you start piling up prerequisites for all the things you must do before you can possibly start writing, consider whether you might in fact be making excuses—in other words, procrastinating.

Myth #2: “I know it’s time for me to start writing, but I just haven’t done enough research yet. I’ll spend one more night at the library, and then I’ll start writing my paper.”

Challenge: Truth be told, you will never collect all the information you possibly could for your paper. Better to write a tightly-crafted argument with the information you have NOW, AT THIS VERY MOMENT, than to keep doing research and risk throwing your paper together at the last minute.

Myth #3: “I do my best work under pressure.”

Challenge: There are lots of other ways to create pressure for yourself, besides waiting until the night before the paper is due to start writing it. You can set a time limit for yourself—for example, “I will write this paragraph in ½ hour”—or you can pretend that the paper is a timed essay exam. If you do this a week or two before the paper is due, you’ll have a draft in plenty of time to revise and edit it.

Myth #4: “In order to work on my paper, I must have six uninterrupted hours.”

Challenge: You can and should work on a paper in one hour blocks (or shorter). This will help you break the writing task down into smaller pieces, thereby making it seem more manageable. If you know that you can work on one part of the paper for one hour, then it won’t seem so daunting, and you will be less likely to procrastinate.

Some writers find, however, that they do need longer blocks of time in order to really produce anything. Therefore, like all of the strategies outlined here, if this one doesn’t work for you, throw it out and try something else. You might still find, however, that you are more productive when you plan to write “all morning” rather than “all day.”

Myth #5 : “What I write has to be perfect, ” AND/OR “I can’t write anything until I have a perfect thesis statement/intro.”

Challenge: A first draft (or a second, or a third, or even—egad!—the final product) does not have to be perfect. When we write an early draft, we need to turn off our internal critic and just get some words down on the page. The great thing about starting early on a writing project is that it leaves us plenty of time for revision, editing, and proofreading; so, we can set ourselves free to just let our writing flow, without worrying about sentence-level concerns such as grammar, punctuation, and style. You’ll find some other thoughts on editing in our video on proofreading and our handout on revision .

Break it down

The day you get the paper assignment (ideally), or shortly thereafter, break the writing assignment up into the smallest possible chunks. By doing this, the paper never has a chance to take on gargantuan proportions in your mind. You can say to yourself, “Right now, I’m going to write the introduction. That’s all, just the introduction!” And you may be more likely to sit down and do that, than you will to sit down and “write the paper.”

Get a new attitude

We shoot ourselves in the foot, to begin with, by telling ourselves how horrible a particular writing assignment is. Changing our attitude toward the task, when possible, may go a long way toward keeping us from procrastinating. Tell yourself that the task isn’t so bad or difficult, that you either know how to do it, or that you can learn how while you’re doing it. You may find, too, that if you start early on a particular assignment, your attitude never has a chance to get very negative in the first place! Simply starting to write can often help us feel more positive about writing.

Ask for help

• Get an anti-procrastination coach. If you are really determined not to procrastinate, then get help from the supportive people in your life. Tell someone about your writing goal and timeline, and ask them to help you determine whether or not your plan is realistic. Once or twice a week, email with a friend, relative, or mentor, in order to report (admit?) on your progress, and declare your promise for the next week (or few days). If, despite your very good intentions, you start procrastinating again, do not think, “All is lost!” Instead, talk to someone about it. They may be able to help you put your slip into perspective and get back on track.
• Get a buddy. See if you can find a friend to work alongside you. They don’t have to be writing a paper; in fact, they can be playing Solitaire, for all you care. What matters is that you arrange to meet them at the library (or wherever you have decided to write) at a particular time and stay there for a specific period of time, thus creating accountability.
• Get help with your writing. If you are procrastinating because you think you are a weak writer, then ask someone (a Writing Center writing coach, a current or former professor or teaching assistant, a friend) to help you improve.
• Form a writing group. A writing group is a great way for undergraduate and more advanced writers alike to create accountability, get feedback, and simply get reminded that you are not alone in the struggle to produce and to improve your writing. See our writing group packet at for more information on how to form and sustain a writing group. Dissertation writers may benefit not only from joining a writing group but also from reading our handout on the dissertation . This handout was written by a former Writing Center staff member who eventually completed her dissertation.

Get unblocked

Sometimes, we procrastinate because we feel stuck on a particular essay or section of an essay. If this happens, you have several options:

• Turn off the screen. Type with a dark screen, so you can’t see what you’ve written, decide you don’t like it, and delete it immediately. Sometimes procrastination stems from insecurity about what to say, or whether we have anything to say. The important thing, in that case, is to get started and KEEP GOING. Turning off the screen may help lessen your fear and turn off your internal critic. When you turn it back on (or print out what you’ve written), you may find that you do have something to say, after all.
• Write about writing. Take 15 minutes and write a letter to yourself about why you don’t want to write this. This lets you vent your frustrations and anxieties. Then, Take 15 minutes and write about what you could do to get unstuck. You can also try writing about what you’re going to write, making an initial assessment of the assignment. You won’t have the pressure of writing an actual draft, but you will be able to get something down on paper.
• Write the easiest part first. You don’t have to start at the beginning. Whatever section you can do, do it! If you think that’s wimpy, and you would rather do the hardest part first so that you can get it out of the way, that’s fine—whatever works for you. If you start writing and you get stuck, write about why you’re stuck.
• Talk it out. Try tape-recording yourself speaking the ideas you want to include in the paper, and then transcribe the tape.

Make yourself accountable

Set a writing deadline (other than the paper’s due date) for yourself by making an appointment at the Writing Center or telling your TA (or a former TA) that you’re going to give them a draft on such-and-such a date. If you make your Writing Center appointment for several days before the paper is due, then you may be motivated to have a draft finished. Or set an earlier appointment at the Writing Center to have a conversation about your plans for the draft. Talking out your ideas with someone will help you get them organized for subsequent writing.

