type of source (book journal thesis)

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Types of Sources

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This section lists the types of sources most frequently used in academic research and describes the sort of information that each commonly offers.

Print Sources

Books and Textbooks:  Odds are that at least one book has been written about virtually any research topic you can imagine (and if not, your research could represent the first steps toward a best-selling publication that addresses the gap!). Because of the time it takes to publish a book, books usually contain more dated information than will be found in journals and newspapers. However, because they are usually much longer, they can often cover topics in greater depth than more up-to-date sources.

Newspapers:  Newspapers contain very up-to-date information by covering the latest events and trends. Newspapers publish both factual information and opinion-based articles. However, due to journalistic standards of objectivity, news reporting will not always take a “big picture” approach or contain information about larger trends, instead opting to focus mainly on the facts relevant to the specifics of the story. This is exacerbated by the rapid publication cycles most newspapers undergo: new editions must come out frequently, so long, in-depth investigations tend to be rarer than simple fact-reporting pieces.

Academic and Trade Journals:  Academic and trade journals contain the most up-to-date information and research in industry, business, and academia. Journal articles come in several forms, including literature reviews that overview current and past research, articles on theories and history, and articles on specific processes or research. While a well-regarded journal represents the cutting-edge knowledge of experts in a particular field, journal articles can often be difficult for non-experts to read, as they tend to incorporate lots of technical jargon and are not written to be engaging or entertaining.

Government Reports and Legal Documents:  The government regularly releases information intended for internal and/or public use. These types of documents can be excellent sources of information due to their regularity, dependability, and thoroughness. An example of a government report would be any of the reports the U.S. Census Bureau publishes from census data. Note that most government reports and legal documents can now be accessed online.

Press Releases and Advertising:  Companies and special interest groups produce texts to help persuade readers to act in some way or inform the public about some new development. While the information they provide can be accurate, approach them with caution, as these texts' publishers may have vested interests in highlighting particular facts or viewpoints.

Flyers, Pamphlets, Leaflets:  While some flyers or pamphlets are created by reputable sources, because of the ease with which they can be created, many less-than-reputable sources also produce these. Pamphlets and leaflets can be useful for quick reference or very general information, but beware of pamphlets that spread propaganda or misleading information.

Digital and Electronic Sources

Multimedia:  Printed material is certainly not the only option for finding research. You might also consider using sources such as radio and television broadcasts, interactive talks, and recorded public meetings. Though we often go online to find this sort of information today, libraries and archives offer a wealth of nondigitized media or media that is not available online. 

Websites:  Most of the information on the Internet is distributed via websites. Websites vary widely in terms of the quality of information they offer. For more information, visit the OWL's page on evaluating digital sources.

Blogs and personal websites:  Blogs and personal sites vary widely in their validity as sources for serious research. For example, many prestigious journalists and public figures may have blogs, which may be more credible than most amateur or personal blogs. Note, however, that there are very few standards for impartiality or accuracy when it comes to what can be published on personal sites.

Social media pages and message boards:  These types of sources exist for all kinds of disciplines, both in and outside of the university. Some may be useful, depending on the topic you are studying, but, just like personal websites, the information found on social media or message boards is not always credible.

Understand and Evaluate Sources

Types of sources.

• Evaluate Sources
• Check the Facts

types of  sources you are likely to encounter during your academic research. 

Scholarly or Peer-reviewed Journals 

A scholarly or peer-reviewed journal contains articles written by experts in a particular field. 

journals, in most cases:

• use scholarly or technical language.
• include a full bibliography of sources cited in the article. 
• are often peer-reviewed (sometimes called "referred"). 

View the anatomy of an article to see the typical components. 

• Academic Search Elite (EBSCO) This link opens in a new window Find articles in any subject or academic discipline.
• GALE ACADEMIC ONEFILE This link opens in a new window Find scholarly/peer-reviewed and popular journal publications.

News and Magazines (Popular Sources)

News and magazine articles can help introduce you to a topic and see how the topic is being discussed in society. 

Articles in popular sources: 

• rarely have a references section.
• often contain images and advertisements. 
• may contain an argument, opinion, or analysis of an issue.   

Professional or Trade Journals

Trade publications communicate news and trends in a particular field.

Articles in trade journals:

• use the language (and jargon) of the field. 

Books and eBooks 

Academic books and eBooks: 

• summarize research or issues related to its topic. 
• eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) This link opens in a new window Find thousands of academic ebooks in all subjects.

Conference Proceedings

Conference proceedings are compilations of papers, research, and information presented at professional conferences. 

peer -reviewed and are often the first publication of research that later will appear in a scholarly or peer-reviewed article.   

Government Documents

scientific and technical information , statistics, transcripts of hearings, white papers, consumer information, maps and more. 

• HathiTrust Digital Library This link opens in a new window As a digital repository for the nation's great research libraries, HathiTrust brings together the immense collections of partner institutions. HathiTrust was conceived as a collaboration of the thirteen universities of the Committee on Institutional Cooperation and the University of California system to establish a repository for these universities to archive and share their digitized collections.

Theses and Dissertations

review of an academic committee but are not considered "peer-reviewed." 

• Dissertations and Theses @ UNI This link opens in a new window This collection contains many dissertations and theses written by graduate students at the University of Northern Iowa. Many of them can be accessed by anyone worldwide.
• Open Access Theses and Dissertations This link opens in a new window Openly available theses and dissertations from over 1000 colleges, universities, and research institutions.
• Last Updated: Apr 4, 2022 10:28 AM
• URL: https://guides.lib.uni.edu/understand_and_evaluate_sources

Understanding & Evaluating Sources

• Get Started
• Evaluating Sources
• Different Types of Sources
• Fact-checking
• Recognizing Bias

Types of Sources - Some Useful Tools

• Anatomy of a Scholarly Article Check out the typical components of a scholarly journal article (from North Carolina State University Libraries).
• Types of sources - Quick Reference Chart There are key differences between scholarly, popular and professional publications. For a side-by-side comparison check out our Quick Reference chart (from University of British Colombia Libraries).

Types of Sources - Videos

• Different Types of Sources From Cal State University Northridge Library

Types of Sources

These are sources that you are likely to encounter when doing academic research.

 Questions?   Ask us !

   Scholarly publications (Journals)

A scholarly publication contains articles written by experts in a particular field.  The primary audience of these articles is other experts.  These articles generally report on original research or case studies.  Many of these publications are "peer reviewed" or "refereed".  This means that scholars in the same field review the research and findings before the article is published.  Articles in scholarly publications, in most cases:

are written by and for faculty, researchers, or other experts in a field

use scholarly or technical language

include a full bibliography of sources cited in the article

are often peer reviewed (refereed)

To see the typical components of a scholarly journal article check out the  Anatomy of a Scholarly Article page from North Carolina State University Libraries.

   Popular sources (News and Magazines)

There are many occasions on which reading articles from popular sources can help to introduce you to a topic and introduce you to how that topic is being discussed in society.  Articles in popular sources, in most cases:

are written by journalists or professional writers for a general audience

written in a language that is easy to understand by the general public

rarely have a bibliography - rather, they are fact-checked through the editorial process of the publication they appear in

don't assume prior knowledge of a subject area - for this reason, they are often very helpful to read if you don't know a lot about your subject area yet

may contain an argument, opinion, or analysis of an issue

   Professional / Trade sources

Trade publications are generally for practitioners.  They are focused on a specific field but are not intended to be "scholarly".  Rather, they communicated the news and trends in that field.  Articles in trade publications, in most cases:

are written by practitioners in a field (nurses, teachers, social workers, etc)

use the language (and jargon) of the field

Books / Book Chapters

Many academic books will be edited by an expert or group of experts.  Often, books are a good source for a thorough investigation of a topic.  Unlike a scholarly article, which will usually focus on the results of one research project, a book is likely to include an overview of research or issues related to its topic.  

