research project page numbers

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Dissertation & Thesis Preparation

Formatting Requirements

Page layout, margins and numbering.

Your scholarly approach may call for a different presentational method. These are the requirements and recommendations for text-based theses.

For a text-based thesis, or the text portions of a thesis, the page size must be 8.5" x 11", and the text must be in a single, page-wide column. Do not use two or more columns in your thesis.

The text of the thesis is written in paragraph form.

the first line of each paragraph should be indented, OR
there should be a larger space between paragraphs than there is between lines.

Each chapter should generally start at the top of a new page.

Left: 1.25 inches (32 mm) is recommended if you intend to bind copies of your thesis; 1 inch minimum.

Right, top, and bottom: 1 inch recommended; 0.75 inches (19 mm) minimum

Page Numbering

Preliminary pages:.

must be numbered in lower case Roman numerals (ii, iii, iv, etc.)
the title page is "i" but this number must not appear on the page
numbering begins at "ii" on the committee page
the first page of the abstract is page iii

Body of thesis:

must be numbered in Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.)
the first page of the text is "1"
subsequent pages are numbered continuously throughout, including pages with tables and figures, bibliographies, appendices, and index

Whole thesis:

every page except the title page must have a number on it
there must be no blank pages in the thesis.

Page numberS:

must be placed at least .5 inches (12 mm) from the edge of the page
may be either in the lower centre or on the top or lower right of the page, when the page is viewed in portrait view. Lower right is preferred.

Landscape Pages

Landscape pages must be orientated in your PDF so that they are readable without rotation. You do not need to change the location or orientation of the page number, but may if you wish.

Facing Pages

Facing pages are not acceptable; you must use one-sided layout and pagination. If the caption for a figure, table, etc., cannot appear on the same page as its accompanying illustration, place the illustration on a separate page after the caption.

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Honors Guidelines: Page Numbering/Thesis Organization

General Submission Guidelines/Approvals
Page Numbering/Thesis Organization
Support and Questions

Page Numbering Tips

There is no prescribed page numbering style for all honors project. We only ask that you do not print the page number on the title page. The easiest way to format page numbers for different sections, for example using roman and arabic numbers, is to create section breaks in your document. Instructions for Word users. . If you have difficulty with the page numbering appearing as would like, please do not hesitate to con tact us for help .

You may use the formatting style recommended by your discipline's style manual, or whatever style is acceptable to your advisor and department . (For a list of print & online style manuals, see Style and Citation Guides, by Title or Subject .)

You may also wish to view theses submitted by others in your department in previous years to get some ideas for formatting.

Below is an example of the order of pages, and the Roman or Arabic page numbering, as recommended in one of the style guides, Turabian’s A Manual for Writers of Research papers, Theses, and Dissertations: Chicago Style for Students and Researchers, 8 th ed.

Not every thesis will contain all the parts listed below:

1. Front Matter (preliminary pages): use lower-case Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv, etc.) in this order:

Title Page (required): counts as page i, but the number is not printed on the page . Title Page is not listed in the Table of Contents.

Dedication; Epigraph (both optional): these count in sequence of Roman numerals, but the number is not printed on the page. These are not listed in the Table of Contents.

Table of Contents (required for all papers divided into chapters; recommended for all) Your Table of Contents would list all items shown below, IF your thesis includes them. (See Chicago Manual of Style for more about Tables of Content )

List of Figures, Tables, or Illustrations (optional, but recommended if appropriate): should be listed in Table of Contents

Preface; Acknowledgments; List of Abbreviations or Glossary; Abstract (all optional): should be listed in Table of Contents

2. Text: includes everything between the front matter and the back matter; begins a new numbering sequence, using Arabic numerals. (Introduction, chapters and/or major sections typically are listed in the Table of Contents.)

Introduction (optional): if included, this is page 1.

Chapters or Sections : if no Introduction, Chapter 1 would be page 1. Begin each new chapter on a new page. Continue sequence of Arabic numbering.

3. Back Matter: continues numbering with Arabic numerals. (List these parts in the Table of Contents.)

Illustrations (optional)

Appendixes (optional): this is where you could put black & white copies of color images from the body of the text.

Endnotes, Bibliography, or Reference List (required in most papers): One of these lists will be the final section of the paper.

If you have difficulty with the page numbering appearing as would like, please do not hesitate to con tact us for help.

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Next: Support and Questions >>
Last Updated: Apr 3, 2024 9:07 AM
URL: https://bowdoin.libguides.com/honors

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University of Michigan Library
Research Guides

Microsoft Word for Dissertations

Page Numbers
Introduction, Template, & Resources
Formatting for All Readers
Applying a Style
Modifying a Style
Setting up a Heading 1 Example
Images, Charts, Other Objects
Footnotes, Endnotes, & Citations
Cross-References
Appendix Figures & Tables
Table of Contents
List of Figures/Tables
Chapter and Section Numbering
Landscape Pages
Combining Chapter Files
Commenting and Reviewing
The Two-inch Top Margin
Troubleshooting
Finalizing Without Styles
Preparing Your Final Document

Page Contents

If you're having problems with page numbers restarting at 1 for some chapters, see our Troubleshooting section .

This page will inform you about page numbers, including:

Adding page numbers general information
Using sections to control page numbering
Breaking the connection between sections
Adding the page numbers

Adding Page Numbers

Again, please remember that our template (available on the Main Page of this Guide ) has all of this already built in.

Page Numbers are placed in the footer of your document, which is a shared space among all your pages. Anything you put in the footer will appear on all pages of your document, though you can also control the style or number scheme with the use of Sections. This is how we get small Roman numerals in the front matter, and Arabic numerals in the rest of the document, for example.

You edit the headers and footers by double clicking in the space in which they appear on the document. When you are finished editing, you can get back to the rest of your document by clicking the Close Header and Footer button in the Header Design Ribbon.

Microsoft Word provides you with the option of selecting a numbering style (e.g. “Roman Numeral”, “Arabic”) and gives you the option of selecting the “starting at” number. You can set the page numbers for your entire document, or if you need more control, you can do it section-by-section as well.

If you want continuous pagination that is all in the same format, go to the Insert Ribbon, and in the Header & Footer Group , click on the Page Number icon. Choose the appropriate placement of the number and a style.

If you are writing a Rackham dissertation, you have somewhat more complicated pagination. For example, Rackham’s guidelines require that the page numbers begin on the third or fourth page of your document (depending on if you include a graphical frontispiece) and the page number on that page should be Roman numeral “ii”. Page numbering should continue on in Roman numerals until the first page of Chapter 1 is reached. At that point, the numbering should restart in Arabic (“1, 2, 3…”). Rackham requires that all of your page numbers be placed at the bottom center of your pages.

View this video (despite the Word 2010 references, it's still accurate), or read below on how to achieve this.