Leave your work out

Keeping your work (books, notes, articles, etc.) physically out, in full view, gives you a reminder that you are in the middle of the paper, or that you need to start. Also, if you write in more than one shift, it can be helpful to leave off in the middle of a paragraph and leave your ‘tools’ where they are. When you return to the paper, you’ll be able to “warm up” by finishing that paragraph. Starting a new section cold may be more difficult.

Work on improving your writing when you don’t have a deadline

Investigate your writing process. First of all, you may not think you have a thing called a “writing process.” But you do—everyone does. Describe your writing process in detail.

Ask yourself:

• When do I usually start on a paper?
• What tools do I need (or think I need) in order to write?
• Where do I write?
• Do I like quiet or noise when I write?
• How long a block of time do I need?
• What do I do before I start?
• What do I do at the end?
• How do I feel at the end (after I have turned it in)?

Then ask yourself:

• What do I like about my writing process?
• What do I want to change?

Once you can see your writing process, then you can make a decision to change it. But take it easy with this—only work on one part at a time. Otherwise, you’ll get overwhelmed and frustrated—and we all know where that leads, straight down the procrastination road.

Evaluate your writing’s strengths and weaknesses

If you aren’t ready to evaluate your writing process completely (and it’s okay if you aren’t), then you could try just listing your strengths and weaknesses as a writer. For instance, perhaps you are great at creating thesis statements, but you have trouble developing arguments. Or, your papers are very well-organized, but your thesis and argument tend to fall a little flat. Identifying these issues will help you do two things: 1) When you write, you can play to your strength; and 2) You can choose one weakness and do something about it when you DON’T have a deadline.

Now, doing anything when you don’t have a deadline may sound strange to a procrastinator, but bear with me. Let’s say you’ve decided that your writing is too wordy, and you want to work on being more concise. So, some time when you don’t have a paper—but you do have a free hour—you waltz into the Writing Center and tell your tutor, “Hey, I want learn to how to write more clearly.” You confer, and you come away with some simple strategies for eliminating wordiness.

Here is why this may make a difference the next time you write a paper, regardless of whether or not you have procrastinated (again!): You print out your draft. It’s 1 a.m. You go to bed. The next morning, you read over your paper (it’s due at noon). You say to yourself, “Hmmm, I notice I’m being too wordy.” BUT, rather than concluding, “Oh, well, it’s too late, there isn’t anything I can do about that,” (as you may have in the past), you can choose to employ some of what you learned (previously, when you weren’t under the gun) to make your writing more concise. You edit the paper accordingly. You turn it in.

When your instructor hands the papers back the following week, there are far fewer instances of “awkward,” “unclear,” etc. in the margins. Voila! You’ve made a positive change in your writing process!

What does this have to do with procrastination? Well, making one small change in your writing process creates momentum. You begin to feel more positive about your writing. You begin to be less intimidated by writing assignments. And—eventually—you start them earlier, because they just aren’t as big a deal as they used to be.

Evaluating the strengths and weaknesses in your writing gives you a sense of control. Your writing problems are solvable problems. Working on your writing when you don’t have a deadline helps you gain insight and momentum. Soon, writing becomes something that, while you may not look forward to it, you don’t dread quite as much. Thus, you don’t procrastinate quite as much.

This strategy also accounts for the fact that if you perceive procrastination as having been successful for you in the past, you aren’t going to give it up right away

Hone your proofreading and editing skills

If you procrastinate on writing because you don’t like to re-read what you have written, the good news is this: you can learn specific proofreading , revising , and editing strategies. If you finish your paper ahead of time, and you re-read it, and you don’t like it, you have options. Writing a first draft that you don’t like doesn’t mean you’re a terrible writer. Many writers—in fact, I would venture to say most—hate their first drafts. Neither Leo Tolstoy nor Toni Morrison produce(d) brilliant prose the first time around. In fact, Morrison (a big fan of revision) said recently that you don’t have to love your writing just because you wrote it! If you practice some revision and editing strategies, you may feel more comfortable with the idea of re-reading your papers. You’ll know that if you find weaknesses in the draft (and you will), you can do something to improve those areas.

Learn how to tell time

One of the best ways to combat procrastination is to develop a more realistic understanding of time. Procrastinators’ views of time tend to be fairly unrealistic. “This paper is only going to take me about five hours to write,” you think. “Therefore, I don’t need to start on it until the night before.” What you may be forgetting, however, is that our time is often filled with more activities than we realize. On the night in question, for instance, let’s say you go to the gym at 4:45 p.m. You work out (1 hour), take a shower and dress (30 minutes), eat dinner (45 minutes), and go to a sorority meeting (1 hour). By the time you get back to your dorm room to begin work on the paper, it is already 8:00 p.m. But now you need to check your email and return a couple of phone calls. It’s 8:30 p.m. before you finally sit down to write the paper. If the paper does indeed take five hours to write, you will be up until 1:30 in the morning—and that doesn’t include the time that you will inevitably spend watching TV.

And, as it turns out, it takes about five hours to write a first draft of the essay. You have forgotten to allow time for revision, editing, and proofreading. You get the paper done and turn it in the next morning. But you know it isn’t your best work, and you are pretty tired from the late night, and so you make yourself a promise: “Next time, I’ll start early!”

Make an unschedule

The next time you have a writing deadline, try using an unschedule to outline a realistic plan for when you will write. An unschedule is a weekly calendar of all the ways in which your time is already accounted for. When you make an unschedule, you consider not only your timed commitments such as classes and meetings, but also your untimed activities such as meals, exercise, errands, laundry, time with friends and family, and the like. It is not a list of what you should do in a given week; rather it is an outline of the time that you will necessarily spend doing other things besides writing.

Once you have made your unschedule, take a look at the blank spaces. These represent the maximum number of hours that you could potentially spend writing. By starting with these blank spaces as a guide, you will be able to more accurately predict how much time you will be able to write on any given day. You may be able to see, for instance, that you really don’t have five hours to spend writing on the night before the paper is due. By planning accordingly, you will not only get a better night’s sleep, you may also end up with a better paper!