Conference proceedings

Conference proceedings are compilations of papers, research, and information presented at conferences. Proceedings are sometimes peer-reviewed and are often the first publication of research that later appears in a scholarly publication (see above!).  Proceedings are more commonly encountered (via databases and other searching) in science and engineering fields that in the arts and humanities.  

Government Documents

The Government Printing Office (GPO) disseminates information issued by all three branches of the government to federal depository libraries (including NMSU).  Additionally, the many departments of the government publish reports, data, statistics, white papers, consumer information, transcripts of hearings, and more.  Some of the information published by government offices is technical and scientific.  Other information is meant for the general public.

Theses & Dissertations

Theses and dissertations are the result of an individual student's research while in a graduate program.  They are written under the guidance and review of an academic committee but are not considered "peer-reviewed" or "refereed" publications.  

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• URL: https://nmsu.libguides.com/sources

Home / Guides / Citation Guides / APA Format / How to Cite a Thesis or Dissertation in APA

How to Cite a Thesis or Dissertation in APA

In this citation guide, you will learn how to reference and cite an undergraduate thesis, master’s thesis, or doctoral dissertation. This guide will also review the differences between a thesis or dissertation that is published and one that has remained unpublished. The guidelines below come from the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2020a), pages 333 and 334. Please note that the association is not affiliated with this guide.

Alternatively, you can visit EasyBib.com for helpful citation tools to cite your thesis or dissertation .

Guide Overview

Citing an unpublished thesis or dissertation, citing a published dissertation or thesis from a database, citing a thesis or dissertation published online but not from a database, citing a thesis or dissertation: reference overview, what you need.

Since unpublished theses can usually only be sourced in print form from a university library, the correct citation structure includes the university name where the publisher element usually goes.

Author’s last name, F. M. (Year published). Title in sentence case [Unpublished degree type thesis or dissertation]. Name of institution.

Ames, J. H., & Doughty, L. H. (1911). The proposed plans for the Iowa State College athletic field including the design of a reinforced concrete grandstand and wall [Unpublished bachelor’s thesis]. Iowa State University.

In-text citation example:

• Parenthetical :  (Ames & Doughty, 1911)
• Narrative :  Ames & Doughty (1911)

If a thesis or dissertation has been published and is found on a database, then follow the structure below. It’s similar to the format for an unpublished dissertation/thesis, but with a few differences:

• The institution is presented in brackets after the title
• The archive or database name is included

Author’s last name, F. M. (Year published). Title in sentence case (Publication or Document No.) [Degree type thesis or dissertation, Name of institution]. Database name.

Examples 1:

Knight, K. A. (2011). Media epidemics: Viral structures in literature and new media (Accession No. 2013420395) [Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Trotman, J.B. (2018). New insights into the biochemistry and cell biology of RNA recapping (Document No. osu1523896565730483) [Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University]. OhioLINK Electronic Theses & Dissertations Center.

In the example given above, the dissertation is presented with a Document Number (Document No.). Sometimes called a database number or publication number, this is the identifier that is used by the database’s indexing system. If the database you are using provides you with such a number, then include it directly after the work’s title in parentheses.

If you are interested in learning more about how to handle works that were accessed via academic research databases, see Section 9.3 of the Publication Manual.

In-text citation examples :

• Parenthetical citation : (Trotman, 2018)
• Narrative citation : Trotman (2018)

Author’s last name, F. M. (Year Published). Title in sentence case [Degree type thesis or dissertation, Name of institution]. Name of archive or collection. URL

Kim, O. (2019). Soviet tableau: cinema and history under late socialism [Doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh]. Institutional Repository at the University of Pittsburgh. https://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/37669/7/Olga%20Kim%20Final%20ETD.pdf

Stiles, T. W. (2001). Doing science: Teachers’ authentic experiences at the Lone Star Dinosaur Field Institute [Master’s thesis, Texas A&M University]. OAKTrust. https://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/ETD-TAMU-2001-THESIS-S745

It is important to note that not every thesis or dissertation published online will be associated with a specific archive or collection. If the work is published on a private website, provide only the URL as the source element.

In-text citation examples:

• Parenthetical citation : (Kim, 2019)
• Narrative citation : Kim (2019)
• Parenthetical citation : (Stiles, 2001)
• Narrative citation : Stiles (2001)

We hope that the information provided here will serve as an effective guide for your research. If you’re looking for even more citation info, visit EasyBib.com for a comprehensive collection of educational materials covering multiple source types.

If you’re citing a variety of different sources, consider taking the EasyBib citation generator for a spin. It can help you cite easily and offers citation forms for several different kinds of sources.

To start things off, let’s take a look at the different types of literature that are classified under Chapter 10.6 of the Publication Manual :

• Undergraduate thesis
• Master’s thesis
• Doctoral dissertation

You will need to know which type you are citing. You’ll also need to know if it is published or unpublished .

When you decide to cite a dissertation or thesis, you’ll need to look for the following information to use in your citation:

• Author’s last name, and first and middle initials
• Year published
• Title of thesis or dissertation
• If it is unpublished
• Publication or document number (if applicable; for published work)
• Degree type (bachelor’s, master’s, doctoral)
• Thesis or dissertation
• Name of institution awarding degree
• DOI (https://doi.org/xxxxx) or URL (if applicable)

Since theses and dissertations are directly linked to educational degrees, it is necessary to list the name of the associated institution; i.e., the college, university, or school that is awarding the associated degree.

To get an idea of the proper form, take a look at the examples below. There are three outlined scenarios:

• Unpublished thesis or dissertation
• Published thesis or dissertation from a database
• Thesis or dissertation published online but not from a database

American Psychological Association. (2020a). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

American Psychological Association. (2020b). Style-Grammar-Guidelines. https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles/parenthetical-versus-narrative

Published August 10, 2012. Updated March 24, 2020.

Written and edited by Michele Kirschenbaum and Elise Barbeau. Michele Kirschenbaum is a school library media specialist and the in-house librarian at EasyBib.com. Elise Barbeau is the Citation Specialist at Chegg. She has worked in digital marketing, libraries, and publishing.

APA Formatting Guide

APA Formatting

• Annotated Bibliography
• Block Quotes
• et al Usage
• In-text Citations
• Multiple Authors
• Paraphrasing
• Page Numbers
• Parenthetical Citations
• Reference Page
• Sample Paper
• APA 7 Updates
• View APA Guide

Citation Examples

• Book Chapter
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Website (no author)
• View all APA Examples

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To cite a published thesis in APA style, it is important that you know some basic information such as the author, publication year, title of the thesis, institute name, archive name, and URL (uniform resource locator). The templates for an in-text citation and reference list entry of a thesis, along with examples, are given below:

In-text citation template and example:

Use the author surname and the publication year in the in-text citation.

Author Surname (Publication Year)

Cartmel (2007)

Parenthetical:

(Author Surname, Publication Year)

(Cartmel, 2007)

Reference list entry template and example:

The title of the thesis is set in sentence case and italicized. Enclose the thesis and the institute awarding the degree inside brackets following the publication year. Then add the name of the database followed by the URL.

Author Surname, F. M. (Publication Year). Title of the thesis [Master’s thesis, Institute Name]. Name of the Database. URL

Cartmel, J. (2007). Outside school hours care and schools [Master’s thesis, Queensland University of Technology]. EPrints. http://eprints.qut.edu.au/17810/1/Jennifer_Cartmel_Thesis.pdf

To cite an unpublished dissertation in APA style, it is important that you know some basic information such as the author, year, title of the dissertation, and institute name. The templates for in-text citation and reference list entry of an online thesis, along with examples, are given below:

Author Surname (Year)

Averill (2009)

(Author Surname, Year)

(Averill, 2009)

The title of the dissertation is set in sentence case and italicized. Enclose “Unpublished doctoral dissertation” inside brackets following the year. Then add the name of the institution awarding the degree.

