types of descriptive qualitative research

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Chapter 5: Qualitative descriptive research

Darshini Ayton

Learning outcomes

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Identify the key terms and concepts used in qualitative descriptive research.
• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of qualitative descriptive research.

What is a qualitative descriptive study?

The key concept of the qualitative descriptive study is description.

Qualitative descriptive studies (also known as ‘exploratory studies’ and ‘qualitative description approaches’) are relatively new in the qualitative research landscape. They emerged predominantly in the field of nursing and midwifery over the past two decades. 1 The design of qualitative descriptive studies evolved as a means to define aspects of qualitative research that did not resemble qualitative research designs to date, despite including elements of those other study designs. 2

Qualitative descriptive studies  describe  phenomena rather than explain them. Phenomenological studies, ethnographic studies and those using grounded theory seek to explain a phenomenon. Qualitative descriptive studies aim to provide a comprehensive summary of events. The approach to this study design is journalistic, with the aim being to answer the questions who, what, where and how. 3

A qualitative descriptive study is an important and appropriate design for research questions that are focused on gaining insights about a poorly understood research area, rather than on a specific phenomenon. Since qualitative descriptive study design seeks to describe rather than explain, explanatory frameworks and theories are not required to explain or ‘ground’ a study and its results. 4 The researcher may decide that a framework or theory adds value to their interpretations, and in that case, it is perfectly acceptable to use them. However, the hallmark of genuine curiosity (naturalistic enquiry) is that the researcher does not know in advance what they will be observing or describing. 4 Because a phenomenon is being described, the qualitative descriptive analysis is more categorical and less conceptual than other methods. Qualitative content analysis is usually the main approach to data analysis in qualitative descriptive studies. 4 This has led to criticism of descriptive research being less sophisticated because less interpretation is required than with other qualitative study designs in which interpretation and explanation are key characteristics (e.g. phenomenology, grounded theory, case studies).

Diverse approaches to data collection can be utilised in qualitative description studies. However, most qualitative descriptive studies use semi-structured interviews (see Chapter 13) because they provide a reliable way to collect data. 3 The technique applied to data analysis is generally categorical and less conceptual when compared to other qualitative research designs (see Section 4). 2,3 Hence, this study design is well suited to research by practitioners, student researchers and policymakers. Its straightforward approach enables these studies to be conducted in shorter timeframes than other study designs. 3 Descriptive studies are common as the qualitative component in mixed-methods research ( see Chapter 11 ) and evaluations ( see Chapter 12 ), 1 because qualitative descriptive studies can provide information to help develop and refine questionnaires or interventions.

For example, in our research to develop a patient-reported outcome measure for people who had undergone a percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), which is a common cardiac procedure to treat heart disease, we started by conducting a qualitative descriptive study. 5 This project was a large, mixed-methods study funded by a private health insurer. The entire research process needed to be straightforward and achievable within a year, as we had engaged an undergraduate student to undertake the research tasks. The aim of the qualitative component of the mixed-methods study was to identify and explore patients’ perceptions following PCI. We used inductive approaches to collect and analyse the data. The study was guided by the following domains for the development of patient-reported outcomes, according to US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) guidelines, which included:

• Feeling: How the patient feels physically and psychologically after medical intervention
• Function: The patient’s mobility and ability to maintain their regular routine
• Evaluation: The patient’s overall perception of the success or failure of their procedure and their perception of what contributed to it. 5(p458)

We conducted focus groups and interviews, and asked participants three questions related to the FDA outcome domains:

• From your perspective, what would be considered a successful outcome of the procedure?

Probing questions: Did the procedure meet your expectations? How do you define whether the procedure was successful?

• How did you feel after the procedure?

Probing question: How did you feel one week after and how does that compare with how you feel now?

• After your procedure, tell me about your ability to do your daily activities?

Prompt for activities including gardening, housework, personal care, work-related and family-related tasks.

Probing questions: Did you attend cardiac rehabilitation? Can you tell us about your experience of cardiac rehabilitation? What impact has medication had on your recovery?

• What, if any, lifestyle changes have you made since your procedure? 5(p459)

Data collection was conducted with 32 participants. The themes were mapped to the FDA patient-reported outcome domains, with the results confirming previous research and also highlighting new areas for exploration in the development of a new patient-reported outcome measure. For example, participants reported a lack of confidence following PCI and the importance of patient and doctor communication. Women, in particular, reported that they wanted doctors to recognise how their experiences of cardiac symptoms were different to those of men.

The study described phenomena and resulted in the development of a patient-reported outcome measure that was tested and refined using a discrete-choice experiment survey, 6 a pilot of the measure in the Victorian Cardiac Outcomes Registry and a Rasch analysis to validate the measurement’s properties. 7

Advantages and disadvantages of qualitative descriptive studies

A qualitative descriptive study is an effective design for research by practitioners, policymakers and students, due to their relatively short timeframes and low costs. The researchers can remain close to the data and the events described, and this can enable the process of analysis to be relatively simple. Qualitative descriptive studies are also useful in mixed-methods research studies. Some of the advantages of qualitative descriptive studies have led to criticism of the design approach, due to a lack of engagement with theory and the lack of interpretation and explanation of the data. 2

Table 5.1. Examples of qualitative descriptive studies

Qualitative descriptive studies are gaining popularity in health and social care due to their utility, from a resource and time perspective, for research by practitioners, policymakers and researchers. Descriptive studies can be conducted as stand-alone studies or as part of larger, mixed-methods studies.

• Bradshaw C, Atkinson S, Doody O. Employing a qualitative description approach in health care research. Glob Qual Nurs Res. 2017;4. doi:10.1177/2333393617742282
• Lambert VA, Lambert CE. Qualitative descriptive research: an acceptable design. Pac Rim Int J Nurs Res Thail. 2012;16(4):255-256. Accessed June 6, 2023. https://he02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/PRIJNR/article/download/5805/5064
• Doyle L et al. An overview of the qualitative descriptive design within nursing research. J Res Nurs. 2020;25(5):443-455. doi:10.1177/174498711988023
• Kim H, Sefcik JS, Bradway C. Characteristics of qualitative descriptive studies: a systematic review. Res Nurs Health. 2017;40(1):23-42. doi:10.1002/nur.21768
• Ayton DR et al. Exploring patient-reported outcomes following percutaneous coronary intervention: a qualitative study. Health Expect. 2018;21(2):457-465. doi:10.1111/hex.1263
• Barker AL et al. Symptoms and feelings valued by patients after a percutaneous coronary intervention: a discrete-choice experiment to inform development of a new patient-reported outcome. BMJ Open. 2018;8:e023141. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-023141
• Soh SE et al. What matters most to patients following percutaneous coronary interventions? a new patient-reported outcome measure developed using Rasch analysis. PLoS One. 2019;14(9):e0222185. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0222185
• Hiller RM et al. Coping and support-seeking in out-of-home care: a qualitative study of the views of young people in care in England. BMJ Open. 2021;11:e038461. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-038461
• Backman C, Cho-Young D. Engaging patients and informal caregivers to improve safety and facilitate person- and family-centered care during transitions from hospital to home – a qualitative descriptive study. Patient Prefer Adherence. 2019;13:617-626. doi:10.2147/PPA.S201054

Qualitative Research – a practical guide for health and social care researchers and practitioners Copyright © 2023 by Darshini Ayton is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Descriptive Research and Qualitative Research

Cite this chapter.

• Eunsook T. Koh 2 &
• Willis L. Owen 2  

925 Accesses

18 Citations

Descriptive research is a study of status and is widely used in education, nutrition, epidemiology, and the behavioral sciences. Its value is based on the premise that problems can be solved and practices improved through observation, analysis, and description. The most common descriptive research method is the survey, which includes questionnaires, personal interviews, phone surveys, and normative surveys. Developmental research is also descriptive. Through cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, researchers investigate the interaction of diet (e.g., fat and its sources, fiber and its sources, etc.) and life styles (e.g., smoking, alcohol drinking, etc.) and of disease (e.g., cancer, coronary heart disease) development. Observational research and correlational studies constitute other forms of descriptive research. Correlational studies determine and analyze relationships between variables as well as generate predictions. Descriptive research generates data, both qualitative and quantitative, that define the state of nature at a point in time. This chapter discusses some characteristics and basic procedures of the various types of descriptive research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Unable to display preview.  Download preview PDF.

Achterberg C. Qualitative methods in nutritional education evaluation research. J Nutr Educ 1988; 20: 244

Article   Google Scholar  

Agar, M.H. The Professional Stranger: an Informal Introduction to Ethnography. Academic Press, New York: Academic Press 1980.

Google Scholar  

Amstrong B., Doll R. Environmental factors and cancer incidence and mortality in different countries, with special reference to dietary practices. Int J Cancer, 1975; 15:617–631

Bang H.O., Dyerberg J., Hjorne, N. The composition of food consumed by Greenland Eskimos. Acta Med Scand 1976; 200: 69–75

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Bailey, K.D. Methods of Social Research. New York: Free Press, Macmillan Publishing Co, Inc, 1978.

Beal V.A. The nutritional history in longitudinal research. J Am Dietet A 1967; 51: 526–531

Berdie D.R. Questionnaire length and response rate. J Appl Psychol 1973; 58:278–280

Berdie, D.R., Anderson J.F., Niebuhr, M.A. Questionnaires: Design and Use. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarescrow Press, 1986.

Buell P. Changing incidence of breast cancer in Japanese-American women. JNCI 1973; 51:1479–1483

CAS   Google Scholar  

Dyberg J., Bang H.O., Hjorne N. Fatty acid composition of the plasma lipids in Greenland Eskimos. Am J Clin Nutr 1975; 28: 958–961

Frank G. Life history model of adaptation to disability: the case of a congenital amputee. Soc Sci Med 1984; 19: 639–645

Fetterman, D.L. “A Walk Through the Wilderness: Learning to Find Your Way.” In Experiencing Fieldwork: An Inside View of Qualitative Research. Shaffir, W., Stebbins, R. eds. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1991.

Fieldhouse, P. Food & Nutrition: Customs & Culture. New York: Croom Helm, 1986

Fielding, N.G., Fielding, J.L. Linking Data. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1986.

Firestone W.A. Meaning in method: The rhetoric of quantitative and qualitative research. Educational Researcher 1987; 16:16–21

Geertz, C. The interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books, 1973.

Glaser B.G., Strauss, A.L. The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. New York: Aldine Publishing Co, 1967.

Goldberger, J.E. Goldberger on Pellagra. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1964.

Greer J.G. What do open-ended questions measure? Public Opinion Quart 1988; 52:365–371

Gordis, L. Epidemiology. Philadelphia PA: Saunders, 1996.

Hammersley, M., Atkinson, P. Ethnography: Principles in Practice. London: Tavistock, 1983.

Headland, T.N., Pike, K.L., Harris, M. Emics and Etics: The Insider/Outsider Debate. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1990.

Hodge, R., Kress, G. Social Semiotics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988.

Holbrook J.T., Patterson K.Y., Bodner J.E., Douglas L.W., Veillon C., Kelsey J.L. Mertz W, Smith J.C. Sodium and potassium intake and balance in adults consuming self selected diets. Am J Clin Nutr 1984; 40: 786–793

Human Nutrition Information Service, US Department of Agriculture, Food Consumption: Households in the United States, Spring 1977, Washington, D.E.: Government Printing Office, Publication H-1, 1982.

ICNND (International Committee on Nutrition for National Defense) Manual for Nutrition Surveys. Second edition. Superintendent of Documents. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963

Jacob E. Qualitative research traditions: A review. Rev Educ Res 1987; 57: 1–4

Jelliffe, D.B. The Assessment of the Nutritional Status of the Community. WHO Monograph 53. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1966.

Keys, A. Seven Countries: A Multivariate Analysis of Death and Corornary Heart Disease. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980.