The unschedule might also be a good way to get started on a larger writing project, such as a term paper or an honors thesis. You may think that you have “all semester” to get the writing done, but if you really sit down and map out how much time you have available to write on a daily and weekly basis, you will see that you need to get started sooner, rather than later. In addition, the unschedule may reveal especially busy weeks or months, which will help you budget time for long-term projects.

Perhaps most importantly, the unschedule can help you examine how you spend your time. You may be surprised at how much (or how little) time you spend watching television, and decide to make a change. It’s especially important that you build time for fun activities into your unschedule. Otherwise, you will procrastinate in order to steal time for relaxation.

You can also use the unschedule to record your progress towards your goal. Each time you work on your paper, for example, mark it on the unschedule. One of the most important things you can do to kick the procrastination habit is to reward yourself when you write something, even if (especially if) that writing is only a little piece of the whole. Seeing your success on paper will help reinforce the productive behavior, and you will feel more motivated to write later in the day or week.

Set a time limit

Okay, so maybe one of the reasons you procrastinate on writing projects is that you just plain hate writing! You would rather be at the dentist than sitting in front of your computer with a blank Microsoft Word document staring you in the face. In that case, it may be helpful to set limits on how much time you will spend writing before you do something else. While the notation “Must work on Hemingway essay all weekend” may not inspire you to sit down and write, “Worked on Hemingway essay for ½ hour” just might. Or, if you tell yourself that you will write “all weekend,” for instance, the sheer agony of the thought may keep you from doing any writing at all. If, however, you say that you will write for two hours on Saturday afternoon, you may actually accomplish something. The important thing here is to keep your commitment to yourself. Even if, at the end of the two hours, you think you could keep going, stop. Go outside and enjoy the weather. Your procrastinating self needs to be able to trust your new non-procrastinating self the next time you say you will only write for a certain amount of time. If you go overboard this time, then the next time you say, “I’ll write for two hours and then stop,” the procrastinator within will respond, “Yeah, right! I’m going rollerblading!”

On the other hand, it may work better for you to trick yourself into working on your paper by telling yourself you’re only going to write for two hours, but then continuing to work if you’re feeling inspired. Experiment with both approaches and see which one seems to work best for you.

Be realistic about how long it takes you to write

Procrastinators tend to be heroic about time; they estimate that it will take them two hours to complete a task that would take most people four. Once you have determined that procrastination is hurting your writing, begin taking notice of how long it actually takes you to write. Many students have a “page an hour” rule. Perhaps you can write a page in an hour if you are totally rested, fed, and focused, your roommate isn’t home, and the wind is blowing just right. But what if the phone rings, what if you are tired, and what if you have to go to the bathroom? When you estimate how long it will take you to write something, expect that there will be interruptions along the way.

Parting thoughts

As you explore why you procrastinate and experiment with strategies for working differently, don’t expect overnight transformation. You developed the procrastination habit over a long period of time; you aren’t going to stop magically. But you can change the behavior, bit by bit. If you stop punishing yourself when you procrastinate and start rewarding yourself for your small successes, you will eventually develop new writing habits. And you will get a lot more sleep.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Burka, Jane M., and Lenora M. Yuen. 1983. Procrastination: Why You Do It, What to Do About It Now . Boston: Addison-Wesley Publishing.

Ellis, Albert, and William J. Knaus. 1977. Overcoming Procrastination . New York: Signet.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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84 Procrastination Ideas & Essay Examples

Is procrastination good or bad? Some people judge procrastination and call it “lazyness”. Others insist that procrastinating helps them to do their best under pressing deadlines.

If you assigned to write an essay on this topic, we’ve got your back covered! In this article you will find 51 interesting procrastination essay topics. Keep reading!

🏆 Best Procrastination Topics & Essay Examples

📌 interesting procrastination essay topics to write about, 👍 good procrastination research topics, ❓ research questions about procrastination.