Author Surname, F. M. (Publication Year). Title of the dissertation [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Name of the Institute.

Averill, R. (2009). Teacher–student relationships in diverse New Zealand year 10 mathematics classrooms: Teacher care [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Victoria University of Wellington.

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TAFT COLLEGE

Types of Sources: Types of Sources

• Types of Sources
• Identifying Primary Sources
• Identifying Scholarly Sources
• Finding Sources
• Selecting Sources
• Introduction
• Material Formats and Types
• Delivery Method

Sources can be defined at least two different ways. When people use the phrase "types of sources" they may be referring to the:

• Level or distance from the original source of information (primary, secondary, tertiary)
• Format of the information source (book, article, movie, blog, etc.)

This guide will clarify both types of definitions. Which source is the best? It depends! Each source has unique characteristics which need to be considered when making the decision to use a source for research. Most college instructors and many high school teachers will insist on academic or scholarly sources, but it depends on the assignment.

Accessible web version of Distance Away from the Original Source Infographic

Information sources are usually organized by type. Books, journal articles, blogs, photographs, data sets, patents, are all types of sources commonly used for research. See the  Identifying Primary Sources  page in this guide for more information about various types of sources.

Image courtesy of  https://weloty.com/3-tips-for-recording-research-interviews/

A source may be in print or other types of physical format. Additionally, sources are also available electronically such as an e-Book.

In other words, to say you have an article, song or movie does not imply you have an article in print, a CD of a song or a DVD of a movie. All these formats are available in print and digital versions, and you, the researcher, must decide which method of delivery you prefer or which is most readily available at time of need.

The Taft College Library has both CDs and DVDs available for checkout. Below are examples from our catalog.

Some content has been adapted from the  Wichita State University Types of Sources LibGuide.

Last updated August 6, 2018

• Next: Identifying Primary Sources >>
• Last Updated: Jul 31, 2023 3:19 PM
• URL: https://lib.taftcollege.edu/typesofsources

University of Denver

University libraries, research guides.

• Library Guides

University College Research Guide

• Cite my sources
• Using Compass
• Get full text of a specific article
• Request sources from other libraries
• What is "Peer Review"?

How do I cite a source?

Why do i need to cite my sources, when should i cite a source, more resources.

• Library 101 Workshop

To cite a source properly, you need to follow the rules of a particular citation style.

University College utilizes the Turabian Author-Date citation style to document sources utilized in all written assignments.

• Turabian Style Quick Guide Offers some samples of Turabian Author/Date style. While it is not comprehensive, it is a good overview.

Citing your sources is:

• the smart thing to do: readers will consider your work more credible if they know where your information comes from.
• the honest thing to do: it prevents plagiarism by giving credit to the original author of an idea.

Imagine research as a conversation -- scholars are trading ideas back and forth and building on the findings of earlier work. Citing your sources is an important part of contributing to this conversation -- it allows readers to understand how your work fits into the overall conversation.

Citing your sources in a standard style also helps readers tell at a glance what type of source you used (book vs. journal article, etc), and it helps readers find and reference the sources you used.

What is Plagiarism?

The  DU Honor Code  defines plagiarism as "including any representation of another's work or ideas as one's own in academic and educational submissions."

At DU, plagiarism is seen as a form of academic misconduct and can result in severe consequences. These explanations of the most common  types of plagiarism  from Bowdoin College can help you learn to detect plagiarism in your own and other's work.

To avoid plagiarism, cite sources when:

• You directly quote a source
• You paraphrase a source
• You summarize someone else's ideas in your own words
• You draw on facts, information, or data from someone else
• You want to add supplemental information not included in your paper, such as footnotes or endnotes

Note: You do not need to cite generally accepted knowledge. For more information, see Not-So-Common Knowledge .

A general rule of thumb is: "When in doubt, cite it."

What is Plagiarism Detection Software?

DU uses a plagiarism detection software called TurnItIn. When a student turns in a paper through Canvas, TurnItIn checks the internet and many databases to see if anything has been copied from another person’s work.

• Zotero Free, web-based, citation management tool.

Reference Librarian

• << Previous: What is "Peer Review"?
• Next: Library 101 Workshop >>
• Last Updated: Mar 21, 2024 9:42 AM
• URL: https://libguides.du.edu/ucolresearch

Doing Research: Source Types

• Getting Started
• Source Types
• Search Tips
• Evaluating Sources
• Research As Conversation
• Tracking Down Materials
• Citing Sources

A Way to Think About Sources

"Sources are people talking to other people." Doug Downs

Sources Overview

As you work with particular sources, be sure you are analyzing the source itself to understand why it was written or created, who wrote it, what their expertise is, and who the intended audience is. These kinds of questions help you figure out if you're using the appropriate sources for any given information task. Use the information below to reflect further on your sources: 

Sources have different functions  (BEAM)

• B ackground sources – Wikipedia, textbooks, specialized encyclopedias, review articles
• E xhibits –poll data, transcribed interviews, text of public laws or court opinions, historical documents
• A rguments – works that propose a thesis and develop it with evidence
• M ethods – works that propose how to think about something; theory or methodology is the focus

There are different authors of information

• Journalists and other professional writers who report the news or write books and articles about topics from a non-specialist perspective; these types of sources are usually non-scholarly (sometimes we call them "popular")
• Subject experts who write for other experts; these types of sources are almost always scholarly. Experts sometimes write non-scholarly pieces for newspapers, magazines or blogs about their topic for a general audience.
• Artists who create tangible expressions of their ideas
• Members of the public who interpret and express ideas publicly  

There are different audiences for publications

• General readers who want to know factual information about a topic
• General readers who are interested in opinions and commentary
• Members of a particular profession such as teachers, lawyers, or engineers who share common interests
• Scholars and scientists who want to know the latest research findings (and reviews of research)

Scholarly Sources

Quite often you will be expected to use "scholarly" or "peer reviewed" or "academic" sources. How can you tell whether a source is scholarly? Look for these indicators.

• The author is a scientist or scholar, not a journalist. Usually you can find some note about where the author works, and more often than not it's at a college or university. The author usually has the highest degree in their field (like Ph.D.).
• The audience is other researchers, scientists, or scholars, (as well as students in a given field), so the language is fairly complex and assumes a level of sophistication. 
• It includes references to the work of other researchers. Look for bibliographic notes and/or a works cited page.
• Scholarly sources are usually published by academic publishers (like Oxford University Press); articles appear in scholarly journals, often with titles like Journal of ....

Though many databases let you limit a search to scholarly or peer reviewed articles, those limiters aren't foolproof. As an example, they will include book reviews, which are not reporting original research. Take a look at " Anatomy of a Scholarly Article " from North Carolina State University Library.

Peer review means the source has been reviewed prior to publication (usually without the reviewers knowing who wrote the source and vice versa); reviewers will then recommend if the work should be published. Many - but not all - scholarly sources have been peer reviewed. To check if your scholarly article has been peer reviewed, you can visit the journal's website.

Primary? Secondary?

The term "primary source" is defined differently by various disciplines. In the humanities, a primary source is a historical document, such as a diary, memoir, a work of art, a news account published when an event was fresh - something from the historical period under examination. In the sciences, a primary source is a scientist's write-up of their research that includes their methods and results, as opposed to science journalism or a summary of research (a "review article") that has been conducted to provide an overview of research on a given topic.

A secondary source is one that has already been analyzed by someone else. Moving even further from the unfiltered event is a tertiary source such as a textbook or encyclopedia, that summarizes knowledge in general terms.

