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Disease Research Paper

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Disease is a phenomenon that appears to have struck people globally at all times. However, the conceptions of what disease is have varied with time and place. This research paper gives an overview over various conceptions of disease and highlights what is at stake in the debates on the concept of disease. The core questions for the article are: what is disease and what are the ethical issues entangled in this question?

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Disease is a phenomenon experienced by most people during their lifetime, and it is something most people fear. Disease is a core concept in the health sciences, in philosophy, and in bioethics, but it is difficult to define. Broadly speaking there are three types of definitions of disease: descriptivist, normativity, and hybrid definitions of disease, claiming that disease is given by phenomena described in nature, by human norms, or both nature and human norms, respectively.

The concept of disease is ethically important as it sets standards and limits, e.g., to what a health-care system is supposed to do and who deserves access to certain goods. It also influences people’s self-conception, their relations to others, their social roles, and their social status. Disease also raises a series of ethical issues, especially related to overdiagnosis and underdiagnosis, undertreatment and overtreatment, medicalization, and just distribution of healthcare resources. This makes disease an important concept with far-reaching implications for individuals, health professionals, health insurers, health policy makers, bioethicists, and politicians.

History And Development

From the interest of understanding and helping people, a wide range of theories and conceptions of disease have emerged. Such theories have altered with time and place. Table 1 gives a brief outline of some theories of disease.

This eagerness to understand disease can make us wonder, why is it so important to understand what disease is? Why is the concept of disease needed? There appear to be many reasons why the concept of disease is important:

• Disease implies a right to attention and care, as disease is related to suffering.
• Disease (in many countries) implies a right to treatment and is thus of great importance to individuals, health professionals, health-care institutions, health insurers, and health policy makers.
• Disease (in many countries) implies exemptions from duties, such as the duty to work or to take care of others (e.g., relatives or friends).
• Disease (in many countries) implies a right to economic compensation (e.g., during sick leave) and therefore is important to individuals, employers, insurers, and health policy makers.
• Disease may exempt from accountability and moral responsibility (in cases of crime).
• Disease is important for individuals to understand their own situation: “I cannot do or be as I would like, because I am diseased.”
• Disease is important for individuals to explain  situation to themselves and others.
• Disease has been important to delimit the tasks of health care from other social tasks and topics.
• Disease has been important to classify and organize the tasks of health care, e.g., in taxonomies and hospital departments.
• Disease has been important to delineate the subject matter of health-related sciences.

Table 1 . Brief overview of some influential theories of disease throughout the history of medicine

Hence, disease is an important concept with far-reaching implications for individuals, health professionals, health insurers, health policy makers, bioethicists, and politicians. It sets standards, e.g., for how health professionals are educated and how health insurance is regulated, and it sets limits, e.g., who deserves access to certain goods. It also influences people’s self-conception, their relations to others, their social roles, and their social status (see below).

Conceptual Clarification/Definition

There have been many definitions of disease, all trying to highlight or clarify the various important aspects of disease given in the list above (Reznek 1987; Humber and Almeder 1997; Caplan et al. 1981; Cooper 2002; Murphy 2008; Ereshefsky 2009). At present, there is little agreement on how to define disease. The various definitions can be classified in descriptivist, normativist, and hybrid definitions.

Descriptivist positions define disease in terms of biological or mental phenomena which can be described in nature (Davies 2003). Hence, such definitions are often also called naturalist definitions. According to the most referred descriptivist definition, disease is an internal condition disturbing natural functioning. Hence, if a bodily or mental function is reduced below what is statistically normal, then there is disease. This definition is oftentimes called “the biostatistical theory of disease,” and it takes into account differences due to gender, age, and species, so that functional differences in such factors do not become diseases (Boorse 1975). That is, a person is not diseased although the person’s heart has reduced functioning at the age of 100 years old compared to the total population. Diseases are kinds that occur in nature, i.e., natural kinds, and they can be classified on the basis of characteristics that can be described in nature.

According to normativist definitions, disease is a social convention. Disease is the judgment that someone is harmed in a way that (is decided that) can be explained in terms of bodily or mental conditions or processes. Hence, human norms of harm decide what disease is and not biological or mental phenomena, therefore the name normativist. Accordingly, diseases are not natural kinds, although they may be classified according to phenomena which are considered to occur in nature. The reason is that the phenomena that is studied and classified in nature are so classified because they serve human interests, e.g., helping people. The electrical signals in the heart (measured by ECG) are of relevance for medicine because professionals think that they relate to something harmful that can be avoided. When the troponin level in the blood appears to be better in order to characterize, treat, or prevent disease, e.g., myocardial infarction, professionals (and subsequently laypersons) will pay attention to troponin. Correspondingly, it is because blood pressure is related to something harmful that hypertension is of interest in medicine. According to a normativist conception of disease, the phenomena that are measured and manipulated in medicine are relevant to medicine due to human interests (to understand and to help).

Table 2 . Three levels apparent in reflections on disease

Hybrid definitions of disease can be placed between descriptivist and normativist definitions of disease, as they combine elements from both. For example, disease has been defined as harmful dysfunction, where dysfunction is a description of phenomena in nature, while the issue whether it is harmful is a value judgment. Only those deviations from normal functioning that are harmful can be termed disease (Wakefield 1992).

The debates on the concept of disease are sometimes complex and confusing. One reason for this can be that it is not always clear what is discussed, e.g., because the three levels described in Table 2 are confused.

There are also a wide range of terms related to disease, which sometimes are used synonymously, such as malady, illness, sickness, injury, wound, lesion, defect, deformity, disorder, disability, impairment, deficit, etc. (Culver and Gert 1982). This research paper will not address all these terms but will try to clarify the relationship between some of them below, i.e., disease, illness, and sickness.

The Ethical Dimension Of Disease

Inherent in the debates on the concept of disease, there are a series of ethical issues, such as disease’s inherent imperative to help, over diagnosis, overtreatment, medicalization, and justice. These will be briefly discussed in the following.

The Imperative To Help

The most obvious ethical aspect of disease is the imperative to help persons who suffer from disease. The term disease indicates that there is something that may be eased. Hence, disease calls us to help persons who are diseased in the best possible manner, either from duty (deontology), in order to maximize the total well-being (consequentialism); from the character of the professional (virtue ethics); or from the calling in the sufferer’s face (proximity ethics).

Who Decides What Disease Is?

In clinical practice as well in public debates, there are controversies on whether specific conditions count as disease. Previously, drapetomania (slaves running away), homosexuality, and dissidence have been counted as disease. Today it is discussed whether obesity, sorrow, baldness, freckles, and caffeine-induced insomnia count as disease. Specific interest groups may argue that something is a disease, while professionals may be hesitant, or conversely professionals may measure certain biological conditions that are not experienced by persons at all (and may be never will). Correspondingly, society may consider something to be a disease, while persons and professionals disagree. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may be but one example. Hence, who decides? This is a moral question that relates to the debate between descriptivists and normativists.

Descriptivists tend to claim that nature decides. It is given by nature whether something is a disease or not, i.e., by abnormal functioning of some organ or process. But where to set the limits between normal and pathological? Does nature tell us the limit of glycated hemoglobin (A1C) in the blood for having diabetes type 1? Although hard core descriptivists claim that nature does, critiques argue that such limits are defined from human interests of trying to help people in the best possible manner. If they are right, there are normative aspects at the core of the descriptivists’ conception of disease. Normativists on the other hand are clear that disease is based on human interests and values. However, it is not clear how values and interests are to be balanced. Is it the patients’, the professionals’, relatives, or society’s values and interests that will decide what disease is?

In order to try to clarify some of the conceptual and normative issues, it has been suggested to differentiate between various perspectives of disease, as indicated in Table 3.

Table 3 . Characteristics of three perspectives of human ailment: disease, illness, and sickness

The three perspectives can explain some of the conceptual controversies, as it may be difficult to cover all perspectives of human ailment by one concept. Moreover, the perspectives may also clarify some of the normative issues in terms of conflict of interest between persons, professionals, and society (Hofmann 2002). Impotence (at the age of 70) may not be considered to be a disease from a medical perspective or a sickness from a social perspective, but it definitely may be perceived to be an illness, i.e., it is illness, but not disease and sickness. If all perspectives cohere, there is little controversy. If the perspectives diverge, there may be conceptual and ethical challenges.

Figure 1 indicates the relationship between the concepts of illness, sickness, and disease. Other perspectives, such as existential and risk-related perspectives, may be added.

Figure 1 . The relationship between the concepts of illness, sickness, and disease

As can be seen from vast and vivid debates on specific diseases, such as obesity, ADHD, and myalgic encephalomyelitis, there is no general agreement on whose perspective is prevailing. While descriptivist definitions of disease will favor the professional perspective, normativist definitions will have a higher affinity to social perspectives. Several positions in bioethics will favor the personal perspective on human ailment, i.e., illness (Toombs 1990; Carel 2008).

Underdiagnosis And Overdiagnosis, Undertreatment And Overtreatment

The concept of disease delimits diseased from non-diseased, and where this limit is set is of ethical significance. If the limit is set so that suffering persons who could have been helped are excluded, this is morally wrong. They are underdiagnosed, may be undertreated, and may experience unnecessary uncertainty, anxiety, pain, and death. Conversely, if the limits are too low, it is morally wrong as well. Then healthy persons are diagnosed as having a disease. They may become anxious from being diagnosed and they may be treated unnecessarily and have side effects from unnecessary treatment. While underdiagnosed persons oftentimes gain attention in the media (“could have been saved”), over diagnosed persons get little attention. They do not know that they are over diagnosed but are actually happy that “they found something and saved my life.” Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) may be one example, as it can result in invasive breast cancers, but it does not always do so. When found, DCIS are oftentimes treated as breast cancer, although one does not know whether they would actually have caused symptoms, suffering, or death.

Making Risk A Disease

Another ethical issue related to the concept of disease is the predictive aspirations in modern medicine. A wide range of tests are able to predict diseases. The ethical drive for this is to detect disease before it becomes noticeable and, by prevention or early treatment, to avoid disease or diminish its consequences. However, very few tests are perfect. The outcomes of tests are uncertain and so are the outcomes of subsequent treatment. Hence, the test provides a risk, or a range of risks, for a certain disease. For example, 55–65 % of women who inherit a BRCA1 mutation will develop breast cancer by age 70 years, while about 12 % of women in the general population will develop breast cancer sometime during their lives. Hence, testing positive for the BRCA1 mutation significantly increases the risk of breast cancer but does not mean that the person will have breast cancer. It is a risk estimate. Such risk estimates do not only give people important opportunities to save their lives and reduce suffering; it also gives them difficult choices, as it is uncertain whether they will become diseased, e.g., should a woman prophylactically remove her breasts? Hence, handling risk factors as disease poses ethical challenges to health policy makers, health professionals, and, last but not least, to individual persons. This also connects to ethical challenges with the right to know and the right not to know. The issue of making risk a disease relates to another ethical issue in modern medicine: medicalization.

Medicalization

It has been widely argued that the conception of disease has become too wide and inclusive, e.g., that it has come to include conditions that are considered to be part of ordinary life, such as sorrow (Horwitz and Wakefield 2007), stress, unhappiness, and various kinds of social behavior. It may be ethically challenging when the conceptions of disease make ordinary life conditions or behaviors subject to medical attention. Hence, the critique of medicalization is closely connected to the (unreflective) expansion of the concept of disease.

Disease As An Existential Threat

As disease traditionally has been life threatening and because most people die from a disease, disease is an existential issue. Hence, getting the message of having a disease may be disturbing and challenging, meriting attention and care, beyond handling the disease. Moreover, some diseases have symbolic attributes. Cancer has been considered to be a death sentence and has been a stigma. While the existential aspects of disease have been were at the core in the hospital tradition and still are in many parts of the world, they have gained less attention in modern Western medicine.

Social Prestige And Stigma

Disease is normally considered to be something negative. However, it may also have some positive aspects, such as increased attention, right to treatment, economic compensation, and freedom from duties (work), as pointed out before. Specific disease labels may give identity and strong relations between persons with the same disease. Conversely, not being labeled diseased may make people feel deserted, in despair, and guilty. Hence, disease labeling may influence people’s self-conception and self-esteem.

Moreover, professionals appear to have a relatively stable prestige hierarchy for disease entities (Album and Westin 2008). Organ specific diseases have higher prestige than vague diseases. Diseases related to organs placed in the upper part of the body, such as brain and heart, have higher prestige than those related to organs in lower body parts. Acute diseases prevail over chronic diseases. Hi-tech diseases trump low-tech or no-tech diseases. Such prestige hierarchies of disease tend also to be present in laypeople and patients as well. When disease hierarchies influence how patients are handled or how resources are allocated or prioritized, it becomes ethically challenging.

Conceptions of disease also raise ethical concerns beyond prestige hierarchies. The 90–10 gap is ethically relevant, as 90 % of research resources go to diseases relevant for 10 % of the global population. Correspondingly, it may also be argued that the disease concepts used in the economically richer part of the world is of little relevance to the poorer part of the world. It appears to be ethically important to increase the attention to disease entities that prevail in poorer populations, as well as avoiding a general disease concept that is biased toward affluent populations.

Disease is a phenomenon experienced by most people during life. It is something most people fear, and it is a core concept in the health sciences, in philosophy, and in bioethics. Descriptivists tend to define disease as the malfunctioning of some organ or process and argue that diseases are natural kinds. Normativists, on the other hand, argue that disease is not discovered in nature but is the judgment that someone is harmed in a way that can be explained in terms of bodily or mental conditions or processes. Hybrid conceptions of disease claim that disease is both descriptive and normative, e.g., as harmful dysfunction.

The concept of disease sets standards and limits, e.g., to what a health-care system is supposed to do and who deserves access to certain goods. It also influences people’s self-conception, their relations to others, their social roles, and their social status. Hence, disease is an important concept with far-reaching implications for individuals, health professionals, health insurers, health policy makers, bioethicists, and politicians. It also raises a series of ethical issues, especially related to over diagnosis and underdiagnoses, under treatment and overtreatment, medicalization, and just distribution of health-care resources.

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• Published: 04 June 2021

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic: an overview of systematic reviews

• Israel Júnior Borges do Nascimento 1 , 2 ,
• Dónal P. O’Mathúna 3 , 4 ,
• Thilo Caspar von Groote 5 ,
• Hebatullah Mohamed Abdulazeem 6 ,
• Ishanka Weerasekara 7 , 8 ,
• Ana Marusic 9 ,
• Livia Puljak   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8467-6061 10 ,
• Vinicius Tassoni Civile 11 ,
• Irena Zakarija-Grkovic 9 ,
• Tina Poklepovic Pericic 9 ,
• Alvaro Nagib Atallah 11 ,
• Santino Filoso 12 ,
• Nicola Luigi Bragazzi 13 &
• Milena Soriano Marcolino 1

On behalf of the International Network of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (InterNetCOVID-19)

BMC Infectious Diseases volume  21 , Article number:  525 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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Navigating the rapidly growing body of scientific literature on the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic is challenging, and ongoing critical appraisal of this output is essential. We aimed to summarize and critically appraise systematic reviews of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in humans that were available at the beginning of the pandemic.

Nine databases (Medline, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, CINAHL, Web of Sciences, PDQ-Evidence, WHO’s Global Research, LILACS, and Epistemonikos) were searched from December 1, 2019, to March 24, 2020. Systematic reviews analyzing primary studies of COVID-19 were included. Two authors independently undertook screening, selection, extraction (data on clinical symptoms, prevalence, pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions, diagnostic test assessment, laboratory, and radiological findings), and quality assessment (AMSTAR 2). A meta-analysis was performed of the prevalence of clinical outcomes.

Eighteen systematic reviews were included; one was empty (did not identify any relevant study). Using AMSTAR 2, confidence in the results of all 18 reviews was rated as “critically low”. Identified symptoms of COVID-19 were (range values of point estimates): fever (82–95%), cough with or without sputum (58–72%), dyspnea (26–59%), myalgia or muscle fatigue (29–51%), sore throat (10–13%), headache (8–12%) and gastrointestinal complaints (5–9%). Severe symptoms were more common in men. Elevated C-reactive protein and lactate dehydrogenase, and slightly elevated aspartate and alanine aminotransferase, were commonly described. Thrombocytopenia and elevated levels of procalcitonin and cardiac troponin I were associated with severe disease. A frequent finding on chest imaging was uni- or bilateral multilobar ground-glass opacity. A single review investigated the impact of medication (chloroquine) but found no verifiable clinical data. All-cause mortality ranged from 0.3 to 13.9%.

Conclusions

In this overview of systematic reviews, we analyzed evidence from the first 18 systematic reviews that were published after the emergence of COVID-19. However, confidence in the results of all reviews was “critically low”. Thus, systematic reviews that were published early on in the pandemic were of questionable usefulness. Even during public health emergencies, studies and systematic reviews should adhere to established methodological standards.

Peer Review reports

The spread of the “Severe Acute Respiratory Coronavirus 2” (SARS-CoV-2), the causal agent of COVID-19, was characterized as a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) in March 2020 and has triggered an international public health emergency [ 1 ]. The numbers of confirmed cases and deaths due to COVID-19 are rapidly escalating, counting in millions [ 2 ], causing massive economic strain, and escalating healthcare and public health expenses [ 3 , 4 ].

The research community has responded by publishing an impressive number of scientific reports related to COVID-19. The world was alerted to the new disease at the beginning of 2020 [ 1 ], and by mid-March 2020, more than 2000 articles had been published on COVID-19 in scholarly journals, with 25% of them containing original data [ 5 ]. The living map of COVID-19 evidence, curated by the Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Co-ordinating Centre (EPPI-Centre), contained more than 40,000 records by February 2021 [ 6 ]. More than 100,000 records on PubMed were labeled as “SARS-CoV-2 literature, sequence, and clinical content” by February 2021 [ 7 ].