Step 1: Using Sections to Control Page Numbering

Using Sections to Control Page Numbering

The following instructions demonstrate numbering a dissertation document according to Rackham’s guidelines. These steps assume you are including a title page, a copyright page, dedication and acknowledgements and other front matter, and then the body of your dissertation.

Put your cursor before the first letter of “Dedication” or whatever is the first thing that comes after your copyright page.
On the Page Layout Ribbon, in the Page Setup Group , click on the arrow next to the Breaks icon () and select Next Page under the Section Breaks section.
If you turn on the paragraph markers, you should now see a section break on the previous page.
Put your cursor before the first letter of your first chapter and repeat steps 2 and 3.

You have just separated your dissertation into sections. If you want to see what section you are working in, on the left end of Status Bar (at the bottom of your Word document), Word tells you what page you are on, how many words are in your document, which section you are in, and so on.

If you don’t see the section information, right-click on the Status Bar, and select Section in the menu that appears.

Step 2: Breaking the Connection Between Sections

Breaking the Connection Between Sections

By default, the headers and footers of each section are connected to those of the sections before and after it. Therefore, if you want different page number styles to vary from one section to the next (such as Roman or Arabic), you’ll need to break the connection between the sections. Particularly with landscaped pages, it is often helpful to break the connection in the header as well as in the footer.

Put your cursor on the first page that needs the Roman numeral.
On the Insert Ribbon, in the Header & Footer Group , click on the arrow under the Footer icon and select Edit Footer .
You should now be in the footer of that page; in the Header & Footer Tools Design Ribbon , in the Navigation Group , unlink this section’s footer from previous sections’ footer by clicking the highlighted Link to Previous icon.
Put your cursor in the header area, and again click the highlighted Link to Previous icon.
Scroll down to the first page of the body of your dissertation (the chapters), make sure your cursor is in the footer, and click the highlighted Link to Previous icon again.

You have now successfully unlinked footers of these sections. Any page numbers you put in the body of your document will not affect the page numbering of your front matter, and vice versa.

1.4: Running Head and Page Numbers

Published: 2022
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"Running Head and Page Numbers", MLA Handbook

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Number all pages consecutively throughout the research paper in the upper right-hand corner, half an inch from the top and flush with the right margin. Type your surname, followed by a space, before the page number ( fig. 1.3 ). If a project has several authors and all authors’ surnames do not fit in a running head, include only the page number. Do not use the abbreviation “p.” before the page number or add a period, a hyphen, or any other mark or symbol. Your word processing program will probably allow you to create a running head of this kind that appears automatically on every page. If your paper is only one page, you may not need to include a page number.

A phrase present at the top of the page is shown. The start of the phrase is spaced one inch from the margin on the left and the phrase is spaced one inch from the top of the margin. The page number is spaced half-inch from the top.

The running head of a research paper.

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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / APA Format / How to format APA page numbers

How to format APA page numbers

In an APA style paper, page numbers generally appear in three places:

On every page in the upper right corner (pagination for the paper)
APA in-text citations
The reference list

Let’s review all three.

1. Pagination for the paper

Every page written in APA style needs to have the page number listed at the top right corner of the paper . It also needs to appear on every page. It should also appear on the title page of the paper, as well as every page of the appendices, footnotes, and other supplemental sections.

The page number should be in the same font and size as the rest of your paper. APA provides different font point sizes depending on the font. For example, 12-point for Times New Roman or 11-point for Arial.

To summarize, your APA page number needs to be:

At the top of every page (including the title page, body, appendices, etc.)
Placed in the header
Flush against the right margin
In the same font and size as the rest of your paper

It’s recommended that you use autogenerated page numbers in the “header” section of your paper. These features are available in most popular word processors.

2. In-text citations

APA style, page number are recommended (but optional) for paraphrasing, and required for direct quotations from sources with page numbers. When citing a website in APA , or other sources without page numbers, you can use paragraph numbers to mark the quote’s location instead.

In-text citation structure and example for one page:

Text (Author Last Name, Year Published, p. #)

“And in our heart—strange are the ways of evil!—in our heart there is the first peace we have known in twenty years.” (Rand, 2019, p. 32)

In-text citation structure and example for a page range:

Text (Author Last Name, Year Published, pp. #-#)

“It is not good to be different from our brothers, but it is evil to be superior to them” (Rand, 2019, pp. 12-13)

Reference list entry for both examples:

Rand, A. (2019). Anthem . Project Gutenberg. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1250 (Original work published in 1938)

Notice that unlike the in-text citations, the example reference list entry does NOT include page numbers. Whether a reference includes page numbers is not dependent on the in-text citation; it depends on the source type.

3. Reference list

Page numbers are only included in reference list entries when the following happens:

The source has page numbers.
The cited source is a smaller, complete work within a bigger work.

Common example sources:

A journal article (smaller work) from a journal (bigger work)
A newspaper article (smaller work) that was printed in a newspaper (bigger work)
A magazine article (smaller work) in a printed magazine (bigger work)
A chapter (smaller work) in an edited book (bigger work) where each chapter has a different author

Periodical/Article page numbers

Articles in periodicals (e.g., journals, newspapers, magazines, etc.) include page numbers in their references. The page number or page number range are formatted as the following:

Template and examples:

Notice that unlike in-text citations, there is no “p.” or “pp.” preceding the page numbers.

Example reference (journal article):

Gunn, R., Whear, R., & Douglas, L. (2012, June). A second recent canine burial from the Arnhem Land Plateau. Australian Archaeology , (74), 103-105. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23621527

Chapter in an edited book page numbers

Similar to in-text citations, page numbers are indicated by “p. #” or “pp. #-#” in the reference.

Example reference (chapter in an edited book):

Lisi, G. (2012). Uncalculated risk. In J. Brockman (Ed.), This will make you smarter (pp. 68-73). Harper Perennial.

Published October 28, 2020.

APA Formatting Guide

APA Formatting

Annotated Bibliography
Block Quotes
et al Usage
In-text Citations
Multiple Authors
Paraphrasing
Page Numbers
Parenthetical Citations
Reference Page
Sample Paper
APA 7 Updates
View APA Guide

Citation Examples

Book Chapter
Journal Article
Magazine Article
Newspaper Article
Website (no author)
View all APA Examples

You need not include page numbers in in-text citations unless you want to cite a particular page or page ranges of the source being cited. In such cases, you need to include the page information after the publication year.

If you want to cite a direct quotation, you do need to include the page information. To indicate you are quoting directly from a single page, use the abbreviation “p.” To indicate you are quoting from a continuous page range, use the abbreviation “pp.” and use an en dash between the page range (e.g., pp. 1-2). If the pages are discontinuous, use “pp.” but separate the page numbers with a comma, not an en dash (e.g., pp. 1, 3).

Below are examples of how to include page numbers in in-text citations when using direct quotations:

Narrative:

Jones (1999) states, “It is important to study all children” (p. 47).