• A Critical Analysis of Hamlet’s Constant Procrastination in Shakespeare’s Hamlet Claudius is successful in his ambition and Hamlet is left with the decision on whether or not to kill his uncle so as to avenge his father’s death.
• Procrastination Essay In both cases, people procrastinate because they fear the consequences of their actions and prefer to live in uncertainty. These are serious obstacles on the way to success and life satisfaction, which is why it […]
• Students Procrastination Problem If the task is big, it should be broken down into small tasks that are easy to manage and to complete.
• Procrastination and Time Management In case the available time is not properly allocated to all activities to be achieved within a given period, then the available time will not be allocated to the correct event.
• Procrastination: Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods Due to the nature of the research questions of the study, open-ended questionnaires and interviews will be used to gather the required information for the study.
• Procrastination Among College Students It is not the fear of failure that keeps people from taking on assignments, but their personality traits and desire to have fun instead of putting in the effort.
• Procrastination as a Means of Improving Creativity The work’s author is Adam Grant, a professor of management and psychology at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. The point of the essay is to talk about the benefits of procrastination.
• Procrastination Predictors in College Students This is a show of autonomy, the evading of the aversive task, avoidance of a state of anxiety, a response to their fear of failure or they are said to suffer from perfectionism and usually […]
• Procrastination Concept and Reasons The term procrastination is relatively new to psychology, despite the fact that the psychological essence of the phenomenon indicated by this term is familiar to everyone.
• Time Management: How to Beat Your Procrastination? In order to manage time effectively the following solutions can be applied: The most popular solution is to make a schedule to keep track of important facts and ideas that can be of any use […]
• Procrastination in Undergraduates and Graduates In this article, the researcher was interested in investigating the differences in procrastination and the motivation between undergraduate and graduate students.
• Procrastination in the Fields of Education and Psychology Although two articles discuss the topic of procrastination, writings in the fields of psychology and education are similar only in relation to the chosen IMRAD format, vocabulary, and rhetoric appeals, and the articles are different […]
• Frequent Tests as the Ways to Overcome Procrastination and Anxiety The problem can depend not only on the level of the students’ knowledge but also on the degree of the tension and anxiety which are associated with the preparation and review of the material during […]
• Procrastination Issues: Cause and Effect Procrastination is said to be the avoidance of starting or going through on a task that is deemed to be important and necessary.
• Solving the Problem of Procrastination
• Procrastination: The Biggest Problem of Generation
• Negative Consequences of Medical Checkups Procrastination
• Steps for Overcoming Procrastination by Michael Locklear
• Procrastination, and Side Effects of Procrastination
• Procrastination: Causes and Effects
• Measuring the Effect of Procrastination and Environmental Awareness on Households’ Energy-Saving Behaviours
• Overcoming Obstacles of Overcoming Procrastination
• Three Field Experiments on Procrastination and Willpower
• The Causes of the Procrastination to Seek Revenge in Hamlet, a Play by William Shakespeare
• The Cause and Effects of Procrastination Causes Stress
• Behavior Modification & Stopping Procrastination
• Procrastination: Computer and Urgent Legislative Issues
• The Questioning, Procrastination and Rationalization That Defines Hamlet’s Character
• The Effect of Academic Procrastination on Self Determination
• Addressing the Behavior of Procrastination That Needed to Be Fixed
• Procrastination Is a Complex Behavioral Disorder
• The Importance of Procrastination and Their Advantage and How It Affects
• Putting It off for Later: Procrastination and End of Fiscal Year Spending Spikes
• The Struggle With Procrastination in Hamlet by William Shakespeare
• The Effects of Procrastination on Personal Discipline and the Quality of Work
• Procrastination and Its Effects on College Students
• The Different Reasons Why One Commit Procrastination
• Rush and Procrastination Under Hyperbolic Discounting and Interdependent Activities
• Procrastination Is a Psychological Epidemic
• Procrastination Is Synonymous With Hesitation
• Reducing Procrastination by High School Students
• An Analysis of the Causes and Remedies of Procrastination in College
• Procrastination in Teams, Contract Design and Discrimination
• The Relationship Between Academic Procrastination Behaviors of Preservice Science Teachers and Their Attitudes toward Social Media
• Procrastination Is a Dangerous and Seemingly Unbreakable Habit
• The Contributions of Technology to Modern Procrastination
• Transition and Regional Inequality in Russia; Reorganization or Procrastination
• Deadlines, Procrastination, and Forgetting in Charitable Tasks
• The Causes and Effects of Procrastination on Students in School
• Procrastination: Anger and Unrealistic High Expectations
• Procrastination versus Time Management
• The Different Ways of Eliminating Procrastination
• Procrastination and Time Management Skills
• Differences in Procrastination and Motivation Between Undergraduate and Graduate Students
• How Study Environments Foster Academic Procrastination?
• What Are the Pros and Cons of Procrastination?
• What Are the Main Reasons Students Procrastination?
• How Does Procrastination Affect College Education?
• Why Should We Stop Procrastination?
• Is Procrastination a Mental Health Issue?
• What Are the Complex Reasons for Procrastination?
• What Are the Causes and Cures for Procrastination?
• Is Procrastination Caused by Laziness?
• Why Do Students Procrastinate?
• How Permanently End Procrastination?
• What Are the Statistics on Procrastination?
• Can You Be Successful if You Procrastinate?
• How to Achieve the Art of Procrastination?
• What Age Group Is Procrastinate the Most?
• What Is the Most Common Cause of Procrastination?
• What Are the Negative Effects of Procrastination?
• Why Being in Procrastination Is a Serious Problem?
• What Are the Common Types of Procrastination?
• Does Loss Aversion Beat Procrastination?
• How Does Procrastination Affect Success?
• How Many People Procrastinate on Average?
• How Can a Creative Person Use the Procrastination?
• How Can You Avoid Procrastination?
• Is Procrastination a Form of Depression?
• What Happens in Your Brain When You Procrastinate?
• How Can Students Avoid Procrastination?
• What Are the Solutions to Procrastination?
• How Does Procrastination Affect Academic Performance?
• Is Procrastination a Genetic Trait?
• Chicago (A-D)
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• Procrastination Essay

Essay on Procrastination

Have you ever postponed your homework until the last minute? Or maybe you studied for a test the day before? 

Maybe it's too late to write a story until the last hour? We are all guilty of delaying jobs and postponing important work until the latest date. This is actually procrastination. It is the act of deliberately delaying any task or activity. In this case, we will look at the causes and solutions to this problem.

About Procrastination

As we shall see in this article, this is not a coincidence. Almost everyone is guilty of it at some point in their lives. So we ask ourselves this question - why do people procrastinate or are so busy all the time? 

We live in the 21st century when time is of the essence. However, we are wasting our precious resources by wasting our time.

Saint Kabir had advised: what you have to do tomorrow, do today; what you have to do today, do it now. Procrastination is the habit of delaying a task or an activity until a later date. The habit of procrastinating the doing things is one of the worst habits of a person. People tend to be slothful to put off the finishing of a piece of work, implementation of a plan till another time. Life is not certain and it is possible that circumstances may change and one may not be able to do the work at all. It is good to procrastinate on things that are bad, but we are right and what we have decided to do, we must do in time.

Reasons for Procrastinating

One of the major reasons for procrastinating on a task is slothfulness. When a person is indulged in luxuries and slothfulness, it will blunt his edge of urge for action. When a person starts fearing the outcome of the task, he tends to procrastinate the task for a later date. Other factors for procrastinating work for a later date are low self-esteem, weak determination, less focus and distraction and also high impulsiveness. 

Procrastination is Harmful

Procrastination is harmful in various ways. It maintains tension in mind. It will relieve you of this tension if you do the work right now. Putting off work till another time more often may keep us deprived of the benefits, which might have accrued to us from its having been done. Opportunity knocks at the door once. Opportunity lost once is lost forever. There is no guarantee that the circumstances will remain the same. They may change and you may have to repent later on over the fact that you missed the opportunity. Sometimes it may prove tragic and change the good side of your career to a bad one. 