Due to publication speed, the research community has voiced concerns regarding the quality and reproducibility of evidence produced during the COVID-19 pandemic, warning of the potential damaging approach of “publish first, retract later” [ 8 ]. It appears that these concerns are not unfounded, as it has been reported that COVID-19 articles were overrepresented in the pool of retracted articles in 2020 [ 9 ]. These concerns about inadequate evidence are of major importance because they can lead to poor clinical practice and inappropriate policies [ 10 ].

Systematic reviews are a cornerstone of today’s evidence-informed decision-making. By synthesizing all relevant evidence regarding a particular topic, systematic reviews reflect the current scientific knowledge. Systematic reviews are considered to be at the highest level in the hierarchy of evidence and should be used to make informed decisions. However, with high numbers of systematic reviews of different scope and methodological quality being published, overviews of multiple systematic reviews that assess their methodological quality are essential [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. An overview of systematic reviews helps identify and organize the literature and highlights areas of priority in decision-making.

In this overview of systematic reviews, we aimed to summarize and critically appraise systematic reviews of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in humans that were available at the beginning of the pandemic.

Methodology

Research question.

This overview’s primary objective was to summarize and critically appraise systematic reviews that assessed any type of primary clinical data from patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. Our research question was purposefully broad because we wanted to analyze as many systematic reviews as possible that were available early following the COVID-19 outbreak.

Study design

We conducted an overview of systematic reviews. The idea for this overview originated in a protocol for a systematic review submitted to PROSPERO (CRD42020170623), which indicated a plan to conduct an overview.

Overviews of systematic reviews use explicit and systematic methods for searching and identifying multiple systematic reviews addressing related research questions in the same field to extract and analyze evidence across important outcomes. Overviews of systematic reviews are in principle similar to systematic reviews of interventions, but the unit of analysis is a systematic review [ 14 , 15 , 16 ].

We used the overview methodology instead of other evidence synthesis methods to allow us to collate and appraise multiple systematic reviews on this topic, and to extract and analyze their results across relevant topics [ 17 ]. The overview and meta-analysis of systematic reviews allowed us to investigate the methodological quality of included studies, summarize results, and identify specific areas of available or limited evidence, thereby strengthening the current understanding of this novel disease and guiding future research [ 13 ].

A reporting guideline for overviews of reviews is currently under development, i.e., Preferred Reporting Items for Overviews of Reviews (PRIOR) [ 18 ]. As the PRIOR checklist is still not published, this study was reported following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2009 statement [ 19 ]. The methodology used in this review was adapted from the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions and also followed established methodological considerations for analyzing existing systematic reviews [ 14 ].

Approval of a research ethics committee was not necessary as the study analyzed only publicly available articles.

Eligibility criteria

Systematic reviews were included if they analyzed primary data from patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 as confirmed by RT-PCR or another pre-specified diagnostic technique. Eligible reviews covered all topics related to COVID-19 including, but not limited to, those that reported clinical symptoms, diagnostic methods, therapeutic interventions, laboratory findings, or radiological results. Both full manuscripts and abbreviated versions, such as letters, were eligible.

No restrictions were imposed on the design of the primary studies included within the systematic reviews, the last search date, whether the review included meta-analyses or language. Reviews related to SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses were eligible, but from those reviews, we analyzed only data related to SARS-CoV-2.

No consensus definition exists for a systematic review [ 20 ], and debates continue about the defining characteristics of a systematic review [ 21 ]. Cochrane’s guidance for overviews of reviews recommends setting pre-established criteria for making decisions around inclusion [ 14 ]. That is supported by a recent scoping review about guidance for overviews of systematic reviews [ 22 ].

Thus, for this study, we defined a systematic review as a research report which searched for primary research studies on a specific topic using an explicit search strategy, had a detailed description of the methods with explicit inclusion criteria provided, and provided a summary of the included studies either in narrative or quantitative format (such as a meta-analysis). Cochrane and non-Cochrane systematic reviews were considered eligible for inclusion, with or without meta-analysis, and regardless of the study design, language restriction and methodology of the included primary studies. To be eligible for inclusion, reviews had to be clearly analyzing data related to SARS-CoV-2 (associated or not with other viruses). We excluded narrative reviews without those characteristics as these are less likely to be replicable and are more prone to bias.

Scoping reviews and rapid reviews were eligible for inclusion in this overview if they met our pre-defined inclusion criteria noted above. We included reviews that addressed SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses if they reported separate data regarding SARS-CoV-2.

Information sources

Nine databases were searched for eligible records published between December 1, 2019, and March 24, 2020: Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews via Cochrane Library, PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature), Web of Sciences, LILACS (Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Literature), PDQ-Evidence, WHO’s Global Research on Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19), and Epistemonikos.

The comprehensive search strategy for each database is provided in Additional file 1 and was designed and conducted in collaboration with an information specialist. All retrieved records were primarily processed in EndNote, where duplicates were removed, and records were then imported into the Covidence platform [ 23 ]. In addition to database searches, we screened reference lists of reviews included after screening records retrieved via databases.

Study selection

All searches, screening of titles and abstracts, and record selection, were performed independently by two investigators using the Covidence platform [ 23 ]. Articles deemed potentially eligible were retrieved for full-text screening carried out independently by two investigators. Discrepancies at all stages were resolved by consensus. During the screening, records published in languages other than English were translated by a native/fluent speaker.

Data collection process

We custom designed a data extraction table for this study, which was piloted by two authors independently. Data extraction was performed independently by two authors. Conflicts were resolved by consensus or by consulting a third researcher.

We extracted the following data: article identification data (authors’ name and journal of publication), search period, number of databases searched, population or settings considered, main results and outcomes observed, and number of participants. From Web of Science (Clarivate Analytics, Philadelphia, PA, USA), we extracted journal rank (quartile) and Journal Impact Factor (JIF).

We categorized the following as primary outcomes: all-cause mortality, need for and length of mechanical ventilation, length of hospitalization (in days), admission to intensive care unit (yes/no), and length of stay in the intensive care unit.

The following outcomes were categorized as exploratory: diagnostic methods used for detection of the virus, male to female ratio, clinical symptoms, pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions, laboratory findings (full blood count, liver enzymes, C-reactive protein, d-dimer, albumin, lipid profile, serum electrolytes, blood vitamin levels, glucose levels, and any other important biomarkers), and radiological findings (using radiography, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging or ultrasound).

We also collected data on reporting guidelines and requirements for the publication of systematic reviews and meta-analyses from journal websites where included reviews were published.

Quality assessment in individual reviews

Two researchers independently assessed the reviews’ quality using the “A MeaSurement Tool to Assess Systematic Reviews 2 (AMSTAR 2)”. We acknowledge that the AMSTAR 2 was created as “a critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews that include randomized or non-randomized studies of healthcare interventions, or both” [ 24 ]. However, since AMSTAR 2 was designed for systematic reviews of intervention trials, and we included additional types of systematic reviews, we adjusted some AMSTAR 2 ratings and reported these in Additional file 2 .

Adherence to each item was rated as follows: yes, partial yes, no, or not applicable (such as when a meta-analysis was not conducted). The overall confidence in the results of the review is rated as “critically low”, “low”, “moderate” or “high”, according to the AMSTAR 2 guidance based on seven critical domains, which are items 2, 4, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15 as defined by AMSTAR 2 authors [ 24 ]. We reported our adherence ratings for transparency of our decision with accompanying explanations, for each item, in each included review.

One of the included systematic reviews was conducted by some members of this author team [ 25 ]. This review was initially assessed independently by two authors who were not co-authors of that review to prevent the risk of bias in assessing this study.

Synthesis of results

For data synthesis, we prepared a table summarizing each systematic review. Graphs illustrating the mortality rate and clinical symptoms were created. We then prepared a narrative summary of the methods, findings, study strengths, and limitations.

For analysis of the prevalence of clinical outcomes, we extracted data on the number of events and the total number of patients to perform proportional meta-analysis using RStudio© software, with the “meta” package (version 4.9–6), using the “metaprop” function for reviews that did not perform a meta-analysis, excluding case studies because of the absence of variance. For reviews that did not perform a meta-analysis, we presented pooled results of proportions with their respective confidence intervals (95%) by the inverse variance method with a random-effects model, using the DerSimonian-Laird estimator for τ 2 . We adjusted data using Freeman-Tukey double arcosen transformation. Confidence intervals were calculated using the Clopper-Pearson method for individual studies. We created forest plots using the RStudio© software, with the “metafor” package (version 2.1–0) and “forest” function.

Managing overlapping systematic reviews

Some of the included systematic reviews that address the same or similar research questions may include the same primary studies in overviews. Including such overlapping reviews may introduce bias when outcome data from the same primary study are included in the analyses of an overview multiple times. Thus, in summaries of evidence, multiple-counting of the same outcome data will give data from some primary studies too much influence [ 14 ]. In this overview, we did not exclude overlapping systematic reviews because, according to Cochrane’s guidance, it may be appropriate to include all relevant reviews’ results if the purpose of the overview is to present and describe the current body of evidence on a topic [ 14 ]. To avoid any bias in summary estimates associated with overlapping reviews, we generated forest plots showing data from individual systematic reviews, but the results were not pooled because some primary studies were included in multiple reviews.

Our search retrieved 1063 publications, of which 175 were duplicates. Most publications were excluded after the title and abstract analysis ( n = 860). Among the 28 studies selected for full-text screening, 10 were excluded for the reasons described in Additional file 3 , and 18 were included in the final analysis (Fig. 1 ) [ 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 ]. Reference list screening did not retrieve any additional systematic reviews.

PRISMA flow diagram

Characteristics of included reviews

Summary features of 18 systematic reviews are presented in Table 1 . They were published in 14 different journals. Only four of these journals had specific requirements for systematic reviews (with or without meta-analysis): European Journal of Internal Medicine, Journal of Clinical Medicine, Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology, and Clinical Research in Cardiology . Two journals reported that they published only invited reviews ( Journal of Medical Virology and Clinica Chimica Acta ). Three systematic reviews in our study were published as letters; one was labeled as a scoping review and another as a rapid review (Table 2 ).

All reviews were published in English, in first quartile (Q1) journals, with JIF ranging from 1.692 to 6.062. One review was empty, meaning that its search did not identify any relevant studies; i.e., no primary studies were included [ 36 ]. The remaining 17 reviews included 269 unique studies; the majority ( N = 211; 78%) were included in only a single review included in our study (range: 1 to 12). Primary studies included in the reviews were published between December 2019 and March 18, 2020, and comprised case reports, case series, cohorts, and other observational studies. We found only one review that included randomized clinical trials [ 38 ]. In the included reviews, systematic literature searches were performed from 2019 (entire year) up to March 9, 2020. Ten systematic reviews included meta-analyses. The list of primary studies found in the included systematic reviews is shown in Additional file 4 , as well as the number of reviews in which each primary study was included.

Population and study designs

Most of the reviews analyzed data from patients with COVID-19 who developed pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), or any other correlated complication. One review aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of using surgical masks on preventing transmission of the virus [ 36 ], one review was focused on pediatric patients [ 34 ], and one review investigated COVID-19 in pregnant women [ 37 ]. Most reviews assessed clinical symptoms, laboratory findings, or radiological results.

Systematic review findings

The summary of findings from individual reviews is shown in Table 2 . Overall, all-cause mortality ranged from 0.3 to 13.9% (Fig. 2 ).

A meta-analysis of the prevalence of mortality

Clinical symptoms

Seven reviews described the main clinical manifestations of COVID-19 [ 26 , 28 , 29 , 34 , 35 , 39 , 41 ]. Three of them provided only a narrative discussion of symptoms [ 26 , 34 , 35 ]. In the reviews that performed a statistical analysis of the incidence of different clinical symptoms, symptoms in patients with COVID-19 were (range values of point estimates): fever (82–95%), cough with or without sputum (58–72%), dyspnea (26–59%), myalgia or muscle fatigue (29–51%), sore throat (10–13%), headache (8–12%), gastrointestinal disorders, such as diarrhea, nausea or vomiting (5.0–9.0%), and others (including, in one study only: dizziness 12.1%) (Figs. 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 and 9 ). Three reviews assessed cough with and without sputum together; only one review assessed sputum production itself (28.5%).

A meta-analysis of the prevalence of fever

A meta-analysis of the prevalence of cough

A meta-analysis of the prevalence of dyspnea

A meta-analysis of the prevalence of fatigue or myalgia

A meta-analysis of the prevalence of headache

A meta-analysis of the prevalence of gastrointestinal disorders

A meta-analysis of the prevalence of sore throat

Diagnostic aspects

Three reviews described methodologies, protocols, and tools used for establishing the diagnosis of COVID-19 [ 26 , 34 , 38 ]. The use of respiratory swabs (nasal or pharyngeal) or blood specimens to assess the presence of SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid using RT-PCR assays was the most commonly used diagnostic method mentioned in the included studies. These diagnostic tests have been widely used, but their precise sensitivity and specificity remain unknown. One review included a Chinese study with clinical diagnosis with no confirmation of SARS-CoV-2 infection (patients were diagnosed with COVID-19 if they presented with at least two symptoms suggestive of COVID-19, together with laboratory and chest radiography abnormalities) [ 34 ].

Therapeutic possibilities

Pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions (supportive therapies) used in treating patients with COVID-19 were reported in five reviews [ 25 , 27 , 34 , 35 , 38 ]. Antivirals used empirically for COVID-19 treatment were reported in seven reviews [ 25 , 27 , 34 , 35 , 37 , 38 , 41 ]; most commonly used were protease inhibitors (lopinavir, ritonavir, darunavir), nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (tenofovir), nucleotide analogs (remdesivir, galidesivir, ganciclovir), and neuraminidase inhibitors (oseltamivir). Umifenovir, a membrane fusion inhibitor, was investigated in two studies [ 25 , 35 ]. Possible supportive interventions analyzed were different types of oxygen supplementation and breathing support (invasive or non-invasive ventilation) [ 25 ]. The use of antibiotics, both empirically and to treat secondary pneumonia, was reported in six studies [ 25 , 26 , 27 , 34 , 35 , 38 ]. One review specifically assessed evidence on the efficacy and safety of the anti-malaria drug chloroquine [ 27 ]. It identified 23 ongoing trials investigating the potential of chloroquine as a therapeutic option for COVID-19, but no verifiable clinical outcomes data. The use of mesenchymal stem cells, antifungals, and glucocorticoids were described in four reviews [ 25 , 34 , 35 , 38 ].

Laboratory and radiological findings

Of the 18 reviews included in this overview, eight analyzed laboratory parameters in patients with COVID-19 [ 25 , 29 , 30 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 39 ]; elevated C-reactive protein levels, associated with lymphocytopenia, elevated lactate dehydrogenase, as well as slightly elevated aspartate and alanine aminotransferase (AST, ALT) were commonly described in those eight reviews. Lippi et al. assessed cardiac troponin I (cTnI) [ 25 ], procalcitonin [ 32 ], and platelet count [ 33 ] in COVID-19 patients. Elevated levels of procalcitonin [ 32 ] and cTnI [ 30 ] were more likely to be associated with a severe disease course (requiring intensive care unit admission and intubation). Furthermore, thrombocytopenia was frequently observed in patients with complicated COVID-19 infections [ 33 ].

Chest imaging (chest radiography and/or computed tomography) features were assessed in six reviews, all of which described a frequent pattern of local or bilateral multilobar ground-glass opacity [ 25 , 34 , 35 , 39 , 40 , 41 ]. Those six reviews showed that septal thickening, bronchiectasis, pleural and cardiac effusions, halo signs, and pneumothorax were observed in patients suffering from COVID-19.

Quality of evidence in individual systematic reviews

Table 3 shows the detailed results of the quality assessment of 18 systematic reviews, including the assessment of individual items and summary assessment. A detailed explanation for each decision in each review is available in Additional file 5 .

Using AMSTAR 2 criteria, confidence in the results of all 18 reviews was rated as “critically low” (Table 3 ). Common methodological drawbacks were: omission of prospective protocol submission or publication; use of inappropriate search strategy: lack of independent and dual literature screening and data-extraction (or methodology unclear); absence of an explanation for heterogeneity among the studies included; lack of reasons for study exclusion (or rationale unclear).

Risk of bias assessment, based on a reported methodological tool, and quality of evidence appraisal, in line with the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) method, were reported only in one review [ 25 ]. Five reviews presented a table summarizing bias, using various risk of bias tools [ 25 , 29 , 39 , 40 , 41 ]. One review analyzed “study quality” [ 37 ]. One review mentioned the risk of bias assessment in the methodology but did not provide any related analysis [ 28 ].

This overview of systematic reviews analyzed the first 18 systematic reviews published after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, up to March 24, 2020, with primary studies involving more than 60,000 patients. Using AMSTAR-2, we judged that our confidence in all those reviews was “critically low”. Ten reviews included meta-analyses. The reviews presented data on clinical manifestations, laboratory and radiological findings, and interventions. We found no systematic reviews on the utility of diagnostic tests.

Symptoms were reported in seven reviews; most of the patients had a fever, cough, dyspnea, myalgia or muscle fatigue, and gastrointestinal disorders such as diarrhea, nausea, or vomiting. Olfactory dysfunction (anosmia or dysosmia) has been described in patients infected with COVID-19 [ 43 ]; however, this was not reported in any of the reviews included in this overview. During the SARS outbreak in 2002, there were reports of impairment of the sense of smell associated with the disease [ 44 , 45 ].

The reported mortality rates ranged from 0.3 to 14% in the included reviews. Mortality estimates are influenced by the transmissibility rate (basic reproduction number), availability of diagnostic tools, notification policies, asymptomatic presentations of the disease, resources for disease prevention and control, and treatment facilities; variability in the mortality rate fits the pattern of emerging infectious diseases [ 46 ]. Furthermore, the reported cases did not consider asymptomatic cases, mild cases where individuals have not sought medical treatment, and the fact that many countries had limited access to diagnostic tests or have implemented testing policies later than the others. Considering the lack of reviews assessing diagnostic testing (sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values of RT-PCT or immunoglobulin tests), and the preponderance of studies that assessed only symptomatic individuals, considerable imprecision around the calculated mortality rates existed in the early stage of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Few reviews included treatment data. Those reviews described studies considered to be at a very low level of evidence: usually small, retrospective studies with very heterogeneous populations. Seven reviews analyzed laboratory parameters; those reviews could have been useful for clinicians who attend patients suspected of COVID-19 in emergency services worldwide, such as assessing which patients need to be reassessed more frequently.