Kittler, P.G., Sucher, K. Food and Culture in America. New York: Reinhold, 1989.

Kirk, J., Miller, M.L. Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1986.

Koh E.T., Caples V. Nutrient intake of low-income, black families in Southwest Mississippi. J Am Dietet A 1979; 75:665–670

Kolonel, L.N., Hinds, M.W., Hankin, J.H. “Cancer Patterns Among Migrant and Native-Born Japanese in Hawaii in Relation to Smoking, Drinking, and Dietary Habits.” In Genetic and Environmental Factors in Experimental and Human Cancer. Gelboin, H.V. et al. eds. Tokyo, Japan: Science Press, 1980.

Kromann N., Green A. Epidemiological studies in the Upernavik district, Greenland: Incidence of some chronic disease 1950–1974. Acta Med Scand 1980; 401–405

Krueger, R. Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Rese arch. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988.

Langness, L.L. Frank, G. Lives: An Anthropological Approach to Biography. Novato, CA: Chandler & Sharp, 1981.

Lind, J. (1753) A Treatise on the Scurvy. Reprinted Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1953.

Lock, L.F. “The Question of Quality in Qualitative Research.” In Proceedings of the 5th Measurement and Evaluation Symposium. Nelson, J.K. ed. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1987.

Lofland, J., Lofland, L. Analyzing Social Settings: A Guide to Qualitative Research. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1984.

Marshall, C; Rossman, G.B. Designing Qualitative Research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989.

Mauser, J.S., Kramer, S. Epidemiology — An Introductory Text. Philadelphia PA: Saunders, 1985.

McClendon M.J., O’Brien D.J. Question-order effects on the determinants of subjective well-being. Public Opinion Quart 1988; 52:351–364

McCraken, G. The Long Interview. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988.

McMichael A.J., McCall M.G., Hartshorne J.M., Woodings T.L. Patterns of gastro-intestinal cancer in European migrants to Australia: The role of dietary changes. In J Cancer 1980; 25:431–437

Miles, M.B., Huberman, A.M. Qualitative Data Analysis: A Sourcebook of New Methods. (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994.

Montgomery A.C., Crittenden K.S. Improving coding reliability for open-ended questions. Public Opinion Quart 1977; 41: 235–243

National Center for Health Statistics: Plan and Operation of the HANES. Vital and Health Statistics, Series 1, Nos 10a and 10b, DHEW Pub No (HSM) 73–130. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973.

O’Brien T., Dugdale V. Questionnaire administration by computer. J Market Res Soc, 1978; 20:228–237

Okolo, E.N. Health Research Design and Methodology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press 1990.

Parkin, D.M., Muir, C.S., Whelan, S.L., Gao, Y.T., Ferlay, J., Powell, J. Cancer Incidence in Five Continents VI IARC Sci Publ 120, Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1992.

Peterkin B.B., Rizek R.L., Tippett K.S. Nationwide food consumption survey, 1987. Nutr Today 1988; 23:18–24

Poe G.S., Seeman I., McLaughlin J., Mehl E., Dietz M. Don’t know boxes in factual questions in a mail questionnaire: Effects on level and quality of response. Public Opinion Quart 1988; 52: 212–222

Poikolainen K., Karkkainen P. Nature of questionnaire options affects estimates of alcohol intake. J Stud Alcohol 1985; 46: 219–222

Potter, J.D. Food, Nutrition and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective. Washington, D.C.: American Institute for Cancer Research, 1997.

Rose, G.A., Blackburn, H. Cardiovascular Survey Methods. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization 1968.

Runcie, J.F. Experiencing Social Sresearch. Homewood, IL.: Dorsey Press, 1976.

Sandelowski, M. The Problem of Rigor in Qualitative Research. Adv Nurs Sci April 27–37, 1986.

Schutz R.W. Qualitative research: comments and controversies. Research Quarterly Exercise Sport, 1989; 60:30–35

Sheatsley, P.B. “Questionnaire Construction and Item Writing.” In Handbook of Survey Research. Rossi, P.H., Wright, J.D., Anderson, A.B. eds. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, 1983.

Sherry, B. “Epidemiologic Analytical Research.” In Research. Monsen, E.R. Chicago, IL: American Dietetic Association, 1992

Spradley, J. The Ethnographic Interview. Chicago, IL: Holtz, Rinehart & Winston, 1979.

Spradley, J.P. Participant Observation. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1980.

Sudman, S., Bradburn, N.M. Asking Questions: A Practical Guide to Questionnaire Design. (2nd ed.) Washington, D.C.: Jossey-Bass Publisher, 1983.

Taylor, S.J., Bogdan, R. Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods. (2nd ed.) New York: Wiley, 1984.

Thomas, J.R. Nelson, J.K. Research Methods in Physical Activity. (3rd ed.), Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1996.

Van Maanen, J. ed. Qualitative Methodology. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1983.

Willett, W. Nutritional Epidemiology. (2nd ed.) New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Book   Google Scholar  

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, USA

Eunsook T. Koh & Willis L. Owen

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2000 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Koh, E.T., Owen, W.L. (2000). Descriptive Research and Qualitative Research. In: Introduction to Nutrition and Health Research. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1401-5_12

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1401-5_12

Publisher Name : Springer, Boston, MA

Print ISBN : 978-1-4613-5535-9

Online ISBN : 978-1-4615-1401-5

eBook Packages : Springer Book Archive

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, automatically generate references for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Methodology
• Descriptive Research Design | Definition, Methods & Examples

Descriptive Research Design | Definition, Methods & Examples

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022.

Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what , where , when , and how   questions , but not why questions.

A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods  to investigate one or more variables . Unlike in experimental research , the researcher does not control or manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.

Table of contents

When to use a descriptive research design, descriptive research methods.

Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories.

It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research why something happens, you need to understand how, when, and where it happens.

• How has the London housing market changed over the past 20 years?
• Do customers of company X prefer product Y or product Z?
• What are the main genetic, behavioural, and morphological differences between European wildcats and domestic cats?
• What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
• How prevalent is disease A in population B?

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research , though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable .

Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analysed for frequencies, averages, and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:

• Describing the demographics of a country or region
• Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
• Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organisation’s services

Observations

Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by psychological, social, and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life situations.

Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses , models, or theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.

Case studies

A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person, group, event, or organisation). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.

Rather than aiming to describe generalisable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new about a research problem .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

McCombes, S. (2022, October 10). Descriptive Research Design | Definition, Methods & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 29 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/descriptive-research-design/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, a quick guide to experimental design | 5 steps & examples, correlational research | guide, design & examples, qualitative vs quantitative research | examples & methods.

• Privacy Policy

Home » Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Table of Contents

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a type of research methodology that focuses on exploring and understanding people’s beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. It seeks to answer research questions through the examination of subjective data, such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and textual analysis.

Qualitative research aims to uncover the meaning and significance of social phenomena, and it typically involves a more flexible and iterative approach to data collection and analysis compared to quantitative research. Qualitative research is often used in fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, and education.

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative Research Methods are as follows:

One-to-One Interview

This method involves conducting an interview with a single participant to gain a detailed understanding of their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. One-to-one interviews can be conducted in-person, over the phone, or through video conferencing. The interviewer typically uses open-ended questions to encourage the participant to share their thoughts and feelings. One-to-one interviews are useful for gaining detailed insights into individual experiences.

Focus Groups

This method involves bringing together a group of people to discuss a specific topic in a structured setting. The focus group is led by a moderator who guides the discussion and encourages participants to share their thoughts and opinions. Focus groups are useful for generating ideas and insights, exploring social norms and attitudes, and understanding group dynamics.

Ethnographic Studies

This method involves immersing oneself in a culture or community to gain a deep understanding of its norms, beliefs, and practices. Ethnographic studies typically involve long-term fieldwork and observation, as well as interviews and document analysis. Ethnographic studies are useful for understanding the cultural context of social phenomena and for gaining a holistic understanding of complex social processes.

Text Analysis

This method involves analyzing written or spoken language to identify patterns and themes. Text analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative text analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Text analysis is useful for understanding media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

This method involves an in-depth examination of a single person, group, or event to gain an understanding of complex phenomena. Case studies typically involve a combination of data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis, to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case. Case studies are useful for exploring unique or rare cases, and for generating hypotheses for further research.

Process of Observation

This method involves systematically observing and recording behaviors and interactions in natural settings. The observer may take notes, use audio or video recordings, or use other methods to document what they see. Process of observation is useful for understanding social interactions, cultural practices, and the context in which behaviors occur.

Record Keeping

This method involves keeping detailed records of observations, interviews, and other data collected during the research process. Record keeping is essential for ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data, and for providing a basis for analysis and interpretation.

This method involves collecting data from a large sample of participants through a structured questionnaire. Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, through mail, or online. Surveys are useful for collecting data on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, and for identifying patterns and trends in a population.

Qualitative data analysis is a process of turning unstructured data into meaningful insights. It involves extracting and organizing information from sources like interviews, focus groups, and surveys. The goal is to understand people’s attitudes, behaviors, and motivations

Qualitative Research Analysis Methods

Qualitative Research analysis methods involve a systematic approach to interpreting and making sense of the data collected in qualitative research. Here are some common qualitative data analysis methods:

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying patterns or themes in the data that are relevant to the research question. The researcher reviews the data, identifies keywords or phrases, and groups them into categories or themes. Thematic analysis is useful for identifying patterns across multiple data sources and for generating new insights into the research topic.

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing the content of written or spoken language to identify key themes or concepts. Content analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative content analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Content analysis is useful for identifying patterns in media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

Discourse Analysis

This method involves analyzing language to understand how it constructs meaning and shapes social interactions. Discourse analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as conversation analysis, critical discourse analysis, and narrative analysis. Discourse analysis is useful for understanding how language shapes social interactions, cultural norms, and power relationships.

Grounded Theory Analysis

This method involves developing a theory or explanation based on the data collected. Grounded theory analysis starts with the data and uses an iterative process of coding and analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data. The theory or explanation that emerges is grounded in the data, rather than preconceived hypotheses. Grounded theory analysis is useful for understanding complex social phenomena and for generating new theoretical insights.

Narrative Analysis

This method involves analyzing the stories or narratives that participants share to gain insights into their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. Narrative analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as structural analysis, thematic analysis, and discourse analysis. Narrative analysis is useful for understanding how individuals construct their identities, make sense of their experiences, and communicate their values and beliefs.

Phenomenological Analysis

This method involves analyzing how individuals make sense of their experiences and the meanings they attach to them. Phenomenological analysis typically involves in-depth interviews with participants to explore their experiences in detail. Phenomenological analysis is useful for understanding subjective experiences and for developing a rich understanding of human consciousness.

Comparative Analysis

This method involves comparing and contrasting data across different cases or groups to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can be used to identify patterns or themes that are common across multiple cases, as well as to identify unique or distinctive features of individual cases. Comparative analysis is useful for understanding how social phenomena vary across different contexts and groups.