A successful man is one who strikes the iron while it is hot. When procrastination becomes a habit, all cheerfulness and carefree living go out of life and we live a life of perpetual tension, which indeed is not a life worth living at all. While procrastination is harmful to individuals, it may be more harmful to groups, communities and nations. 

We must ask ourselves whether we do actually realise the dangers emanating from procrastination and, therefore, shun it. We will perhaps find the answer in the affirmative as well as in the negative. We are still procrastinating steps for development in certain sectors of our life. For example, we have been sadly procrastinating in the educational sector. Even after more than five decades of economic planning, we find half of our population illiterate. We have taken steps to eradicate illiteracy, but our steps are not fast enough. 

We have been procrastinating developing certain geographical regions of the country with the result that there are evident regional imbalances in terms of development. We have not yet been able to connect every village of India with a link road. This was the task of utmost importance, a task that ought to have been given priority in any scheme of development. Our pace of development could have been faster if proper planning and implementation had been done at the right time. 

While procrastination is regarded as a bad habit, undue hurry or haste is equally a bad tendency. Promptness of action is advisable, but an impulsive decision is fraught with undesirable consequences. One must not delay or procrastinate in arriving at a decision in crucial matters, but unless a well-thought-out decision has been taken, it is more often than not risky to convert into action. Decisions taken in a hurry or haste without cool and calculated deliberation are likely to lead one into blind alleys or unfathomed troughs which it is difficult to get out from. The golden rule is first to get satisfied with the correct decision. Action should immediately follow the correct decision. Action should immediately follow the correct decision. Evil actions contemplated as a consequence of anger, revenge, greed, larceny, lust should be put off as indefinitely as possible till they die their natural death. 

How to Avoid Procrastinating?

There are a few tips to curb the habit of procrastination. 

Slothfulness: 

We must shake off slothfulness altogether. One must be up and doing. Avoid indulgence in luxuries because this makes one blunt. 

Value of Time: 

Understanding the value of time is very important. Nothing great can be expected from one who does not understand the value of a minute, for seconds and minutes make an hour, a day, a month, a year and the whole life itself. If the value of a minute is descended deep into our mind and heart, sloth will disappear. 

Idleness: 

Idleness is fatiguing. One must, therefore oneself engage in some useful work like some household chores other than one's main occupation. 

To ward off procrastination, one must plan one's work. Detailed planning is necessary. The entire gamut of work may be divided into fragments and time fixed for completing each fragment will facilitate satisfaction and invigorating. What we must have to do right from the time we get up from bed down to the time we go to bed must be clear to us and we must stick to it religiously.

Prioritization:

One may arrange the array of work in order of priorities. How many things are to be done and in what order of priority they must be taken — once this is planned in advance, then most of the battle is won and we can get out of the habit of procrastinating tasks.

Why Do We Procrastinate?

Reasons for postponing a person may vary. It depends on the individual and the situation-to-situation. However, there are international reasons why people delay their activities and actions. 

One of the most important things is the fear of failure. When a person is slow to perform an important task or is not interested in completing it, the cause may be a deep fear of failure. It is human nature to avoid and fear failure. So by choosing not to complete the task, we can also avoid the consequences.

Another reason is a lack of focus and determination. Feelings of indifference and insecurity can often cause people to lose their will to do their jobs. 

This leads to self-control. Sometimes a lack of goals and objectives is also a reason for a person to lose focus. With no goal in mind, they end up wasting energy on other useless activities.

There are other reasons a person may tolerate it. At times, a person may be a perfectionist. This distracts them from other activities. And then there are other reasons like laziness, low energy levels, easy distractions, etc.

How Can You Stop Procrastination?

Although procrastination is a normal part of life for us, it can be extremely difficult to do so. Procrastination can ruin your life and cause you to lose control of your schedules and deadlines. So when procrastination fades, you need to be in control and in control.

One way to stop procrastinating is to turn a dreadful task into smaller steps. If a task or task is too difficult, we often put it off. But if the work is depleted, then we can deal with it one step at a time without frustration. You can also create a detailed timetable or timeline of some sort to help you with the steps.

Sometimes a change in the work environment can be beneficial. It can give you the energy you need to stop procrastinating and complete the task. If possible, get a friend or parent to check your progress. It helps keep motivation levels up and encourages you to complete the task on time.

The key is not to become too preoccupied with the mundane things of life. We are all victims of procrastination. As long as it doesn't interfere with your entire system, take a break and go back to work!

Short Essay on Procrastination

Procrastination is not a rare thing; nine out of ten people, mostly students, nowadays procrastinate their work until the very last moment and it is also realised that they often feel guilty due to continuous postposing of their important work. The reasons for procrastination vary from person to person and situation to situation.

However, some causes are universal and some may have a particular reason to delay their important actions or tasks. The fear of failure stands on the top and another reason why most people procrastinate is lack of motivation. 

Everyone needs motivation while starting a new task or action, but due to lack of motivation most, people procrastinate due to the hesitation of performing a new activity plus lack of motivation, while some procrastinate due to laziness, lack of interest and unwillingness to perform any work. 

However, the end product of procrastination is always negative, like people start feeling much guilty, less focused, worried about upcoming projects or actions etc. 

In conclusion, it should be stated that procrastination is rooted in many causes, such as numerous distractions, lack of motivation, fear of uncertainty and failure, and perfectionism. At the same time, the result stands the same with infinite consequences such as concern for career, studies, health, and personal qualities. Thus, procrastination prevents a person from rising through the ranks, succeeding in training, and developing a personality.

The major difference between a successful person and an unsuccessful person is that while the former put his decisions promptly into action and reaps the fruits, the latter procrastinates, thereby depriving himself of the fruit.

FAQs on Procrastination Essay

1. What is Procrastination really about?

Postponing or procrastination is the act of delaying or postponing activities until the last minute or beyond the deadline. Some researchers describe procrastination as "a form of self-indulgence that is characterised by unreasonable delays in performance despite negative consequences.