All systematic reviews scored poorly on the AMSTAR 2 critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews. Most of the original studies included in the reviews were case series and case reports, impacting the quality of evidence. Such evidence has major implications for clinical practice and the use of these reviews in evidence-based practice and policy. Clinicians, patients, and policymakers can only have the highest confidence in systematic review findings if high-quality systematic review methodologies are employed. The urgent need for information during a pandemic does not justify poor quality reporting.

We acknowledge that there are numerous challenges associated with analyzing COVID-19 data during a pandemic [ 47 ]. High-quality evidence syntheses are needed for decision-making, but each type of evidence syntheses is associated with its inherent challenges.

The creation of classic systematic reviews requires considerable time and effort; with massive research output, they quickly become outdated, and preparing updated versions also requires considerable time. A recent study showed that updates of non-Cochrane systematic reviews are published a median of 5 years after the publication of the previous version [ 48 ].

Authors may register a review and then abandon it [ 49 ], but the existence of a public record that is not updated may lead other authors to believe that the review is still ongoing. A quarter of Cochrane review protocols remains unpublished as completed systematic reviews 8 years after protocol publication [ 50 ].

Rapid reviews can be used to summarize the evidence, but they involve methodological sacrifices and simplifications to produce information promptly, with inconsistent methodological approaches [ 51 ]. However, rapid reviews are justified in times of public health emergencies, and even Cochrane has resorted to publishing rapid reviews in response to the COVID-19 crisis [ 52 ]. Rapid reviews were eligible for inclusion in this overview, but only one of the 18 reviews included in this study was labeled as a rapid review.

Ideally, COVID-19 evidence would be continually summarized in a series of high-quality living systematic reviews, types of evidence synthesis defined as “ a systematic review which is continually updated, incorporating relevant new evidence as it becomes available ” [ 53 ]. However, conducting living systematic reviews requires considerable resources, calling into question the sustainability of such evidence synthesis over long periods [ 54 ].

Research reports about COVID-19 will contribute to research waste if they are poorly designed, poorly reported, or simply not necessary. In principle, systematic reviews should help reduce research waste as they usually provide recommendations for further research that is needed or may advise that sufficient evidence exists on a particular topic [ 55 ]. However, systematic reviews can also contribute to growing research waste when they are not needed, or poorly conducted and reported. Our present study clearly shows that most of the systematic reviews that were published early on in the COVID-19 pandemic could be categorized as research waste, as our confidence in their results is critically low.

Our study has some limitations. One is that for AMSTAR 2 assessment we relied on information available in publications; we did not attempt to contact study authors for clarifications or additional data. In three reviews, the methodological quality appraisal was challenging because they were published as letters, or labeled as rapid communications. As a result, various details about their review process were not included, leading to AMSTAR 2 questions being answered as “not reported”, resulting in low confidence scores. Full manuscripts might have provided additional information that could have led to higher confidence in the results. In other words, low scores could reflect incomplete reporting, not necessarily low-quality review methods. To make their review available more rapidly and more concisely, the authors may have omitted methodological details. A general issue during a crisis is that speed and completeness must be balanced. However, maintaining high standards requires proper resourcing and commitment to ensure that the users of systematic reviews can have high confidence in the results.

Furthermore, we used adjusted AMSTAR 2 scoring, as the tool was designed for critical appraisal of reviews of interventions. Some reviews may have received lower scores than actually warranted in spite of these adjustments.

Another limitation of our study may be the inclusion of multiple overlapping reviews, as some included reviews included the same primary studies. According to the Cochrane Handbook, including overlapping reviews may be appropriate when the review’s aim is “ to present and describe the current body of systematic review evidence on a topic ” [ 12 ], which was our aim. To avoid bias with summarizing evidence from overlapping reviews, we presented the forest plots without summary estimates. The forest plots serve to inform readers about the effect sizes for outcomes that were reported in each review.

Several authors from this study have contributed to one of the reviews identified [ 25 ]. To reduce the risk of any bias, two authors who did not co-author the review in question initially assessed its quality and limitations.

Finally, we note that the systematic reviews included in our overview may have had issues that our analysis did not identify because we did not analyze their primary studies to verify the accuracy of the data and information they presented. We give two examples to substantiate this possibility. Lovato et al. wrote a commentary on the review of Sun et al. [ 41 ], in which they criticized the authors’ conclusion that sore throat is rare in COVID-19 patients [ 56 ]. Lovato et al. highlighted that multiple studies included in Sun et al. did not accurately describe participants’ clinical presentations, warning that only three studies clearly reported data on sore throat [ 56 ].

In another example, Leung [ 57 ] warned about the review of Li, L.Q. et al. [ 29 ]: “ it is possible that this statistic was computed using overlapped samples, therefore some patients were double counted ”. Li et al. responded to Leung that it is uncertain whether the data overlapped, as they used data from published articles and did not have access to the original data; they also reported that they requested original data and that they plan to re-do their analyses once they receive them; they also urged readers to treat the data with caution [ 58 ]. This points to the evolving nature of evidence during a crisis.

Our study’s strength is that this overview adds to the current knowledge by providing a comprehensive summary of all the evidence synthesis about COVID-19 available early after the onset of the pandemic. This overview followed strict methodological criteria, including a comprehensive and sensitive search strategy and a standard tool for methodological appraisal of systematic reviews.

In conclusion, in this overview of systematic reviews, we analyzed evidence from the first 18 systematic reviews that were published after the emergence of COVID-19. However, confidence in the results of all the reviews was “critically low”. Thus, systematic reviews that were published early on in the pandemic could be categorized as research waste. Even during public health emergencies, studies and systematic reviews should adhere to established methodological standards to provide patients, clinicians, and decision-makers trustworthy evidence.

Availability of data and materials

All data collected and analyzed within this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgments

We thank Catherine Henderson DPhil from Swanscoe Communications for pro bono medical writing and editing support. We acknowledge support from the Covidence Team, specifically Anneliese Arno. We thank the whole International Network of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (InterNetCOVID-19) for their commitment and involvement. Members of the InterNetCOVID-19 are listed in Additional file 6 . We thank Pavel Cerny and Roger Crosthwaite for guiding the team supervisor (IJBN) on human resources management.

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Israel Júnior Borges do Nascimento & Milena Soriano Marcolino

Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA

Israel Júnior Borges do Nascimento

Helene Fuld Health Trust National Institute for Evidence-based Practice in Nursing and Healthcare, College of Nursing, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA

Dónal P. O’Mathúna

School of Nursing, Psychotherapy and Community Health, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland

Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care and Pain Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany

Thilo Caspar von Groote

Department of Sport and Health Science, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany

Hebatullah Mohamed Abdulazeem

School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medicine, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia

Ishanka Weerasekara

Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Cochrane Croatia, University of Split, School of Medicine, Split, Croatia

Ana Marusic, Irena Zakarija-Grkovic & Tina Poklepovic Pericic

Center for Evidence-Based Medicine and Health Care, Catholic University of Croatia, Ilica 242, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia

Livia Puljak

Cochrane Brazil, Evidence-Based Health Program, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Vinicius Tassoni Civile & Alvaro Nagib Atallah

Yorkville University, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada

Santino Filoso

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IJBN conceived the research idea and worked as a project coordinator. DPOM, TCVG, HMA, IW, AM, LP, VTC, IZG, TPP, ANA, SF, NLB and MSM were involved in data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, and initial draft writing. All authors revised the manuscript critically for the content. The author(s) read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Livia Puljak .

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Supplementary Information

Additional file 1: appendix 1..

Search strategies used in the study.

Additional file 2: Appendix 2.

Adjusted scoring of AMSTAR 2 used in this study for systematic reviews of studies that did not analyze interventions.

Additional file 3: Appendix 3.

List of excluded studies, with reasons.

Additional file 4: Appendix 4.

Table of overlapping studies, containing the list of primary studies included, their visual overlap in individual systematic reviews, and the number in how many reviews each primary study was included.

Additional file 5: Appendix 5.

A detailed explanation of AMSTAR scoring for each item in each review.

Additional file 6: Appendix 6.

List of members and affiliates of International Network of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (InterNetCOVID-19).

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Borges do Nascimento, I.J., O’Mathúna, D.P., von Groote, T.C. et al. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic: an overview of systematic reviews. BMC Infect Dis 21 , 525 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-021-06214-4

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Alzheimer's is a structure of dementia that motives shrinking of the Genius in the affected person is susceptible to memory. Side effects through a large develop step through step and deteriorate after some time, getting to be extreme sufficient to block from each and every day undertakings. By large, sufferers with malady"those with the late-beginning compose"indications at first show up in their mid-60s. Early-beginning Alzheimer's occurs between a man's 30s and mid-60s and is extraordinarily uncommon. Alzheimer's sickness is the […]

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Diabetes is a chronic disease caused by defects in insulin secretion, leading to increased blood glucose levels. It can be classified into two types: Type 1 Diabetes (T1D), caused by a deficiency of insulin, and Type 2 Diabetes (T2D), caused by insulin resistance. T2D is the most common type of diabetes, accounting for at least 90% of all cases. According to the International Diabetes Foundation, the number of people with T2D was found to increase in most countries as of […]

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Considerations for infectious disease research and practice

As the 21st century unfolds, strategies to prevent and control infectious diseases remain an area of vital interest and concern. The burden of disease, disability, and death caused by infectious diseases is felt around the world in both developed and developing nations. Moreover, the ability of infectious agents to destabilize populations, economies, and governments is strikingly apparent. To an unprecedented degree, infectious disease-related issues are high on the agendas of world leaders, philanthropists, policymakers, and the public. This enhanced focus, combined with recent scientific and technological advances, creates new opportunities and challenges for infectious disease research and practice. This paper examines these issues in the context of three countries: China, India, and the United States.

1. Introduction

Only a few decades ago, there was enormous optimism that the threat of infectious diseases was receding. Scientific and technologic advances, such as the development of antibiotics and vaccines, along with improved hygiene, sanitation, and vector control, enabled dramatic improvements in health and led many to predict the end of infectious disease [1] . This was especially true in the industrialized world, but even the poorest nations showed encouraging signs of victory in the battle against infectious disease.

Nonetheless, we know today that such optimism was premature. It did not take into account critical factors such as the extraordinary increase in international travel and trade, and the movement of people into urban settings—many into mega-cities—where the spread of disease is amplified through crowding, poor sanitation, and inadequate hygiene. It also did not recognize that changing agricultural practices and environmental manipulations would dramatically alter disease vectors and opportunities for exposure. That early optimism did not reflect the continuing challenge of how to change behaviors that increase transmission and exposure, including risky sexual practices and intravenous drug use. In addition, it underestimated the extraordinary resilience and ability of microbes to change and adapt, and the continuing difficulty of ensuring that existing medical knowledge and tools translate into real-world care for anyone who needs it, whether because of inadequate resources, ignorance, or complacency. Sadly, it is now apparent that we also live in an era when we must prepare for the possibility of microbial agents being used intentionally as weapons to do harm [2] .

2. The burden of infectious disease

In our modern world, infectious diseases still claim millions of lives every year. Globally, infectious disease represents the second leading cause of death, and the leading cause of death for children and adults under the age of 50. Infectious diseases place a particularly severe burden on the less-developed parts of the world, causing one in every two deaths. Overall, infectious diseases account for about 30% of healthy years lost to illness, as measured by disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) [3] .

2.1. Emerging and re-emerging infections

Within just the last few decades, more than 30 newly discovered infectious disease threats [4] have emerged. The majority of these have been zoonoses, or human diseases that have their origins in animal disease. HIV, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), H5N1 avian influenza, Ebola, and Nipah virus are a few such examples [5] . We have also witnessed the re-emergence or resurgence of old diseases like West Nile disease, monkeypox, dengue fever, malaria, and TB, often in new geographic regions. In some cases, the resurgence of diseases like malaria and TB has come in new and more dangerous forms that are drug-resistant, which is becoming a serious problem worldwide. Unfortunately, the widespread and often inappropriate use of antimicrobials has led to the emergence of resistant strains of many microbes, complicating the management of a wide variety of diseases, and threatening future treatment options [2] .

Virtually all nations have been affected by these emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. In addition, prospects for more emerging diseases will likely increase in coming years due to continuing globalization of trade and travel, urbanization and crowding, inadequate health care, and encroachment on the environment—all leading to new interactions between people and animals and other vectors of disease. While the scope of the problem is vast, the encouraging fact is that we have an opportunity to make enormous improvements in health through new understandings of the threats we face and appropriate applications of scientific and technological advances.

2.2. Infectious component of chronic diseases

It is important to recognize that there can be a substantial infectious component to chronic disease. In fact, many chronic conditions once thought unrelated to infectious disease are now linked to bacterial, viral, or parasitic agents. This is an area of active exploration and research, and many fascinating examples are emerging in the realm of cancer, cardiovascular disease, neurological disease, ulcers, diabetes, and others, with far-reaching implications for health.

Recent research indicates that viruses are a causal factor in 15–20% of all human cancers [1] . For example, human papilloma virus causes almost all cases of cervical cancer, a major killer of women worldwide. Liver cancer is the third leading cause of cancer death in the world, and hepatitis B and C account for about 80% of all liver cancers. In many of these cases, viral genes are necessary for the initial development of the tumor as well as for the continuing survival of tumor cells in the final malignant stage. This suggests there may be opportunities to prevent or possibly cure certain cancers through control of either the initial viral infection or through the inhibition of viral functions [6] . In fact, the use of hepatitis B vaccine has already resulted in a decreased incidence of liver cancer in certain populations [1] .

2.3. Infectious disease in the US, China, and India

No nation is immune to the complex challenges of infectious disease. In more developed countries such as the United States, but also in China and India, the burden of infectious disease is less pronounced but still severe. The US has demonstrated the greatest progress in the struggle against infectious disease, with a 10-fold decrease in the number of infectious disease deaths over the first half of the twentieth century, thanks to improvements in sanitation, hygiene, and the introduction of antibiotics and vaccines. In the following decades, there were continuing improvements—although less dramatic—until the 1980s, when infectious disease rates actually began to increase because of emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases, including HIV/AIDS. However, even when deaths from HIV/AIDS are excluded, there is still a general upward trend in the number of deaths from infectious disease [2] .

Both China and India have made enormous strides in improving the health and curbing the spread of infectious diseases, reflecting the remarkable economic progress of these two nations [7] . However, people in these countries remain at a higher risk of developing infectious diseases and dying from their illness than people in the US, largely due to poor sanitation, unhygienic living conditions, and inadequate access to quality healthcare.

India suffers the greater burden of infectious disease. India is estimated to have the second highest number of HIV/AIDS cases in the world (second only to South Africa), with over 4.58 million infected people. Half a million people are projected to die from AIDS in India next year, and 600,000 are in urgent need of antiretroviral therapy [8] . Tuberculosis, including multi-drug resistant-tuberculosis (MDR-TB), also represents a major challenge for India. Cholera and dengue fever have been longstanding health problems in India; however, outbreaks of both of these diseases have increased significantly of late. Acute respiratory infections, diarrhea, and neonatal infections remain major childhood killers, despite significant improvements in immunization rates in recent years [8] .

China is better off than most of the countries to its south. The toll of many infectious diseases, including sexually transmitted disease, malaria, schistosomiasis, and vaccine-preventable diseases, was substantially reduced over past decades, although recent reports from China indicate continuing problems with increasing trends for some areas [9] , [10] . The most prevalent disease is tuberculosis, followed by hepatitis B, dysentery, syphilis, and gonorrhea. According to official reports, these five diseases account for almost 88% of all reported cases [11] . Although overall prevalence remains relatively low, HIV/AIDS is fast becoming a major problem. As of the end of 2005, the Chinese Ministry of Health estimated that 650,000 people in China were infected, with an estimated 70,000 new HIV infections and 25,000 deaths that year [12] . The joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) predicted that by 2010 over 10 million people could become infected, and it termed this HIV epidemic as “China's titanic peril” [13] .

China is highly vulnerable to other emerging infectious diseases as well. Animal husbandry practices in China have led to close contacts between animal and human populations. In fact, China has more people, pigs, and poultry (1.3 billion, 508 million, and 13 billion, respectively) living in close proximity to people than any nation in the world—or in history [14] . With high levels of avian flu circulating within the country, China is now dangerously positioned to become the source of a new pandemic flu. Such conditions also raise significant concerns about the emergence of another serious zoonotic disease like the SARS outbreak, which began in China.

3. The widening context of infectious disease threats

Addressing the problems of serious endemic infectious disease is a fundamental and urgent requirement. However, the increasingly transnational nature of emerging infectious diseases constitutes one of the greatest challenges of our modern era. In today's highly interconnected world, a disease that occurs in one part of the world can travel around the globe in less than 24 hours. In recent years, avian flu, SARS, and HIV/AIDS have received prominent coverage, but they are only three on a list of infectious diseases that require a global response.

Moreover, outbreaks of these diseases have the potential to cause profound economic damage, as well as social and political instability. India learned this lesson in 1994 when there was an outbreak of pneumonic plague in Surat. The national and international response led to the closure of airports and dramatic disruptions in tourism and trade, at an estimated cost to India of approximately $1.7 billion [15] . More recently, this lesson was brought home to China when SARS emerged in Guangdong Province in 2003 and spread rapidly throughout China and around the globe. Health authorities were unprepared, and serious deficiencies were revealed in China's ability to mount an effective, coordinated response. Early on, official efforts to conceal the extent of the emerging epidemic exacerbated the situation and critical time for disease identification and containment was lost. The consequences were devastating for China and the world; more than 8000 people were infected and some 800 died; cities were paralyzed for months; travel was disrupted; and the direct economic impact on other countries in the region was estimated to be as high as $30 billion [8] . China was forced to reassess its ability to control communicable disease, and to make new commitments to strengthen its systems for infectious disease control.