Using primary sources, whether in science or the humanities, helps a researcher get as close as possible to the subject under examination. Using primary sources can be a good way to point your reader to the raw materials of your ideas and provide an opportunity for you to do your own, original analysis.

For more about primary sources, check out our guide to primary sources available in our library.

Types of Sources

People communicate in all kinds of different information packages. Here are some of the most common ones you will encounter, along with ideas on whether or not they are scholarly: 

There are many, many other kinds of information packages, too, including the ones listed below. 

• Audio & visual files
• Conference papers (sometimes published as books, published online, or unpublished)
• Laws (statutes, court opinions, regulations) and other government documents (hearings, bills, reports)
• Press releases, reports, studies, FAQs, etc., produced by nonprofits and corporations
• Unpublished records, like journals, personal papers, items you would find in the college's archives, stuff in your desk drawer, a box of records taken from an office by investigators

Locating Various Types of Sources

Now that you're more familiar with the types of sources you may encounter, you may be wondering how to go about finding them. Here are tips on how to located various types of sources for your project - although the biggest tip is that if you hit any roadblocks, please ask  a librarian  for help.

• Try some of the recommended databases on the Articles tab on this guide.
• You can also search Google Scholar  for academic articles, too. Use the Tracking Down Materials tab for help on accessing articles that aren't full text on Google Scholar.
• Search the library catalog to find books; we have print books and ebooks. The Books tab also explains how to search for and order books at other libraries. You can look at excerpts for many books - and in some cases, entire books - through Google Books . You'll also find some scholarly articles in the catalog, too.
• You can certainly Google to find newspapers but most papers have a strict paywall, meaning you'll need to pay to subscribe before you can access the papers. Instead, search the recommended databases to find the same content for free!
• To find magazine articles , start with Academic Search Premier (listed under the Articles tab). As with newspapers, you can use Google but you will also probably hit a paywall for most titles.
• The best place to start is Google. As you sort through results, pay attention to who wrote and published the source, the intended audience, the type of source, any claims it makes, etc. Be sure you are thinking critically about the source itself and how it may or may not inform your own understanding of the topic.
• Contact a librarian for more ideas on how to access particular types of sources.
• << Previous: Getting Started
• Next: Books >>
• Last Updated: Feb 28, 2024 2:41 PM
• URL: https://libguides.gustavus.edu/research

Types of Sources

• Identifying Primary Sources
• Identifying Scholarly Sources
• Finding Sources
• Selecting Sources
• Online Primary Sources at WSU This link opens in a new window

Further Reading

• Primary Sources for Humanities and Social Sciences by UW-Madison
• Research Help: Types of Sources by McQuade Library at Merrimack
• Types of Sources by OWL
• Understand Types of Material by CliffsNotes

• Introduction
• Defining Sources
• Material Types (Format)
• Delivery Method

Sources can be defined at least two different ways. When people use the phrase "types of sources" they may be referring to the:

• Level or distance from the original source of information ( primary, secondary or tertiary )
• Format of the information source (book, article, movie, blog, etc.)

This guide will clarify both types of definitions. Which source is the best? It depends! Each source has unique characteristics which need to be considered when making the decision. Most college instructors and many high school teachers will insist on academic or scholarly sources, but it depends on the assignment.

Note: words in red or hot linked are included in the glossary . See a similar graphic .

Your topic and research question or thesis statement will determine which resources are best. If you are struggling to find information in scholarly sources, but can find information on the open web, that is a sign you need to re-evaluate your topic or research question. See the page Selecting Sources in this guide or the handout "What Sources Should I Use" below for more help with this issue.

You may find these handouts helpful:

• Evaluating Information Sources- The CAARP Test
• Finding Authoritative Information
• How to Distinguish between types of Periodicals
• Information Timeline
• Types of Periodicals
• What Sources Should I Use?

A primary source is the original source of information on a topic. The source is usually created at the time of study. What defines a primary resource varies slightly with each discipline. Typically, artifacts , diaries and manuscripts , autobiographies or memoirs, photographs, audio files of interviews before editing, blogs and vlogs published and produced by the creator at the time of an event are considered to be primary information sources. See the page about primary sources in this guide for more information about primary sources.

Some information sources may be available in audio or video. Most books and articles are available either in print or online. Books may be available in paperback, hardback, large print or other types of editions or formats . The format and edition of an information source may affect whether the item is considered to be a primary source (the original source of information or an exact replica) or not.  However it is usually difficult to tell when something is an exact replica of the original.

Sources can be defined as primary , secondary and tertiary levels away from an event or original idea. Researchers may want to start with tertiary or secondary sources for background information. Learning more about a topic will help most researchers make better use of primary sources.

Information sources are usually organized by type. Books, journal articles, blogs, photographs, data sets, patents, are all types of sources commonly used for research. See the Identifying Primary Sources page in this guide for more information about various types of sources.

In any case, a source may be in print or some type of physical format, or it may be electronic. Some types of formats are always electronic, but formats that are physically available, such as books, are almost always also electronically available.

In other words, to say you have an article, song or movie does not imply you have an article in print, a CD of a song or a DVD of a movie. All these formats are available in print and digital versions, and you, the researcher, must decide which method of delivery you prefer or which is most readily available at time of need.

Attend one of our free workshops!

• Savvy Researcher Workshop Series These research workshops are developed for undergraduate students, graduate students, teaching assistants and instructors. This guide is designed to accompany the workshop schedule for this series. The schedule is included on this guide and is also on the Library Event Calendar.

Ask A Librarian

• Contact a Subject Librarian

Come talk to a librarian in person at the Reference Desk  on the first floor of Ablah Library. 

If a librarian is not available, you may also seek assistance from other library staff during library hours who will refer you to the appropriate librarian or department as necessary. 

See the full schedule  of library hours including Reference Desk, presession, intersession, and holiday hours for the main library (Ablah) and for the Chemistry and Music branch libraries. Ablah Library hours are also available on an automated phone line: 316-978-3581.

Chat with us or request a Zoom session via the adjacent chat box. Our chat service is staffed during Reference Desk hours .  If chat is not available, send us a question via e-mail .

  Circulation Desk (Ablah Library) 316-978-3582

  Music Library  316-978-3029

  Interlibrary Loan  316-978-3167

              Email  a librarian with your question          or fill out this form .

Subject Librarians are available to help students, faculty, and staff with their research and library instruction needs. Use the left-hand navigation tabs to find the librarian assigned to a particular  subject or  college . Contact your subject librarian for assistance or to schedule an appointment for a research consultation.

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11.4: Types of Sources

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Learning Objective

• Differentiate types of sources

It is probably an oversimplification to boil research sources down to three categories. But, for the work you’re doing now, this taxonomy for identifying sources makes sense. As you move through the content and practice activities on this page, think about how this method of differentiating sources aligns to your own experience with research.

Is a “print” source always on paper when you receive it? Well, not really. Digital databases and the internet have made the line between “print” and “online” sources more gray than you might expect. A good rule to follow when thinking about whether a source is “print” or “online” is to look at the original intended method of delivery. The New York Times is a print newspaper, even if many of its readers receive its content online. In addition to the fact that an interested reader can actually purchase a physical copy of any given day’s New York Times , its organizational structure is that of a print newspaper.

The same thing is true for academic journals and articles. For the most part, you will access academic journal articles from online databases through your university library or with tools like Google Scholar. Most of these journal articles are delivered to you in PDF format: PDF is a filename extension for Portable Document Format. It’s one of the closest digital file formats to “print.” Thus, academic journal articles are almost always considered “print” sources. In many style guides, you would cite an academic journal that you viewed from a PDF the same as you would if you were citing the same article from a bound journal in your hands.