Applications of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research has many applications across different fields and industries. Here are some examples of how qualitative research is used:

• Market Research: Qualitative research is often used in market research to understand consumer attitudes, behaviors, and preferences. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with consumers to gather insights into their experiences and perceptions of products and services.
• Health Care: Qualitative research is used in health care to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
• Education: Qualitative research is used in education to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. Researchers conduct classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
• Social Work : Qualitative research is used in social work to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
• Anthropology : Qualitative research is used in anthropology to understand different cultures and societies. Researchers conduct ethnographic studies and observe and interview members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
• Psychology : Qualitative research is used in psychology to understand human behavior and mental processes. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
• Public Policy : Qualitative research is used in public policy to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

How to Conduct Qualitative Research

Here are some general steps for conducting qualitative research:

• Identify your research question: Qualitative research starts with a research question or set of questions that you want to explore. This question should be focused and specific, but also broad enough to allow for exploration and discovery.
• Select your research design: There are different types of qualitative research designs, including ethnography, case study, grounded theory, and phenomenology. You should select a design that aligns with your research question and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
• Recruit participants: Once you have your research question and design, you need to recruit participants. The number of participants you need will depend on your research design and the scope of your research. You can recruit participants through advertisements, social media, or through personal networks.
• Collect data: There are different methods for collecting qualitative data, including interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis. You should select the method or methods that align with your research design and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
• Analyze data: Once you have collected your data, you need to analyze it. This involves reviewing your data, identifying patterns and themes, and developing codes to organize your data. You can use different software programs to help you analyze your data, or you can do it manually.
• Interpret data: Once you have analyzed your data, you need to interpret it. This involves making sense of the patterns and themes you have identified, and developing insights and conclusions that answer your research question. You should be guided by your research question and use your data to support your conclusions.
• Communicate results: Once you have interpreted your data, you need to communicate your results. This can be done through academic papers, presentations, or reports. You should be clear and concise in your communication, and use examples and quotes from your data to support your findings.

Examples of Qualitative Research

Here are some real-time examples of qualitative research:

• Customer Feedback: A company may conduct qualitative research to understand the feedback and experiences of its customers. This may involve conducting focus groups or one-on-one interviews with customers to gather insights into their attitudes, behaviors, and preferences.
• Healthcare : A healthcare provider may conduct qualitative research to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
• Education : An educational institution may conduct qualitative research to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. This may involve conducting classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
• Social Work: A social worker may conduct qualitative research to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
• Anthropology : An anthropologist may conduct qualitative research to understand different cultures and societies. This may involve conducting ethnographic studies and observing and interviewing members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
• Psychology : A psychologist may conduct qualitative research to understand human behavior and mental processes. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
• Public Policy: A government agency or non-profit organization may conduct qualitative research to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. This may involve conducting focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

Purpose of Qualitative Research

The purpose of qualitative research is to explore and understand the subjective experiences, behaviors, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research aims to provide in-depth, descriptive information that can help researchers develop insights and theories about complex social phenomena.

Qualitative research can serve multiple purposes, including:

• Exploring new or emerging phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring new or emerging phenomena, such as new technologies or social trends. This type of research can help researchers develop a deeper understanding of these phenomena and identify potential areas for further study.
• Understanding complex social phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring complex social phenomena, such as cultural beliefs, social norms, or political processes. This type of research can help researchers develop a more nuanced understanding of these phenomena and identify factors that may influence them.
• Generating new theories or hypotheses: Qualitative research can be useful for generating new theories or hypotheses about social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data about individuals’ experiences and perspectives, researchers can develop insights that may challenge existing theories or lead to new lines of inquiry.
• Providing context for quantitative data: Qualitative research can be useful for providing context for quantitative data. By gathering qualitative data alongside quantitative data, researchers can develop a more complete understanding of complex social phenomena and identify potential explanations for quantitative findings.

When to use Qualitative Research

Here are some situations where qualitative research may be appropriate:

• Exploring a new area: If little is known about a particular topic, qualitative research can help to identify key issues, generate hypotheses, and develop new theories.
• Understanding complex phenomena: Qualitative research can be used to investigate complex social, cultural, or organizational phenomena that are difficult to measure quantitatively.
• Investigating subjective experiences: Qualitative research is particularly useful for investigating the subjective experiences of individuals or groups, such as their attitudes, beliefs, values, or emotions.
• Conducting formative research: Qualitative research can be used in the early stages of a research project to develop research questions, identify potential research participants, and refine research methods.
• Evaluating interventions or programs: Qualitative research can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions or programs by collecting data on participants’ experiences, attitudes, and behaviors.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is characterized by several key features, including:

• Focus on subjective experience: Qualitative research is concerned with understanding the subjective experiences, beliefs, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Researchers aim to explore the meanings that people attach to their experiences and to understand the social and cultural factors that shape these meanings.
• Use of open-ended questions: Qualitative research relies on open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed, in-depth responses. Researchers seek to elicit rich, descriptive data that can provide insights into participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Sampling-based on purpose and diversity: Qualitative research often involves purposive sampling, in which participants are selected based on specific criteria related to the research question. Researchers may also seek to include participants with diverse experiences and perspectives to capture a range of viewpoints.
• Data collection through multiple methods: Qualitative research typically involves the use of multiple data collection methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation. This allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data from multiple sources, which can provide a more complete picture of participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Inductive data analysis: Qualitative research relies on inductive data analysis, in which researchers develop theories and insights based on the data rather than testing pre-existing hypotheses. Researchers use coding and thematic analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data and to develop theories and explanations based on these patterns.
• Emphasis on researcher reflexivity: Qualitative research recognizes the importance of the researcher’s role in shaping the research process and outcomes. Researchers are encouraged to reflect on their own biases and assumptions and to be transparent about their role in the research process.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research offers several advantages over other research methods, including:

• Depth and detail: Qualitative research allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data that provides a deeper understanding of complex social phenomena. Through in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation, researchers can gather detailed information about participants’ experiences and perspectives that may be missed by other research methods.
• Flexibility : Qualitative research is a flexible approach that allows researchers to adapt their methods to the research question and context. Researchers can adjust their research methods in real-time to gather more information or explore unexpected findings.
• Contextual understanding: Qualitative research is well-suited to exploring the social and cultural context in which individuals or groups are situated. Researchers can gather information about cultural norms, social structures, and historical events that may influence participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Participant perspective : Qualitative research prioritizes the perspective of participants, allowing researchers to explore subjective experiences and understand the meanings that participants attach to their experiences.
• Theory development: Qualitative research can contribute to the development of new theories and insights about complex social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data and using inductive data analysis, researchers can develop new theories and explanations that may challenge existing understandings.
• Validity : Qualitative research can offer high validity by using multiple data collection methods, purposive and diverse sampling, and researcher reflexivity. This can help ensure that findings are credible and trustworthy.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research also has some limitations, including:

• Subjectivity : Qualitative research relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers, which can introduce bias into the research process. The researcher’s perspective, beliefs, and experiences can influence the way data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted.
• Limited generalizability: Qualitative research typically involves small, purposive samples that may not be representative of larger populations. This limits the generalizability of findings to other contexts or populations.
• Time-consuming: Qualitative research can be a time-consuming process, requiring significant resources for data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
• Resource-intensive: Qualitative research may require more resources than other research methods, including specialized training for researchers, specialized software for data analysis, and transcription services.
• Limited reliability: Qualitative research may be less reliable than quantitative research, as it relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers. This can make it difficult to replicate findings or compare results across different studies.
• Ethics and confidentiality: Qualitative research involves collecting sensitive information from participants, which raises ethical concerns about confidentiality and informed consent. Researchers must take care to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants and obtain informed consent.

Also see Research Methods

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Questionnaire – Definition, Types, and Examples

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Observational Research – Methods and Guide

Quantitative Research – Methods, Types and...