2. Why Are We Here?

We postpone activities that we find "difficult, unpleasant, contradictory or just boring or oppressive." If a task seems overwhelming or raises serious concerns, it is usually very easy to avoid it. Another reason people put things off, says Sirois, is lack of confidence.

3. What Are The 4 Types of Retreat?

They say that there are four main types of archetypes to avoid or procrastinate: the perpetrator, the negligent, the excessive, and the person who seeks new things.

4. Is procrastination a mental illness?

Some people spend a lot of time in the monastery until they can finish important daily tasks. They may have a strong desire to stop procrastination but may feel that they will not be able to do so. Delaying yourself is not a diagnosis of mental health. But yes, less control over your mind is a sign of mental illness.

Solving Procrastination

Procrastination Theories: The Psychological Frameworks for Explaining Procrastination

Procrastination is the act of unnecessarily postponing decisions or actions. For example, if someone delays working on an assignment until right before its deadline for no good reason, despite intending to work on it earlier, that person is procrastinating.

Procrastination is a common phenomenon, which chronically affects approximately 20% of adults and 50% of college students. It’s associated with various issues , like worse academic performance , worse financial status , worse emotional wellbeing, worse mental health, worse physical health, and delay in getting help for issues.

Because of the prevalence and impact of procrastination, researchers have investigated this phenomenon from the perspective of various fields, including psychology, behavioral economics, and neuroscience. This research led to the formulation of many theories about the causes of procrastination , and although there’s no consensus on this yet, there are some dominant theories in the field of procrastination research.

Understanding the theories of procrastination can help avoid procrastination. As such, the following article presents the main theories that are currently used to explain procrastination, and links them to suggestions for reducing procrastination in practice.

Theories of procrastination

There are currently two main academic theories regarding the psychological causes of procrastination:

• Emotion-regulation theory , which states that procrastination occurs when people prioritize their short-term mood over long-term goal achievement and wellbeing, primarily by postponing aversive tasks in order to postpone associated negative emotions .
• Temporal motivation theory , which states that procrastination occurs when people’s motivation is low , which can happen because of some combination of low-value outcomes, low expectations of achieving outcomes, high delay before achieving outcomes, and high sensitivity to the delay of outcomes.

Both theories are supported by substantial research, in the sense that they can explain and predict many cases and aspects of procrastination. However, as shown in the next sections, which elaborate on these theories, both theories are also limited, and have been criticized on various grounds, as neither provides a perfect explanation of procrastination.

Emotion-regulation theory

According to the emotion-regulation theory (sometimes also called the temporal mood-repair theory ), procrastination occurs when people prioritize their short-term mood over long-term goal achievement and wellbeing.

This primarily happens when people postpone a task that they find aversive—because it’s boring, frustrating, confusing, frightening, or unpleasant in some other way—in order to postpone the associated negative emotions , a behavior commonly described as “giving in to feel good” (or mood repair ). However, this can also happen when people postpone tasks to avoid the absence of positive emotions (e.g., if a task isn’t exciting), or to create, increase, or prolong positive emotions (e.g., when a more appealing alternative is available, like digital entertainment ).

The behavior described by this theory is considered to be a maladaptive coping strategy, since it hinders long-term progress, and can paradoxically decrease people’s emotional wellbeing overall. For example, this can happen when someone postpones a task that they’re averse to, and consequently worries about the task at the back of their mind for a long time, while also suffering from added negative emotions (e.g., as guilt and shame ) due to their procrastination.

The emotion-regulation theory aligns with other models of self-regulation and self-control, where hedonistic impulses and desires are pitted against long-term goals . However, it focuses on procrastination as a form of misregulation , where people procrastinate because they mistakenly believe that this will make them feel better, rather than underregulation , where people procrastinate because they fail to exert necessary self-control, though both issues can cause procrastination.

A significant component of the emotion-regulation theory is temporal disjunction , where people feel disconnected from their future self, which leads them to prioritize the desire and needs of their present self. For example, this can involve procrastinating on an important task in order to improve the mood of the present self, while ignoring or downplaying the consequences that the future self will have to deal with because of this.

The emotion-regulation theory captures key aspects of procrastination, and can therefore explain and predict it well in some cases. However, this theory has various limitations, and has been criticized on various grounds, including the following:

• It doesn’t explicitly account for some key causes of procrastination . For example, it doesn’t account for how hyperbolic discounting of future outcomes can influence motivation, which is a core aspect of the competing temporal motivation theory ( although the emotion-regulation theory does consider the role of the associated temporal disjunction).
• It doesn’t adequately explain certain patterns of procrastination. For example, it doesn’t explain cases where people procrastinate despite being well-aware that this makes the present self feel worse in the short-term, due to negative emotions like guilt and shame.
• It illustrates the role of self-control in a problematic way. By explaining procrastination as a form of misregulation rather than underregulation, emotion-regulation theory provides a problematic description of the crucial role of self-control and associated concepts (e.g., willpower, self-discipline, and impulsivity) in procrastination. For example, two key proponents of this theory state the following in a paper about it “…we do not procrastinate because we are impulsive or lack self-discipline, we procrastinate because we are using task avoidance as means to regulate our emotions. Certainly individuals who are more impulsive or who have less self-discipline may give in to this desire for short-term mood repair through procrastination more easily or more frequently, but it is procrastination’s function as an emotion-regulation strategy that best explains why we procrastinate.” Although the proponents of this theory do acknowledge the importance of self-control here and elsewhere , it is misleading to say that “we do not procrastinate because we are impulsive or lack self-discipline”, since even though the low self-control isn’t what necessarily drives people to procrastinate, it is, in practice, a reason why they do so. For example, all things being equal, if two people are faced with the same temptation to procrastinate due to a tempting alternative, and only one of them procrastinates because they have lower self-control and therefore struggle to resist this temptation, then it’s misleading to say that they didn’t procrastinate because of their lower self-control, even if what drove them to procrastinate is emotion regulation. From a practical perspective, this can also lead to misunderstandings, where people assume that procrastination has nothing to do with self-control at all, despite the crucial association between them .
• It minimizes the role of other important factors, or accounts for them in an unclear way. Notably, due to the way the role of self-control is described in this theory, as outlined above, this theory doesn’t provide a sufficiently explicit discussion of factors that can increase the likelihood of procrastination by reducing people’s ability to exert self-control. This includes, for example, situational factors, like lack of sleep and a distracting work environment. Such factors are crucial to consider, since they can plan a key role in explaining why people procrastinate in practice. For example, they can explain why a person might procrastinate in some cases but not in others (e.g., due to being exhausted, and consequently having less self-control), despite having a consistent drive in terms of emotion regulation.