Neer et al. (2014) agree with his argument that “the behavior of working women changes drastically” (pp. 47, 49).

Blake and Garger (2002) assert “Humans fight for rights” (pp. 32–34).

Parenthetical:

The study performed in Alaska showed that “it is important to study all children” (Jones, 1999, p. 47).

According to the study, “The behavior of working women changes drastically” (Neer et al., 2014, pp. 47, 49).

“Humans fight for rights,” says the study (Blake & Garger, 2002, pp. 32–34).

The abbreviation “p.” refers to a single page, and “pp.” denotes multiple pages. When you want to cite a single page, use “p.” You can use “pp.” if you want to include a page range (e.g., pp. 45–57) or multiple pages that are not in a range (e.g., pp. 37, 39).

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Q. How do I number pages differently in the various sections of my thesis or dissertation?

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Answered By: Jeff Beuck Last Updated: Apr 03, 2020 Views: 1366850

See Also: How do I add page numbers in Microsoft Word?

To use different page numbering schemes in different sections of your Word document, there are two tricks: 1) you must include a "Section Break - Next page" between each section of your document where the numbering will change, and 2) you must "unlink" each section's footer from the one before it.

To start, temporarily turn on the viewing of hidden formatting symbols by clicking the "Show/Hide" symbol on the "Home" tab in the "Paragraph" box -- this will enable you to see the Section Breaks between sections of your document.

One of the required page numbering changes for your thesis or dissertation is that you need to use Roman numerals (e.g., "i, ii, iii") for your introductory sections (Abstract, Table of Contents), and then switch to Arabic numerals (e.g., "1, 2, 3") and begin the page numbering at "1" at the start of Chapter I of your main text.

If you do not already have a "Section Break" between these two sections of your document, you will need to add one. Place your cursor at the very end of the text in the first section (after your Table of Contents and any Lists of Tables and Figures), being careful NOT to place it in the footer where the page number is (if the text above becomes grayed out, you are in the footer – try clicking higher).

Add a "Section Break – Next Page" by selecting the "Page Layout" tab on the menu, clicking the arrow next to "Breaks", and selecting "Next Page" under Section Breaks.

After doing this, you should see a "Section Break (Next Page)" code inserted into your document. This tells Word that the next page begins a new section which may have a different header or footer.

Go down to the next page below the section break (in this example, the first page of Chapter I), and click on the page number in the Footer. If your cursor is in the Footer, you should see "Footer -Section [#]-" to the left, and "Same as Previous" on the right.

You should also see a new tab appear on the menu, labeled "Header & Footer Tools: Design". Select this. (Be careful not to confuse this with another tab labeled "Design" between the "Insert" and "Page Layout" tabs.) In the "Navigation" section of this tab, you will see a highlighted button labeled "Link to Previous" which tells Word to link the footer in this section to the previous section and to continue its page numbering scheme. Click the "Link to Previous" button to UNSELECT it.

After clicking this, the "Link to Previous" button should no longer be highlighted. The "Same as Previous" box to the right of your footer should also disappear.

Confirm your cursor is still next to the page number in the Footer, then go back to the Header & Footer Tools – Design tab on the menu, and in the "Header & Footer" section, select Page Number > Format Page Numbers.

The "Page Number Format" window will appear. Select the appropriate "Number format" for this section ("1, 2, 3," or "i, ii, iii", etc.), and tell Word whether to continue the page numbering from the previous section or to start at "1" or another number. In this example, we want Section 2 (which begins at Chapter I and contains the main text of our thesis or dissertation) to use Arabic numerals and to start numbering this section from page 1. Click "OK" to finish.

You will notice that the page numbering for the current section has now been corrected, and if you unlinked it properly from the previous sections, the numbering in those sections should remain as it was before.

Next, you will need to change the page number format to lower-case Roman numerals (i.e., "i, ii, iii, ...") for the section with your Abstract and Table of Contents. Click your cursor on the footer of your Abstract or Table of Contents page.

Open the "Format Page Numbers" window by going to the Header & Footer Tools – Design tab on the menu, and in the "Header & Footer" section, select Page Number > Format Page Numbers.

Next to "Number format", select the "i, ii, iii, ..." option for lower-case Roman numerals, then click "OK".

The page numbering for the section with your Abstract and Table of Contents should change to lower-case Roman numerals. As long as you correctly unlinked the following section from this one, the page numbering in the following section, the main body of your text, should remain Arabic numerals starting with 1.

You will also need to remove page numbers completely from the title page and other preliminary pages of your thesis or dissertation. To do this, you will use the same method as above, but delete the page numbers from the first section of your document.

Place your cursor at the very end of the last page which will not be numbered (probably your approval page, dedication, or acknowledgment), being careful NOT to place it in the footer where the page number is (if the text above becomes grayed out, you are in the footer – try clicking higher).

After doing this, you should see a "Section Break (Next Page)" code inserted into your document on the page before your Abstract.

Go down to the next page below the section break (in this example, the Abstract), and click on the page number in the Footer. If your cursor is in the Footer, you should see "Footer -Section [#]-" to the left, and "Same as Previous" on the right. Be sure you are not in Section 1 of your document.

On the main menu, select the "Header & Footer Tools: Design" tab, then in the "Navigation" section of this tab, click the "Link to Previous" button if it is highlighted to UNSELECT it and unlink this section from the section above. This will allow you to modify the page number in the first section without affecting this or subsequent sections.

Return to your Title Page (or any page in Section 1 which will not be numbered) and click on the page number in the footer. Click-and-drag your cursor over the page number to select it.

Click the "Delete" key on your keyboard to delete the page number from this section. As long as you removed the "Link to Previous" connection from the next section, you should the page number disappear from the first section, but remain in the following sections.

If your paper includes additional sections (for example, if your Approval Page was added as a separate section from your Title page), you may have to experiment with linking and unlinking sections from each other -- unlink a section if its page numbering will be different from the one before it, but link together any sections where the page numbering will continue from the one before it. It is generally a good idea to start with the last section of your document and work your way backwards.

When you are finished, don't forget that you can hide the formatting symbols to make it easier to view your text by turning off the "Show/Hide" symbol on the "Home" tab in the "Paragraph" box.

Footer Sections and page numbering can be very complex, especially if your document has multiple sections. If you need additional assistance getting your page numbering correct, contact Jeff Beuck at 216-523-7486 to set up an appointment.