4. Critical role of infectious disease research

As new attention and concern is directed to the challenges of global health and infectious disease, extraordinary advances in life sciences research and biotechnology have already begun to drive a global transformation in the design, development, and delivery of new tools to combat infectious diseases. In addition to basic research into how infectious organisms cause disease, and how the human immune system responds—both of which will enable new understanding into the nature of disease and how to address it—new opportunities have appeared. These include rapid and effective strategies for early detection of microbes, antibiotic sensitivity profiles, targeted efforts to improve drugs and therapeutics to manage or cure infectious disease, new and improved vaccines for prevention and control of disease, and new systems to more efficiently deliver therapeutic and preventive interventions. Other technology advances with important implications for infectious disease and public health include enhanced systems for disease surveillance and early recognition, as well as opportunities to more meaningfully analyze and model disease outbreaks and develop strategies for their control.

The emergence and rapid expansion of fields such as recombinant biology, genomics and proteomics, systems biology, synthetic biology, information technology (including computer and mathematical modeling), genetic epidemiology, and nanotechnology underlie much of these new understandings, capabilities, and opportunities [16] . For example, the application of functional genomics and proteomics enables a deeper understanding of the etiology of disease and its manifestations. Synthetic biology offers important new strategies for drug discovery and design. Work at the intersection of these fields and cross-disciplinary approaches are increasingly critical. For example, because many important pathogens persist in animal reservoirs or may be transmitted to human hosts through other vectors, examination of important aspects of infectious disease transmission in these systems, including animal and human host resistance and susceptibility, vector efficiency, genetic variabilities, and population dynamics, will be essential.

At the same time that advances in science offer new tools to analyze information and better understand disease, they also offer opportunities to greatly enhance the speed of progress. For example, continuing technology advances in DNA sequencing will make it possible to rapidly characterize more and more genomes, offering greater insights into basic composition and individual variation in both human and pathogen populations. The ability of genomics to support the development of increasingly rapid and reliable assessment tools like microarrays will be a huge asset to the swift diagnosis of infectious disease agents. Applications from the fields of robotics and informatics will facilitate rapid, high-throughput screening for new potential antimicrobial drug candidates. Information technology will enable large quantities of data to be rapidly mined, with a goal of more effective disease identification or trend tracking in real time that enables swift response.

Continuing advances in technology will make a range of important tools, techniques, and assays increasingly accessible to those with less training and expertise, which will greatly broaden their utility and impact. However, as these advances move forward, parallel efforts must be undertaken to reduce costs. Cost remains a major barrier to effective application of these tools, whether for research, for clinical care, or for public health disease control interventions. Correspondingly, the link between infectious disease research, and health care needs, services, and training must be strengthened in order to ensure that the appropriate research agenda is addressed and implemented. Moreover, without a commitment to some minimal level of infrastructure for healthcare, the benefits of scientific advances will not translate into meaningful care for those in need.

5. The changing context of life sciences research

The field of infectious disease is being transformed by advances in new fields of science. While US scientific research in the life sciences and biotechnology sectors still leads the world, the US no longer stands alone in its levels of research productivity or research funding [16] , [17] . Both China and India are becoming major players, which has important implications for the conduct and content of infectious disease research and practice.

With booming economies and new spending power, both India and China see enormous opportunities to invest in key areas of emerging scientific activity, such as genomics and proteomics, information technology, and nanotechnology, and are placing an increasing premium on innovation in their scientific enterprise [18] , [19] . Clearly, advances in these fields are vital for addressing some of the most pressing disease challenges in those countries and beyond, but investment is also seen as a critical component of their national economic development strategy.

One indicator of the growing role of China and India can be seen in the reversal of the “brain drain.” With considerable new investments to strengthen educational institutions, research facilities, and research funding, growing numbers of talented Indian and Chinese scientists are choosing to stay in their home country to undertake scientific training and careers. In addition, the number of Western scientists seeking research opportunities in Chinese and Indian institutions is on the rise. Many foreign companies, including large multinationals, are deciding to establish sites or launch ventures in China and India because of the large and relatively inexpensive talent pool and the lower costs of doing business [16] .

While China and India are well positioned to become powerful players in the infectious disease arena, rapid expansion of their life sciences research and the associated pressures to produce economy-boosting science have led to concerns about quality control, ethics, and the adequacy of research and production oversight [20] . Continued success and the ability to compete at the global level will require sustained investment to strengthen and extend the scientific research infrastructure in these countries, including improving the quality of higher education, regulatory oversight, adherence to ethical and biosecurity regulations, and open, transparent collaboration.

It is in all our best interests to strengthen the cooperative nature of these scientific endeavors. Enchancing scientific links and forging far-reaching scientific collaborations will have many benefits. For one thing, a large share of the serious infectious disease problems of global concern currently exist or are likely to emerge from regions that include China and India. Research and development in those areas has special value because it is generally easier and more economical to study diseases where they are endemic. With respect to public health, such collaboration becomes imperative because of the transnational consequences of many of those infectious diseases. Fundamental knowledge about the nature of certain organisms and the diseases they cause, as well as opportunities for early detection, response, and control, can most effectively be achieved through broad-based collaboration. Such collaboration builds confidence and transparency and promotes sharing of data in a timely manner. This will strengthen the science base and opportunities for discovery, and amplify resources for meaningful action. Open scientific collaboration among these nations will also help to support quality research of the highest scientific and ethical standards.

6. Potential for misapplication

In an era of terrorism, such collaboration takes on additional importance. It is evident that growth in biotechnology and the explosion of knowledge about the fundamental building blocks of life—and how to manipulate them—bring with it staggering and unpredictable power. While advances in modern biology offer great hope to improve health and prevent disease, they also offer tools that can be used—through malevolence, misapplication, or sheer inadvertence—to create new and more dangerous organisms, and effective mechanisms for delivery. From a scientific perspective, managing this threat is a complex challenge. No one wants to impede the progress of legitimate and important science. However, we must recognize a set of real concerns. Meaningful solutions will require the full engagement and support of the scientific community, as well as a mix of strategies that include professional standards and codes of conduct, national rules and regulations, international guidelines and agreements, and a fundamental shift in understanding and accountability about how science is done.

The potential threat of bioterrorism is felt most profoundly in the US, where the anthrax attacks in 2001 heightened attention and concern. In recent years, new initiatives have been undertaken to examine the implications of advances in life sciences research and biotechnology, and the government has tightened its ability to monitor the procurement and use of dangerous pathogens [16] . Other countries have indicated concern about this threat as well. For example, the Chinese government and its scientific leaders have developed codes of conduct and other regulations to address biosecurity and reduce the risk of bioterrorism [21] . India has also begun to address this threat through policy and programs now underway [22] . Many cross-national initiatives have also been undertaken to engage these and other nations, and to develop a scientific awareness and ethos to foster adequate and appropriate oversight of biosecurity, including the responsible stewardship of research activities, knowledge, and materials. International cooperation will be essential to achieving these goals.

7. Conclusion

Looking to the future, all nations share a common need to meet the challenge of more effectively detecting, tracking, treating, and preventing infectious diseases. The scientific research community must respond by identifying critical needs and developing strategies to address them. These challenges will require the integration of cutting-edge science and technology with a complex array of social, political, legal, ethical, and economic realities. Moreover, it will require new partnerships across nations, and a more effective coordination of public- and private-sector efforts. And throughout, it will require a delicate balancing act between competing priorities, including: global health needs; personal, national, and international security; the role of the research enterprise and industry on the economy of a growing number of countries; and support for the advancement of science and its safe application.

Margaret A. Hamburg, M.D., is Senior Scientist at the Global Health and Security Initiative, Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI), and an expert in public health, infectious diseases, and emergency preparedness. She was founding Vice President for Biological Threats at NTI and helped to create their Global Health and Security Initiative. Prior to this, Dr. Hamburg held the positions of: Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, US Department of Health and Human Services; New York City Commissioner of Health; and Assistant Director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH. A graduate of Harvard College and Harvard Medical School, Dr. Hamburg serves on numerous boards and committees. She is a member of the Institute of Medicine/NAS, the Council on Foreign Relations, and American Association for the Advancement of Science.

618 Disease Essay Topics & Examples

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🏆 Best Disease Essay Topics & Examples

👍 good disease topics to write about, ✅ easy diseases to write about, 💡 most interesting disease topics to write about, 📌 writing prompts about disease, 🔍 good research topics about disease, ❓ research questions about diseases.

After the Covid-19 pandemic, students are regularly assigned to explore health issues and precautions. Whether you’re interested in writing about risk factors, chronic illnesses, or lifestyles, we can help! Check our disease essay topics and get a perfect title for your paper.