Qualitative Research Methods

Explanatory Research – Types, Methods, Guide

• Search Menu
• Browse content in Arts and Humanities
• Browse content in Archaeology
• Anglo-Saxon and Medieval Archaeology
• Archaeological Methodology and Techniques
• Archaeology by Region
• Archaeology of Religion
• Archaeology of Trade and Exchange
• Biblical Archaeology
• Contemporary and Public Archaeology
• Environmental Archaeology
• Historical Archaeology
• History and Theory of Archaeology
• Industrial Archaeology
• Landscape Archaeology
• Mortuary Archaeology
• Prehistoric Archaeology
• Underwater Archaeology
• Urban Archaeology
• Zooarchaeology
• Browse content in Architecture
• Architectural Structure and Design
• History of Architecture
• Residential and Domestic Buildings
• Theory of Architecture
• Browse content in Art
• Art Subjects and Themes
• History of Art
• Industrial and Commercial Art
• Theory of Art
• Biographical Studies
• Byzantine Studies
• Browse content in Classical Studies
• Classical Literature
• Classical Reception
• Classical History
• Classical Philosophy
• Classical Mythology
• Classical Art and Architecture
• Classical Oratory and Rhetoric
• Greek and Roman Archaeology
• Greek and Roman Papyrology
• Greek and Roman Epigraphy
• Greek and Roman Law
• Late Antiquity
• Religion in the Ancient World
• Digital Humanities
• Browse content in History
• Colonialism and Imperialism
• Diplomatic History
• Environmental History
• Genealogy, Heraldry, Names, and Honours
• Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing
• Historical Geography
• History by Period
• History of Agriculture
• History of Education
• History of Emotions
• History of Gender and Sexuality
• Industrial History
• Intellectual History
• International History
• Labour History
• Legal and Constitutional History
• Local and Family History
• Maritime History
• Military History
• National Liberation and Post-Colonialism
• Oral History
• Political History
• Public History
• Regional and National History
• Revolutions and Rebellions
• Slavery and Abolition of Slavery
• Social and Cultural History
• Theory, Methods, and Historiography
• Urban History
• World History
• Browse content in Language Teaching and Learning
• Language Learning (Specific Skills)
• Language Teaching Theory and Methods
• Browse content in Linguistics
• Applied Linguistics
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Computational Linguistics
• Forensic Linguistics
• Grammar, Syntax and Morphology
• Historical and Diachronic Linguistics
• History of English
• Language Variation
• Language Families
• Language Evolution
• Language Reference
• Language Acquisition
• Lexicography
• Linguistic Theories
• Linguistic Typology
• Linguistic Anthropology
• Phonetics and Phonology
• Psycholinguistics
• Sociolinguistics
• Translation and Interpretation
• Writing Systems
• Browse content in Literature
• Bibliography
• Children's Literature Studies
• Literary Studies (Modernism)
• Literary Studies (Romanticism)
• Literary Studies (American)
• Literary Studies (Asian)
• Literary Studies (European)
• Literary Studies (Eco-criticism)
• Literary Studies - World
• Literary Studies (1500 to 1800)
• Literary Studies (19th Century)
• Literary Studies (20th Century onwards)
• Literary Studies (African American Literature)
• Literary Studies (British and Irish)
• Literary Studies (Early and Medieval)
• Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers)
• Literary Studies (Gender Studies)
• Literary Studies (Graphic Novels)
• Literary Studies (History of the Book)
• Literary Studies (Plays and Playwrights)
• Literary Studies (Poetry and Poets)
• Literary Studies (Postcolonial Literature)
• Literary Studies (Queer Studies)
• Literary Studies (Science Fiction)
• Literary Studies (Travel Literature)
• Literary Studies (War Literature)
• Literary Studies (Women's Writing)
• Literary Theory and Cultural Studies
• Mythology and Folklore
• Shakespeare Studies and Criticism
• Browse content in Media Studies
• Browse content in Music
• Applied Music
• Dance and Music
• Ethics in Music
• Ethnomusicology
• Gender and Sexuality in Music
• Medicine and Music
• Music Cultures
• Music and Culture
• Music and Media
• Music and Religion
• Music Education and Pedagogy
• Music Theory and Analysis
• Musical Scores, Lyrics, and Libretti
• Musical Structures, Styles, and Techniques
• Musicology and Music History
• Performance Practice and Studies
• Race and Ethnicity in Music
• Sound Studies
• Browse content in Performing Arts
• Browse content in Philosophy
• Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
• Epistemology
• Feminist Philosophy
• History of Western Philosophy
• Metaphysics
• Moral Philosophy
• Non-Western Philosophy
• Philosophy of Action
• Philosophy of Law
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Language
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Perception
• Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic
• Practical Ethics
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Browse content in Religion
• Biblical Studies
• Christianity
• East Asian Religions
• History of Religion
• Judaism and Jewish Studies
• Qumran Studies
• Religion and Education
• Religion and Health
• Religion and Politics
• Religion and Science
• Religion and Law
• Religion and Art, Literature, and Music
• Religious Studies
• Browse content in Society and Culture
• Cookery, Food, and Drink
• Cultural Studies
• Customs and Traditions
• Ethical Issues and Debates
• Hobbies, Games, Arts and Crafts
• Lifestyle, Home, and Garden
• Natural world, Country Life, and Pets
• Popular Beliefs and Controversial Knowledge
• Sports and Outdoor Recreation
• Technology and Society
• Travel and Holiday
• Visual Culture
• Browse content in Law
• Arbitration
• Browse content in Company and Commercial Law
• Commercial Law
• Company Law
• Browse content in Comparative Law
• Systems of Law
• Competition Law
• Browse content in Constitutional and Administrative Law
• Government Powers
• Judicial Review
• Local Government Law
• Military and Defence Law
• Parliamentary and Legislative Practice
• Construction Law
• Contract Law
• Browse content in Criminal Law
• Criminal Procedure
• Criminal Evidence Law
• Sentencing and Punishment
• Employment and Labour Law
• Environment and Energy Law
• Browse content in Financial Law
• Banking Law
• Insolvency Law
• History of Law
• Human Rights and Immigration
• Intellectual Property Law
• Browse content in International Law
• Private International Law and Conflict of Laws
• Public International Law
• IT and Communications Law
• Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law
• Law and Society
• Law and Politics
• Browse content in Legal System and Practice
• Courts and Procedure
• Legal Skills and Practice
• Primary Sources of Law
• Regulation of Legal Profession
• Medical and Healthcare Law
• Browse content in Policing
• Criminal Investigation and Detection
• Police and Security Services
• Police Procedure and Law
• Police Regional Planning
• Browse content in Property Law
• Personal Property Law
• Study and Revision
• Terrorism and National Security Law
• Browse content in Trusts Law
• Wills and Probate or Succession
• Browse content in Medicine and Health
• Browse content in Allied Health Professions
• Arts Therapies
• Clinical Science
• Dietetics and Nutrition
• Occupational Therapy
• Operating Department Practice
• Physiotherapy
• Radiography
• Speech and Language Therapy
• Browse content in Anaesthetics
• General Anaesthesia
• Neuroanaesthesia
• Clinical Neuroscience
• Browse content in Clinical Medicine
• Acute Medicine
• Cardiovascular Medicine
• Clinical Genetics
• Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
• Dermatology
• Endocrinology and Diabetes
• Gastroenterology
• Genito-urinary Medicine
• Geriatric Medicine
• Infectious Diseases
• Medical Oncology
• Medical Toxicology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Medicine
• Rehabilitation Medicine
• Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonology
• Rheumatology
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports and Exercise Medicine
• Community Medical Services
• Critical Care
• Emergency Medicine
• Forensic Medicine
• Haematology
• History of Medicine
• Medical Ethics
• Browse content in Medical Skills
• Clinical Skills
• Communication Skills
• Nursing Skills
• Surgical Skills
• Browse content in Medical Dentistry
• Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
• Paediatric Dentistry
• Restorative Dentistry and Orthodontics
• Surgical Dentistry
• Medical Statistics and Methodology
• Browse content in Neurology
• Clinical Neurophysiology
• Neuropathology
• Nursing Studies
• Browse content in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
• Gynaecology
• Occupational Medicine
• Ophthalmology
• Otolaryngology (ENT)
• Browse content in Paediatrics
• Neonatology
• Browse content in Pathology
• Chemical Pathology
• Clinical Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics
• Histopathology
• Medical Microbiology and Virology
• Patient Education and Information
• Browse content in Pharmacology
• Psychopharmacology
• Browse content in Popular Health
• Caring for Others
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Self-help and Personal Development
• Browse content in Preclinical Medicine
• Cell Biology
• Molecular Biology and Genetics
• Reproduction, Growth and Development
• Primary Care
• Professional Development in Medicine
• Browse content in Psychiatry
• Addiction Medicine
• Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Learning Disabilities
• Old Age Psychiatry
• Psychotherapy
• Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology
• Epidemiology
• Public Health
• Browse content in Radiology
• Clinical Radiology
• Interventional Radiology
• Nuclear Medicine
• Radiation Oncology
• Reproductive Medicine
• Browse content in Surgery
• Cardiothoracic Surgery
• Gastro-intestinal and Colorectal Surgery
• General Surgery
• Neurosurgery
• Paediatric Surgery
• Peri-operative Care
• Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
• Surgical Oncology
• Transplant Surgery
• Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery
• Vascular Surgery
• Browse content in Science and Mathematics
• Browse content in Biological Sciences
• Aquatic Biology
• Biochemistry
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
• Developmental Biology
• Ecology and Conservation
• Evolutionary Biology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Microbiology
• Molecular and Cell Biology
• Natural History
• Plant Sciences and Forestry
• Research Methods in Life Sciences
• Structural Biology
• Systems Biology
• Zoology and Animal Sciences
• Browse content in Chemistry
• Analytical Chemistry
• Computational Chemistry
• Crystallography
• Environmental Chemistry
• Industrial Chemistry
• Inorganic Chemistry
• Materials Chemistry
• Medicinal Chemistry
• Mineralogy and Gems
• Organic Chemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Polymer Chemistry
• Study and Communication Skills in Chemistry
• Theoretical Chemistry
• Browse content in Computer Science
• Artificial Intelligence
• Computer Architecture and Logic Design
• Game Studies
• Human-Computer Interaction
• Mathematical Theory of Computation
• Programming Languages
• Software Engineering
• Systems Analysis and Design
• Virtual Reality
• Browse content in Computing
• Business Applications
• Computer Games
• Computer Security
• Computer Networking and Communications
• Digital Lifestyle
• Graphical and Digital Media Applications
• Operating Systems
• Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography
• Atmospheric Sciences
• Environmental Geography
• Geology and the Lithosphere
• Maps and Map-making
• Meteorology and Climatology
• Oceanography and Hydrology
• Palaeontology
• Physical Geography and Topography
• Regional Geography
• Soil Science
• Urban Geography
• Browse content in Engineering and Technology
• Agriculture and Farming
• Biological Engineering
• Civil Engineering, Surveying, and Building
• Electronics and Communications Engineering
• Energy Technology
• Engineering (General)
• Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology
• History of Engineering and Technology
• Mechanical Engineering and Materials
• Technology of Industrial Chemistry
• Transport Technology and Trades
• Browse content in Environmental Science
• Applied Ecology (Environmental Science)
• Conservation of the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Environmental Sustainability
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Environmental Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Environmental Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environmental Science)
• Nuclear Issues (Environmental Science)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Environmental Science)
• History of Science and Technology
• Browse content in Materials Science
• Ceramics and Glasses
• Composite Materials
• Metals, Alloying, and Corrosion
• Nanotechnology
• Browse content in Mathematics
• Applied Mathematics
• Biomathematics and Statistics
• History of Mathematics
• Mathematical Education
• Mathematical Finance
• Mathematical Analysis
• Numerical and Computational Mathematics
• Probability and Statistics
• Pure Mathematics
• Browse content in Neuroscience
• Cognition and Behavioural Neuroscience
• Development of the Nervous System
• Disorders of the Nervous System
• History of Neuroscience
• Invertebrate Neurobiology
• Molecular and Cellular Systems
• Neuroendocrinology and Autonomic Nervous System
• Neuroscientific Techniques
• Sensory and Motor Systems
• Browse content in Physics
• Astronomy and Astrophysics
• Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics
• Biological and Medical Physics
• Classical Mechanics
• Computational Physics
• Condensed Matter Physics
• Electromagnetism, Optics, and Acoustics
• History of Physics
• Mathematical and Statistical Physics
• Measurement Science
• Nuclear Physics
• Particles and Fields
• Plasma Physics
• Quantum Physics
• Relativity and Gravitation
• Semiconductor and Mesoscopic Physics
• Browse content in Psychology
• Affective Sciences
• Clinical Psychology
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Cognitive Psychology
• Criminal and Forensic Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational Psychology
• Evolutionary Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems in Psychology
• Music Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational Psychology
• Psychological Assessment and Testing
• Psychology of Human-Technology Interaction
• Psychology Professional Development and Training
• Research Methods in Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Browse content in Social Sciences
• Browse content in Anthropology
• Anthropology of Religion
• Human Evolution
• Medical Anthropology
• Physical Anthropology
• Regional Anthropology
• Social and Cultural Anthropology
• Theory and Practice of Anthropology
• Browse content in Business and Management
• Business History
• Business Ethics
• Business Strategy
• Business and Technology
• Business and Government
• Business and the Environment
• Comparative Management
• Corporate Governance
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Entrepreneurship
• Health Management
• Human Resource Management
• Industrial and Employment Relations
• Industry Studies
• Information and Communication Technologies
• International Business
• Knowledge Management
• Management and Management Techniques
• Operations Management
• Organizational Theory and Behaviour
• Pensions and Pension Management
• Public and Nonprofit Management
• Strategic Management
• Supply Chain Management
• Browse content in Criminology and Criminal Justice
• Criminal Justice
• Criminology
• Forms of Crime
• International and Comparative Criminology
• Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
• Development Studies
• Browse content in Economics
• Agricultural, Environmental, and Natural Resource Economics
• Asian Economics
• Behavioural Finance
• Behavioural Economics and Neuroeconomics
• Econometrics and Mathematical Economics
• Economic Methodology
• Economic History
• Economic Systems
• Economic Development and Growth
• Financial Markets
• Financial Institutions and Services
• General Economics and Teaching
• Health, Education, and Welfare
• History of Economic Thought
• International Economics
• Labour and Demographic Economics
• Law and Economics
• Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
• Microeconomics
• Public Economics
• Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics
• Welfare Economics
• Browse content in Education
• Adult Education and Continuous Learning
• Care and Counselling of Students
• Early Childhood and Elementary Education
• Educational Equipment and Technology
• Educational Strategies and Policy
• Higher and Further Education
• Organization and Management of Education
• Philosophy and Theory of Education
• Schools Studies
• Secondary Education
• Teaching of a Specific Subject
• Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs
• Teaching Skills and Techniques
• Browse content in Environment
• Applied Ecology (Social Science)
• Climate Change
• Conservation of the Environment (Social Science)
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Social Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environment)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Social Science)
• Browse content in Human Geography
• Cultural Geography
• Economic Geography
• Political Geography
• Browse content in Interdisciplinary Studies
• Communication Studies
• Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences
• Browse content in Politics
• African Politics
• Asian Politics
• Chinese Politics
• Comparative Politics
• Conflict Politics
• Elections and Electoral Studies
• Environmental Politics
• European Union
• Foreign Policy
• Gender and Politics
• Human Rights and Politics
• Indian Politics
• International Relations
• International Organization (Politics)
• International Political Economy
• Irish Politics
• Latin American Politics
• Middle Eastern Politics
• Political Theory
• Political Behaviour
• Political Economy
• Political Institutions
• Political Methodology
• Political Communication
• Political Philosophy
• Political Sociology
• Politics and Law
• Public Policy
• Public Administration
• Quantitative Political Methodology
• Regional Political Studies
• Russian Politics
• Security Studies
• State and Local Government
• UK Politics
• US Politics
• Browse content in Regional and Area Studies
• African Studies
• Asian Studies
• East Asian Studies
• Japanese Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Middle Eastern Studies
• Native American Studies
• Scottish Studies
• Browse content in Research and Information
• Research Methods
• Browse content in Social Work
• Addictions and Substance Misuse
• Adoption and Fostering
• Care of the Elderly
• Child and Adolescent Social Work
• Couple and Family Social Work
• Developmental and Physical Disabilities Social Work
• Direct Practice and Clinical Social Work
• Emergency Services
• Human Behaviour and the Social Environment
• International and Global Issues in Social Work
• Mental and Behavioural Health
• Social Justice and Human Rights
• Social Policy and Advocacy
• Social Work and Crime and Justice
• Social Work Macro Practice
• Social Work Practice Settings
• Social Work Research and Evidence-based Practice
• Welfare and Benefit Systems
• Browse content in Sociology
• Childhood Studies
• Community Development
• Comparative and Historical Sociology
• Economic Sociology
• Gender and Sexuality
• Gerontology and Ageing
• Health, Illness, and Medicine
• Marriage and the Family
• Migration Studies
• Occupations, Professions, and Work
• Organizations
• Population and Demography
• Race and Ethnicity
• Social Theory
• Social Movements and Social Change
• Social Research and Statistics
• Social Stratification, Inequality, and Mobility
• Sociology of Religion
• Sociology of Education
• Sport and Leisure
• Urban and Rural Studies
• Browse content in Warfare and Defence
• Defence Strategy, Planning, and Research
• Land Forces and Warfare
• Military Administration
• Military Life and Institutions
• Naval Forces and Warfare
• Other Warfare and Defence Issues
• Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution
• Weapons and Equipment

• < Previous chapter
• Next chapter >

11 Descriptive and interpretive approaches to qualitative research

• Published: June 2005
• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions Icon Permissions

This chapter explores descriptive and interpretive approaches to qualitative research. This includes the formulation of the problem, data collection, the specifics of sampling, data analysis in descriptive/interpretive qualitative research, generation of categories, and extracting and interpreting the main findings.