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Can we also change the total number of pages? I tried using this and it does restart the page number but the total number of pages do not change. by Mayur on Jul 13, 2022
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Thank you so much. I struggled with this numbering on my previous degree, now I know. I am already applying the knowledge gained on my current thesis. Many thanks indeed! by Edmore on Mar 30, 2023
it is very supportive and interesting ! by Andualem on Apr 01, 2023
thank you by onyango on Apr 03, 2023
Wow, this is exactly what I needed to number the pages of my dissertation. Amazingly clear instructions, thank you so much! by Jac on Apr 12, 2023
Thank You Very Much😊 by Hardik on Apr 19, 2023
Wow, I followed step by step and made it👍👍 Thanks for this information by Sseguya on Apr 21, 2023
To the person who created this how-to guide, THANK YOU. This was perfect in every way. Thank you so much for making this available to us all. by supermegstar on Apr 23, 2023
This is great for section numbering, for which I've added to the bottom of the page. Now, is it possible to add an overall document page number to the top of the page? Essentially, have two different page numbering systems in the same document. by Abbi on Apr 26, 2023
Super helpful and saved so much time troubleshooting! I went through every step exactly and was able to finally get it! by Haley Cari on May 12, 2023
Amazingly well explained...You have saved me a great amount of time dealing with page numbers writting my thesis... Thank you! by MS on May 14, 2023
it is indeed helpful to me. I was about to pay for it to be done for me. I was reluctant to give out my work to an external person to avoid data misplacement. Thank you a million. by Adeduntan on May 20, 2023
Thanks a lot. Best concise guide! by Stan on May 27, 2023
Finally, with these instructions, I did it. Thanks by Bernice-kay on May 28, 2023
Very helpful info! I'm grateful by Praise on May 31, 2023
Thanks so much. I spent my time watching a YouTube but it did not work. Just two clicks and it's done. Thanks again by VANEN on Jun 06, 2023
Amazing!! Thanks Jeff Beuck, this is very helpful. by Sine on Jun 07, 2023
thank you so much by Lillian on Jun 11, 2023
Starting a new format of paging after the preface was daunting. I tried for a long time to have it done until after got How to do pages differently in the previous section on Ask library. by Loding Joseph on Jun 12, 2023
Thank you so much for this! It was easy to follow and exactly what I needed 😍 by Kate on Jun 13, 2023
This is very good article. I followed the steps and succeeded 100% Thank you very much by Nakudo on Jun 18, 2023
Just awesome writing. Its essential for all researches. by Khanom Popy on Jun 19, 2023
Thank you very much! This was of such tremendous help while formatting my dissertation. by ts on Jun 26, 2023
Thank you so much, you saved my life with this write-up... by Nosa on Jun 28, 2023
very helpful thankyou so much by Mrs G on Jun 29, 2023
Thank you so much for your online lessen. It is very easy to understand the way you presented. I used it at the time when I badly needed it. Nice and supportive material. by Eyob Getachew on Jul 02, 2023
its working thank you very much. by aizak on Jul 04, 2023
You, my man, are a lifesaver. Thank you so much for this. I needed this like yesterday and all other tutorials are just not working for me for some reason. Thank you and I hope you have a nice day or night wherever you are in the world. by Cw on Jul 11, 2023
Thank you 😊, was a relief indeed. Perfect and comprehensive instructions. by Nana Akomea on Jul 29, 2023
This was really helpful. Thank you so much by Divine Yancho on Aug 02, 2023
This saves me from materials I've searched for decates. I really appreciate. by Mohammed Amin on Aug 12, 2023
Thank you so much for the valuable tutorial! by Basil on Aug 16, 2023

Table of Contents – Types, Formats, Examples

Table of Contents

Definition:

Table of contents (TOC) is a list of the headings or sections in a document or book, arranged in the order in which they appear. It serves as a roadmap or guide to the contents of the document, allowing readers to quickly find specific information they are looking for.

A typical table of contents includes chapter titles, section headings, subheadings, and their corresponding page numbers.

The table of contents is usually located at the beginning of the document or book, after the title page and any front matter, such as a preface or introduction.

Table of Contents in Research

In Research, A Table of Contents (TOC) is a structured list of the main sections or chapters of a research paper , Thesis and Dissertation . It provides readers with an overview of the organization and structure of the document, allowing them to quickly locate specific information and navigate through the document.

Importance of Table of Contents

Here are some reasons why a TOC is important:

Navigation : It serves as a roadmap that helps readers navigate the document easily. By providing a clear and concise overview of the contents, readers can quickly locate the section they need to read without having to search through the entire document.
Organization : A well-structured TOC reflects the organization of the document. It helps to organize the content logically and categorize it into easily digestible chunks, which makes it easier for readers to understand and follow.
Clarity : It can help to clarify the document’s purpose, scope, and structure. It provides an overview of the document’s main topics and subtopics, which can help readers to understand the content’s overall message.
Efficiency : This can save readers time and effort by allowing them to skip to the section they need to read, rather than having to go through the entire document.
Professionalism : Including a Table of Contents in a document shows that the author has taken the time and effort to organize the content properly. It adds a level of professionalism and credibility to the document.

Types of Table of Contents

There are different types of table of contents depending on the purpose and structure of the document. Here are some examples:

Simple Table of Contents

This is a basic table of contents that lists the major sections or chapters of a document along with their corresponding page numbers.

Example: Table of Contents

I. Introduction …………………………………………. 1

II. Literature Review ………………………………… 3

III. Methodology ……………………………………… 6

IV. Results …………………………………………….. 9

V. Discussion …………………………………………. 12

VI. Conclusion ……………………………………….. 15

Expanded Table of Contents

This type of table of contents provides more detailed information about the contents of each section or chapter, including subsections and subheadings.

A. Background …………………………………….. 1

B. Problem Statement ………………………….. 2

C. Research Questions ……………………….. 3

II. Literature Review ………………………………… 5

A. Theoretical Framework …………………… 5

B. Previous Research ………………………….. 6

C. Gaps and Limitations ……………………… 8 I

II. Methodology ……………………………………… 11

A. Research Design ……………………………. 11

B. Data Collection …………………………….. 12

C. Data Analysis ……………………………….. 13

IV. Results …………………………………………….. 15

A. Descriptive Statistics ……………………… 15

B. Hypothesis Testing …………………………. 17

V. Discussion …………………………………………. 20

A. Interpretation of Findings ……………… 20

B. Implications for Practice ………………… 22

VI. Conclusion ……………………………………….. 25

A. Summary of Findings ……………………… 25

B. Contributions and Recommendations ….. 27

Graphic Table of Contents

This type of table of contents uses visual aids, such as icons or images, to represent the different sections or chapters of a document.

I. Introduction …………………………………………. [image of a light bulb]

II. Literature Review ………………………………… [image of a book]

III. Methodology ……………………………………… [image of a microscope]

IV. Results …………………………………………….. [image of a graph]

V. Discussion …………………………………………. [image of a conversation bubble]

Alphabetical Table of Contents

This type of table of contents lists the different topics or keywords in alphabetical order, along with their corresponding page numbers.