Unfortunately, identifying what is and isn’t a print source is not always so easy. Take, for instance, The Huffington Post. In many ways, its website is similar to that of the New York Times . However, The Huffington Post has always been completely online. A print copy of the Post has never existed. Beyond that, though, if you take time to examine its organizational structure, the way it publishes and vets content, and the overall scope of Huffington Post , it’s clear that it is much more like Buzzfeed than The New York Times . That doesn’t mean it’s a bad source, by the way. Buzzfeed has won Pulitzer Prizes for some of its journalism. But you can’t call it a print source, and you probably can’t call The Huffington Post a print source either.

On the other side of the campus fence are online-only academic journals. These journals, like Kairos , are peer-reviewed, respected academic journals: Publishing an article in Kairos would be just as credible and noteworthy as publishing an article in Computers and Writing , a traditional print journal. So is Kairos a print source? Probably not. But it is a scholarly source. Remember that it’s always a good idea to look at a source through both lenses: scholarly vs. non-scholarly and print vs. online vs. multimedia.

• Journal Articles
• Magazine Articles
• White Papers
• Traditional Encyclopedias (like Encyclopedia Britannica )

Are all online sources bad? Is Wikipedia destroying legitimate research? Should you monkishly eschew all rooms with available WiFi when doing your research? Of course not, on all three accounts. Online sources have their place, and there are good online sources and bad online sources.

What are some online sources that might be useful in your research process? Here are a few examples:

• Government information or statistics
• Company financial reporting data
• Blogs by public figures
• Websites of businesses or organizations
• Online magazines or newspapers
• Discussion boards or forums
• Wiki-style encyclopedias (like Wookiepedia )
• Online academic journals
• Online academic monographs (books)

The quality of these sources can vary widely. You should carefully evaluate all online sources for credibility and relevance. You’ll learn the methods of evaluating an online source later in the module.

https://assessments.lumenlearning.co...sessments/5177

What do we mean by “multimedia” sources? Well, basically anything that doesn’t fit neatly into the category of “print” or “online” lands here. Depending upon the nature of your project, you may need to use videos, photographs, podcasts, or even songs as sources. As the researcher, you have the responsibility of vetting these sources, just as you would a website or a book. Sometimes multimedia sources can lead to vibrant and engaging research, so you should not discount their usefulness.

What are some typical multimedia sources that you might look for? Here are a few examples:

• Documentaries on Netflix
• Interviews of public officials on YouTube
• Podcasts about current events
• Photo essays on the New York Times website
• Raw video of events broadcasted to Facebook Live
• Types of Sources. Provided by : University of Mississippi. Project : PLATO Project. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

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• Types of Sources Explained | Examples & Tips

Types of Sources Explained | Examples & Tips

Published on 3 September 2022 by Eoghan Ryan .

Throughout the research process , you’ll likely use various types of sources. The source types commonly used in academic writing include:

Academic journals

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Table of contents

Primary, secondary, and tertiary sources, frequently asked questions types of sources.

Academic journals are the most up-to-date sources in academia. They’re typically published multiple times a year and contain cutting-edge research. Consult academic journals to find the most current debates and research topics in your field.

There are many kinds of journal articles, including:

• Original research articles: These publish original data.
• Theoretical articles: These contribute to the theoretical foundations of a field.
• Review articles: These summarize the current state of the field.

Credible journals use peer review . This means that experts in the field assess the quality and credibility of an article before it is published. Journal articles include a full bibliography and use scholarly or technical language.

Academic journals are usually published online, and sometimes also in print. Consult your institution’s library to find out what academic journals they provide access to.

  Learn how to cite a journal article

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Academic books are great sources to use when you need in-depth information on your research topic.

They’re typically written by experts and provide an extensive overview and analysis of a specific topic. They can be written by a single author or by multiple authors contributing individual chapters (often overseen by a general editor).

Books published by respected academic publishing houses and university presses are typically considered trustworthy sources. Academic books usually include a full bibliography and use scholarly or technical language. Books written for more general audiences are less relevant in an academic context.

Books can be accessed online or in print. Your institution’s library will likely contain access to a wide selection of each.

Learn how to cite a book

Websites are great sources for preliminary research and can help you to learn more about a topic you’re new to.

However, they are not always credible sources . Many websites don’t provide the author’s name, so it can be hard to tell if they’re an expert. Websites often don’t cite their sources, and they typically don’t subject their content to peer review.

For these reasons, you should carefully consider whether any web sources you use are appropriate to cite or not. Some websites are more credible than others. Look for trusted domain extensions:

• URLs that end with .edu are specifically educational resources.
• URLs that end with .gov are government-related.

Both of these are typically considered trustworthy.

Learn how to cite a website

Newspapers can be valuable sources, providing insights on current or past events and trends.

However, news articles are not always reliable and may be written from a biased perspective or with the intention of promoting a political agenda. News articles usually do not cite their sources and are written for a popular, rather than academic, audience.

Nevertheless, newspapers can help when you need information on recent topics or events that have not been the subject of in-depth academic study. Archives of older newspapers can also be useful sources for historical research.

Newspapers are published in both digital and print form. Consult your institution’s library to find out what newspaper archives they provide access to.

Learn how to cite a newspaper article

Encyclopaedias are reference works that contain summaries or overviews of topics rather than original insights. These overviews are presented in alphabetical order.

Although they’re often written by experts, encyclopaedia entries are not typically attributed to a single author and don’t provide the specialised knowledge expected of scholarly sources. As a result, they’re best used as sources of background information at the beginning of your research. You can then expand your knowledge by consulting more academic sources.

Encyclopaedias can be general or subject-specific:

• General encyclopaedias contain entries on diverse topics.
• Subject encyclopaedias focus on a particular field and contain entries specific to that field (e.g., Western philosophy or molecular biology).

They can be found online (including crowdsourced encyclopaedias like Wikipedia) or in print form.

Learn how to cite Wikipedia

Every source you use will be either:

• Primary: The source provides direct evidence about your topic (e.g., a news article).
• Secondary: The source provides an interpretation or commentary on primary sources (e.g., a journal article).
• Tertiary: The source summarizes or consolidates primary and secondary sources but does not provide additional analysis or insights (e.g., an encyclopaedia).

Tertiary sources are often used for broad overviews at the beginning of a research project. Further along, you might look for primary and secondary sources that you can use to help formulate your position.

How each source is categorised depends on the topic of research and how you use the source.

There are many types of sources commonly used in research. These include:

• Journal articles
• Encyclopedias

You’ll likely use a variety of these sources throughout the research process , and the kinds of sources you use will depend on your research topic and goals.

Scholarly sources are written by experts in their field and are typically subjected to peer review . They are intended for a scholarly audience, include a full bibliography, and use scholarly or technical language. For these reasons, they are typically considered credible sources .

Popular sources like magazines and news articles are typically written by journalists. These types of sources usually don’t include a bibliography and are written for a popular, rather than academic, audience. They are not always reliable and may be written from a biased or uninformed perspective, but they can still be cited in some contexts.

In academic writing, the sources you cite should be credible and scholarly. Some of the main types of sources used are:

• Academic journals: These are the most up-to-date sources in academia. They are published more frequently than books and provide cutting-edge research.
• Books: These are great sources to use, as they are typically written by experts and provide an extensive overview and analysis of a specific topic.

It is important to find credible sources and use those that you can be sure are sufficiently scholarly .

• Consult your institute’s library to find out what books, journals, research databases, and other types of sources they provide access to.
• Look for books published by respected academic publishing houses and university presses, as these are typically considered trustworthy sources.
• Look for journals that use a peer review process. This means that experts in the field assess the quality and credibility of an article before it is published.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Ryan, E. (2022, September 03). Types of Sources Explained | Examples & Tips. Scribbr. Retrieved 15 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/working-sources/source-types/

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How to Find Sources | Scholarly Articles, Books, Etc.