Signed in as

Institutional accounts.

• GoogleCrawler [DO NOT DELETE]
• Google Scholar Indexing

Personal account

• Sign in with email/username & password
• Get email alerts
• Save searches
• Purchase content
• Activate your purchase/trial code

Institutional access

• Sign in with a library card Sign in with username/password Recommend to your librarian
• Institutional account management
• Get help with access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Sign in through your institution

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic.

• Click Sign in through your institution.
• Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
• When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
• Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institution’s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Sign in with a library card

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see ‘Sign in through society site’ in the sign in pane within a journal:

• Click Sign in through society site.
• When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

• View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
• View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions.

• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Rights and permissions
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

Qualitative Research

• Introduction
• Definition of Qualitative Research

Question Formulation and Research Design Overview

• Research Traditions
• Analytical Approaches
• Analytical Methods
• Rigor & Evaluative Criteria
• Mixed-Methods Research

Definitions of Qualitative Research

RWJF  |  Qualitative Research Guidelines Project : What is qualitative research?

NIH (NCBI Bookshelf) | StatPearls : Qualitative Study

NIH (Pub Med Central) |  Series : Practical guidance to qualitative research - Part 1: Introduction

Delve |  Essential Guide to Coding Qualitative Data : "What is Qualitative Research?"

NIH (Pub Med Central) |  Series : Practical guidance to qualitative research - Part 2: Context, research questions and designs

• << Previous: Introduction
• Next: Paradigms >>
• Last Updated: May 1, 2024 1:12 PM
• URL: https://msmu.libguides.com/qualitative-research

COE LIBRARY Chalon Campus

Charles Willard Coe Library 12001 Chalon Road Los Angeles, CA 90049 310.954.4370

McCARTHY LIBRARY Doheny Campus

J. Thomas McCarthy Library 10 Chester Place Los Angeles, CA 90007 213.477.2750

Jobs at the Libraries

Information Technology Resources

Institution Complaint Process

Maps & Directions

Privacy Policy

• Open access
• Published: 27 April 2024

Exploring health care providers’ engagement in prevention and management of multidrug resistant Tuberculosis and its factors in Hadiya Zone health care facilities: qualitative study

• Bereket Aberham Lajore 1   na1   nAff5 ,
• Yitagesu Habtu Aweke 2   na1   nAff6 ,
• Samuel Yohannes Ayanto 3   na1   nAff7 &
• Menen Ayele 4   nAff5  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  542 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

88 Accesses

Metrics details

Engagement of healthcare providers is one of the World Health Organization strategies devised for prevention and provision of patient centered care for multidrug resistant tuberculosis. The need for current research question rose because of the gaps in evidence on health professional’s engagement and its factors in multidrug resistant tuberculosis service delivery as per the protocol in the prevention and management of multidrug resistant tuberculosis.

The purpose of this study was to explore the level of health care providers’ engagement in multidrug resistant tuberculosis prevention and management and influencing factors in Hadiya Zone health facilities, Southern Ethiopia.

Descriptive phenomenological qualitative study design was employed between 02 May and 09 May, 2019. We conducted a key informant interview and focus group discussions using purposely selected healthcare experts working as directly observed treatment short course providers in multidrug resistant tuberculosis treatment initiation centers, program managers, and focal persons. Verbatim transcripts were translated to English and exported to open code 4.02 for line-by-line coding and categorization of meanings into same emergent themes. Thematic analysis was conducted based on predefined themes for multidrug resistant tuberculosis prevention and management and core findings under each theme were supported by domain summaries in our final interpretation of the results. To maintain the rigors, Lincoln and Guba’s parallel quality criteria of trustworthiness was used particularly, credibility, dependability, transferability, confirmability and reflexivity.

Total of 26 service providers, program managers, and focal persons were participated through four focus group discussion and five key informant interviews. The study explored factors for engagement of health care providers in the prevention and management of multidrug resistant tuberculosis in five emergent themes such as patients’ causes, perceived susceptibility, seeking support, professional incompetence and poor linkage of the health care facilities. Our findings also suggest that service providers require additional training, particularly in programmatic management of drug-resistant tuberculosis.

The study explored five emergent themes: patient’s underlying causes, seeking support, perceived susceptibility, professionals’ incompetence and health facilities poor linkage. Community awareness creation to avoid fear of discrimination through provision of support for those with multidrug resistant tuberculosis is expected from health care providers using social behavioral change communication strategies. Furthermore, program managers need to follow the recommendations of World Health Organization for engaging healthcare professionals in the prevention and management of multidrug resistant tuberculosis and cascade trainings in clinical programmatic management of the disease for healthcare professionals.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the infectious agent that causes multi-drug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB), is resistant to at least rifampicin and isoniazid. Direct infection can cause the disease to spread, or it can develop secondary to improper management of tuberculosis among drug susceptible tuberculosis cases and associated poor adherence [ 1 ].

Multidrug-resistant strains of mycobacterium tuberculosis have recently emerged, which makes achieving “End TB Strategy” more difficult [ 2 ]. Multi drug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) has been found to increasingly pose a serious threat to global and Ethiopian public health sector. Despite the fact that a number of risk factors for MDR-TB have been identified through various research designs, the epidemiology of this disease is complex, contextual, and multifaceted [ 1 ]. Quantitative studies demonstrate that prior treatment history [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ], interrupted drug supply [ 8 ], inappropriate treatments and poor patient compliance [ 3 , 7 , 9 ], poor quality directly observed treatment short course (DOTS), poor treatment adherence [ 10 ], age [ 5 ], and malnutrition [ 11 ] were factors associated with multi drug resistant TB.

Globally, an estimated 20% of previously treated cases and 3.3% of new cases are thought to have MDR-TB; these levels have essentially not changed in recent years. Globally, 160,684 cases of multidrug-resistant TB and rifampicin-resistant TB (MDR/RR-TB) were notified in 2017, and 139,114 cases were enrolled into treatment in 2017 [ 12 ]. A systematic review in Ethiopia reported 2% prevalence of MDR-TB [ 3 ] that is higher than what is observed in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1.5% [ 13 ]. The prevalence of MDR-TB, according to the national drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB) sentinel report, was 2.3% among newly diagnosed cases of TB and 17.8% among cases of TB who had already received treatment,. This suggests a rising trend in the prevalence of TB drug resistance compared to the results of the initial drug-resistant TB survey carried out in Ethiopia from 2003 to 2005 [ 14 ].

Ethiopia has placed strategies into place that emphasize political commitment, case finding, appropriate treatment, a continuous supply of second-line anti-TB medications of high quality, and a recording system. Due to other competing health priorities, the nation is having difficulty accelerating the scale-up of the detection, enrollment and treatment of drug-resistant TB patients [ 15 , 16 ]. To address these issues, the nation switched from a hospital-based to a clinic-based ambulatory model of care, which has allowed MDR-TB services to quickly decentralize and become more accessible. Accordingly, the nation has set up health facilities to act as either treatment initiating centers (TIC) or treatment follow-up centers (TFC) or both for improved referral and communication methods [ 15 ].

One of the key components of the “End TB strategy” is engagement of health care professionals in the prevention and management of multidrug resistant tuberculosis [ 17 ]. Inadequate engagement of healthcare providers is one aspect of the healthcare system that negatively influences MDR-TB prevention and control efforts [ 17 ]. This may be manifested in a number of ways, including inadequate understanding of drug-resistant tuberculosis, improper case identification, failure to initiate treatment again, placement of the wrong regimens, improper management of side effects and poor infection prevention [ 1 ]. These contributing factors are currently being observed in Ethiopia [ 18 ], Nigeria [ 7 , 19 , 20 ] and other countries [ 21 , 22 ]. According to a study conducted in Ethiopia, MDR-TB was linked to drug side effects from first-line treatments, being not directly observed, stopping treatment for at least a day, and retreating with a category II regimen [ 17 ].

This may be the result of a synergy between previously investigated and other contextual factors that have not yet been fully explored, such as professional engagement, beliefs, and poor preventive practices. The engagement of health professionals in MDR-TB prevention and control is assessed using a number of composite indicators. Health professionals may interact primarily inside the healthcare facilities. Typically, they play a significant role in connecting healthcare services with neighborhood-based activities [ 17 ]. One of the main research areas that have not sufficiently addressed is evidence indicating the status of healthcare professionals’ engagement and contextual factors in MDR-TB prevention and management.

It is increasingly urgent to identify additional and existing factors operating in a particular context that contribute to the development of the disease in light of the epidemic of drug resistance, including multi-drug resistance (MDR-TB) and extensively drug resistant TB (XDR-TB) in both new and previously treated cases of the disease [ 23 ]. In order to develop and implement control measures, it is therefore essential to operationally identify a number of contextual factors operating at the individual, community, and health system level.

Therefore, the overall purpose of this study was to explore the level of engagement of health care providers and contextual factors hindering/enabling the prevention and provision of patient-centered care for MDR-TB in health facilities, DOTS services centers and MDR-TB treatment initiation center [TIC], in Hadiya Zone, Southern Ethiopia.

Qualitative approach and research paradigm

Descriptive phenomenological qualitative study design was employed to explore factors influencing engagement of health professionals in MDR-TB prevention and management and thematic technique was employed for the analysis of the data.

Researchers’ characteristics and reflexivity

Three Principal investigators conducted this study. Two of them had Masters of public health in Epidemiology and Reproductive health and PhD candidates and the third one had Bachelor’s degree in public health with clinical experience in the area of Tuberculosis prevention and management and MPH in Biostatistics. The principal investigators have research experience with published articles in different reputable journals. There were no prior contacts between researchers and participants before the study whereas researchers have built positive rapport with study participants during data collection to foster open communication and trust and had no any assumptions and presuppositions about the research topic and result.

Context/ study setting and period

The study was conducted between 2 and 9 May, 2019 in Hadiya Zone with more than 1.7 million people residing in the Zone. There are 300 health posts, 63 health centers, 3 functional primary hospitals and 1 comprehensive specialized hospital in the Zone. Also, there are more than 350 private clinics and 1 private hospital in the Zone. All of the public health facilities and some private health facilities provide directly observed short course treatment (DOTS) service for tuberculosis patients. There are more than eight treatment initiation centers (TICs) for MDR-TB patients in Hadiya Zone. MDR-TB (Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis) treatment initiation centers are specialized facilities that provide comprehensive care, diagnosis and treatment initiation, psychosocial support, and follow up services to individuals with MDR-TB. The linkage between MDR-TB treatment initiation centers and other healthcare facilities lies in the coordination of care, referral pathways, and collaboration to ensure comprehensive and integrated care for individuals with MDR-TB. Overall, healthcare providers play a crucial role in the management of MDR-TB by providing specialized care, ensuring treatment adherence, monitoring progress and outcomes, and supporting individuals in achieving successful treatment outcomes and improved health.