A. Abstract ……………………………………………… 1

B. Background …………………………………………. 3

C. Conclusion …………………………………………. 10

D. Data Analysis …………………………………….. 8

E. Ethics ……………………………………………….. 6

F. Findings ……………………………………………… 7

G. Introduction ……………………………………….. 1

H. Hypothesis ………………………………………….. 5

I. Literature Review ………………………………… 2

J. Methodology ……………………………………… 4

K. Limitations …………………………………………. 9

L. Results ………………………………………………… 7

M. Discussion …………………………………………. 10

Hierarchical Table of Contents

This type of table of contents displays the different levels of headings and subheadings in a hierarchical order, indicating the relative importance and relationship between the different sections.

A. Background …………………………………….. 2

B. Purpose of the Study ……………………….. 3

A. Theoretical Framework …………………… 5

1. Concept A ……………………………….. 6

a. Definition ………………………….. 6

b. Example ……………………………. 7

2. Concept B ……………………………….. 8

B. Previous Research ………………………….. 9

III. Methodology ……………………………………… 12

A. Research Design ……………………………. 12

1. Sample ……………………………………. 13

2. Procedure ………………………………. 14

B. Data Collection …………………………….. 15

1. Instrumentation ……………………….. 16

2. Validity and Reliability ………………. 17

C. Data Analysis ……………………………….. 18

1. Descriptive Statistics …………………… 19

2. Inferential Statistics ………………….. 20

IV. Result s …………………………………………….. 22

A. Overview of Findings ……………………… 22

B. Hypothesis Testing …………………………. 23

V. Discussion …………………………………………. 26

A. Interpretation of Findings ………………… 26

B. Implications for Practice ………………… 28

VI. Conclusion ……………………………………….. 31

A. Summary of Findings ……………………… 31

B. Contributions and Recommendations ….. 33

Table of Contents Format

Here’s an example format for a Table of Contents:

I. Introduction

C. Methodology

II. Background

A. Historical Context

B. Literature Review

III. Methodology

A. Research Design

B. Data Collection

C. Data Analysis

IV. Results

A. Descriptive Statistics

B. Inferential Statistics

C. Qualitative Findings

V. Discussion

A. Interpretation of Results

B. Implications for Practice

C. Limitations and Future Research

VI. Conclusion

A. Summary of Findings

B. Contributions to the Field

C. Final Remarks

VII. References

VIII. Appendices

Note : This is just an example format and can vary depending on the type of document or research paper you are writing.

When to use Table of Contents

A TOC can be particularly useful in the following cases:

Lengthy documents : If the document is lengthy, with several sections and subsections, a Table of contents can help readers quickly navigate the document and find the relevant information.
Complex documents: If the document is complex, with multiple topics or themes, a TOC can help readers understand the relationships between the different sections and how they are connected.
Technical documents: If the document is technical, with a lot of jargon or specialized terminology, This can help readers understand the organization of the document and locate the information they need.
Legal documents: If the document is a legal document, such as a contract or a legal brief, It helps readers quickly locate specific sections or provisions.

How to Make a Table of Contents

Here are the steps to create a table of contents:

Organize your document: Before you start making a table of contents, organize your document into sections and subsections. Each section should have a clear and descriptive heading that summarizes the content.
Add heading styles : Use the heading styles in your word processor to format the headings in your document. The heading styles are usually named Heading 1, Heading 2, Heading 3, and so on. Apply the appropriate heading style to each section heading in your document.
Insert a table of contents: Once you’ve added headings to your document, you can insert a table of contents. In Microsoft Word, go to the References tab, click on Table of Contents, and choose a style from the list. The table of contents will be inserted into your document.
Update the table of contents: If you make changes to your document, such as adding or deleting sections, you’ll need to update the table of contents. In Microsoft Word, right-click on the table of contents and select Update Field. Choose whether you want to update the page numbers or the entire table, and click OK.

Purpose of Table of Contents

A table of contents (TOC) serves several purposes, including:

Marketing : It can be used as a marketing tool to entice readers to read a book or document. By highlighting the most interesting or compelling sections, a TOC can give readers a preview of what’s to come and encourage them to dive deeper into the content.
Accessibility : A TOC can make a document or book more accessible to people with disabilities, such as those who use screen readers or other assistive technologies. By providing a clear and organized overview of the content, a TOC can help these readers navigate the material more easily.
Collaboration : This can be used as a collaboration tool to help multiple authors or editors work together on a document or book. By providing a shared framework for organizing the content, a TOC can help ensure that everyone is on the same page and working towards the same goals.
Reference : It can serve as a reference tool for readers who need to revisit specific sections of a document or book. By providing a clear overview of the content and organization, a TOC can help readers quickly locate the information they need, even if they don’t remember exactly where it was located.

About the author

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Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and...

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Page Numbering: A Guide to Organizing Your Documents

Page numbering is an essential aspect of document organization, especially in academic and professional settings. It not only helps in organizing the content but also aids in referencing specific pages within a document. In this article, we will discuss the basics of page numbering, the different styles, and how to apply them to your documents.

Table of Content

Types of Page Numbering

There are several types of page numbering styles that you can choose from depending on the nature of your document. Some of the most common page numbering styles include:

Continuous Page Numbering: This type of page numbering is suitable for documents with a single section, where the page numbers run continuously throughout the entire document.

Restarting Page Numbering: This style is used when you have multiple sections in your document, and you want to start the page numbering from 1 for each section.

Page Numbering with a Prefix: This style is used when you want to add a prefix to your page numbers. For example, if you have a document with multiple chapters, you can prefix the page numbers with the chapter number.

Page Numbering with a Suffix: Similar to prefix page numbering, this style is used to add a suffix to the page numbers. For example, you can add the document's title as a suffix to the page numbers.

How to Apply Page Numbering to Your Documents?

The method of applying page numbering to your documents varies depending on the software you are using. Here are the steps to add page numbering in some of the most popular word processing software:

Microsoft Word: To add page numbering in Microsoft Word, go to the Insert tab and click on the Page Number option. From there, you can choose the type of page numbering you want to use and apply it to your document.

Google Docs: In Google Docs, click on the Insert menu and select Page Number. You can choose the type of page numbering you want to use and apply it to your document.

Apple Pages: In Apple Pages, click on the Insert menu and select Page Number. You can choose the type of page numbering you want to use and apply it to your document.

Common Page Numbering Formats

When it comes to page numbering, there are several formats you can use. Some of the most common page numbering formats include:

Decimal: This format uses numbers to represent the page numbers (e.g., 1, 2, 3).

Roman Numerals: This format uses Roman Numerals to represent the page numbers (e.g., I, II, III).

Alphabetical: This format uses letters to represent the page numbers (e.g., A, B, C).

Custom: This format allows you to customize the page numbers using a combination of numbers, letters, and symbols.

Frequently-Asked Questions (FAQs)

What is page numbering?

Page numbering is the process of adding page numbers to a document to help with organization and referencing specific pages.

Why is page numbering important?

Page numbering is important because it helps to organize the content within a document and allows for easy referencing of specific pages. This is particularly useful in academic and professional settings where document organization is crucial.

What are the different types of page numbering?