• Control of Communicable Diseases Hence, there is a need to prioritize the control and prevention levels for these diseases upon the occurrence of the calamities.
• Living With a Chronic Disease: Diabetes and Asthma This paper will look at the main effects of chronic diseases in the lifestyle of the individuals and analyze the causes and the preventive measures of diabetes as a chronic disease.
• Hypertension. Disease Analysis The successful detection of genes that leads to the development of hypertension enables health experts to develop the appropriate strategies to mitigate the impact of the said disease.
• Cell Organelles, Their Functions, and Disease Mitochondria-associated membrane, a specialized sub-group of the ER has specific lipid and protein composition and is involved in cross-communication with mitochondria.
• Health, Disease and Social Problems As AIDS is relevant to the end of the last century, and the beginning of the millennium, there were questions, on whether the new disease is connected to the cultural changes that occurred in the […]
• Managing Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease The PICOT question is “In the care of Alzheimer’s and dementia patients, does integrated community-based care as compared to being in a long-term care facility improve outcome throughout the remainder of their lives”.
• Health Promotion and Disease Prevention and Management Strategies Since its founding in 1884, Montefiore Medical Center has worked tirelessly to improve the health and well-being of the people of New York City.
• Chronic Kidney Disease Diagnosis and Treatment Timely intervention and the search for appropriate treatment can help to reduce the impact of the ailment on the human body, and the use of various methods to combat the disease can be effective in […]
• The Case Study of Patient With Late-Stage Alzheimer’s Disease In the majority of cases of Alzheimer’s, it has been shown that patients are unable to make decisions on their own and are also unable to communicate their assent verbally.
• AIDS/HIV: Description of the Disease This is the very reason why many who have acquired HIV or AIDS result to an eventual death because of the lack of immune system that protects them from acquiring other forms of illnesses.
• The Role of Man in Environment Degradation and Diseases The link between environmental degradation and human beings explains the consequences of the same in relation to the emergence of modern-age diseases.
• Family Trend Change and Disease Factor The hastening of our customs and the organization of the family as the leading structure has led to a new family trend.
• Infectious and Lifestyle Diseases Negative impacts include a plethora of serious diseases, and not the least dangerous of them are infectious. In conclusion, a person’s body can be affected by a plethora of conditions that stem from outside intrusions […]
• Pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s Disease The study will discuss the pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s disease, such as risk factors, cellular involvement, genetic influences, and the interventions of the available therapy’s pharmacological Interventions.
• Noncommunicable Diseases, Risk Factors and Prevention Alcohol use is a significant preventable risk factor for noncommunicable diseases such as cirrhosis of the liver, certain types of cancer and cardiovascular disease, and injury from violence and road clashes and collisions.
• Poverty and Diseases A usual line of reasoning would be that low income is the main cause of health-related problems among vulnerable individuals. Such results that the relationship between mental health and poverty is, in fact, straightforward.
• Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Community Teaching Plan Based on the study by Hailu, Mergal, Nishimwe, Samson, and Santos, the majority of adolescents receive no advice from parents concerning the unwanted consequences of sexual relationships, including STDs. Since 2013, in people aged 15-24, […]
• Family Nursing Care Plan – Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Therefore, it is critical to consider a holistic approach to take care of the family and improve the quality of their lifestyle.
• Meningitis Disease: Symptoms and Treatment The various transmission paths are detailed below: Mother to child-During delivery, some of the bacteria and viruses that cause meningitis can be transmitted from the mother to the baby.
• Health Behaviors That Impact Risk Factors for Diseases High BMI characterizing overweight and obesity is a risk factor for According to Key et al, healthy eating is second to lack of smoking in the prevention of cancers.
• The Pathophysiology of Hashimoto’s Disease The antibodies that bind and block the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor are a potential cause of the impairment of the functionality of the thyroid gland.
• Coronary Artery Disease The inner walls of the arteries contain a lot of plaques, which leads to the restriction of the blood flow to the heart since arteries have abnormal function and tone.
• Aspects of Childhood Diseases In my opinion, to some factors that may be contributing to an increased incidence of childhood allergies and asthma belong the state of the environment and people’s lack of responsibility for the health of others.
• Rheumatoid Arthritis: Disease’ Biology Autoimmune diseases include a range of common conditions that affect the health of people in the United States, and according to the statistics, being a female is an important risk factor in the majority of […]
• Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) Treatment The proton pump inhibitor is in the class of drugs that permanently block gastric proton pump which is essential for the secretion of the gastric acid by the parietal cells of the stomach.
• Chronic Kidney Disease: Prevention and Treatment A transplant surgery does not cure CKD. Therefore, recipients need to continue with other disease management strategies such as medications, diet, or dialysis.
• Chronic Kidney Disease Etiology and Management The statistics show the percentage of the population having CKD and the relation between demographic factors and the risk of developing this disease.
• Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) This paper assesses the magnitude of CKD, develops a program, and sets objectives on how the program can be used to achieve the aim of the Healthy People 2020 in relation to CKD.
• Diagnosis and Treatment of Crohn’s Disease The research was primarily conducted to report the causes of crohn’s disease and the people who can be infected by the disease.
• Social Determinants of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Inequalities in the UK Consequently, social determinants are one of the key factors determining people’s health in the UK. Social determinants significantly impact people’s health, particularly the emergence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in the UK.
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Lifestyle Secondary inhalation increases the total burden of the gases taken into the lungs leading to COPD and respiratory symptoms. In summary, COPD obstructs the flow of air from an individual’s lungs.
• Analysis of Coronary Heart Disease In such a manner, the delivery of blood with oxygen and nutrients to the whole body is timely and undisrupted, which guarantees the healthy functioning of the whole physiological system.
• Vesicoureteral Reflux Disease and Nursing Intervention The main cause of the disease is the dysfunction of the bladder as a result of nerve or muscle failure and blockage of the processes that control bladder emptying nursing care plans, 2019).
• Poliomyelitis: Disease Overview The international agencies in health courses will help in the comprehension of the various health agencies in the world. This will help me in choosing the correct agency to work for so that it will […]
• Policy Proposal in Regards to Sex Workers as a Site of Disease Spread Sex workers generally refer to those who work in the sex industry and provide sexual services. According to the International Union of Sex Workers, the term encompasses all those who work in the industry whether […]
• Gallstone Disease Pathology and Treatment She further claims that the pain rotates around the chest and on the lower side of the inferior angle of the scapula.
• Cardiovascular Disease and Caffeine Effects There have been conflicting ideas about the effects of caffeine on the body especially in relation to the development of cardiovascular diseases. The increased prevalence of cardiovascular diseases is mainly due to the changes in […]
• Mercury Toxicity: Description of Disease These different forms of mercury produce different levels of toxicity; however, all of them are toxic depending on the route of exposure, the period of such and the dose involved.
• Addiction: Is It a Disease or Moral Failing? According to the journal article of clinical and research news, a disease can be defined as a complicated relationship existing between the environment of an individual and the general genetic makeup that combines together resulting […]
• Typhoid Fever as a Global Infectious Disease A detailed description of a place where the disease is located allows one to understand its geography and focus on a particular area for the study to estimate the probability of contamination of different communities.
• Community Teaching Work Plan: Diseases Prevention Topic: The topic of the teaching work plan proposal hereof is Prevention of Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Miami, Florida. Since the number of the affected is on the rise in Miami, preventive teaching is required.
• Genitourinary System Diseases Diagnostics Current medical problem: 28-year-old female presents to the clinic with a 2-day history of frequency, burning, and pain upon urination; increased lower abdominal pain and vaginal discharge over the past week.
• Efficacy of Subantimicrobial Dose Doxycycline in Periodontitis Management A total of 266 participants met the inclusion criteria and were then randomized to either the SDD-40 group or to the placebo group. For those participants in the SDD-40 arm, intent to treat analysis of […]
• Cardiovascular Disease: Acute Coronary Syndrome in Women The aim of this essay is to critically study a case of a female case of acute coronary syndrome, the path of discussion will focus on risk factors, pathogenesis and the role of emergency and […]
• Environmental Health Burdens and Non-Communicable Disease The access to low-cost sanitation in Nepal may be expanded due to the involvement of the public and private sectors or such organizations as NGOs.
• Workplace Accidents, Diseases and Safety Policies This report explores the negative effects of accidents and diseases on the wellbeing of for-profit organizations in a bid to understand why such organizations choose to invest in workplace health and safety.
• Cardiovascular Disease Risks and Preventive Education First of all, tobacco use is considered to be one of the main risk factors that may lead to many health-related issues, including CVD.
• Understanding Ebola: Symptoms, Transmission, and Prevention Measures Ebola is a viral disease that attacks all the cells of the body in a systematic process starting with the white blood cells.
• Microbes and Human Health: Benefits, Disease, and Policies Microbes are capable of causing diseases to enter the body through different channels, including the digestive and respiratory tracts and damaged skin. Various policies are in place at the local, state, and federal levels to […]
• Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus Disease The primary measure in case of MRSA appearance is the activation of search-and-destroy protocols against its further dissemination, while settings that are affected by this pathogen are also prompted to utilize MRSA guidelines for personal […]
• Parkinson’s Disease: Pathogenic Mechanisms and Treatments The purpose of Parkinson’s disease research is to better understand the causes, mechanisms, and progression of the disease and to develop new treatments and management strategies to improve the lives of people living with Parkinson’s […]
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Concept Map The goal of the study is to examine the issue in light of the patient’s other illnesses. Overall, Beryl’s past medical history and current symptoms can be explained by the pathological processes that occur in […]
• Parkinson’s Disease: Overall Information Various demographic and environmental factors may be involved in the genesis of Parkinson’s disease and influence the severity of the condition, which widens the perspective on the topic.
• Aspects of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease This is an infection of the upper parts of the female genital organs, and inflammatory diseases of the pelvic organs usually occur in sexually active women.
• Infectious Disease and Public Health A comprehensive evaluation and analysis of the disease, including its overall description, strategies to address it, and current research on the disease, allows the government to develop more practical and effective strategies to address the […]
• Worst Infectious Disease Outbreaks in History: Plague The type of specimen to be studied may also include separable ulcers or punctate from the carbuncle in the cutaneous form of plague and material from the pharynx taken with a swab, and sputum in […]
• Managing Crohn’s Disease: A Comprehensive Approach A diet low in fiber and residue is also recommended to minimize the likelihood of intestinal blockage brought on by a constricted stricture.
• Chronic Diseases as a Public Health Issue A low level of education is related to the escalated risk of the chronic condition, and the illness poses a barrier to achieving higher educational levels.
• Mitochondrial Diseases Treatment Through Genetic Engineering Any disorders and abnormalities in the development of mitochondrial genetic information can lead to the dysfunction of these organelles, which in turn affects the efficiency of intracellular ATP production during the process of cellular respiration.
• The Gap in Quality Care of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease While nowadays, numerous efforts are made to address the gap in the quality of treatment of patients with COPD, the problem of poor communication between diverse services is rooted in history.
• Telemedicine for Chronic Diseases: PICOT (Research) Question Hypertension is a diagnosis related to diseases of the heart and blood vessels associated with high blood pressure for a long time. Doing this is virtually more convenient for both the doctor and the patient.
• The Urinary Disease and the Use of Diuretics Moreover, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of how diuretics, which are prescribed for other diseases of the body, act on the functioning of the nephron.
• The Use of Telemedicine in Chronic Diseases Effective management of chronic diseases is essential for improving patient outcomes, reducing healthcare costs, and decreasing the burden on healthcare systems. A specific opportunity in this area is the use of telemedicine for the management […]
• How Spirituality Affects Disease Development The appearance of various diseases can be considered from the point of view of religion as a consequence of this fall and means the punishment of a person.
• Mental Health Diseases in the Middle Ages and Today In the Middle Ages, the manner in which the conditions were addressed varied depending on the philosophical and religious beliefs of the patient as well as the caregiver.
• Diseases of the Past and Their Modern Names Although studying the history of diseases and epidemics of the past is valuable for identification, one must be aware of the risks of arriving at speculative conclusions due to a limited understanding of the contextual […]
• Heart Diseases in Florida: Cardiology The Centers for Disease Control in Florida encourages the management of heart ailments and dementia in all the regions and Districts of Florida.
• Healthcare Cost Depending on Chronic Disease Management of Diabetes and Hypertension A sufficient level of process optimization and the presence of a professional treating staff in the necessary number will be able to help improve the indicators.
• Cholera Disease: Diagnostics and Treatment Cholera may quickly become critical because in most serious cases, the swift loss of a large number of electrolytes and fluids in the body may contribute to death in a few hours.
• Sexually Transmitted Diseases Discussion Therefore, the reason why HIV is so hard to cure is that it resides in the nucleus, which is a stable reservoir where it goes undetected by the immune system and the medication administered. Chlamydia […]
• Ebola Disease, Its Nature and Treatment The virus takes its name from the Ebola River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where it was first reported.
• Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Curable and Incurable However, if an individual with the disease fails to get treatment and does not take care of themselves by not sharing needles or not wearing a condom, then they could spread the disease.
• Coronary Heart Disease Caused by Stress It is essential to study the degree of influence of stress on the development of coronary heart disease since, in this way, it will be possible to prevent it more successfully.
• Tests and Screenings: Diabetes and Chronic Kidney Disease The test is offered to patients regardless of gender, while the age category is usually above 45 years. CDC1 recommends doing the test regardless of gender and is conducted once or twice to check the […]
• Neurobiology of Disease: Article Summary Additionally, the study has demonstrated that activation of Akt by Ca2+ signaling, which is mediated by the AMPA receptor, controls glioblastoma cell growth and motility.
• Immunization: Vaccines for Infectious Diseases Vaccines induce active immune defense against a dangerous substance A vaccine is a portion of a microbial pathogen Vaccination evolved from homeopathic perspectives By the 11th century of the use of variola scabs in the […]
• Autoimmune Diseases: Types, Epidemiology, Symptoms & More The other type is a grave disease that alters the normal functioning of the thyroid gland, causing one to have weight loss. The existence of autoimmune diseases means a balance discrepancy between the regulator of […]
• Chronic Kidney Disease and Phosphorus Management The expected outcome is improved staff knowledge that will lead to better patient education and may raise the bar in the care of patients with CKD.
• Periodontal Disease: Patient-Focused Explanation Infections and inflammatory responses of the gums and jawbone that support the teeth are the primary causes of periodontal disease. Periodontal disease is caused by inflammation around a tooth because bacteria in the mouth infect […]
• Infectious Disease Assignment: Herpes Zoster Regarding agent factors, the presence of the varicella-zoster virus in the body after the recovery from chickenpox predisposes the host to develop HZ even if the virus remains dormant for years. HZ’s progression is linked […]
• Neurological and Musculoskeletal Systems and Diseases The role of trigger phenomena in the musculoskeletal system, as well as the participation of the peripheral component in the occurrence of headaches, is considered indisputable.
• Chronic Disease Cost Calculator (Diabetes) This paper aims at a thorough, detailed, and exhaustive explanation of such a chronic disease as diabetes in terms of the prevalence and cost of treatment in the United States and Maryland.
• Cardiovascular Disease in Minorities The disease in question is left ventricular dysfunction, which is caused by social determinants of health, as she is a minority.
• Lyme Disease and Its Clinical Spectrum However, the possibility of infection is not excluded by contact with the feces of the tick on the skin, with subsequent absorption by scratching. With effective therapy and recovery, the level of antibodies is normalized.
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease in Vulnerable Settings In vulnerable settings, COPD becomes a challenge for healthcare facilities due to a combination of factors contributing to the prevalence of the condition, especially in rural areas.
• Anorexia as Social and Psychological Disease Many who were used to his weight knew, though Bob is not the most handsome, but a charming person, kind and friendly.
• Infectious and Chronic Diseases: Causes & Prevention These include poor nutrition, which leads to the emergence of vulnerabilities due to the failure to supply the necessary amount of nutrients and vitamins to the patient’s body, which leads to a drop in the […]
• Parkinson’s Disease: Symptoms and Predictors The hypothesis was: “differences in the genotype and gender of rats affect the predicates of motor activity deficit as a symptom of Parkinson’s disease, namely anxiety and ultrasonic vocalization”.
• Pollution and Respiratory Disease in Louisiana The United States of America is an industrial powerhouse, a powerful nation that devoted much of its time to the growth and development of the petrochemical industry.
• Alzheimer’s Disease Diagnosis and Intervention The accumulation of plaques and tangles in the brain is a hallmark of the disease, resulting in the death of neurons and a decline in mental capacity.
• Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease in Children There is an increase in the number of confirmed cases, and the curve has a steep slope. The incubation period is the time from exposure to the onset of symptoms.
• Peripheral Arterial Disease: Symptoms, Treatment, and Complications Thus, the authors point to the need for a more thorough and thoughtful study of the disease and how it can affect the development of other abnormalities in the human body.
• Antioxidants: The Role in Preventing Cancer and Heart Disease Some of antioxidants are more widely known as vitamins E, C, and carotenoids, and have a reputation of preventing cardiovascular diseases and cancer.
• Alzheimer’s Disease: Assessment and Intervention The caregiver is recommended to install safety locks and alarms on all doors and windows to prevent the patient from leaving the apartment without supervision.
• Obesity and Coronary Heart Disease As shown in Table 1, the researchers have collected data about the rate of obesity and CHD in the chosen group.
• Colorectal Cancer Screening and Its Effect on Disease Incidence The purpose of this quantitative quasi-experimental quality improvement project was to determine if or to what degree the implementation of the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality’s System Approach to Tracking and Increasing Screening for […]
• The End-Stage Renal Disease Program According to Benjamin and Lappin, the condition directly adds to the global incidence of death and morbidity by raising cardiovascular risk globally.
• Ascites as Gastrointestinal Disease Process Ascites is a condition characterized by the pathological accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity. The condition worsens the quality of life and can lead to complications such as kidney failure, increased risk of infections, […]
• Analysis of Communicable Disease: Influenza Droplets landing on the mouth or nose can promote transmission of the virus, which can also happen from touching infected surfaces and transferring into the mouth.
• COPD, Valvular Disease, and CHF: Risk of Heart Disease Under these conditions, it is possible to analyze the case regarding the high risks of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, valvular disease, and congestive heart failure.
• Human Immunodeficiency Virus Among Emerging Diseases In the United States, the people affected by the disorder are children at the age of 13 or younger, gay and bisexual men. HIV can be discovered by assessing the number of CD4 and the […]
• Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Factors Thus, the pathogenesis of NAFLD is linked to the accumulation of fat in the liver and the subsequent development of insulin resistance.
• Tetanus Infection, Disease and Treatment The disease interferes with breathing due to spasms in the ribs and the diaphragm muscles and rigidity in the abdominal and back muscles.
• Measuring Motor Functions in Parkinson’s Disease The main idea of the Hoehn and Yahr scale is to measure the progress of symptoms and the level of disability in PD patients.
• Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Choline Theory The purpose of the paper lies in showing how ineffective conventional techniques have been to the masses and how the idea of choline supplements might be the key to mitigating NAFLD.
• Morbidity and Mortality Factors of Disease Management It is worth noting that it is necessary to take into account not only the number of deaths from a particular disease but also the total number, as well as the severity of tolerance.
• Preventing Sexually Transmitted Diseases Among Older Adults The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention provides a standard curriculum for adults that helps with understanding the types of STDs and how to avoid them.
• Pathophysiology of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Lung Cancer It is also evident that the illness acts fast due to the continuous multiplication of the cancer cells leading to breathing disruptions and eventual death. This sustained weight loss is primarily essential to the advancement […]
• Sickle Cell Disease and Its Hereditary Factor Given that SCD affects over 100,000 Americans, I do not support the practice of testing African Americans for the sickle-cell trait.
• Sexually Transmitted Diseases Analysis Since the topic is sensitive and it might even be uncomfortable for the audience, the teacher will have to set the tone of the lesson to be serious and devoid of humor.
• US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Given the number and effect of barriers, CDC is committed to reducing their impact and helping the public to provide equal opportunities and improve the quality of life.
• Disease Management for Diabetes Mellitus The selection of the appropriate philosophical and theoretical basis for the lesson is essential as it allows for the use of an evidence-based method for learning about a particular disease.
• Infectious Diseases Affect the International Health Community Infectious diseases present a severe issue for the global health situation due to the transition ways and risk of a potential epidemic.
• The Effect of Vitamin E on Cardiovascular Diseases In conclusion, the apparent difference is linked with the bias during the selection of participants for each study, as observational studies tend to be less objective.
• Bilinguals’ Cognitive-Linguistic Abilities and Alzheimer’s Disease This irregularity is reflected in the preserved linguistic abilities, including code-switching and semantic fluency, and the declined functions in translation, picture naming, and phonemic fluency, calling for improved therapy and testing practices.
• Epidemiology of Heart Disease Among Canadians At the end of the study, the connection between heart disease epidemiological evidence, community strategies, and internal and external impacts will be revealed to contribute to a better application of knowledge.
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Prevalence The studies discussed to provide an in-depth analysis of the risk factors of COPD, the relation that the environment and other respiratory conditions have on the development of the condition, and the burden it has […]
• Chronic and Communicable Diseases Prevention The weakness faced by each agency in relation to its mission may be the lack of research of the groups they work with.
• Cushing Disease and Endocrine Control In turn, ACTH stimulates the production of cortisol by the adrenal cortex in the adrenal glands. In general, it is possible to say that a 24-hour urine test may be regarded as a highly accessible […]
• America’s Growing Clean Water Crisis and the Resulting Diseases The current water crisis in Flint, Michigan, has focused a lot of attention on the state of water infrastructure. Lastly, there will be a not adequate amount of water to help in dissolving the nutrients […]
• An Overview of Ebola Virus Disease: Pathogen, Symptoms, and Treatment First recognized as an emerging disease in 1977, this pathogen belongs to the genus Ebolavirus and is characterized by virulence, with up to 80% mortality rate among the infected.
• Air Pollution and Lung Disease To design a study in order to explore the link between lung disease and air pollution, it would be possible to follow a four-step process started by identifying the level or unit of analysis.
• Occupational Skin Disease Development In order to control the risk of developing OSD, it is necessary to use various preventive measures and changes in the process of performing official duties at the enterprise.
• Communicable Diseases: Hepatitis C The disease poses a threat to the public health of global populations and health security due to the increase in the number of international travel and the economic growth of countries.