Units of study and sampling strategy

Our study participants were health care professionals working in MDR-TB TICs in both private and public health facilities, and providing DOTS services, MDR-TB program leaders in treatment initiation centers, as well as TB focal persons, disease prevention and health promotion focal person, and project partners from district health offices. The study involved four focus group discussion (FGDs) and five key informants’ interview (KII) with a total of 26 participants to gather the necessary information. Expert purposive sampling technique was employed and sample size was determined based on the saturation of idea required during data collection process.

Data collection methods and instruments

Focus group discussion and face to face key informants’ interviews were employed to collect the data. We conducted a total of four FGD and five key informants’ interviews with participants chosen from DOTS providing health facilities and MDR-TB program leaders in treatment initiation centers, as well as TB focal persons and project partners from district health offices and disease prevention and health promotion focal person. One of the FGDs was conducted among health professionals from the public MDR-TB treatment initiation centers. Three FGDs were conducted among disease prevention and health promotion focal persons, TB focal persons and DOTS providers in public health facilities (health centers).

An observation checklist was developed to assess the general infection prevention and control measures used by specific healthcare facilities in the study area. We used unstructured FGD guide, key informant interview guide, observation checklist and audio recorders to collect primary data and it was collected using local language called Amharic. Prior to data collection, three people who are not among principal investigators with at least a master’s degree in public health and prior experience with qualitative research were trained by principal investigators. Three of them acts as a tape recorder, a moderator, and as a note taker alternatively. The length of FGD ranged from 58 to 82 min and that of key informants’ interview lasted from 38 to 56 min.

Data processing and data analysis

Memos were written immediately after interviews followed by initial analysis. Transcription of audio records was performed by principal investigators. The audio recordings and notes were refined, cleaned and matched at the end of each data collection day to check for inconsistencies, correct errors, and modify the procedures in response to evolving study findings for subsequent data collection. Transcribed interviews, memos, and notes from investigator’s observation were translated to English and imported to Open Code 4.02 [ 2 ] for line by line coding of data, and categorizing important codes (sub theming). The pre-defined themes for MDR-TB prevention and control engagement were used to thematize the line-by-line codes, categories, and meanings using thematic analysis. Finally, the phenomenon being studied was explained by emerging categories and themes. Explanations in themes were substantiated by participants’ direct quotations when necessary.

Trustworthiness

Phone calls and face to face briefing were requested from study participants when some expressions in the audio seems confusing while transcripts were performed. To ensure the credibility of the study, prolonged engagement was conducted, including peer debriefing with colleagues of similar status during data analysis and inviting available study participants to review findings to ensure as it is in line with their view or not. Memos of interviews and observation were crosschecked while investigator was transcribing to ensure credibility of data as well as to triangulate investigator’s categorizing and theming procedures. For transferability, clear outlines of research design and processes were provided, along with a detailed study context for reader judgment. Dependability was ensured through careful recording and transcription of verbal and non-verbal data, and to minimize personal bias, scientific procedures were followed in all research stages. Conformability was maintained by conducting data transcription, translation, and interpretation using scientific methods. Researchers did all the best to show a range of realities, fairly and faithfully. Finally, an expert was invited to put sample of codes and categories to emerged corresponding categories and themes respectively.

Demographic characteristics of study participants

Four focus group discussions and five key informants’ interviews were conducted successfully. There were 26 participants in four focus group discussions, and key informants’ interview. Ages of participants ranges from 20 to 50 years with an average age of 33.4  ±  6.24 SD years. Participants have five to ten years of professional experience with DOTS services (Table  1 ).

Emergent themes and subthemes

The study explored how health care providers’ engagement in MDR-TB prevention and management was influenced. The investigation uncovered five major themes. These themes were the patient’s underlying causes, seeking support, perceived susceptibility, healthcare providers’ incompetence, and poor linkage between health facilities. Weak community TB prevention, health system support, and support from colleagues were identified subthemes in the search for help by health professionals whereas socioeconomic constraints, lack of awareness, and fear of discrimination were subthemes under patients underlying factors (Fig.  1 ).

Themes and subthemes emerged from the analysis of health professionals’ engagement in MDR-TB prevention and management study in Hadiya zone’s health facilities, 2019

The patient’s underlying causes

This revealed why TB/MDR-TB treatment providers believe health professionals are unable to provide standard MDR-TB services. The subthemes include TB/MDR-TB awareness, fear of discrimination, and patients’ socioeconomic constraints.

Socioeconomic constraints

According to our research, the majority of healthcare professionals who provided directly observed short-course treatment services mentioned socioeconomic constraints as barriers to engage per standard and provide MDR-TB prevention and management service. More than half of the participants stated that patients’ primary reasons include lack of money for house rental close to the treatment centers, inability to afford food and other expenses, and financial constraints to cover transportation costs.

In addition to this, patients might have additional responsibilities to provide food and cover other costs for their families’ need. The majority of health care professionals thought that these restrictions led to their poor engagement in MDR-TB prevention and management. One of the focus groups’ discussants provided description of the scenario in the following way:

“…. I have many conversations with my TB/MDR-TB patients. They fail to complete DOTS or treatment intensive care primarily as a result of the requirement of prolonged family separation. They might provide most of the family needs, including food and other expenses” (FGD-P01).

Lack of awareness about MDR-TB

This subtheme explains how MDR-TB patients’ knowledge of the illness can make it more difficult for health professionals to provide DOTS or TICs services. The majority of DOTS providers stated that few TB or MDR-TB patients were aware of how MDR-TB spreads, how it is treated, and how much medication is required. Additionally, despite the fact that they had been educated for the disease, majority of patients did not want to stop contact with their families or caregivers. A health care provider stated,

“…. I provided health education for MDR-TB patients on how the disease is transmitted and how they should care for their family members. They don’t care; however, give a damn about their families .” (FGD-P05).

Some healthcare professionals reported that some patients thought that MDR-TB could not be cured by modern medication. One medical professional described the circumstance as follows:

“…. I noticed an MDR-TB patient who was unwilling to be screened. He concluded that modern medication is not effective and he went to spiritual and traditional healers” (FGD-P02).

As a result, almost all participants agreed on the extent to which patient knowledge of TB and MDR-TB can influence a provider’s engagement to MDR-TB services. The majority suggested that in order to improve treatment outcomes and preventive measures, the media, community leaders, health development armies, one-to-five networks, non-governmental organizations, treatment supporters, and other bodies with access to information need to put a lot of efforts.

Fear of discrimination

According to our research, about a quarter of healthcare professionals recognized that patients’ fear of discrimination prevents them from offering MDR-TB patients the DOTS services they need, including counseling index cases and tracing contact histories.

HEWs, HDAs, and 1-to-5 network members allegedly failed to monitor and counsel the index cases after their immediate return to their homes, according to the opinions from eight out of twenty-six healthcare professionals. The patients began to engage in routine social and political activities with neighbors while hiding their disease status. A healthcare professional described this situation as follows:

“…. I understood from my MDR-TB patient’s words that he kept to himself and avoided social interaction. He made this decision as a result of stigmatization by locals, including health extension workers. As a result, the patient can’t attend social gatherings. …. In addition, medical professionals exclude MDR-TB patients due to fear of exposures. As a result, patients are unwilling to undergo early screening” (FGD-P04).

Professionals’ perceived risk of occupational exposure

This theme highlights the anxiety that healthcare workers experience because of MDR-TB exposure when providing patient care. Our research shows that the majority of health professionals viewed participation as “taking coupons of death.” They believed that regardless of how and where they engaged in most healthcare facilities, the risk of exposure would remain the same. According to our discussion and interview, lack of health facility’s readiness takes paramount shares for the providers’ risk of exposures and their susceptibility.

According to the opinion from the majority of FGD discussants and in-depth interviewees, participants’ self-judgment score and our observation, the majority of healthcare facilities that offer DOTS for DS-TB and MDR-TB did not create or uphold standards in infection prevention in the way that could promote better engagement. These include poor maintenance of care facilities, lack of personal protective equipment, unsuitable facility design for service provision, lack of patient knowledge regarding the method of MDR-TB transmission, and lack of dedication on the part of health care staff.

As one of our key informant interviewees [District Disease Prevention Head], described health professionals’ low engagement has been due to fear of perceived susceptibility. He shared with us what he learned from a community forum he moderated.

Community forum participant stated that “… There was a moment a health professional run-away from the TB unit when MDR-TB patient arrived. At least they must provide the necessary service, even though they are not willing to demonstrate respectful, compassionate, or caring attitude to MDR-TB patients” (KII-P01). Besides , one of the FGD discussants described the circumstance as follows:

“…. Emm…. Because most health facilities or MDR-TB TIC are not standardized, I am concerned about the risk of transmission. They are crammed together and poor ventilation is evident as well as their configuration is improper. Other medical services are causing the TICs to become overcrowded. Most patients and some medical professionals are unconcerned with disease prevention ” (FGD-P19).

Participants’ general fear of susceptibility may be a normal psychological reaction and may serve as a motivation for taking preventative actions. However, almost all participants were concerned that the main reasons for their fear were brought up by the improper application of programmatic management and MDR-TB treatment standards and infection prevention protocols in healthcare facilities.

Health care providers’ incompetence

This theme illustrates how professionalism and dedication impact participation in MDR-TB prevention and management. The use of DS-TB prevention and management by health professionals was also taken into account because it is a major factor in the development of MDR-TB. This theme includes the participants’ perspectives towards other healthcare workers involved in and connected to MDR-TB.

Nearly all of the participants were aware of the causes and danger signs of MDR-TB. The majority of the defined participants fit to the current guidelines. However, participants in focus groups and key informant interviews have brought up shortcomings in MDR-TB service delivery practice and attitude. We looked at gaps among healthcare professionals’ knowledge, how they use the national recommendations for programmatic management and prevention of MDR-TB, prevent infections, take part in community MDR-TB screenings, and collaborate with other healthcare professionals for better engagement.

More than half of the participants voiced concerns about their attitudes and skill sets when using MDR-TB prevention and management guideline. When asked about his prior experiences, one of the focus group participants said:

“…. Ok, let me tell you my experience, I was new before I attended a training on MDR-TB. I was unfamiliar with the MDR-TB definition given in the recommendations. When I was hired, the health center’s director assigned me in the TB unit. I faced difficulties until I received training” (FGD-P24). Furthermore , one of the key informant interview participants shared a story: “…. In my experience, the majority of newly graduated health professionals lack the required skill. I propose that pre-service education curricula to include TB/MDR-TB prevention and management guideline trainings” (KII-P01).

The majority of participants mentioned the skill gap that was seen among health extension workers and laboratory technicians in the majority of healthcare facilities. Some of the participants in the in-depth interviews and FGD described the gaps as follows:

“…. According to repeated quality assurance feedbacks, there are many discordant cases in our [ District TB Focal Person ] case. Laboratory technicians who received a discrepant result (KII-P01) are not given training which is augmented by shared story from FGD discussants, “According to the quality assurance system, laboratory technicians lack skill and inconsistent results are typical necessitating training for newly joining laboratory technicians” (FGD-P20).

Through our discussions, we explored the level of DOTS providers’ adherence to the current TB/MDR-TB guideline. As a result, the majority of participants pointed out ineffective anti-TB management and follow-up care. One of the participants remembered her practical experience as follows:

“…. In my experience, the majority of health professionals fail to inform patients about the drug’s side effects, follow-up procedures, and other techniques for managing the burden of treatment. Only the anti-TB drug is provided, and the patient is left alone. The national treatment recommendation is not properly implemented by them” (FGD-P04).