The different types of page numbering include continuous page numbering, restarting page numbering, page numbering with a prefix, and page numbering with a suffix.

What are the common page numbering formats?

The common page numbering formats include decimal, Roman numerals, alphabetical, and custom.

How do I add page numbering to my document?

The process of adding page numbering to your document varies depending on the software you are using. In Microsoft Word, you can go to the Insert tab and select Page Number. In Google Docs, you can go to the Insert menu and select Page Number. In Apple Pages, you can go to the Insert menu and select Page Number. From there, you can choose the type of page numbering and format you want to use and apply it to your document.

Page numbering is an essential aspect of document organization and can greatly enhance the professionalism of your work. Whether you are using Microsoft Word, Google Docs, or Apple Pages, the process of adding page numbering to your documents is straightforward. With this guide, you can choose the right page numbering style and format to suit your needs and take your document organization to the next level.

Syndication:

https://docs.google.com/document/d/e/2PACX-1vS_kyh6xvSckJJ5lpDCvkQ6h1qMpMpq9-pzl34BjRp4Lqrz-dq_xOC7-m_z2-_BJBsH06kSjqbdlJQ8/pub

Research Foundations: Locate Citation Information

Information Literacy
The Information Timeline
Popular, Scholarly, & Trade Publications
Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Materials
Information Formats
Evaluate Information
Chapter 1 Self Quiz
The Pre-Research Process
Decide on a Topic
Find Background Information
Refine Your Topic
Develop a Thesis Statement
Choose Keywords
Create Search Statements
Chapter 2 Self Quiz
Search the Library Catalog
Call Numbers
Request Books
Book Research Streamlined
Viewing eBooks
Access Media
Chapter 3 Self Quiz
About Library Databases
Find Articles in Databases
Modify Your Search
Reading Scholarly Articles
Chapter 4 Self Quiz
Citation Styles
Locate Citation Information
Copyright & Fair Use
Creative Commons
Find & Attribute Images
Chapter 5 Self Quiz

Locating Citation Information

No matter which citation style you use, the first step to crediting your sources is locating the citation information. Regardless of the information format, all citations will include a minimum of title of the work, author or authors, and date of publication. Below are examples from books, ebooks, articles from databases, and academic journal articles that illustrate where to find the identifying citation information.

Book / eBook Title Page

title page of a book

Title - Full title and subtitles

Edition - books that have been revised or expanded more than once will often have an edition number

Author(s) or Editor(s) - may include one or more authors or editors of the book

Publisher - the company that published the book

Publishing City - if there are multiple cities, cite the first city listed

Book Title Page Example A larger, printable version of the title page example.

Book / eBook Copyright Page

copyright page of a book with highlighted sections

Book Copyright Page Example A larger, printable version of the copyright page example.

Academic Journal Article

example academic journal article

Academic journal articles' citations differ from book sources, and thus require you to identify a few unique pieces of information.

Author(s) - may include one or more authors of the article

Page Number - cite the entire page range in which the article appears

Publication - name of the journal the article was published in

Volume / Issue Number - identifies the exact edition of the journal where the article appears

Publication Date - date formats vary; use the format the journal provides or the citation style requires

Most citation information will appear on the first page of the article; however, the location of that information will vary from journal to journal. You can find the placement of the journal name, page number, publication date, and volume and issue number located on the top or bottom of the article’s page. The publication date may be a single year (2013), a distinct month (October 2010), specific publication cycle (Fall 2007), or an exact date (June 28, 2005). The page range of the article is another cirtical piece of citation information. Some article in printed or PDF format, will have the page numbers visible. Other articles in a digital, or HTML, format may not have obvious page ranges.

Academic Journal Article Example A larger, printable version of the journal article example.

Database Articles

There is no uniform approach to locating citation information based solely on the article itself. Many journals follow a relatively consistent format. Magazine and newspaper articles may only offer an article's title with the text and identify an author or source. Again, you are not likely to encounter standardization in the presentation of the article.

Some citation styles or professors require that you include the name of the database if retrieved through a library database. This can be tricky to discern if you are not familiar with the databases. Fortunately, most databases provide essential citation information for each article directly on the results pages or the article description page. Knowing this saves a lot of time and effort when reviewing articles.

screencapture of citation information listed in a database

example of citation information for a database article

Additionally, many databases will create an article's citation for you, in the citation style you choose. These computer-generated citations require careful review, as they may not be fully correct. Most databases will create citations that have the right information, in the right order. The biggest drawback to using databases created citations is in the formatting. Many will not include the correct spacing, punctuation, and capitalization for the citation style. Some articles, particularly those only available in HTML format, display just the first page number rather than the entire range. You may not be able to verify an exact page range without access to a PDF format in these instances. Always remeber to check these citations again an official style guide before including in a research project.

screencapture of a database generated citation in M L A style format

example of a database generated citation

<< Previous: Citation Styles
Next: Plagiarism >>
Last Updated: May 25, 2023 9:24 AM
URL: https://libguides.seminolestate.edu/researchfoundations

13.5 Research Process: Making Notes, Synthesizing Information, and Keeping a Research Log

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Employ the methods and technologies commonly used for research and communication within various fields.
Practice and apply strategies such as interpretation, synthesis, response, and critique to compose texts that integrate the writer’s ideas with those from appropriate sources.
Analyze and make informed decisions about intellectual property based on the concepts that motivate them.
Apply citation conventions systematically.

As you conduct research, you will work with a range of “texts” in various forms, including sources and documents from online databases as well as images, audio, and video files from the Internet. You may also work with archival materials and with transcribed and analyzed primary data. Additionally, you will be taking notes and recording quotations from secondary sources as you find materials that shape your understanding of your topic and, at the same time, provide you with facts and perspectives. You also may download articles as PDFs that you then annotate. Like many other students, you may find it challenging to keep so much material organized, accessible, and easy to work with while you write a major research paper. As it does for many of those students, a research log for your ideas and sources will help you keep track of the scope, purpose, and possibilities of any research project.

A research log is essentially a journal in which you collect information, ask questions, and monitor the results. Even if you are completing the annotated bibliography for Writing Process: Informing and Analyzing , keeping a research log is an effective organizational tool. Like Lily Tran’s research log entry, most entries have three parts: a part for notes on secondary sources, a part for connections to the thesis or main points, and a part for your own notes or questions. Record source notes by date, and allow room to add cross-references to other entries.

Summary of Assignment: Research Log

Your assignment is to create a research log similar to the student model. You will use it for the argumentative research project assigned in Writing Process: Integrating Research to record all secondary source information: your notes, complete publication data, relation to thesis, and other information as indicated in the right-hand column of the sample entry.

Another Lens. A somewhat different approach to maintaining a research log is to customize it to your needs or preferences. You can apply shading or color coding to headers, rows, and/or columns in the three-column format (for colors and shading). Or you can add columns to accommodate more information, analysis, synthesis, or commentary, formatting them as you wish. Consider adding a column for questions only or one for connections to other sources. Finally, consider a different visual format , such as one without columns. Another possibility is to record some of your comments and questions so that you have an aural rather than a written record of these.