• Ebola Viral Disease Impact Analysis The Ebola Virus Disease can be caused by various viruses, including the Tai Forest virus, Bundibugyo virus, the Zaire Ebola virus, and the Sudan virus.
• Vitamin E for Prevention of Heart Diseases As experiments on the benefits of vitamin E show, ‘swimming’ is not always the key to a completely healthy life, in which the risk of a heart attack is reduced to a minimum.
• Emergency Preparedness: Disease Control and Prevention Prevention, vaccination, vital capacity, and others matter. Risk factors, prevention, and treatment are essential.
• Obesity and Related Inflammatory Diseases in the Cardiovascular System The hypothesis is to prove the decrease of TNF- concentration after ghrelin implementation on adipose cells. The study is quantitative with the measurement of the concentration of the pro-inflammatory molecule before and after adding the […]
• Types of Chronic Obstructive Lung Diseases Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases are illnesses associated with the violation of the normal functioning of the human respiratory apparatus. The first health problem is characterized by the inflammation of the bronchi and is accompanied by […]
• Obesity and Inflammatory Diseases in the Cardiovascular System One of the largest risks connected to obesity is the damage to the proper functioning of the cardiovascular system. However, when a part of this system is impaired due to obesity, the delivery process becomes […]
• Center for Disease Control Wonder Database Telehealth clinical, or the administration, monitoring, and synchronization of nursing support, the Prevention Guidelines Database delivered using digital techniques to expand coverage to sufferers within the United States.
• Heart Failure and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Respiratory: The patient is diagnosed with COPD and continues to smoke up to two packs a day. Psychosocial: The patient is conscious and able to communicate with the staff, informing them of his state of […]
• Preventing Readmission: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease To reduce the possibility of Marcia’s readmission, authorities should provide her with social interaction and communities that would support her case and issue. In addition, Marcia should stop smoking and develop a healthy routine to […]
• Plan for Management of Patient with Schizophrenia and Heart Disease About 1% of the world’s population suffers from schizophrenia About 0. 7% of the UK population suffers from schizophrenia Schizophrenia can manifest any time from early adulthood onwards, but rarely when a person is below […]
• Family Nurse Practitioner Case Study: Infectious Diseases Second, the nurse practitioner should ask about any medications that the patient has used to treat the pain and the time when the cough is more pronounced.
• Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) For instance, cardiovascular problem such as chest pain or angina due to the lack of oxygen can cause a burning pain in the epigastric areas. The excessive consumption of alcohol can cause inflammation and bleeding […]
• Pfizer Vaccine: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention The researcher adds that the MHRA claims that people with severe allergic reactions to the components of the vaccines should not receive the medicine.
• Aspects of Chronic Disease Management The main difference between the treatment of chronic and acute ailments is that the indicators used to analyze the effectiveness of the treatment of acute diseases are usually associated with the recovery time of the […]
• Hospitalization Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Prevention Plan Since Albuterol Oral Inhalation did not work best for Marcia, her care providers had to alter the medications that she used in managing the COPD to acquire effectiveness and keep her away from the hospitals […]
• Alzheimer’s Disease: Definition, Stages, Diagnosis Alzheimer’s disease is the most common type of dementia, and it is a condition in which the brain stops appropriately performing its functions.
• Acromegaly: Assessment and Disease Research Cushing’s disease is caused not by medications but by the presence of a benign tumor in the pituitary gland and adrenocorticotropic hormone production.
• Health Maintenance Plan For Coronary Artery Disease In the initial stages of the atheroma, the transfer of SMCs from tunica-based media towards the intima seems to be a vital outcome of the ongoing inflammatory fermentation.
• Climate Change and Disease-Carrying Insects In order to prevent the spreading of the viruses through insects, the governments should implement policies against the emissions which contribute to the growth of the insects’ populations.
• The History of Human Disease: COVID-19 The symptoms, severity of the disease, and duration of the illness vary greatly based on numerous factors, such as the immunity of a person, strain of the virus, and others.
• Systemic Links to Periodontal Diseases Periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory disease that damages the tooth-supporting apparatus that is, its soft tissue and bone which, if untreated, will lead to tooth loss.
• Nursing Care for End-Stage Renal Disease These issues are worsened by the fact that the patient has edema, the signs of which are swelling under the skin in the legs and arms produced by a buildup of fluid in one body’s […]
• Avian Influenza as Viral Disease It is spread by influenza type A, and some of the strains can bypass the species barrier and cause infections to others, such as pigs and humans.
• Minors Seeking Treatment for Sexually Transmitted Diseases Without Parental Consent Due to the severity of sexually transmitted diseases, it is very important for doctors to provide minors with the necessary care.
• Parkinson’s Disease: Neurological and Musculoskeletal Pathophysiologic Processes The condition results from the deficiency of dopamine in the brain that interferes with the functions of the motor movements like body movement.
• The Kidney Disease Blog Analysis The second essential element of this blog is the opportunity to get to the latest research in my field and see what rehabilitation methods promise the best results.
• Epidemiology of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease The effects of air pollution on human health are primarily dependent on the pollutants, their components, and the sources of the pollution.
• Aspects of Chronic Disease and Obesity Obesity is a complex condition that enhances the risk of other diseases’ development and complications. Chronic inflammation in the body that obesity causes leads to pain, in particular the development of arthritis.
• Nutrition in Relation to Heart Diseases in African Americans While the causes of such an occurrence are varied, dietary and nutrition-based difficulties are one of the factors that can increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases among African Americans.
• Alzheimer’s Disease in an Iranian Patient The patient in the company of his son returns to the clinic after four weeks. Since the patient shows no side effects of the disease and an increase in Exelon to 6 mg orally BID […]
• Growing Burden of Chronic Disease in Australia It an important intervention to reduce the burden of chronic diseases because individuals will not depend entirely on healthcare providers in the management of the conditions2.
• Features of Treatment and Diagnosis of Severe Diseases The main topic of the previous module was pneumonia and the methods of its treatment. The amount and intensity of the drug should match the weight of the patient and the type of pathogen.
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Bacterial Bronchitis In chronic bronchitis, bronchial inflammation causes bronchia edema and an increase in the number and size of the goblet cells and mucus glands in the epithelium. The incidence and prevalence of COPD in the US […]
• Diabetes Disease of the First and Second Types It is a decrease in the biological response of cells to one or more effects of insulin at its average concentration in the blood. During the first type of diabetes, insulin Degludec is required together […]
• How the Eczema Disease Affects Epithelial Tissues Because of the wide coverage of epithelial tissues in the body, there are many types of diseases affecting the tissue, and it is essential to know them to understand how the disease affects epithelial tissues. […]
• Benefits of Bicycling for Persons With Parkinson’s Disease: Analysis The key issue in this article’s introduction is the goal-directed physical exercise and general physical activities that are in practice to alleviate the challenges faced by PD patients.
• Diets to Prevent Heart Disease, Cancer, and Diabetes
• Disease Pandemics in the Situations of Typhoid Mary and Novak Djokovic
• The Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Improving the Patients’ Services
• Chronic Renal Failure Disease: Causes, the Population Affected, and Prognosis
• Genetic Disease in a Pregnant Woman and Fetus
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Bowel Resection
• Aspects of Parkinson’s Disease
• Diagnoses and Medication of Bowel Disease
• Treatment and Diagnosis of Crohn’s Disease
• Reducing Risks of Heart Diseases
• Critiquing Research: Fatigue in the Presence of Coronary Heart Disease
• J.P.’s Case Assessment: Patient With Sickle Cell Disease
• Malaria Disease Control and Prevention
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease in a Female Patient
• The Infectious Diseases Policy Process
• Examination of Albinism Genetic Disease
• Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prognosis of Naegleria Fowleri Disease
• Gout Disease: Variations and Treatments
• Parkinson’s Disease: The Main Aspects
• Epidemiology: Eye Diseases and COVID-19
• Mr. Akkad and Alzheimer’s Disease: Case Study
• Social Marketing in Reducing Cardiovascular Disease
• Discussion of Neurofibromatosis Disease
• Analysis of Sources for COVID-19 and Eye Diseases
• Ethical Challenges in Healthcare and Nursing Practice: Obesity-Related Diseases
• Hyperphosphatemia and Chronic Kidney Disease Link
• Gonorrhea Disease Transmission and Treatment
• Dietary Approaches to Heart Disease and Hypertension
• Threat Factors of Coronary Artery Disease
• Alzheimer’s Disease: History, Mechanisms and Treatment
• American Heart Association on Coronary Artery Disease
• Obesity and Kidney Disease Treatment and Rehabilitation
• Stroke: The Human Disease Project
• Helicase and Deficiencies-Related Diseases
• Disease Surveillance Program: Hepatitis A Awareness
• Cardiovascular Disease Drugs: Amiodarone, Flecainide, Hydrochlorothiazide
• Epidemics and Diseases of the Past and Microbiomes
• Quality of Life and Chronic Pain: Musculoskeletal Diseases
• The Coronavirus Disease 2019: Health Services for Non-Communicable Diseases
• Strategies to Control the Incidence of Diseases
• How Outbreaks of Respiratory Disease Affect the Way Mass Events Are Held Indoors
• Do Mental Diseases Cause Obesity?
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Role in Influenza Preparedness
• How Is Globalization Affecting Rates of Disease
• Coronavirus Disease 2019: Statistical Analysis
• Nutrients: Food and Nutrients in Disease Management
• Medicare in Case of End-Stage Renal Disease
• Blood Transfusions in the Management of Hematological Diseases
• Coronary Artery Disease Causes and Related Hypotheses
• Infectious and Noninfectious Diseases Acquisition
• Public Health. Burden of Disease in Nigeria
• Governmental Challenges of Disease Surveillance
• Self-Management and Prevention of Diseases
• Heart Disease: Population Affected- Brooklyn
• Grave’s Disease: Symptoms and Treatment
• Crohn’s Disease: Treatment Plan and Prognosis
• Effects of Age and Aging on the Immune Response to Diseases Such as COVID-19
• Alzheimer’s Disease: Causes and Treatment
• Distribution of Funds for Subsequent Management of Zoonotic Infectious Diseases
• Osteoporosis: Pathophysiology, Health Promotion, and Disease Prevention
• Chronic Disease Aggravation in Joint Surgery
• Pregnant Women With Type I Diabetes: COVID-19 Disease Management
• Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease Overview
• Lecithin, Trimethylamine Oxide, and Heart Diseases
• Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Implications
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
• Soybean: Physiological Traits, Management, Main Disease
• Diabetes Insipidus: Disease Process With Implications for Healthcare Professionals
• Chlamydia Sexually Transmitted Disease
• Cardiovascular Disease Research in the Arab World
• Lyme Disease Diagnostics: Culturing and Staining Procedures
• The Parkinson’s Disease Analysis
• Chronic Disease Prevention With Physical Activity
• Center for Disease Control, National Archives Catalog Photo
• Michael J Fox: Parkinson’s Disease Case Study
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, Hypertension, and Heart Failure: The Case Study
• Social Stigma of Sexually Transmitted Diseases in North America
• Approaches to Health Promotion and Disease Prevention
• Covid-19: Serious Disease in Comparison to Flu
• Cardiac Diseases in Pregnancy
• Frontotemporal Dementia vs. Alzheimer’s Disease in a Patient
• Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Irritable Bowel Syndrome
• Ulcerative Colitis and Crohn’s Disease Comparison
• Kidney Function Tests: Chemical Methods Used to Diagnose Kidney Disease
• Global Health Issue: The Coronavirus Disease
• Alzheimer’s Disease: Diagnostic and Treatment
• Communicable Disease Health Education Tool: HIV, AIDS
• Parkinson’s Disease Case Study Analysis
• Heart Disease Among Hispanic and Latino Population
• Pharmacologic Treatment for Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
• Werner Syndrome: Disease Process and Nursing Management
• Business Intelligence Systems: Coronavirus Disease
• Frail Elderly: Geriatric Chronic Disease
• Communicable Diseases: Rubeola and Pertussis
• Primary Adrenocortical Insufficiency (Addison’s Disease)
• Cardiovascular Disease Profile in Female Patient
• The Types of Sexually Transmitted Diseases
• The Effect of Music on People With Alzheimer’s Disease
• Nutrition Importance in Preventing Future Diseases
• Detection of Newborn Disease by Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
• The Global Burden of Disease
• Zoonotic Diseases: Leishmaniasis
• Allergic Diseases and the Hygiene Hypothesis
• The Relationship Between Vitamin D Deficiency and Asthma Disease in Children
• Public Health and Chronic Disease – Obesity
• Emerging Infectious Diseases (EIDs)
• Chronic Kidney Disease Analysis
• Asthma: Culture and Disease Analysis
• Cardiovascular Diseases and Health Promotion in Women
• Creutzfeldt – Jakob Disease: Diagnosis, Control, Treatment
• HIV and AIDS as a Chronic Disease: The Unique Contributions of Nursing Through Philosophical, Theoretical, and Historical Perspectives
• Sickle Cell Disease Complications and Management
• End-Stage Renal Disease: Creating Awareness Among Patients
• Health Disparities & Chronic Kidney Disease
• Epidemiological, Trends and Patterns of Norovirus Disease
• Cardiology: Women and Heart Diseases
• Disease Control and Prevention: The Evaluation Process
• Swine Flu Disease in Australia
• Researching Chlamydia Trachomatis Disease
• Parkinson’s Disease: Aetiology, Risk Factors, and Symptoms
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: 80-Year-Old Female Patient
• The Diagnosis and Prevention of Chronic Diseases
• Heart Disease and Stroke in Sarasota County
• Rabies in South Africa: Tropical Disease Control
• End Stage Renal Disease and Hemodialysis
• Community Health: Alzheimer’s Disease
• Tasmanian Devil’s Facial Tumor Disease
• Coronary Heart Disease: Review
• End Stage Renal Disease Prevalence in African American
• Hypoparathyroid Disease: Review
• Celiac Disease Description and Treatment
• End-Stage Renal Disease and Hemodialysis
• Risk Factors Involving People with Ischaemic Heart Disease: In-Depth Interview
• Osteoarthritis Disease and Its Risk Factors
• Disease Trends and the Delivery of Health Care Services
• Emerging Infectious Disease: Epidemiology and Evolution of Influenza Viruses
• Food Borne Diseases Associated With Chilled Ready to Eat Food
• Inherited Mutant Gene Leading to Pompes Disease
• Blood Disorder: Disease Analysis
• Challenges of Living With Alzheimer Disease
• The Burden of Alzheimer’s Disease
• Congestive Heart Failure – One of the Most Devastating Diseases
• Critical Analysis on Neurodegenerative Diseases
• Nutrition: Preventing Food Born Diseases
• The Impact of Chronic Disease in the Community
• Progeria: Disease Etiology, Symptoms, and Prognosis
• Childhood Development and Cardiovascular Disease
• Depressive Symptoms and HIV Disease Relationship
• Lyme Disease: What Is the Mystery Behind It?
• Lyme Disease and the Mystery Behind It
• Identifying Lyme Disease Host Species
• Genetic Counseling – Tay Sachs Disease
• Meningococcal Disease: Causes, Phases, Prevention
• Coronary Heart Disease Aggravated by Type 2 Diabetes and Age
• Osteomyelitis and the Differential Diagnosis of the Disease
• Chronic Care For Alzheimer’s Disease
• Coronary Artery Disease: Normal Physiology and Pathology
• Legionnaires’ Disease: Causative Agents, Methods of Reproduction
• Heart Disease in New York State
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Physiology
• Viral Skin Diseases: Plantar Warts and Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease
• Cardiovascular Diseases and Associated Risk Factors
• Disease Control Prevention & Epidemiology Concepts
• Psychiatric Genetics. Epigenetics and Disease Pathology
• Communicable Disease Control Strategies for AIDS
• The Problems Associated With Cardiovascular Disease
• Heart Disease and Low Carbohydrate Diets
• Heart Disease: Cell Death During Myocardial Infarction
• The Mechanisms That Auto Infectious Parasites Use in the Treatment of Autoimmune Diseases
• Intervention of Heart Diseases in Children
• Identification and Assessment of Heart Disease
• Multiple Sclerosis. Disease Analysis
• Epidemiology Discussions: Childhood Obesity Disease
• Researching Cystic Fibrosis Disease
• Hypertension Disease Causation
• Heart Disease Among Hispanic & Latino Population
• Synopsis of Research Studies of Individuals Afflicted by Mild Alzheimer’s Disease
• Oral Disease Prevention: Past and Present Practices
• Diet Therapy & Cardiovascular Disease
• The Function of Kinase Inhibitor Staurosporine in Healthy and Disease States
• Communicable Diseases: Tuberous Sclerosis-1
• Communicable Diseases and Precautionary Measures
• Alzheimer’s Disease and Naturopathic Medicine
• Genetic Diseases: Sickle Cell Anemia
• Biological Basis of Asthma and Allergic Disease
• Managing Sickle Cell Disease
• Brain Reduction and Presence of Alzheimer’s Disease
• Heart Failure: Prevention of the Disease
• Prevention of Heart Disease and Stroke in Collier County
• Public Health Problems and Neglected Diseases
• Maple Syrup Urine Disease Pathogenesis
• Pediatrics: Kawasaki Disease
• Acute Tonsillitis: Disease Analysis
• Arthritis: Disease Analysis
• Acne: Disease Analysis
• Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics: Coronary Heart Disease
• Chronic Inflammation: Metabolic Syndrome and Cardiovascular Disease
• Pathophysiology of Crohn’s Disease
• Renewed Focus on Non-Communicable Diseases
• Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD): Overview
• Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Community
• Communicable Disease Control
• Saturated Fatty Acids and Coronary or Cardiovascular Disease
• The Nature and Control of Non-Communicable Disease – Asthma
• Quality of Life in African Americans With the End-Stage Renal Disease
• Genetically Identical Twins and Different Disease Risk
• Dietary Calcium Intake and Mortality From Cardiovascular Diseases
• Understanding Emerging Diseases
• Researching the Giardiasis Disease
• Bacterial Diseases of Marine Organisms
• Epilepsy Disease Discussion
• Current Challenges in Infectious Diseases
• Social, Behavioral, and Psychosocial Causes of Diseases: Type 2 Diabetes
• Causes & Preventing Proliferation of Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)
• Disease Surveillance and Monitoring
• Cardiovascular Disease Among Disorders of the Heart
• Leishmaniasis: Disease of the New World
• Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome: Thirty Years of a Disease
• Addison’s Disease: A Long-Term Endocrine Disorder
• Parkinson’s Disease and Its Nursing Management
• Human Diseases: Exploring Malaria
• Effects of Whole Body Vibration in People With Parkinson Disease
• Human Disorders: Alzheimer’s Disease and Dementia
• Chronic Disease: Survey on Beliefs and Feelings
• Screening for Diseases as Caution Against Potential Infections
• Environmental Interview on a Patient With Alzheimer Disease
• Resistant Salmonella: Analysis and Cause of the Disease
• Consumption of Caffeine Is Associated With Reduced Risk of Parkinson’s Disease
• Periodontal and Cardiovascular Diseases: Research Development Project
• Demographic Paper – Parkinson’s Disease
• Experimental Studies on Williams Syndrome Disease
• Cholera: A Waterborne Disease
• Technostress: An Emerging Man-Made Modern-Day Disease
• Pelvic Inflammatory Disease: Managing Partners
• Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn
• The Cystic Fibrosis Disease Analysis
• Disease Causing Organism: Salmonella Enterica Typhi
• Pain, Disease and Health Relationship
• Alzheimer’s Disease Article and Clinical Trial
• Center for Disease Control and Prevention Program for Tanzania
• Periodontal Disease and Contribution of Bacteria
• Osteoporosis and Periodontal Disease Relationship
• Therapeutic Properties of Fish Oil: Reduction of Heart Diseases
• Swine Flu H1N1: Populations Affected, Course of the Disease, Intervention
• Chronic Disease Management Framework
• Concepts of the Ankylosis Disease
• Concepts of Pneumonia Disease
• Anemia Disease: Types and Causes, Treatment
• Melanocyte Disease and Its Treatment
• Thalassemia – Inherited Autosomal Recessive Blood Disease
• Graves Disease: Medical Case Assessment
• Alzheimer’s Disease: Regarding Physiology
• Huntington’s Disease Analysis
• Infectious Diseases Overview and Analysis
• Social Determinants of the Heart Disease
• World Health Organization, US Center of Disease Control and Individual Countries
• Kawasaki Disease Analysis
• Race-Based Medicine: Diseases in Different Groups of the Population
• Application of Healthcare IT in Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases
• Concepts of Culture and Disease Paper: AIDS
• AIDS and Its Trends: An Infectious Disease That Causes the Vulnerability of the Human Internal System
• Periodontal Disease and the Gram Negative Bacteria
• Periodontal Disease: Medical Analysis
• My Path of Dealing With Limes Disease
• Mapping the Neurofibrillary Degeneration From Alzheimer’s Disease Patient
• The Role of Bacteria in Human Health and Disease Giving Specific Examples
• The Status of Hand Hygiene Practices and a Cause in Disease Outbreaks
• Bleeding on Probing: Progression of Periodontal Disease
• Disease Specific Program: Disease Management
• Motor Neuron Disease: Types, Diagnostics, and Treatment
• Pediatric Gastroenterology and Infectious Diseases
• Crohn’s Disease and Perianal Manifestations
• Crohn’s Perianal Disease: A Comprehensive Review
• Infectious Disease Control in Different Scenarios
• Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome: Description of Disease
• Menkes Disease: Disorder of Copper Metabolism
• Infectious Diseases and Their Impact on History
• Diabetes Mellitus Effects on Periodontal Disease
• Lifestyle Diseases and Reduce Productivity
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• The Evaluation of the Website for the American Autoimmune Related Diseases Association
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• Parasitic Wedge and COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease)
• Corona Virus Disease: Proposed Policy and Results
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• US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Review
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• Fatty Liver and Gastrointestinal Tract Disease in Dogs
• Opioid Disease Prevention: Levels of Disease Prevention
• Alcoholism as a Disease
• Tuberculosis: History and Current State of a Disease
• The Problem of Food Safety and the Spread of Various Diseases
• Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Statistics in the New Jersey
• Global Health Issue Analysis: HIV – A Relatively New Disease
• Emerging Infectious Disease Preparedness and Response
• Ongoing Gingivitis With Periodontal Disease: Symptoms and Prevention
• Hepatitis A: A Fatal Infectious Disease That Affects the Liver
• “Field Epidemiology” by Gregg and “Infectious Diseases” by Tamarack
• Disease Testing and Phenotype
• Genomics, Prevention, and Control of Common Chronic Diseases
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Website Tools
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• Cardiovascular Diseases and Saudi Male Patients Aged 40 – 65 Years
• “Disease of the Skin and Disease of the Heart”: China History
• Molecular Techniques Used in Hirschsprung Disease Study
• Anatomy Diagnosis: Cardiovascular Disease
• Non-invasive Ventilation in Non-Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Respiratory Failure
• Anthropology. Diseases and Their Impact on Humans
• Endocrine System and Diseases
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• A Boxing Legend Muhammad Ali: Parkinson’s Disease
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• Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Initiatives
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• Cigar Smoking and Relation to Disease
• Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Laws
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• AIDS: Emergence Factors of Infectious Disease
• Infectious Diseases Caused by Insects
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• AIDS and Its Impact on Humankind: The Leading Killer Disease in the World
• The Effects of Alzheimer’s Disease on Family Members
• Environmental Factors and Autoimmune Diseases Review
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• Multiple Sclerosis as a Neurological Disease
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• Kerataconus: Disease Development and Modern Treatment
• Heart Diseases and Their Pathophysiology
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• Women’s Health. Sexually Transmitted Diseases
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• Heart and Lung Diseases: Health History and Assessment
• Examining Pathophysiological Processes: Heart Failure & Chronic Kidney Disease
• Combating Heart Disease in the African American Community of Kings County, NY
• How Is Disease Beautified in the Modern Society Under the Guise of Beauty?
• Implementation of Clinical Decision Support Systems for Cardiovascular Diseases
• Cardiovascular Disease in African American Women: Reasons
• Beautifying Diseases in Modern Society
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease’s Treatment
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Medication Treatment
• Epidemiology of Cardiovascular Diseases in the Middle East
• Disease Diagnosis & Treatment in Historical Contexts
• Huntington’s Disease: Diagnosis and Prevention
• “COMT Val158Met Polymorphism Modulates Huntington’s Disease Progression” by de Diego-Balaguer et al.
• Ebola Virus Disease: Global Health at a Glance
• Physical Therapy and Occupational Therapy in Parkinson’s Disease
• Are Hypometric Anticipatory Postural Adjustments Contributing to Freezing of Gait in Parkinson’s Disease?
• Why Is Coronary Heart Disease an Important Health Concern?
• What Types of Heart Disease Are Caused by Stress?
• Does Cannabis Intake Protect Against Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease?
• What Is the Deadliest Disease in Human History?
• How Does Cardiovascular Disease Affect the Lungs?
• What Diseases Are Caused by Deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest?
• How Can Genetic Technologies Be Used to Treat Specific Diseases?
• Why Does Mediterranean Diet Reduce Heart Disease?
• How Does Alzheimer’s Disease Affect the Entire Human Lifestyle?
• Can Emotional Stress Cause Cardiovascular Disease?
• What Were the Common Diseases Found in London During the 19th Century?
• How Can Lifestyle Changes Help With the Management of the Diseases?
• What Diseases Can Be Prevented by Vaccination?
• How Is Coronary Heart Disease Affecting the World?
• Does Diet Protect Against Parkinson’s Disease?
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• What Are the Complications of Chronic Kidney Disease Dialysis?
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• What Are the Modern Ways of Genetic Diseases Treatment?
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• Does Human Behavior Influence the Occurrence of Diseases?
• What Is the Pathophysiology of Kawasaki Disease?
• How Far Can Countries Be Prepared for Serious Outbreak of Disease?
• What Is the Role of Probiotics in Preventing Allergic Disease?
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Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Neurology & Nervous System Diseases — Alzheimer's Disease