Many barriers have been cited as reasons that might have hindered competencies for better engagement of health professionals. Training shortage is one of the major reasons mentioned by many of the study participants. One of discussants from private health facility described the problem as

“…. We are incompetent, in my opinion. Considering that we don’t attend update trainings. Many patients who were diagnosed negative at private medical facilities turned out to be positive, and vice versa which would be risky for drug resistance” (FGD-P14) which was supported by idea from a participant in our in-depth interview: “…. We [Program managers] are running short of training for our health care providers at different health centers and revealed that four out of every five healthcare professionals who work in various health centers are unaware of the TB/MDR-TB new guideline” (KII-P02).

Seeking support

This theme focuses on the significance and effects of workplace support in the engagement of MDR-TB prevention and control. This also explains the enabling and impeding elements in the engagement condition of health professionals. Three elements make up the theme: coworkers (other health professionals) in the workplace, support from community TB prevention actors, and a healthcare system.

Support from community TB prevention actors

This subtheme includes the assistance provided to study participants by important parties such as community leaders, the health development army, and other stakeholders who were involved in a community-based TB case notification, treatment adherence, and improved patient outcomes.

Many of the study participants reported that health extension workers have been poorly participating in MDR-TB and TB-related community-based activities like contact tracing, defaulter tracing, community forums, health promotion, and treatment support. One study participant described their gap as follows:

“…. I understood that people in the community were unaware of MDR-TB. The majority of health extension workers do not prioritize raising community awareness of MDR-TB” (FGD-P13). This was supported by idea from a district disease prevention head and stated as: “…. There is no active system for contacts tracing. Health educators send us information if they find suspected cases. However, some patients might not show up as expected. We have data on three family members who tested positive for MDR-TB” (KII-P3).

Support from a health system

The prime focus of this subtheme is on the enabling elements that DOTS providers require assistance from the current healthcare system for better engagement. All study participants expressed at least two needs to be met from the health system in order for them to effectively participate in MDR-TB prevention, treatment, and management. All study participants agreed that issues with the health system had a negative impact on their engagement in the prevention, treatment, diagnosis, and management of MDR-TB in almost all healthcare facilities. Poor conditions in infrastructure, resources (supplies, equipment, guidelines, and other logistics), capacity building (training), supportive supervision, establishment of public-private partnerships, and assignment of motivated and trained health professionals are some of the barriers that needs to be worked out in order to make them engage better. One of the participants pronounces supplies and logistics problems as:

“…. The health center I worked in is listed as a DOTS provider. However, it lacks constant electricity, a working microscope, lab supplies, medications, etc, and we refer suspected cases to nearby health centers or district hospitals for AFB-examination and, “Sometimes we use a single kit for many patients and wait for the medication supply for three or more weeks and patients stops a course of therapy that might induce drug resistance” (FGD-PI04) which was augmented by statement from FGD participant who works at a treatment initiation center: “…. We faced critical shortage of supplies and hospital administrators don’t care about funding essential supplies for patient care. For instance, this hospital (the hospital in which this FGD was conducted) can easily handle N-95 masks. Why then they (hospital administrators working in some TIC) can’t do it?” (FGD-P18).”

Regarding in-service training on MDR-TB, almost all participants pointed out shortage of on-job training mechanisms. One of our FGD participants said:

“…. I missed the new training on MDRTB programmatic management guidelines. I’ve heard that new updates are available. I still work using the old standard” (FGD-PI05). A health professional working in private clinic heightens the severity of training shortage as: “…. We have not participated in TB/MDR-TB guidelines training. You know, most of for-profit healthcare facilities do not provide any training for their staff. I’m not sure if I’m following the (TB/MDR-TB) guideline” (FGD-P14). One of our key informant interview participants; MDR-TB center focal person suggested the need for training as: “…. I’ve received training on the MDR-TB services and public-private partnership strategy. It was crucial in my opinion for better engagement. It is provided for our staff [MDRTB center focal person]. However, this has not yet been expanded to other health facilities” (KII-P04).

Concerning infrastructures, transportation problem was one of the frequently mentioned obstacles by many participants that hinder engagement in MDR-TB/TB service. This factor had a negative impact to both sides (health professionals and patients). One of discussants said:

“…. I face obstacles such as transport cost to perform effective TB/MDR-TB outreach activities like health education, tracing family contacts and defaulters and community mobilization. Rural kebeles are far apart from each other. How can I support 6 rural Kebeles?” (FGD-P01). One of the participants; MDR-TB treatment centers supervisor/program partner seconded the above idea as: “…. I suggest government must establish a system to support health professionals working in remote health care facilities in addition to MDR-TB centers. I guess there are more than 30 government health centers and additional private clinics. We can’t reach them all due to transportation challenges” (KII-P05). One of the participants , a district disease prevention head added: “…. Our laboratory technicians take sample from MDR-TB suspects to the post office and then, the post office sends to MDR-TB site. Sometimes, feedback may not reach timely. There is no any system to cover transportation cost. That would make case detection challenging” (FGD-P02).

Support from colleagues

Study participants stated the importance of having coworker with whom they could interconnect. However, eight participants reported that they were discriminated by their workmates for various reasons, such as their perceived fear of exposure to infection and their perception as if health professionals working in TB/MDR-TB unit get more training opportunities and other incentives. One of the focus group discussants said:

“…. My colleagues [health professional working out of MDR-TB TICs] stigmatize us only due to our work assignment in MDR-TB clinic. I remember that one of my friends who borrowed my headscarf preferred to throw it through a window than handing-over it back safely. Look, how much other health professionals are scared of working in MDR-TB unit. This makes me very upset. I am asking myself that why have I received such training on MDR-TB?” (FGD-P04).

Some of the participants also perceived that, health professionals working in MDR-TB/TB unit are the only responsible experts regarding MDR-TB care and treatment. Because, other health professionals consider training as if it is an incentive to work in such units. One of the FGD discussants described:

“… Health professionals who work in other service units are not volunteer to provide DOTS if TB focal person/previously trained staffs are not available. Patients wait for longer time” (FGD-P11).

Health facilities’ poor linkage

This theme demonstrates how various healthcare facilities, including private and public healthcare facilities such as, health posts, health care centers and hospitals, and healthcare professionals working at various levels of the healthcare system in relation to TB/MDR-TB service, are inter-linked or communicating with one another.

Many study participants noted a lack of coordination between higher referral hospitals, TB clinics, health posts, and health centers. Additionally, the majority of the assigned healthcare professionals had trouble communicating with patients and their coworkers. A focus group discussant also supported this idea as

“…. There is a lack of communication between us [DOTS providers at treatment initiation centers] and health posts, health centers, and private clinics. We are expected to support about 30 public health facilities. It’s of too much number, you know. They are out of our reach. We only took action when a problem arose” (FGD-P16).

Significant number of participants had raised the problem of poor communication between health facilities and treatment initiation centers. One of the interviewees [program manager] said:

“…. I see that one of our challenges is the weak referral connections between treatment initiation centers and health centers. As a result, improper sample transfer to Gene- Xpert sites and irregular postal delivery are frequent” . “Our; DOTS staff at the MDR-TB center, DOTS staff at the health center, and health extension workers are not well connected to one another. Many patients I encountered came to this center [MDR-TB center] after bypassing both health post and health center. Poor linkage and communication, in my opinion, could be one of the causes. The same holds true for medical facilities that are both public and private ” (KII-P02).

Engagement of individual healthcare providers is one of the peculiar interventions to achieve the goal of universal access to drug resistance tuberculosis care and services [ 17 ]. Healthcare providers engagement in detecting cases, treating and caring for multidrug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) may be influenced by various intrinsic (individual provider factors) and extrinsic (peer, health system, political and other factors) [ 15 ]. Our study explored engagement of individual DOTS providers and factors that influence their engagement in MDR-TB prevention and management service. This is addressed through five emergent themes and subthemes as clearly specified in our results section.

The findings showed patients’ socioeconomic constraints were important challenges that influence health professionals’ engagement, and provision of MDR-TB prevention and management services. Although approaches differ, studies in Ethiopia [ 24 ], South Africa [ 25 ] and India [ 26 , 27 ] documented that such factors influence health providers’ engagement in the prevention and management of multi drug resistant tuberculosis. Again, the alleviation of these factors demands the effort from patients, stakeholders working on TB, others sectors, and the healthcare system so that healthcare providers can deliver the service more effectively in their day-to-day activities and will be more receptive to the other key factors.

We explored participants’ experiences on how patients’ awareness about drug sensitive or multi drug resistant tuberculosis influenced their engagement. Accordingly, participants encountered numerous gaps that restricted their interactions with TB/MDR-TB patients. In fact, our study design and purposes vary, studies [ 28 , 29 , 30 ] indicated that patients awareness influenced providers decision in relation to MDR-TB services and patients’ awareness status is among factors influencing healthcare providers’ decision making about the care the MDR-TB patient receives. As to our knowledge, patients’ perceived fear of discrimination was not documented whether it had direct negative impact on reducing providers’ engagement. Therefore, patients’ awareness creation is an important responsibility that needs to be addressed by the community health development army, health extension workers, all other healthcare providers and stakeholder for better MDR-TB services and patient outcomes.

Our study indicates that healthcare providers perceived that they would be exposed to MDR-TB while they are engaged. Some of the participants were more concerned about the disadvantages of engagement in providing care to MDR-TB patients which were predominantly psychological and physical pressure. In this context, the participants emphasized that engagement in MDR-TB patient care is “always being at risk” and expressed a negative attitude. This finding is similar to what has been demonstrated in a cross-sectional study conducted in South Africa in which majority of healthcare providers believed their engagement in MDR-TB services would risk their health [ 21 ].

However, majority of the healthcare providers demonstrated perceived fear of exposures mainly due to poor infection prevention practices and substandard organization of work environment in most TB/MDR-TB units. This is essentially reasonable fear, and needs urgent intervention to protect healthcare providers from worsening/reducing their effective engagement in MDR-TB patient care. On the other side of the coin, perceived risk of occupational exposure to infection could be source for taking care of oneself to combat the spread of the infection.

In our study, healthcare provider’s capability (competence) also had an impact on their ability to engage in prevention and management of MDR-TB. Here, participants had frequently raised their and other healthcare providers’ experience regarding skill gaps, negative attitude towards the service unit they were working in, ineffective use of MDR-TB guideline, poor infection prevention practices and commitment. In addition, many health professionals report serious problems regarding case identification and screening, drug administration, and side effect management. These findings were supported by other studies in Ethiopia [ 7 ] and in Nigeria [ 19 , 20 ]. This implies an urgent need for training of health care worker on how to engage in prevention and management of multidrug resistant TB.

Moreover, our findings provide insights into the role of community TB prevention actors, currently functioning health system, and colleagues and other stakeholders’ regarding healthcare providers’ engagement. Participants emphasized that support from community TB prevention actors is a key motivation to effectively engage on management and prevention roles towards MDR-TB. Evidence shows that community TB prevention is one of the prominent interventions that study participants would expect in DOTS provision as community is the closest source of information regarding the patients [ 31 , 32 ].

Similarly, all participants had pointed out the importance of support from a health system directly or indirectly influence their engagement in the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and management of MDR-TB. Researches indicated that health system supports are enabling factors for healthcare providers in decision making regarding TB/MDR-TB prevention and treatment [ 33 ]. This problem is documented by the study done in Ethiopia [ 22 ]. In addition, support from colleagues and other stakeholders was also a felt need to engage in MDR-TB which was supported by the World Health Organization guideline which put engagement in preventing MDR-TB and providing patients centered care needs collaborative endeavor among healthcare providers, patients, and other stakeholders [ 17 ].