Writing Center

At this point, or at any other point during the research and writing process, you may find that your school’s writing center can provide extensive assistance. If you are unfamiliar with the writing center, now is a good time to pay your first visit. Writing centers provide free peer tutoring for all types and phases of writing. Discussing your research with a trained writing center tutor can help you clarify, analyze, and connect ideas as well as provide feedback on works in progress.

Quick Launch: Beginning Questions

You may begin your research log with some open pages in which you freewrite, exploring answers to the following questions. Although you generally would do this at the beginning, it is a process to which you likely will return as you find more information about your topic and as your focus changes, as it may during the course of your research.

What information have I found so far?
What do I still need to find?
Where am I most likely to find it?

These are beginning questions. Like Lily Tran, however, you will come across general questions or issues that a quick note or freewrite may help you resolve. The key to this section is to revisit it regularly. Written answers to these and other self-generated questions in your log clarify your tasks as you go along, helping you articulate ideas and examine supporting evidence critically. As you move further into the process, consider answering the following questions in your freewrite:

What evidence looks as though it best supports my thesis?
What evidence challenges my working thesis?
How is my thesis changing from where it started?

Creating the Research Log

As you gather source material for your argumentative research paper, keep in mind that the research is intended to support original thinking. That is, you are not writing an informational report in which you simply supply facts to readers. Instead, you are writing to support a thesis that shows original thinking, and you are collecting and incorporating research into your paper to support that thinking. Therefore, a research log, whether digital or handwritten, is a great way to keep track of your thinking as well as your notes and bibliographic information.

In the model below, Lily Tran records the correct MLA bibliographic citation for the source. Then, she records a note and includes the in-text citation here to avoid having to retrieve this information later. Perhaps most important, Tran records why she noted this information—how it supports her thesis: The human race must turn to sustainable food systems that provide healthy diets with minimal environmental impact, starting now . Finally, she makes a note to herself about an additional visual to include in the final paper to reinforce the point regarding the current pressure on food systems. And she connects the information to other information she finds, thus cross-referencing and establishing a possible synthesis. Use a format similar to that in Table 13.4 to begin your own research log.

Types of Research Notes

Taking good notes will make the research process easier by enabling you to locate and remember sources and use them effectively. While some research projects requiring only a few sources may seem easily tracked, research projects requiring more than a few sources are more effectively managed when you take good bibliographic and informational notes. As you gather evidence for your argumentative research paper, follow the descriptions and the electronic model to record your notes. You can combine these with your research log, or you can use the research log for secondary sources and your own note-taking system for primary sources if a division of this kind is helpful. Either way, be sure to include all necessary information.

Bibliographic Notes

These identify the source you are using. When you locate a useful source, record the information necessary to find that source again. It is important to do this as you find each source, even before taking notes from it. If you create bibliographic notes as you go along, then you can easily arrange them in alphabetical order later to prepare the reference list required at the end of formal academic papers. If your instructor requires you to use MLA formatting for your essay, be sure to record the following information:

Title of source
Title of container (larger work in which source is included)
Other contributors
Publication date

When using MLA style with online sources, also record the following information:

Date of original publication
Date of access
DOI (A DOI, or digital object identifier, is a series of digits and letters that leads to the location of an online source. Articles in journals are often assigned DOIs to ensure that the source can be located, even if the URL changes. If your source is listed with a DOI, use that instead of a URL.)

It is important to understand which documentation style your instructor will require you to use. Check the Handbook for MLA Documentation and Format and APA Documentation and Format styles . In addition, you can check the style guide information provided by the Purdue Online Writing Lab .

Informational Notes

These notes record the relevant information found in your sources. When writing your essay, you will work from these notes, so be sure they contain all the information you need from every source you intend to use. Also try to focus your notes on your research question so that their relevance is clear when you read them later. To avoid confusion, work with separate entries for each piece of information recorded. At the top of each entry, identify the source through brief bibliographic identification (author and title), and note the page numbers on which the information appears. Also helpful is to add personal notes, including ideas for possible use of the information or cross-references to other information. As noted in Writing Process: Integrating Research , you will be using a variety of formats when borrowing from sources. Below is a quick review of these formats in terms of note-taking processes. By clarifying whether you are quoting directly, paraphrasing, or summarizing during these stages, you can record information accurately and thus take steps to avoid plagiarism.

Direct Quotations, Paraphrases, and Summaries

A direct quotation is an exact duplication of the author’s words as they appear in the original source. In your notes, put quotation marks around direct quotations so that you remember these words are the author’s, not yours. One advantage of copying exact quotations is that it allows you to decide later whether to include a quotation, paraphrase, or summary. ln general, though, use direct quotations only when the author’s words are particularly lively or persuasive.

A paraphrase is a restatement of the author’s words in your own words. Paraphrase to simplify or clarify the original author’s point. In your notes, use paraphrases when you need to record details but not exact words.

A summary is a brief condensation or distillation of the main point and most important details of the original source. Write a summary in your own words, with facts and ideas accurately represented. A summary is useful when specific details in the source are unimportant or irrelevant to your research question. You may find you can summarize several paragraphs or even an entire article or chapter in just a few sentences without losing useful information. It is a good idea to note when your entry contains a summary to remind you later that it omits detailed information. See Writing Process Integrating Research for more detailed information and examples of quotations, paraphrases, and summaries and when to use them.

Other Systems for Organizing Research Logs and Digital Note-Taking

Students often become frustrated and at times overwhelmed by the quantity of materials to be managed in the research process. If this is your first time working with both primary and secondary sources, finding ways to keep all of the information in one place and well organized is essential.

Because gathering primary evidence may be a relatively new practice, this section is designed to help you navigate the process. As mentioned earlier, information gathered in fieldwork is not cataloged, organized, indexed, or shelved for your convenience. Obtaining it requires diligence, energy, and planning. Online resources can assist you with keeping a research log. Your college library may have subscriptions to tools such as Todoist or EndNote. Consult with a librarian to find out whether you have access to any of these. If not, use something like the template shown in Figure 13.8 , or another like it, as a template for creating your own research notes and organizational tool. You will need to have a record of all field research data as well as the research log for all secondary sources.

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Numbers, Facts and Trends Shaping Your World

Read our research on:

Full Topic List

Regions & Countries

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Tools & Resources

Read Our Research On:

Gender pay gap in U.S. hasn’t changed much in two decades

The gender gap in pay has remained relatively stable in the United States over the past 20 years or so. In 2022, women earned an average of 82% of what men earned, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of median hourly earnings of both full- and part-time workers. These results are similar to where the pay gap stood in 2002, when women earned 80% as much as men.