Published on June 13, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.

It’s important to know how to find relevant sources when writing a  research paper , literature review , or systematic review .

The types of sources you need will depend on the stage you are at in the research process , but all sources that you use should be credible , up to date, and relevant to your research topic.

There are three main places to look for sources to use in your research:

Research databases

• Your institution’s library
• Other online resources

Table of contents

Library resources, other online sources, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about finding sources.

You can search for scholarly sources online using databases and search engines like Google Scholar . These provide a range of search functions that can help you to find the most relevant sources.

If you are searching for a specific article or book, include the title or the author’s name. Alternatively, if you’re just looking for sources related to your research problem , you can search using keywords. In this case, it’s important to have a clear understanding of the scope of your project and of the most relevant keywords.

Databases can be general (interdisciplinary) or subject-specific.

• You can use subject-specific databases to ensure that the results are relevant to your field.
• When using a general database or search engine, you can still filter results by selecting specific subjects or disciplines.

Example: JSTOR discipline search filter

Check the table below to find a database that’s relevant to your research.

Google Scholar

To get started, you might also try Google Scholar , an academic search engine that can help you find relevant books and articles. Its “Cited by” function lets you see the number of times a source has been cited. This can tell you something about a source’s credibility and importance to the field.

Example: Google Scholar “Cited by” function

Boolean operators

Boolean operators can also help to narrow or expand your search.

Boolean operators are words and symbols like AND , OR , and NOT that you can use to include or exclude keywords to refine your results. For example, a search for “Nietzsche NOT nihilism” will provide results that include the word “Nietzsche” but exclude results that contain the word “nihilism.”

Many databases and search engines have an advanced search function that allows you to refine results in a similar way without typing the Boolean operators manually.

Example: Project Muse advanced search

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You can find helpful print sources in your institution’s library. These include:

• Journal articles
• Encyclopedias
• Newspapers and magazines

Make sure that the sources you consult are appropriate to your research.

You can find these sources using your institution’s library database. This will allow you to explore the library’s catalog and to search relevant keywords. You can refine your results using Boolean operators .

Once you have found a relevant print source in the library:

• Consider what books are beside it. This can be a great way to find related sources, especially when you’ve found a secondary or tertiary source instead of a primary source .
• Consult the index and bibliography to find the bibliographic information of other relevant sources.

You can consult popular online sources to learn more about your topic. These include:

• Crowdsourced encyclopedias like Wikipedia

You can find these sources using search engines. To refine your search, use Boolean operators in combination with relevant keywords.

However, exercise caution when using online sources. Consider what kinds of sources are appropriate for your research and make sure the sites are credible .

Look for sites with trusted domain extensions:

• URLs that end with .edu are educational resources.
• URLs that end with .gov are government-related resources.
• DOIs often indicate that an article is published in a peer-reviewed , scientific article.

Other sites can still be used, but you should evaluate them carefully and consider alternatives.

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• ChatGPT vs human editor
• ChatGPT citations
• Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
• Using ChatGPT for your studies
• What is ChatGPT?
• Chicago style
• Paraphrasing

 Plagiarism

• Types of plagiarism
• Self-plagiarism
• Avoiding plagiarism
• Academic integrity
• Consequences of plagiarism
• Common knowledge

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You can find sources online using databases and search engines like Google Scholar . Use Boolean operators or advanced search functions to narrow or expand your search.

For print sources, you can use your institution’s library database. This will allow you to explore the library’s catalog and to search relevant keywords.

It is important to find credible sources and use those that you can be sure are sufficiently scholarly .

• Consult your institute’s library to find out what books, journals, research databases, and other types of sources they provide access to.
• Look for books published by respected academic publishing houses and university presses, as these are typically considered trustworthy sources.
• Look for journals that use a peer review process. This means that experts in the field assess the quality and credibility of an article before it is published.

When searching for sources in databases, think of specific keywords that are relevant to your topic , and consider variations on them or synonyms that might be relevant.

Once you have a clear idea of your research parameters and key terms, choose a database that is relevant to your research (e.g., Medline, JSTOR, Project MUSE).

Find out if the database has a “subject search” option. This can help to refine your search. Use Boolean operators to combine your keywords, exclude specific search terms, and search exact phrases to find the most relevant sources.

There are many types of sources commonly used in research. These include:

You’ll likely use a variety of these sources throughout the research process , and the kinds of sources you use will depend on your research topic and goals.

Scholarly sources are written by experts in their field and are typically subjected to peer review . They are intended for a scholarly audience, include a full bibliography, and use scholarly or technical language. For these reasons, they are typically considered credible sources .

Popular sources like magazines and news articles are typically written by journalists. These types of sources usually don’t include a bibliography and are written for a popular, rather than academic, audience. They are not always reliable and may be written from a biased or uninformed perspective, but they can still be cited in some contexts.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Ryan, E. (2023, May 31). How to Find Sources | Scholarly Articles, Books, Etc.. Scribbr. Retrieved April 15, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/finding-sources/

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EN 101: The Process of Writing

Types of sources, reference sources, popular sources, scholarly sources.

• Evaluating Sources
• Misinformation & Disinformation
• Searching Library Databases

This page is adapted from the Introduction to Research Guide by Victoria Swanson. 

Different types of sources serve different purposes in your research. You might start with a brief encyclopedia article (a reference source), then move onto a news article (a popular source), and then look for an in-depth research article (a scholarly source). This page gives definitions and examples of each source type. 

A reference source gives brief information about a topic. This information might be a definition, like in a dictionary, or an overview of a subject or term, like in an encyclopedia. A reference source is useful to learn background information, understand basic ideas about a topic, or to get information like names and dates. 

The library has many subject-specific reference books, both in print and online. Here are a few examples of online reference entries about college entrance exams (which is the example topic throughout this guide): 

Popular sources are written for the general public, and include news media and magazines. These sources take many forms online. 

The library provides full-text access to articles from many popular sources. Here are a few examples of articles from major newspapers about college entrance exams: 

• Mathews, Jay. "Cure for loss of SAT/ACT tests: Stop banning high school kids from college courses." Washington Post , 12 Sept. 2021, p. NA. Gale In Context: Opposing Viewpoints , link.gale.com/apps/doc/A675134286/OVIC?u=caldwell&sid=bookmark-OVIC&xid=ee28802e .
• Saul, Stephanie. "Put Down Your No. 2 Pencil: SAT Will Go Digital by 2024." New York Times , 26 Jan. 2022, p. A15(L). Gale In Context: Opposing Viewpoints , link.gale.com/apps/doc/A690448370/OVIC?u=caldwell&sid=bookmark-OVIC&xid=6e230b54 .

Scholarly sources are also called "peer-reviewed" or "academic" sources. Academic libraries provide access to scholarly sources for students and faculty. 

Here are examples of academic articles about college entrance exams:

• Fina, Anthony D., et al. “Establishing Empirical Links between High School Assessments and College Outcomes: An Essential Requirement for College Readiness Interpretations.”  Educational Assessment , vol. 23, no. 3, July 2018, pp. 157–72.  EBSCOhost , https://caldwell.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=131170345&site=ehost-live .
• Rodriguez, Awilda. “Inequity by Design? Aligning High School Math Offerings and Public Flagship College Entrance Requirements.”  Journal of Higher Education , vol. 89, no. 2, Feb. 2018, pp. 153–83.  EBSCOhost ,  https://caldwell.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=127841710&site=ehost-live .
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• Next: Evaluating Sources >>
• Last Updated: Feb 12, 2024 2:38 PM
• URL: https://libguides.caldwell.edu/EN101

Types of Sources: Scholarly Journals

• Types of Sources Overview
• Books and eBooks
• Encyclopedias
• Trade Journals
• Scholarly Journals
• Conference Proceedings
• Technical Reports
• Government Data and Reports

About Scholarly Journals

 Journal articles are written by scholars in an academic or professional field. An editorial board reviews articles to decide whether they should be published. Journal articles may cover very specific topics or narrow fields of research.