Participants showed that there were poor linkage among/within DOTS providers working in health post (extension workers), health centers, hospitals and MDRTB treatment initiation centers. Our finding is consistent with a research in South Africa which shows poor health care attitude is linked to poor treatment adherence [ 34 ]. Our study implies the need for further familiarization especially on clinical programmatic management of drug resistant tuberculosis. Moreover, program managers need to follow health professionals’ engagement approaches recommended by the World Health Organization: End TB strategy [ 17 ].

Limitations of the study

There are some limitations that must be explicitly acknowledged. First, participants from private health facilities were very few, which might have restricted the acquisition and incorporation of perspectives from health care providers from private health care facilities. Second, healthcare providers’ engagement was not measured from patient side given that factors for engagement may differ from what has been said by the healthcare provides. Third, power relationships especially among focus group discussant in MDR-TB treatment initiation centers might have influenced open disclosures of some sensitive issues.

The study showed how healthcare provider’s engagement in MDR-TB management and prevention was influenced. Accordingly, patient’s underlying causes, seeking support, perceived occupational exposure, healthcare provider’s incompetence and health facilities poor linkage were identified from the analysis. Weak community TB prevention efforts, poor health system support and support from colleagues, health care providers’ incompetence and health facilities poor linkage were among identified factors influencing engagement in MDR – TB prevention and management. Therefore, measures need to be in place that avert the observed obstacles to health professionals’ engagement including further quantitative studies to determine the effects of the identified reasons and potential factors in their engagement status.

Furthermore, our findings pointed out the need for additional training of service providers, particularly in clinical programmatic management of drug-resistant tuberculosis. Besides, program managers must adhere to the World Health Organization’s recommendations for health professional engagement. Higher officials in the health sector needs to strengthen the linkage between health facilities and service providers at different levels. Community awareness creation to avoid fear of discrimination including provision of support for those with MDR-TB is expected from health experts through implementation of social behavioral change communication activities.

Abbreviations

Directly observed treatment short-course

Drug susceptible tuberculosis

Millennium development goals

Multidrug resistant tuberculosis

Sustainable development goals

Tuberculosis

Treatment initiation center

World Health Organization

Extensively drug resistant TB

WHO. Companion handbook to the WHO guidelines for the programmatic management of drug-resistant tuberculosis. WHO; Geneva, Switherland. 2014.

WHO. Implementing the end TB Strategy: The Essentials. WHO, Geneva. Switherland; 2015.

Eshetie S, Gizaw M, Dagnew M, Kumera G, Woldie H, Fikadu A. et.al. Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Ethiopian settings and its association with previous history of anti-tuberculosis treatment: a systematic review and meta-analysis Ethiopia: efforts to expand diagnostic services, treatment and care. BMC Antimicrobial Resist Infect Control. 2014;3:31.

Biadglegne F, Sack U, Rodloff AC. Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Ethiopia: efforts to expand diagnostic services, treatment and care. BMC Antimicro Resist Infect Control. 2014;3:31.

Lema NA, Majigo M, Mbelele PM, Abade AMIM. Risk factors associated with multidrug resistant tuberculosis among patients referred to Kibong’oto Infectious Disease Hospital in northern Tanzania. Tanzania J Health Res. 2016;18:4.

Mekonnen F, Tessema B, Moges F, Gelaw A, Eshetie S. G. K. Multidrug resistant tuberculosis: prevalence and risk factors in districts of metema and west armachiho, Northwest Ethiopia. BMC Infect Dis. 2015;15:461.

Selamawit H, Girmay M, Belaineh G, Muluken M, Alemayehu M, et al. PS. Determinants of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in patients who underwent first-line treatment in Addis Ababa: a case control study. BMC Public Health 2013. 2013;13:782.

Google Scholar  

Safwat TM, Elmasry AA, Mohamed A. Prevalence of multi-drug resistant tuberculosis in abbassia Chest hospital from july 2006 to december 2009. Egyptian J Bronchol. 2011;5(2):124–30.

World Health Organization. WHO Global tuberculosis report 2015. Geneva: WHO. 2015.

Rifat M, Hall J, Oldmeadow C, Husain A, Hinderaker SG. AH. M. Factors related to previous tuberculosis treatment of patients with multidrug resistant tuberculosis in Bangladesh. BMJ Open. 2015;5.

Gupta KB, Gupta R, Atreja A, Verma MSV. Tuberculosis and nutrition. Lung India: Offic Organ of Indian Chest Soc. 2009;26(1):9–16. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-2113.45198 . 2009.

World Health Organization. WHO Global tuberculosis report 2018. Geneva: WHO. 2018.

Deus L, Willy S, Kenneth M, George WK, Frank JCMJ. et al. Variation and risk factors of drug resistant tuberculosis in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health 2015;15.

Federal Ministry of Health. Guidelines for Clinical and Programmatic Management of TB, TB/HIV and Leprosy in Ethiopia. Fifth Edition. Addis Ababa. March, 2013.

FDRE/MOH. Guidelines on programmatic management of drug resistant tuberculosis in Ethiopia. 2ND ED.2014 ADDIS ABABA. 2014.

CSIS. Center for Strategic and International Studies. As Ethiopia moves toward tuberculosis elimination, success requires higher investment: A report of CSIS global health policy center. CSIS, Washinton DC, America. 2016.

World Health organization. Framework for the engagement of all health care providers in the management of drug resistant tuberculosis. Geneva; Switherland. WHO 2015.

Vries G, Tsolova S, Anderson LF, Gebhard AC, Helda E, Hollo V. Health system factors influencing management of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in four European Union countries - learning from country experiences. BMC Public Health. 2017;17:334.

Isara AR, Akpodiete A. Concerns about the knowledge and attitude of multidrug resistant tuberculosis among health care workers and patients in Delta State, Nigeria. Nigerian J Clin Pract. 2015;18:5.

Luka MI, Idris SH, Patrick N, Ndadilnasiya EW, Moses OA, Phillip P., et al. Health care workers’ knowledge and attitude towards TB patients under Direct Observation of Treatment in Plateau state Nigeria, 2011. Pan Afr Med J. 2014;18 (Supp1):8.

Malangu N, Adebanjo OD. Knowledge and practices about multidrug-resistant tuberculosis amongst healthcare workers in Maseru. Afr J Prm Health Care Fam Med. 2015;7:1.

Molla Y, Jerene D, Jema I, Nigussie G, Kebede T, Kassie Y. et.al. The experience of scaling up a decentralized, ambulatory model of care for management of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in two regions of Ethiopia. J Clinic Tubercul Other Mycobacter Dis. 2017;7:28–33.

Merza MA, Farnia P, Tabarsi P, Khazampour M, Masjedi MR. AA. V. Anti-tuberculosis drug resistance and associated risk factors in a tertiary level TB centre in Iran: a retrospective analysis. J Infect Dev Ctries. 2011;5(7):511–19.

Gebremariam MK, Bjune GA. FJ. Barriers and facilitators of adherence to TB treatment in patients on concomitant TB and HIV treatment: a qualitative study. BMC Public Health. 2010;10:651.

Suri AGK. S. C. Voices from the Field: Perspectives from Community Health Workers on Health Care Delivery in Rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. J Infect Dis. 2007;196:S505–11.

Deshmukh RD, Dhande DJ, Sachdeva KS, Sreenivas AN, Kumar AMV. M. P. Social support a key factor for adherence to multidrug-resistant tuberculosis treatment. Indian J Tubercul. 2017.

Samuel B, Volkmann T, Cornelius S, Mukhopadhay S, Mitra K, Kumar AM., et al. Relationship between Nutritional Support and Tuberculosis Treatment Outcomes in West Bengal, India. J Tuberc Res. 2016;4(4):213–19.

NC. E. The making of a public health problem: multi-drug resistant tuberculosis in India. Health Policy Plan 2013;28:375–85.

Gler MT, Podewils LJ, Munez N, Galipot M, Quelapio MID, Tupasi TE. Impact of patient and program factors on default during treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2012;16(7):955–60. https://doi.org/10.5588/ijtld.11.0502 .

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Horter S, Stringer B, Greig J, Amangeldiev A, Tillashaikhov MN, Parpieva N., et al. Where there is hope: a qualitative study examining patients’ adherence to multidrug resistant tuberculosis treatment in Karakalpakstan, Uzbekistan. BMC Infect Dis. 2016;16:362.

Naidoo P, Niekerk MV, Toit ED, Beyers N, Leon N. Pathways to multidrug-resistant tuberculosis diagnosis and treatment initiation: a qualitative comparison of patients’ experiences in the era of rapid molecular diagnostic tests. BMC Health Serv Res. 2015;15:488.

WHO. ENGAGE-TB. Training of community health workers and community volunteers. Integrating community-based tuberculosis activities into the work of nongovernmental and other civil society organizations. 2015.

Gerard de Vries S, Tsolova FL, Anderson AC, Gebhard E, Heldal et al. Health system factors influencing management of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in four European Union countries - learning from country experiences BMC Public Health. 2017;17:334. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4216-9 .

Finlay A, Lancaster JHT, Weyer K, Miranda A. M. W. Patient- and Provider level risk factors associated with default from tuberculosis treatment, South Africa: a case control study. BMC Publich Health. 2012;12:56.

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge Hosanna College of Health Sciences Research and community service directorate for providing us the opportunity and necessary fund to conduct this research. Our appreciation also goes to heads of various health centers, hospitals, district health and Hadiya Zone Health office for unreserved cooperation throughout data collection.

The authors declare that this study received funding from Hosanna College of Health Sciences. The funder was not involved in the study design, collection, analysis, interpretation of data, the writing of this article or the decision to submit it for publication.

Author information

Bereket Aberham Lajore & Menen Ayele

Present address: Hossana College of Health Sciences, Hosanna, SNNPR, Ethiopia

Yitagesu Habtu Aweke

Present address: College of Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Samuel Yohannes Ayanto

Present address: College of Health Sciences, Institute of Public Health, Department of -Population and Family Health, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia

Bereket Aberham Lajore, Yitagesu Habtu Aweke and Samuel Yohannes Ayanto contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Family Health, Hossana College of health sciences, Hossana, Ethiopia

Bereket Aberham Lajore

Department of Health informatics, Hossana College of Health Sciences, Hossana, Ethiopia

Department of Midwifery, Hossana College of Health Sciences, Hossana, Ethiopia

Department of Clinical Nursing, Hossana College of Health Sciences, Hossana, Ethiopia

Menen Ayele

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

Bereket Aberham Lajore, Yitagesu Habtu Aweke, and Samuel Yohannes Ayanto conceived the idea and wrote the proposal, participated in data management, analyzed the data and drafted the paper and revised the analysis and subsequent draft of the paper. Menen Ayele revised and approved the proposal, revised the analysis and subsequent draft of the paper. Yitagesu Habtu and Bereket Aberham Lajore wrote the main manuscript text and prepared all tables. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bereket Aberham Lajore .

Ethics declarations

All methods and report contents were performed in accordance with the standards for reporting qualitative research.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Ethical approval was obtained from Institutional review board [IRB] of Hossana College of health sciences after reviewing the protocol for ethical issues and provided a formal letter of permission to concerned bodies in the health system. Accordingly, permission to conduct this study was granted by respective health facilities in Hadiya zone. Confidentiality of the information was assured and participants’ autonomy not to participate or to opt-out at any stage of the interview were addressed. Finally, informed consent was obtained from the study participants after detailed information.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material 1

Rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Lajore, B.A., Aweke, Y.H., Ayanto, S.Y. et al. Exploring health care providers’ engagement in prevention and management of multidrug resistant Tuberculosis and its factors in Hadiya Zone health care facilities: qualitative study. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 542 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-10911-6

Download citation

Received : 27 February 2023

Accepted : 27 March 2024

Published : 27 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-10911-6

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Healthcare providers

BMC Health Services Research

ISSN: 1472-6963

• General enquiries: [email protected]