Essay Examples on Alzheimer's Disease

What makes a good alzheimer's disease essay topics.

When it comes to writing an essay on Alzheimer's Disease, choosing the right topic is crucial. An engaging and thought-provoking topic can make your essay stand out and leave a lasting impression on your readers. But What Makes a Good Alzheimer's Disease essay topic? Here are a few recommendations on how to brainstorm and choose an essay topic:

• Consider your interests and passions: Think about what aspects of Alzheimer's Disease you find most intriguing. Whether it's the latest research developments, caregiving challenges, or the impact on society, choosing a topic that aligns with your interests will make the writing process more enjoyable and the final product more engaging.
• Brainstorm ideas: Take some time to brainstorm potential essay topics. Consider the latest trends and developments in Alzheimer's Disease research, as well as the impact of the disease on individuals, families, and communities. You can also explore controversial issues or ethical dilemmas related to Alzheimer's Disease to spark ideas for your essay topic.
• Research potential topics: Once you have a list of potential essay topics, take the time to research each one. Consider the availability of credible sources, the depth of information on the topic, and its relevance to the current discourse on Alzheimer's Disease. This will help you narrow down your options and choose a topic that is well-supported and relevant.
• Choose a unique angle: Instead of rehashing common topics, try to approach Alzheimer's Disease from a unique angle. Consider how you can shed new light on a familiar topic or explore a lesser-known aspect of the disease. This will make your essay more compelling and help it stand out from the rest.

In summary, a good Alzheimer's Disease essay topic is one that aligns with your interests, is well-researched, and offers a unique perspective on the subject. By following these recommendations, you can ensure that your essay topic is engaging, thought-provoking, and well-supported.

Best Alzheimer's Disease Essay Topics

When it comes to choosing the best Alzheimer's Disease essay topics, it's important to think outside the box and choose topics that are not only relevant but also creative and thought-provoking. Here are some of the best Alzheimer's Disease essay topics that are sure to stand out:

• The Role of Genetics in Alzheimer's Disease
• The Impact of Alzheimer's Disease on Family Caregivers
• Treating Alzheimer's Disease: A Comprehensive Review
• Ethical Considerations in Alzheimer's Disease Research
• The Stigma of Alzheimer's Disease in Society
• The Link Between Alzheimer's Disease and Lifestyle Factors
• Innovative Approaches to Alzheimer's Disease Treatment
• Alzheimer Disease: Effects on Patients and Families
• Alzheimer's Disease in the Aging Population
• The Economic Burden of Alzheimer's Disease on Society
• The Intersection of Alzheimer's Disease and Mental Health
• The Future of Alzheimer's Disease Research and Treatment

These essay topics offer a fresh perspective on Alzheimer's Disease and are sure to capture the attention of your readers. By choosing a creative and thought-provoking topic, you can set your essay apart and make a lasting impression.

Alzheimer's Disease essay topics Prompts

Looking for some creative prompts to inspire your Alzheimer's Disease essay? Here are five engaging prompts to get you started:

• Imagine a world where Alzheimer's Disease is completely eradicated. How would this impact society, healthcare, and the lives of individuals and families affected by the disease?
• Write a personal reflection on your experience with Alzheimer's Disease, whether as a caregiver, a healthcare professional, or a researcher. What have you learned from this experience, and how has it shaped your perspective on the disease?
• Explore the ethical implications of using artificial intelligence and technology to diagnose and treat Alzheimer's Disease. What are the potential benefits and drawbacks of these advancements?
• Consider the impact of Alzheimer's Disease on different cultural and ethnic communities. How does cultural diversity influence the experience of the disease, as well as access to care and support?
• Imagine a day in the life of someone living with Alzheimer's Disease. What challenges do they face, and how do they navigate their daily routines and interactions with others?

These prompts are designed to spark creativity and encourage you to explore the complexities of Alzheimer's Disease from a fresh perspective. Whether you're writing an essay for a class assignment or for personal exploration, these prompts can help you delve into the many facets of Alzheimer's Disease and create a compelling and engaging essay.

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Biodiversity Loss Increases the Risk of Disease Outbreaks, Analysis Suggests

Researchers found that human-caused environmental changes are driving the severity and prevalence of disease, putting people, animals and plants at risk

Christian Thorsberg

Daily Correspondent

Human-driven changes to the planet are bringing widespread and sometimes surprising effects—including shifting the Earth’s rotation , hiding meteorites in Antarctic ice and, potentially, supporting locust swarms .

Now, a large-scale analysis of nearly 1,000 scientific studies has shown just how closely human activity is tied to public health. Published last week in the journal Nature ,   the findings suggest anthropogenic environmental changes are making the risk of infectious disease outbreaks all the more likely.

The biodiversity crisis—which has left some one million plant and animal species at risk of extinction —is a leading driver of disease spread, the researchers found.

“It could mean that by modifying the environment, we increase the risks of future pandemics,” Jason Rohr , a co-author of the study and a biologist at the University of Notre Dame, tells the Washington Post ’s Scott Dance.

The analysis centered on earlier studies that investigated at least one of five “global change drivers” affecting wildlife and landscapes on Earth: biodiversity change, climate change, habitat change or loss, chemical pollution and the introduction of non-native species to new areas. Based on the previous studies’ findings, they collected nearly 3,000 data points related to how each of these factors might impact the severity or prevalence of infectious disease outbreaks.

Researchers aimed to avoid a human-centric approach to their analysis, considering also how plants and animals would be at risk from pathogens. Their conclusions showed that four of the examined factors—climate change, chemical pollution, the introduction of non-native species to new areas and biodiversity loss—all increased the likelihood of spreading disease, with the latter having the most significant impact.

Disease and mortality were nearly nine times higher in areas of the world where human activity has decreased biodiversity, compared to the levels expected by Earth’s natural variation in biodiversity, per the Washington Post .

Scientists hypothesize this finding could be explained by the “dilution effect”: the idea that pathogens and parasites evolve to thrive in the most common species, so the loss of rarer creatures makes infection more likely.

“That means that the species that remain are the competent ones, the ones that are really good at transmitting disease,” Rohr tells the New York Times ’   Emily Anthes.

For example, white-footed mice, the main carriers of Lyme disease, have become one of the most dominant species in their habitat as other, rarer animals have disappeared—a change that might have played a role, among other factors, in driving rising rates of Lyme disease in the United States.

One global change factor, however, actually decreased the likelihood of disease outbreaks: habitat loss and change. But here, context is key. Most habitat loss is linked to creating a single type of environment—urban ecosystems—which generally have good sanitation systems and less wildlife, reducing opportunities for disease spillover.

“In urban areas with lots of concrete, there is a much smaller number of species that can thrive in that environment,” Rohr tells the Guardian ’s Phoebe Weston. “From a human disease perspective, there is often greater sanitation and health infrastructure than in rural environments.”

Deforestation, another type of habitat loss, has been shown to increase the likelihood of disease. The incidence of malaria and Ebola , for example, worsens in such instances.

The new work adds to past research on how human activity can prompt the spread of disease. For instance, climate change-induced permafrost melt may release pathogens from the Arctic , a concern that’s been well-documented in recent years. And both habitat loss and climate change may force some animals to move closer together—and closer to humans — increasing the potential for transmitting disease .

Additionally, the research signals the need for public health officials to remain vigilant as the effects of human-caused climate change play out, experts say.

“It’s a big step forward in the science,” Colin Carlson , a global change biologist at Georgetown University who was not an author of the new analysis, tells the New York Times. “This paper is one of the strongest pieces of evidence that I think has been published that shows how important it is health systems start getting ready to exist in a world with climate change, with biodiversity loss.”

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Christian Thorsberg is an environmental writer and photographer from Chicago. His work, which often centers on freshwater issues, climate change and subsistence, has appeared in Circle of Blue , Sierra  magazine, Discover  magazine and Alaska Sporting Journal .

The health benefits and business potential of digital therapeutics

Around the world, the burden of chronic disease is increasing at a rapid pace. Unfortunately, most of these conditions are irreversible and need to be managed through lifelong medication use. However, many patients struggle with adhering to prescribed medications and implementing the behavioral and lifestyle changes that are needed to manage their diseases and stabilize their conditions. Often, physicians and other healthcare providers have little ability to monitor the extent to which patients are following their recommendations and maintaining treatment regimens. As a result, disease burdens at a population level are higher than they should be.

These challenges have created a need for compre­hensive disease management solutions that are best enabled by digital technologies. In 2021, global digital health funding grew 79 percent over the previous year to reach $57.2 billion. 1 State of digital health 2021 report , CB Insights, January 20, 2022. Much attention and funding have flowed toward digital therapeutics , which can include multiple points of intervention along the patient journey, including monitoring, medication adherence, behavioral engagement, person­alized coaching, and real-time custom health recommendations. Within digital health, funding for digital therapeutics (including solutions for mental health) has grown at an even faster pace—up 134 percent from the prior year to reach $8.9 billion in 2021. 2 Heather Landi, “Global digital health funding skyrockets to $57.2B with record cash for mental health, telehealth,” Fierce Healthcare,January 21, 2022.

The impact potential here is significant, both in terms of clinical outcomes and economic benefits for stakeholders and societies. For example, research has shown that digital disease management can drive a 45 percent reduction in the three-month rate of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs) and a 50 percent reduction in the 30-day readmission rates for patients after acute myocardial infarction (AMI). 3 Jerilyn K. Allen et al., “Digital health intervention in acute myocardial infarction,” Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes , July 15, 2021, Volume 14, Issue 7; Pawel Buszman et al., “Managed care after acute myocardial infarction (MC-AMI) reduces total mortality in 12-month follow-up—results from Poland’s National Health Fund Program of Comprehensive Post-MI Care—A population-wide analysis,” Journal of Clinical Medicine , 2020, Volume 9, Issue 10. Similarly, it can help lower hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels by one percentage point among patients with type 2 diabetes. 4 Marcy K. Abner et al., “A novel intervention including individualized nutritional recommendations reduces hemoglobin A1c level, medication use, and weight in type 2 diabetes,” JMIR Diabetes , 2017, Volume 2, Issue 1. These data points illustrate the extent to which digital disease manage­ment can help save lives while also keeping patients healthier, which reduces costs for many stake­holders, including the patients themselves.

Research has shown that digital disease management can drive a 45 percent reduction in the three-month rate of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs) and a 50 percent reduction in the 30-day readmission rates for patients.

Many players are trying to disrupt the disease management space and develop new innovative models to manage chronic diseases. New-age start-ups bring radical, unconstrained perspectives, while incumbents contribute a much more detailed understanding of the challenges and various stake­holders. Ultimately, both start-ups and incumbents have critical roles to play in disrupting the space and scaling up solutions.

Digital therapeutics can play an important role in chronic-disease management

The burden of chronic diseases has been increasing globally and is expected to continue. Chronic diseases (such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and respiratory disease) were causes or contributing factors in 75 percent of worldwide deaths in 2010 and 79 percent in 2020. By 2030, experts predict that chronic diseases will contribute to as much as 84 percent of total global mortality (exhibit).

Poor monitoring of and adherence to prescribed medications undermine the management of chronic diseases. According to a 2021 global study, compliance among patients with type 2 diabetes ranges from 69 to 79 percent. 5 Diagnosis-related groups (DRG) treatment data: compliance (medication possession ratio) among patients with type 2 diabetes ranges between 69 to 79 percent for top-20 type 2 diabetes drugs; compliance rates for cancers according to a study on 52,450 patients was 37 percent. Patients were found to be most compliant in the 50- to 59-year-old range (49 percent compliant), with decreased compliance at the extremes of age. See Joseph Blansfield et al., “Analyzing the impact of compliance with national guidelines for pancreatic cancer care using the National Cancer Database,” Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery , August 2018, Volume 22, Issue 8; Nathan Levitan, “Industry Voices—Here’s how AI is impacting the delivery of cancer care right now,” Fierce Healthcare, June 28, 2019.

Of course, chronic diseases need to be managed not only by medication but also with regular monitoring and lifestyle changes. Hence, providers need better end-to-end solutions that proactively and comprehensively monitor patient health, as well as encourage behavioral changes to improve adherence to prescribed medications, diet, and lifestyles.

Digital technologies can play an important role in improving disease management by tackling these challenges. The potential for digital therapeutics to have a big impact is evidenced by the fact that almost two-thirds of the global population now has internet access.

Research has shown that digital solutions for disease management can drive better outcomes for patients living with chronic diseases. Examples include the following:

• A study of ten thousand patients by the Poland National Health Fund showed a 45 percent reduction in three-month MACE rate and a 40 percent reduction in 12-month mortality rate achieved through managed care after AMI. The study involved cardiac rehabilitation with physician guidance, counseling sessions on lifestyle modification, education on the associated risk factors, therapy, and in-person relaxation sessions. 6 “Managed care after acute myocardial infarction,” 2021.
• A study by the Mayo Clinic in partnership with Healarium showed a reduction in three-month rehospitalizations and emergency department visits of 40 percent for patients following AMI, a weight reduction of 4.0 kilograms, and a 10.8-millimeter reduction in systolic blood pressure. The study involved tracking of vitals, diet, and physical activity, setting reminders and goals, information on current health status, and educational courses for patients. 7 Thomas G. Allison et al., “Digital health intervention as an adjunct to cardiac rehabilitation reduces cardiovascular risk factors and rehospitalizations, Journal of Cardiovascular Translational Research , 2015, Volume 8, Issue 5.
• A US study of more than one thousand patients by Johns Hopkins and Corrie Health showed a 50 percent reduction in the 30-day readmission rate in patients following AMI attained through digital-health-based interventions. The study involved continuous monitoring of vitals with the help of connected devices; educational content on procedures, risk factors, and lifestyle modifications; medication management through reminders and tracking adherence; connection with the care team; mood tracking; and the ability to check the side effects of medication. 8 “Digital health intervention in acute myocardial infarction,” 2021.
• A one percentage-point reduction in HbA1c levels was shown in patients with type 2 diabetes who participated in an online patient community as part of Virta Health’s ten-week nonrandomized parallel arm study with 262 outpatients. The patients were given individualized nutritional recommendations through dedicated health coaches, continuous glucose monitoring kits, and online counseling with doctors. 9 “A novel intervention including individualized nutritional recommendations reduces hemoglobin A1c level,” 2017.