A chart showing that the Gender pay gap in the U.S. has not closed in recent years, but is narrower among young workers

As has long been the case, the wage gap is smaller for workers ages 25 to 34 than for all workers 16 and older. In 2022, women ages 25 to 34 earned an average of 92 cents for every dollar earned by a man in the same age group – an 8-cent gap. By comparison, the gender pay gap among workers of all ages that year was 18 cents.

While the gender pay gap has not changed much in the last two decades, it has narrowed considerably when looking at the longer term, both among all workers ages 16 and older and among those ages 25 to 34. The estimated 18-cent gender pay gap among all workers in 2022 was down from 35 cents in 1982. And the 8-cent gap among workers ages 25 to 34 in 2022 was down from a 26-cent gap four decades earlier.

The gender pay gap measures the difference in median hourly earnings between men and women who work full or part time in the United States. Pew Research Center’s estimate of the pay gap is based on an analysis of Current Population Survey (CPS) monthly outgoing rotation group files ( IPUMS ) from January 1982 to December 2022, combined to create annual files. To understand how we calculate the gender pay gap, read our 2013 post, “How Pew Research Center measured the gender pay gap.”

The COVID-19 outbreak affected data collection efforts by the U.S. government in its surveys, especially in 2020 and 2021, limiting in-person data collection and affecting response rates. It is possible that some measures of economic outcomes and how they vary across demographic groups are affected by these changes in data collection.

In addition to findings about the gender wage gap, this analysis includes information from a Pew Research Center survey about the perceived reasons for the pay gap, as well as the pressures and career goals of U.S. men and women. The survey was conducted among 5,098 adults and includes a subset of questions asked only for 2,048 adults who are employed part time or full time, from Oct. 10-16, 2022. Everyone who took part is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. This way nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories. Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

Here are the questions used in this analysis, along with responses, and its methodology .

The U.S. Census Bureau has also analyzed the gender pay gap, though its analysis looks only at full-time workers (as opposed to full- and part-time workers). In 2021, full-time, year-round working women earned 84% of what their male counterparts earned, on average, according to the Census Bureau’s most recent analysis.

Much of the gender pay gap has been explained by measurable factors such as educational attainment, occupational segregation and work experience. The narrowing of the gap over the long term is attributable in large part to gains women have made in each of these dimensions.

Related: The Enduring Grip of the Gender Pay Gap

Even though women have increased their presence in higher-paying jobs traditionally dominated by men, such as professional and managerial positions, women as a whole continue to be overrepresented in lower-paying occupations relative to their share of the workforce. This may contribute to gender differences in pay.

Other factors that are difficult to measure, including gender discrimination, may also contribute to the ongoing wage discrepancy.

Perceived reasons for the gender wage gap

A bar chart showing that Half of U.S. adults say women being treated differently by employers is a major reason for the gender wage gap

When asked about the factors that may play a role in the gender wage gap, half of U.S. adults point to women being treated differently by employers as a major reason, according to a Pew Research Center survey conducted in October 2022. Smaller shares point to women making different choices about how to balance work and family (42%) and working in jobs that pay less (34%).

There are some notable differences between men and women in views of what’s behind the gender wage gap. Women are much more likely than men (61% vs. 37%) to say a major reason for the gap is that employers treat women differently. And while 45% of women say a major factor is that women make different choices about how to balance work and family, men are slightly less likely to hold that view (40% say this).

Parents with children younger than 18 in the household are more likely than those who don’t have young kids at home (48% vs. 40%) to say a major reason for the pay gap is the choices that women make about how to balance family and work. On this question, differences by parental status are evident among both men and women.

Views about reasons for the gender wage gap also differ by party. About two-thirds of Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents (68%) say a major factor behind wage differences is that employers treat women differently, but far fewer Republicans and Republican leaners (30%) say the same. Conversely, Republicans are more likely than Democrats to say women’s choices about how to balance family and work (50% vs. 36%) and their tendency to work in jobs that pay less (39% vs. 30%) are major reasons why women earn less than men.

Democratic and Republican women are more likely than their male counterparts in the same party to say a major reason for the gender wage gap is that employers treat women differently. About three-quarters of Democratic women (76%) say this, compared with 59% of Democratic men. And while 43% of Republican women say unequal treatment by employers is a major reason for the gender wage gap, just 18% of GOP men share that view.

Pressures facing working women and men

Family caregiving responsibilities bring different pressures for working women and men, and research has shown that being a mother can reduce women’s earnings , while fatherhood can increase men’s earnings .

A chart showing that about two-thirds of U.S. working mothers feel a great deal of pressure to focus on responsibilities at home

Employed women and men are about equally likely to say they feel a great deal of pressure to support their family financially and to be successful in their jobs and careers, according to the Center’s October survey. But women, and particularly working mothers, are more likely than men to say they feel a great deal of pressure to focus on responsibilities at home.

About half of employed women (48%) report feeling a great deal of pressure to focus on their responsibilities at home, compared with 35% of employed men. Among working mothers with children younger than 18 in the household, two-thirds (67%) say the same, compared with 45% of working dads.

When it comes to supporting their family financially, similar shares of working moms and dads (57% vs. 62%) report they feel a great deal of pressure, but this is driven mainly by the large share of unmarried working mothers who say they feel a great deal of pressure in this regard (77%). Among those who are married, working dads are far more likely than working moms (60% vs. 43%) to say they feel a great deal of pressure to support their family financially. (There were not enough unmarried working fathers in the sample to analyze separately.)

About four-in-ten working parents say they feel a great deal of pressure to be successful at their job or career. These findings don’t differ by gender.

Gender differences in job roles, aspirations

A bar chart showing that women in the U.S. are more likely than men to say they're not the boss at their job - and don't want to be in the future

Overall, a quarter of employed U.S. adults say they are currently the boss or one of the top managers where they work, according to the Center’s survey. Another 33% say they are not currently the boss but would like to be in the future, while 41% are not and do not aspire to be the boss or one of the top managers.

Men are more likely than women to be a boss or a top manager where they work (28% vs. 21%). This is especially the case among employed fathers, 35% of whom say they are the boss or one of the top managers where they work. (The varying attitudes between fathers and men without children at least partly reflect differences in marital status and educational attainment between the two groups.)

In addition to being less likely than men to say they are currently the boss or a top manager at work, women are also more likely to say they wouldn’t want to be in this type of position in the future. More than four-in-ten employed women (46%) say this, compared with 37% of men. Similar shares of men (35%) and women (31%) say they are not currently the boss but would like to be one day. These patterns are similar among parents.

Note: This is an update of a post originally published on March 22, 2019. Anna Brown and former Pew Research Center writer/editor Amanda Barroso contributed to an earlier version of this analysis. Here are the questions used in this analysis, along with responses, and its methodology .

What is the gender wage gap in your metropolitan area? Find out with our pay gap calculator

Gender & Work
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Women have gained ground in the nation’s highest-paying occupations, but still lag behind men

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