Use a journal:

• when doing scholarly research
• to find out what has been studied on your topic
• to find bibliographies that point to other relevant research

Characteristics of Scholarly Journals

Authors are:

scholars in the field, academics or researchers.

Sources are:

always cited with many references and/or footnotes.

Articles are:

long with sections such as abstract, literature review, methodology, results and conclusion.

Examples of Scholarly Journals

• Journal of Communication
• Journal of Business Research
• Journal of Cleaner Production

Find Scholarly Journals

• Use the Browzine  to find scholarly journals by title. 
• Within WPI Library Search, limit to Peer-reviewed Journals.

A powerful search tool to streamline your library research. Entering terms into a single search box yields results that include: books and e-books, research and news articles, project reports, electronic theses and dissertations, archival materials, patents, open access collections and more.

Full text: Yes

Peer Reviewed or Refeered

How to Cite

Example electronic journal with DOI reference citation in American Psychological Association (APA) style:

Wang, Z., Zhang, B., Yin, J. and Zhang, X. (2011). Willingness and behavior towards e-waste recycling for residents in Beijing City, China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 19 (9-10) , 977-984. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2010.09.016

For information on additional citation styles, please see the Citing Sources guide. 

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• Next: Conference Proceedings >>
• Last Updated: Jan 11, 2024 11:17 AM
• URL: https://libguides.wpi.edu/sourcetypes

How can we help?

• [email protected]
• Consultation
• 508-831-5410

Module: Evaluating Sources

Types of sources, learning objective.

• Differentiate types of sources

It is probably an oversimplification to boil research sources down to three categories. But, for the work you’re doing now, this taxonomy for identifying sources makes sense. As you move through the content and practice activities on this page, think about how this method of differentiating sources aligns to your own experience with research.

Is a “print” source always on paper when you receive it? Well, not really. Digital databases and the internet have made the line between “print” and “online” sources more gray than you might expect. A good rule to follow when thinking about whether a source is “print” or “online” is to look at the original intended method of delivery. The New York Times is a print newspaper, even if many of its readers receive its content online. In addition to the fact that an interested reader can actually purchase a physical copy of any given day’s New York Times , its organizational structure is that of a print newspaper.

The same thing is true for academic journals and articles. For the most part, you will access academic journal articles from online databases through your university library or with tools like Google Scholar. Most of these journal articles are delivered to you in PDF format: PDF is a filename extension for Portable Document Format. It’s one of the closest digital file formats to “print.” Thus, academic journal articles are almost always considered “print” sources. In many style guides, you would cite an academic journal that you viewed from a PDF the same as you would if you were citing the same article from a bound journal in your hands.

Unfortunately, identifying what is and isn’t a print source is not always so easy. Take, for instance, The Huffington Post. In many ways, its website is similar to that of the New York Times . However, The Huffington Post has always been completely online. A print copy of the Post has never existed. Beyond that, though, if you take time to examine its organizational structure, the way it publishes and vets content, and the overall scope of Huffington Post , it’s clear that it is much more like Buzzfeed than The New York Times . That doesn’t mean it’s a bad source, by the way. Buzzfeed has won Pulitzer Prizes for some of its journalism. But you can’t call it a print source, and you probably can’t call The Huffington Post a print source either.

On the other side of the campus fence are online-only academic journals. These journals, like Kairos , are peer-reviewed, respected academic journals: Publishing an article in Kairos would be just as credible and noteworthy as publishing an article in Computers and Writing , a traditional print journal. So is Kairos a print source? Probably not. But it is a scholarly source. Remember that it’s always a good idea to look at a source through both lenses: scholarly vs. non-scholarly and print vs. online vs. multimedia.

• Journal Articles
• Magazine Articles
• White Papers
• Traditional Encyclopedias (like Encyclopedia Britannica )

Are all online sources bad? Is Wikipedia destroying legitimate research? Should you monkishly eschew all rooms with available WiFi when doing your research? Of course not, on all three accounts. Online sources have their place, and there are good online sources and bad online sources.

What are some online sources that might be useful in your research process? Here are a few examples:

• Government information or statistics
• Company financial reporting data
• Blogs by public figures
• Websites of businesses or organizations
• Online magazines or newspapers
• Discussion boards or forums
• Wiki-style encyclopedias (like Wookiepedia )
• Online academic journals
• Online academic monographs (books)

The quality of these sources can vary widely. You should carefully evaluate all online sources for credibility and relevance. You’ll learn the methods of evaluating an online source later in the module.

What do we mean by “multimedia” sources? Well, basically anything that doesn’t fit neatly into the category of “print” or “online” lands here. Depending upon the nature of your project, you may need to use videos, photographs, podcasts, or even songs as sources. As the researcher, you have the responsibility of vetting these sources, just as you would a website or a book. Sometimes multimedia sources can lead to vibrant and engaging research, so you should not discount their usefulness.

What are some typical multimedia sources that you might look for? Here are a few examples:

• Documentaries on Netflix
• Interviews of public officials on YouTube
• Podcasts about current events
• Photo essays on the New York Times website
• Raw video of events broadcasted to Facebook Live

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• How-To Guides

Types of Sources

Related guides.

• Scholarly vs. Popular
• Peer Review
• Choosing Keywords
• What to Put in a Search Box
• Thesis Statements

Other Specialized Sources

• Biographies
• Government Information
• Images & Videos
• Primary vs Secondary
• Archives & Special Collections

Information can come from virtually anywhere — media, blogs, personal experiences, books, journal and magazine articles, expert opinions, encyclopedias, web pages, and more — and the type of source(s) you need for your assignments will change depending on the question you are trying to answer.

The Consortium Library provides free access to these types of sources for the UAA and APU communities and to in-person library visitors:

Scholarly Journals

Trade publications.

• Dissertations

QuickSearch

Library catalog, encyclopedias.

• Websites & Search Engines

For other specialized sources, follow links to related guides on the left.

Scholarly (or academic) journals contain articles written by researchers who are experts in their field. Authors are usually employed by colleges, universities, or other institutions of education or research. Articles are submitted to the editors of the journals who decide whether or not to publish. The most prestigious journals use the peer review process. In this process, an article is reviewed by experts in the field (peers) who suggest changes and recommend whether the article should be published.

For help identifying different kinds of magazines and journals, see the Scholarly vs Popular guide.

• for scholarly research.
• to explore research that has been done on your topic.
• to find citations and references that point to other relevant articles.
• Contemporary Accounting Research
• Journal of Morphology
• Psychological Review

Magazines contain articles written by people who are usually employed by the publication for which they write. They cover news and current events, profiles of people or places, and/or political opinions.

• to find information or opinions about popular culture.
• to find up-to-date information about current events.
• to find general articles intended for people who are not experts on a topic.
• National Geographic
• Psychology Today
• Rolling Stone

Trade and professional publications contain articles written by people working in a specific discipline, industry, or field of work. Articles focus on news in the field, brief reports on research, and opinions about trends and events.

• to learn more about your topic as it relates to a discipline, industry, or field of work.
• for explanation and interpretation of relevant research.
• to find out what's happening in a discipline, industry, or field of work.
• to identify relevant professional associations.
• Advertising Age
• Professional Pilot
• Public Manager

Dissertations & Theses

Dissertations and theses are lengthy works completed in pursuit of a university degree or professional qualification that present an author’s original research or creative work. A dissertation is typically part of doctoral or PhD studies, while a thesis is generally part of a master's degree. 