Eight key elements of impactful digital therapeutics solutions

Strong digital therapeutics solutions typically contain most or all of the following eight elements:

• Regular monitoring, measurement, and feedback through connected medical devices . Devices such as smart inhalers for respiratory conditions or continuous glucose monitors for diabetes can provide patients with nudges and alerts for out-of-range readings. For example, Boston-based Biofourmis applies digital therapeutics through the continuous monitoring of connected medical devices. The company offers a doctor-prescribed digital platform approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for patients suffering from chronic heart conditions. Its unique wearable devices offer specialty chronic heart care management, including automated medication management combined with a multidisciplinary remote clinical-care team. In 2022, the company was valued at $1.3 billion.
• Keeping payers and providers in the loop. When patients grant access to their vital statistics, insurance companies, caregivers, and employers can reward them for progress in stabilizing or improving chronic health conditions. For example, Livongo, a program from Teladoc Health, allows patients with diabetes to monitor their condition regularly and send alerts via Bluetooth to an app on their own and their caregiver’s phones if readings exceed normal ranges. Over time, patients enrolled with Livongo have achieved a 0.8 percentage-point drop in HbA1c for diabetics, a 10.0-millimeter hemoglobin drop in blood pressure for patients with hypertension, a 1.8-point drop in body mass index, and a 7.0 percent drop in weight. Livongo allows payers and providers to identify and reward good behavior, as well as deter or penalize poor adherence to health plans prescribed by providers.
• Personalized coaching and support . Patients can connect with specific coaches to obtain a personalized diet and exercise plan tailored to their chronic illnesses. This can be very effective from a therapeutic standpoint. A meta-analysis of digital health interventions on blood pressure management showed that digital counseling alongside antihypertensive medical therapy reduced systolic blood pressure by 50 percent relative to controls. 10 Ella Huszti et al., “Advancing digital health interventions as a clinically applied science for blood pressure reduction: A systematic review and meta-analysis,” Canadian Journal of Cardiology , May 2020, Volume 36, Issue 5. For example, Hinge Health has built a $6.2 billion business that offers wearable sensors combined with personalized exercise therapy and one-on-one health coaching.
• Gamified behavioral modification. Digital therapeutics solutions can include gamified challenges and incentives to track and drive adherence to prescribed diets, lifestyle practices, and medications. For example, Discovery, a South African health insurance company, encourages its members to make healthier choices through its Vitality behavioral change program that combines data analytics with rewards and incentives for healthier lifestyle choices.
• Building a thriving community . An active virtual patient community can drive adherence by challenging and motivating patients to live up to their own health goals. For instance, one study of seven thousand patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, HIV, fibromyalgia, or mood disorders found that nearly 60 percent thought the PatientsLikeMe health network helped give them a better understanding of the side effects of medications. The study also found that nearly a quarter of patients with mood disorders needed less inpatient care thanks to their use of the PatientsLikeMe site. 11 “PatientsLikeMe,” Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, accessed January 2023.
• Health mall. A recent McKinsey survey found that 90 percent of healthcare leaders believe that patients interacting with digital health ecosystems want an integrated journey rather than point experiences or solutions. 12 Stefan Biesdorf, Ulrike Deetjen, and Basel Kayyali, “ Digital health ecosystems: Voices of key healthcare leaders ,” McKinsey, October 12, 2021. Healthcare companies can meet this desire for integration by offering digital health malls that include access to prescribed medications, health supplements, wellness products, and diagnostic tests at the click of a button.
• Patient education . Digital education materials can give patients and their family members information on disease conditions, treatment options, diet, and healthy lifestyle choices. For instance, the Midday app launched by Mayo Clinic and digital health start-up Lisa Health provides support, including educational content, to women experiencing menopause. 13 Tia R. Ford, “Lisa Health launches Midday, an app leveraging AI to personalize the menopause journey, in collaboration with Mayo Clinic,” Mayo Clinic, July 19, 2022.
• Advanced analytics to predict and prevent health events . Organizations are working now to build data algorithms that could identify and predict triggers for healthcare events. They could suggest when to take preventative action or where lifestyle and behavioral changes might forestall adverse events.

How incumbents can thrive in the digital therapeutics space

Digital therapeutics have tremendous potential to reduce disease burdens, deliver better clinical outcomes, help providers make more informed treatment decisions, and improve patients’ lives by offering better ways to manage chronic health conditions. Digital therapeutics also offer incumbents access to new sections of the healthcare value chain and a way to play in the much larger end-to-end healthcare market. Given these opportunities, healthcare and pharma incumbents may wish to explore ways to compete and win in this space.

Incumbents have certain inherent advantages in building digital therapeutics offerings. They already have direct access to patients, plus deep knowledge of the pain points in the disease management journey. They also fully understand the disease science that needs to be integrated into the digital health offering.

Still, incumbents also have some work to do to be competitive in digital therapeutics. To successfully launch and scale an offering, they may need to recruit or upskill employees with skills in product development, design, technology, medicine, data science, and strategic partnerships. Incumbents should plan to spend from three to five years building their digital capabilities and inculcating their new digital workforce with the culture, vision, mission, and values to compete successfully against nimble start-ups.

Incumbents that move quickly still have an opportunity to gain a first-mover advantage in the growing digital therapeutics sector, where promising start-ups can receive multibillion-dollar valuations. By developing their own digital therapeutics offerings, incumbents may also find themselves in a stronger position to protect their core businesses from being disrupted by others.

Chirag Adatia is a partner in McKinsey’s Gurugram office, where Samarth Shah is a consultant. Ralf Dreischmeier  is a senior partner in the London office.  Kirtika Sharma is a partner in the Mumbai office.

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Study reveals key role of glutamate tRNA fragments in brain aging and Alzheimer's disease

A research paper published in the journal Cell Metabolism by the team of Prof. Liu Qiang at the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) reveals the critical role of glutamate tRNA fragments in brain aging and Alzheimer's disease.

The study found age-dependent accumulation of Glu-5'tsRNA-CTC, a transfer-RNA-derived small RNA (tsRNA), derived from nuclear-encoded tRNAGlu in the mitochondria of glutaminergic neurons. This abnormal accumulation impairs mitochondrial protein translation and cristae structure, ultimately accelerating the pathological processes of brain aging and Alzheimer's disease.

Brain aging is an inevitable natural process that leads to a decline in cognitive function. Alzheimer's disease, a neurodegenerative condition, is the most common cause of dementia in the elderly where cognitive impairment is a hallmark feature of Alzheimer's disease. Mitochondria provide energy to cells. Research has shown that mitochondrial dysfunction is closely associated with brain aging and Alzheimer's disease.

Mitochondrial Glu-5'tsRNA-CTC disrupts the binding of mt-tRNALeu and leucyl-tRNA synthetase 2 (LARS2), impairing mt-tRNALeu aminoacylation and mitochondrial-encoded protein translation. Defects in mitochondrial translation disrupt cristae architecture, resulting in impaired glutamine formation dependent on glutaminase (GLS) and reduced synaptic glutamate levels. Additionally, reducing Glu-5'tsRNA-CTC can protect the aging brain from age-related defects in mitochondrial cristae, glutamine metabolism, synaptic structure, and memory.

Liu and his team shed light on the crucial role of glutamate tRNA fragments in brain aging and Alzheimer's disease, offering new insights for delaying cognitive decline. The researchers designed antisense oligonucleotides targeting these tRNA fragments and injected them into the brains of aged mice. This intervention significantly alleviated learning and memory deficits in the aged mice.

In addition to elucidating the physiological role of normal mitochondrial cristae ultrastructure in maintaining glutamate levels, this study also defined the pathological role of transfer RNAs in brain aging and age-related memory decline.

More information: Dingfeng Li et al, Aging-induced tRNAGlu-derived fragment impairs glutamate biosynthesis by targeting mitochondrial translation-dependent cristae organization, Cell Metabolism (2024). DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2024.02.011

Provided by University of Science and Technology of China

People with more copies of ribosomal DNA may have higher risks of developing disease

Ribosomal DNA (rDNA) is present in hundreds of copies in the genome, but has not previously been part of genetic analyses. A new study of 500,000 individuals indicates that people who have more copies of rDNA are more likely to develop inflammation and diseases during their lifetimes.

Standard genetic analysis techniques have not studied areas of the human genome that are repetitive, such as ribosomal DNA (rDNA), a fundamental part of the molecular mechanism which makes proteins in cells. A new study, led by Vardhman Rakyan and Francisco Rodriguez-Algarra from Queen Mary University of London's Blizard Institute in collaboration with David Evans from The University of Queensland's Institute for Molecular Bioscience, has discovered that genetic disposition to disease can be found in these previously understudied areas of the genome. These results suggest that wider genome analysis could bring opportunities for preventative diagnostics, novel therapeutics, and greater insight into the mechanism of different human diseases.

In this study, co-funded by Barts Charity, Rosetrees Trust, and the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC), samples from 500,000 individuals in the UK Biobank project were analysed. Researchers used new whole genome sequencing (WGS) techniques to identify differences in numbers of copies of rDNA in each sample, and compared them with other health metrics and medical records.

The researchers found that the number of copies of rDNA in an individual showed strong statistical association with well-established markers of systemic inflammation -- such as Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte ratio (NLR), Platelet-to-Lymphocyte ratio (PLR), and Systemic Immune-Inflammation index (SII). These statistically significant associations were seen in the genomes of individuals of different ethnicities, suggesting a common indicator for risks of future disease.

rDNA copy number was also linked with an individual's kidney function within the sample of individuals of European ancestry. A similar effect was seen in samples from other ancestries, but further research using larger sample sizes will be needed to confirm this connection.

Professor Vardhman Rakyan, from the Genomics and Child Health in the Blizard Institute at Queen Mary, said: "Our research highlights the importance of analysing the whole genome to better understand the factors impacting on our health. This study is also an example of how having access to large biobanks allows us to make unexpected discoveries, and provides new avenues for harnessing the power of genetics to understand human diseases."

Professor David Evans, from The University of Queensland's Institute for Molecular Bioscience, said: "Geneticists have long struggled to fully explain the genetic basis of many common complex traits and diseases. Our work suggests that at least part of this missing heritability resides in difficult to sequence regions of the genome such as those encoding ribosomal copy number variation."

Victoria King, Director of Funding and Impact at Barts Charity, said: "We're delighted to have supported this work which could lead to better prevention and treatment for many different diseases. Using samples from UK Biobank participants, this study highlights the exciting potential of examining previously overlooked areas of the genome."

• Human Biology
• Personalized Medicine
• Diseases and Conditions
• Immune System
• Workplace Health
• Today's Healthcare
• Human genome
• DNA microarray
• Heritability
• Tropical disease

Story Source:

Materials provided by Queen Mary University of London . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Francisco Rodriguez-Algarra, David M. Evans, Vardhman K. Rakyan. Ribosomal DNA copy number variation associates with hematological profiles and renal function in the UK Biobank . Cell Genomics , 2024; 100562 DOI: 10.1016/j.xgen.2024.100562

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Laboratory support and resources

CDC's Mycotic Diseases Branch is a leading public health entity on fungal diseases. It's Clinical Laboratory Improvements Amendments (CLIA)-certified reference laboratory provides technical assistance to US public health laboratories as well as laboratories worldwide.

As one of the leading public health laboratories for fungal identification, CDC's Mycotic Diseases Laboratory, shares diagnostic and susceptibility testing protocols. Protocols include SOPs and job aids.

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Artificial intelligence  is being used in healthcare for everything from answering patient questions to assisting with surgeries and developing new pharmaceuticals.

According to  Statista , the artificial intelligence (AI) healthcare market, which is valued at $11 billion in 2021, is projected to be worth $187 billion in 2030. That massive increase means we will likely continue to see considerable changes in how medical providers, hospitals, pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, and others in the healthcare industry operate.

Better  machine learning (ML)  algorithms, more access to data, cheaper hardware, and the availability of 5G have contributed to the increasing application of AI in the healthcare industry, accelerating the pace of change. AI and ML technologies can sift through enormous volumes of health data—from health records and clinical studies to genetic information—and analyze it much faster than humans.

Healthcare organizations are using AI to improve the efficiency of all kinds of processes, from back-office tasks to patient care. The following are some examples of how AI might be used to benefit staff and patients:

• Administrative workflow:  Healthcare workers spend a lot of time doing paperwork and other administrative tasks. AI and automation can help perform many of those mundane tasks, freeing up employee time for other activities and giving them more face-to-face time with patients. For example, generative AI can help clinicians with note-taking and content summarization that can help keep medical records as thoroughly as possible. AI might also help with accurate coding and sharing of information between departments and billing.
• Virtual nursing assistants:  One study found that  64% of patients  are comfortable with the use of AI for around-the-clock access to answers that support nurses provide. AI virtual nurse assistants—which are AI-powered chatbots, apps, or other interfaces—can be used to help answer questions about medications, forward reports to doctors or surgeons and help patients schedule a visit with a physician. These sorts of routine tasks can help take work off the hands of clinical staff, who can then spend more time directly on patient care, where human judgment and interaction matter most.
• Dosage error reduction:  AI can be used to help identify errors in how a patient self-administers medication. One example comes from a study in  Nature Medicine , which found that up to 70% of patients don’t take insulin as prescribed. An AI-powered tool that sits in the patient’s background (much like a wifi router) might be used to flag errors in how the patient administers an insulin pen or inhaler.
• Less invasive surgeries:  AI-enabled robots might be used to work around sensitive organs and tissues to help reduce blood loss, infection risk and post-surgery pain.
• Fraud prevention:  Fraud in the healthcare industry is enormous, at $380 billion/year, and raises the cost of consumers’ medical premiums and out-of-pocket expenses. Implementing AI can help recognize unusual or suspicious patterns in insurance claims, such as billing for costly services or procedures that are not performed, unbundling (which is billing for the individual steps of a procedure as though they were separate procedures), and performing unnecessary tests to take advantage of insurance payments.

A recent study found that  83% of patients  report poor communication as the worst part of their experience, demonstrating a strong need for clearer communication between patients and providers. AI technologies like  natural language processing  (NLP), predictive analytics, and  speech recognition  might help healthcare providers have more effective communication with patients. AI might, for instance, deliver more specific information about a patient’s treatment options, allowing the healthcare provider to have more meaningful conversations with the patient for shared decision-making.

According to  Harvard’s School of Public Health , although it’s early days for this use, using AI to make diagnoses may reduce treatment costs by up to 50% and improve health outcomes by 40%.

One use case example is out of the  University of Hawaii , where a research team found that deploying  deep learning  AI technology can improve breast cancer risk prediction. More research is needed, but the lead researcher pointed out that an AI algorithm can be trained on a much larger set of images than a radiologist—as many as a million or more radiology images. Also, that algorithm can be replicated at no cost except for hardware.

An  MIT group  developed an ML algorithm to determine when a human expert is needed. In some instances, such as identifying cardiomegaly in chest X-rays, they found that a hybrid human-AI model produced the best results.

Another  published study  found that AI recognized skin cancer better than experienced doctors.  US, German and French researchers used deep learning on more than 100,000 images to identify skin cancer. Comparing the results of AI to those of 58 international dermatologists, they found AI did better.

As health and fitness monitors become more popular and more people use apps that track and analyze details about their health. They can share these real-time data sets with their doctors to monitor health issues and provide alerts in case of problems.

AI solutions—such as big data applications, machine learning algorithms and deep learning algorithms—might also be used to help humans analyze large data sets to help clinical and other decision-making. AI might also be used to help detect and track infectious diseases, such as COVID-19, tuberculosis, and malaria.

One benefit the use of AI brings to health systems is making gathering and sharing information easier. AI can help providers keep track of patient data more efficiently.

One example is diabetes. According to the  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , 10% of the US population has diabetes. Patients can now use wearable and other monitoring devices that provide feedback about their glucose levels to themselves and their medical team. AI can help providers gather that information, store, and analyze it, and provide data-driven insights from vast numbers of people. Using this information can help healthcare professionals determine how to better treat and manage diseases.

Organizations are also starting to use AI to help improve drug safety. The company SELTA SQUARE, for example, is  innovating the pharmacovigilance (PV) process , a legally mandated discipline for detecting and reporting adverse effects from drugs, then assessing, understanding, and preventing those effects. PV demands significant effort and diligence from pharma producers because it’s performed from the clinical trials phase all the way through the drug’s lifetime availability. Selta Square uses a combination of AI and automation to make the PV process faster and more accurate, which helps make medicines safer for people worldwide.

Sometimes, AI might reduce the need to test potential drug compounds physically, which is an enormous cost-savings.  High-fidelity molecular simulations  can run on computers without incurring the high costs of traditional discovery methods.

AI also has the potential to help humans predict toxicity, bioactivity, and other characteristics of molecules or create previously unknown drug molecules from scratch.

As AI becomes more important in healthcare delivery and more AI medical applications are developed, ethical, and regulatory governance must be established. Issues that raise concern include the possibility of bias, lack of transparency, privacy concerns regarding data used for training AI models, and safety and liability issues.

“AI governance is necessary, especially for clinical applications of the technology,” said Laura Craft, VP Analyst at  Gartner . “However, because new AI techniques are largely new territory for most [health delivery organizations], there is a lack of common rules, processes, and guidelines for eager entrepreneurs to follow as they design their pilots.”

The World Health Organization (WHO) spent 18 months deliberating with leading experts in ethics, digital technology, law, and human rights and various Ministries of Health members to produce a report that is called  Ethics & Governance of Artificial Intelligence for Health . This report identifies ethical challenges to using AI in healthcare, identifies risks, and outlines six  consensus principles  to ensure AI works for the public’s benefit:

• Protecting autonomy
• Promoting human safety and well-being
• Ensuring transparency
• Fostering accountability
• Ensuring equity
• Promoting tools that are responsive and sustainable

The WHO report also provides recommendations that ensure governing AI for healthcare both maximizes the technology’s promise and holds healthcare workers accountable and responsive to the communities and people they work with.

AI provides opportunities to help reduce human error, assist medical professionals and staff, and provide patient services 24/7. As AI tools continue to develop, there is potential to use AI even more in reading medical images, X-rays and scans, diagnosing medical problems and creating treatment plans.

AI applications continue to help streamline various tasks, from answering phones to analyzing population health trends (and likely, applications yet to be considered). For instance, future AI tools may automate or augment more of the work of clinicians and staff members. That will free up humans to spend more time on more effective and compassionate face-to-face professional care.

When patients need help, they don’t want to (or can’t) wait on hold. Healthcare facilities’ resources are finite, so help isn’t always available instantaneously or 24/7—and even slight delays can create frustration and feelings of isolation or cause certain conditions to worsen.

IBM® watsonx Assistant™ AI healthcare chatbots  can help providers do two things: keep their time focused where it needs to be and empower patients who call in to get quick answers to simple questions.

IBM watsonx Assistant  is built on deep learning, machine learning and natural language processing (NLP) models to understand questions, search for the best answers and complete transactions by using conversational AI.

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