Temporal motivation theory

According to the temporal motivation theory (TMT), procrastination occurs when people have low motivation to engage in a task .

Under TMT, people’s motivation (or the utility of a given task/choice, meaning how desirable it is to an individual) is captured through an equation (sometimes called the procrastination equation ). There, motivation is equal to the value of an outcome times its expectancy (i.e., how much the person expects to achieve it), which are divided by the delay of the outcome times the person’s sensitivity to delay (sometimes described as impulsiveness ). In addition, a constant of “1” can be added to the denominator of the TMT equation (i.e., to the part with delay and sensitivity to delay), to prevent motivation from approaching infinity as the remaining delay approaches zero.

Based on this theory and equation, people’s motivation increases the more they value an outcome and the more they expect to achieve it. Conversely, people’s motivation decreases the greater the delay before they will achieve the outcome and the more sensitive they are to delay. This means that people prefer their rewards (i.e., positive outcomes) to be large, likely, and close in time, and their punishments (i.e., negative outcomes), to be small, unlikely, and distant in time.

The components of the TMT equation are themselves influenced by various underlying variables. For example, value can be influenced by need for achievement, expectancy can be influenced by self-efficacy , and sensitivity to delay can be influenced by distractibility. TMT as a whole is described as a meta-theory, which is designed to integrate various other theories of motivation, including hyperbolic discounting, expectancy theory, cumulative prospect theory, and need theory.

TMT captures key aspects of procrastination, and can therefore explain and predict it well in some cases. However, this theory has various limitations, and has been criticized on various grounds, including the following:

• It assumes that procrastination is driven by rational calculation. As one researcher states: “Rational models [such as TMT] assume that procrastinators use rational calculation, but with irrational or inaccurate input (e.g., value, expectancy) to justify their motivation for their irrational delay… Considering the repeated experience of extremely negative emotions, and the negative perception of their procrastinating behaviours… it can be argued that many procrastinating individuals should reach a point where they are not able to calculate the reoccurrence of their postponement as subjectively rational. That is, if there is no doubt that procrastination is such a self-defeating problem and procrastinators are equipped innately with a rational and mental TMT equation, they ultimately should be motivated and able to choose not to engage in problematic delay. Given the fact that many procrastinators continue their self-destructive behaviour for years, we may then need to question the application of TMT equation in this population.”
• It minimizes the role of unconscious processes, such as emotion.  As one researcher states: “TMT is limited mainly to voluntarily conscious processes of decision making and excludes many possible parallel, interrelated and unconscious processes, particularly emotion. Although some of the components of the model are considered to be subjective (value, expectancy) or conceptualized as predispositions (sensitivity to delay) and therefore susceptible to influence by implicit and explicit processes, the model does not differentiate the effect of these processes. For example, it can be argued that the model does not address clearly whether perceived values and expectancy or actual—and in some cases implicit—values and expectancy should be included in the equation.” This can lead to various issues, like predicting that someone will take action based on TMT’s mental calculator, whereas in reality, this person will procrastinate due to automatic involuntary emotional inhibition in the face of an aversive task, without the activation TMT’s rationalistic calculator.
• It minimizes the role of irrational beliefs. For example, proponents of TMT often argue that irrational beliefs, like perfectionism, have a weak to non-existent association with procrastination, and can even protect against it. However, this view has been criticized on various grounds; for example in the case of perfectionism , researchers have pointed out that this is true only for some aspects of perfectionism, and have pointed out various issues with the research used to make the original claims against the role of irrational beliefs.
• It minimizes the role of other important factors, or accounts for them in an unclear way. For example, TMT has been criticized for failing to properly account for environmental factors , which play an important role in determining motivation, and for various metacognitive processes . In addition, although proponents of TMT state that it incorporates task aversiveness under the value component (as more aversive tasks have lower value), TMT has been criticized for not explicitly accounting for task aversion. Furthermore, there are conceptual issues with nesting task aversiveness under outcome value, since finding a task to be aversive (i.e., unpleasant ) doesn’t necessarily influence the perception of the value of the outcome associated with that task. Similarly, a related issue is that impulsiveness is sometimes used as an alternative name for sensitivity to delay , but is also sometimes described as one of the factors that influence sensitivity to delay (e.g., together with distractibility and lack of self-control). This also raises a related issue, which is that self-control and similar factors may play a role in determining people’s behavior even outside the context of sensitivity to delay.
• It involves other oversimplifying assumptions, which only apply in certain constrained settings. For example, the application of TMT is sometimes based on the assumption of fixed utility for background temptations, which may not accurately reflect reality (i.e., people might assign different values to tempting activities, like socializing , at different times). Similarly, applications of TMT often implicitly assume that the deadline of a task corresponds to the time point when the reward for it is received, but that’s not necessarily the case. For instance, TMT assumes that a student who’s interested in good grades will be able to overcome their procrastination and start writing an essay shortly before its deadline due to decreased discounting of the associated reward, but it may be the case that the grades will only be given weeks or months later, in which case there will still likely be substantial discounting of the reward by the deadline of its associated task.
• It focuses on motivation, rather than procrastination. While motivation plays an important role in self-regulation (and consequently in procrastination), it’s only one of several factors that affect it. This leads to issues, such as that TMT fails to properly explain cases where people feel highly motivated to take action, but still procrastinate. In addition, this involves conceptual issues, such as incorporating self-control as a factor influencing motivation (under the sensitivity to delay component), while self-control plays a role in determining people’s actions—and their procrastination— not just by influencing their motivation.

Extending the theories of procrastination

Because of the issues with the current theories of procrastination, attempts have been made to develop new theories that will be better able to explain all the causes of procrastination .

For example, one such theory is the temporal decision model , which attempts to integrate the emotion-regulation theory and TMT, by adding an explicit task-aversiveness component to the TMT equation, and considering the interplay of self-control, emotion regulation, and motivation in procrastination. This model operationalizes procrastination (or lack thereof) as the result of repeatedly choosing between to do  something or to avoid it as time passes, by comparing the strength of the motivation to act and the motivation to avoid at any given time point. Under this model :

“…the motivation to avoid a task stems from perceived task aversiveness, and would decrease when the task is scheduled further away temporally because perceived task aversiveness would be discounted more by the increase of time delay. In contrast, the motivation to act arises from the delayed incentives the task can yield, and would increase when the task is postponed from now to the future because the effects of delayed outcomes (incentives) are less discounted when the task is closer to the time of outcome delivery. Consequently, people choose to avoid an aversive task in the near future because the strength of motivation to avoid is stronger than the motivation to act, whereas they plan to engage in the task in the distant future because the strength of motivation to avoid would be overtaken by the motivation to act in the distant future (i.e., procrastination).”

However, this model still involves most of the issues associated with TMT, such as assuming that procrastination is driven by rational calculation. Furthermore, it involves other issues, such as incorporating  task aversiveness explicitly in a new component, while relying on the TMT framework where task aversiveness is incorporated implicitly under the value component.

In addition, other theories, such as the metacognitive model of procrastination , have been proposed in an attempt to explain procrastination, each with its own focus, strengths, and limitations. These theories sometimes differ in terms of their goals. These pertain not only to the ability of such theories to explain procrastination, but also to their practical value, for example in terms of how simple they are , and consequently how easily they can be used to guide procrastination interventions.

Finally, there are also theories that aren’t focused on explaining procrastination, but may nevertheless explain certain aspects of it. For example, this includes construal-level theory , which can explain why people are less likely to procrastinate on concrete (rather than abstract) tasks, and self-determination theory , which can explain why people are less likely to procrastinate on something that they’re autonomously motivated to do.

The complexity of procrastination

A key issue that makes it hard to develop a comprehensive theory of procrastination is the complexity of this phenomenon . This complexity is due to factors like the diverse causes of procrastination , types of procrastination , and types of procrastinators ,

Furthermore, this complexity is compounded by additional factors. For example, this includes disagreement over what types of procrastination exist , as well as the multifaceted nature of many potential causes of procrastination, like perfectionism , some facets of which increase procrastination, some of which decrease it, and some of which have no substantial effect on it.

Nevertheless, the following are the key traits that generally characterize procrastination , which theories of procrastination should be able to explain:

• It involves an unnecessary delay.
• The delay generally leads to predictably negative outcomes , in terms of factors like the procrastinator’s performance or emotional wellbeing.
• The delay is often—but not always—unintentional, meaning that it occurs despite the procrastinator’s intent to do things earlier.

Practical approach to reducing procrastination

From a practical perspective, if your goal is to reduce procrastination in yourself and others, the key is to implement appropriate anti-procrastination techniques , preferably after identifying the causes of the procrastination in question. In doing so, you can use the theories of procrastination to help identify some of these causes, while keeping in mind the caveats about these theories.

Procrastination Essay for Students and Children

500+ words on procrastination essay.

Have you ever put off your homework till the last minute? Or perhaps studied for the test only a day before? Maybe delayed writing an essay till the last possible hour? All of us are guilty of delaying tasks and putting off important work until a later date.  This is essentially procrastinating. It is the action of purposefully delaying any task or activity. In this procrastination essay, we will see the reasons and the solutions to this problem.

As we will see in this procrastination essay, this is not a rare phenomenon. Almost everyone is guilty of it at some point in their lives. So we ask ourselves this question – why do people procrastinate even when they are so busy most of the time? We live in the 21st century, where time is our most precious commodity. And yet, we waste this precious resource procrastinating our time away.

Why do we Procrastinate?

The reasons for a person procrastinating can be varied. It depends on person-to-person and situation-to-situation. However, there are some universal reasons that cause people to delay their tasks and actions. One of the most important ones is the fear of failure. When a person delays doing an important task or is disinterested in finishing it, the cause could be a deep-rooted fear of failure. It is in human nature to avoid and fear failure. So by choosing to never finish the task, we can avoid the consequences as well.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Another reason is the lack of focus and determination. Feeling directionless and unfocused can often cause people to lose their wills to do their jobs. This leads to procrastination. Sometimes the lack of goals and objectives is also the reason a person loses their focus. Since they do not have an end-goal in mind, they end up wasting energy in other useless tasks.

There are other reasons a person may procrastinate. Sometimes, a person may be too much of a perfectionist. This distracts them from other tasks. And then there are other reasons like laziness, low energy levels, easy distractions, etc.

Read 10 Ways to Stop Procrastinating here.

How to Stop Procrastinating?

While procrastinating is a very natural fault we all share, if it gets out of hand it can get quite troublesome. Excessive procrastination can disrupt your life and cause you to lose control of your schedules and deadlines. So when the procrastination gets out of hand, you need to reign it in and get back in control.

One way to stop procrastinating is to break down the dreaded task into little steps. If the work or the task is too overwhelming, we tend to procrastinate about it. But if the job is broken down, then we can tackle one step at a time without being overwhelmed. You can also create a detailed timetable or a timeline of some sort to help you with the steps.

At other times changing your work environment may be beneficial. It can provide you with the boost necessary to stop procrastinating and finish the task. If possible get a friend or a parent to keep a check on your progress. It helps keep the motivation levels up and encourages you to finish the task on time.

The main concern is not to over-focus or blame yourself for procrastinating sometimes. We are all a victim to procrastination from time-to-time. As long as it does not derail your entire schedule, give yourself a break and just get back to work!

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