Dissertations and theses are scholarly sources because they are supervised by a committee of scholars or a faculty supervisor. However, they are not peer reviewed in the same way as a peer-reviewed journal. If you are required to use peer-reviewed sources, ask your instructor if you can use a dissertation or thesis.

• to read a comprehensive literature review on a topic.
• to explore research on a topic, sometimes the only thing written about a narrow topic.
• Stephen Hawking's Properties of Expanding Universes

Newspapers contain articles on current events usually written by journalists who are employed by that newspaper. They are often published daily or weekly, and many have a corresponding website. They can be international, national, local, or a combination of all three. Some are very general while others focus on specific topics.

For help finding newspapers, see the News Sources guide. Also see our Fake and Misleading News guide.

• to find current international, national, and local information.
• to find editorials, commentaries, expert, or popular opinions.
• to see what was written at the time of an event in history.
• Anchorage Daily News
• New York Times
• Wall Street Journal

A database is a collection of information organized to provide efficient search and retrieval. Library databases contain information about articles in magazines, journals, newspapers, and other types of media. Some databases only contain abstracts or brief summaries of articles, while others include complete, full-text articles. Databases can be general or subject-specific, but no single database has everything.

• to find articles on your topic in magazines, journals, newspapers, or other types of media.
• when you want to focus your search within a specific discipline.
• when you're not finding what you need in QuickSearch.
• Academic Search Premier (general)
• GeoScienceWorld (subject specific - earth science)
• Business Source Premier (subject specific - business)

QuickSearch allows you to search most of the Consortium Library's  online and print resources using a single search box. Think of it as Google for library research. It does not include the content of some of the library’s specialized databases but does include the library catalog, our ebook collections, and about 80% of the library's journal articles. Because it searches so many items along with the full text when available, QuickSearch is a great place to start.

For more information and a tutorial, see the QuickSearch guide.

• when you just need a couple of articles and you need them now.
• to explore topic ideas or keywords.
• when you aren't quite sure what subject your topic falls under, or if it falls under multiple subjects.
• when researching something obscure if you can't find information elsewhere.

Books cover virtually any topic, fact or fiction. For research purposes, you will probably be looking for books that synthesize much of the information on one topic to support a particular argument or thesis. For this reason, subjects covered in books are usually broader than in journal articles.

A book may be a physical object (print) or an ebook. For more about ebooks, see the Ebooks @ the Consortium Library guide.

• when looking for a wider view on a topic than is generally found in journal articles.
• to put your topic in context with other important issues.
• to find historical and background information.
• to find summaries of research to support an argument.
• Hit Makers: The Science of Popularity in an Age of Distraction (2017)
• Adventures of an Alaskan Woman Biologist (2023)
• Troublemakers: Lessons in Freedom from Young Children at School (2017)

A library catalog allows you to search for books, videos, music, some ebooks, and other materials (excluding journal articles) available locally. Because the Consortium Library shares a catalog with numerous other libraries in Alaska, most items found elsewhere can be requested and sent to your local library free of charge.

For step-by-step instructions, see the Using the Library Catalog guide.

• to find locally available materials on your topic.
• to find where a specific item is located in the library.
• when you know you want a print book.

Encyclopedias are collections of short, factual entries often written by different contributors who are experts on the topic. 

There are two types of encyclopedias: general and subject. General encyclopedias provide concise overviews on a wide variety of topics. Subject encyclopedias contain in-depth entries focusing on one field of study.

Wikipedia, an online crowd-sourced encyclopedia, can be helpful for a basic overview or to consult the references at the end of each page but is typically not an acceptable source for academic research.

• when looking for background information or a brief overview on a topic.
• when trying to find key concepts or important dates.
• help put your topic into context.
• World Book (general)
• Encyclopedia Americana (general)
• Encyclop edia of Afric an-American History (subject)
• McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology (subject)

Websites & Search Engines

Search engines (like Google or Bing) allow you to search a vast sea of information contained on websites. They can be a great place to start your academic research but are rarely enough on their own. Since anyone can create a website, the quality and reliability of information varies drastically. No matter what type of source you use whether online or off, be sure to evaluate before using it. Also see our Fake and Misleading News guide.

Much of what the library has cannot be found through Google or other search engines. When found, there is often a fee to view the full text. However, the library pays for access to carefully selected materials and makes them freely available to the UAA/APU communities and in-person visitors.

Note that if your instructor says not to use websites or the internet in your research, it is still ok to use online library resources.

• to find current information.
• to verify quick facts.
• to find information from all levels of government - federal to local.
• to find both expert and popular opinions.
• to find information about companies.
• to find information about hobbies and personal interests.
• usa.gov (U.S. Federal Government)
• amazon.com (Amazon)
• alaskasealife.org (Alaska SeaLife Center)
• archives.gov (National Archives)

Guide Owner

This guide is maintained by Ruth Terry.

Creative Commons License

This work by UAA/APU Consortium Library is licensed under CC BY 4.0. Note that linked content is covered by its own licenses.

We encourage you to  license your derivative works  under Creative Commons as well to encourage sharing and reuse of educational materials.

• Last Updated: Oct 12, 2023 2:48 PM
• URL: https://libguides.consortiumlibrary.org/sourcetypes

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In order to correctly reference material, you first need to identify the type of source: is it a book, a journal, or something else?

This page describes the distinguishing characteristics of some of these different source types.

To identify edited books, look at the table of contents. In edited books each chapter or section has a different person's name. In the library catalogue an editor's name will be listed instead of an author.

Each chapter in an edited book is referenced separately. See edited books and anthologies in APA and MLA for details and examples.

Conference proceedings are books that collect many different presentations and papers from an actual meeting, conference, or symposium. Like edited books, each chapter is written by a different author, and the whole compilation is organised by a named editor.

Published conference proceedings look similar to edited books, but usually have the name of the meeting in the title (e.g. Proceedings of the IASTED International Conference on Information and Knowledge Sharing ).

As with edited books, each chapter or section is referenced separately. See conference proceedings in APA and MLA for details and examples.

Encyclopædias and dictionaries are collections of a number of small articles or definitions (often on a single topic). They almost always have “encyclopædia” or “dictionary” somewhere in the title (e.g., Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions, The Oxford English Dictionary ).

As with edited books, specific entries can be referenced separately. See encyclopædias in APA and MLA for details and examples.

This last difference is especially important. Peer review means that experts in the field (often academics) have checked each article before publication, to ensure that there are no inaccuracies.

When writing an assignment, journal articles are more likely to be comprehensive and useful than general magazine articles. For more on this, see identifying academic sources .

Many academic journals are available online, either directly (e.g., Massey University's PRism ) or through the library's article databases .

Journal articles are referenced individually. See journals in APA and MLA for examples.

Grey literature and other material

Study material

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How to Find and Evaluate Sources

Types of sources.

• Where to Find Sources
• Searching Online Indexes, Databases, Catalogs, Etc.
• Evaluating What You Find

In libraries and on the Internet you can find books, magazines, encyclopedias, lab reports, historical documents, audio and video recordings, and all sorts of other information sources, all of which are useful for different purposes. Deciding which will suit your purpose is an important early step in the research process.  

Three basic types of resources:

To know where to go for information, it is useful to know how information is produced; here is a very general overview. (note that these are not rigid distinctions; the same resource can overlap categories.)

• Primary - Direct, uninterpreted records of the subject of your research project. A primary source is as close as you can get to the event, person, phenomenon, or other subject of your research. As such, a primary source can be almost anything, depending on the subject and purpose of your research. For example, if you are writing about a novel, the novel is a primary source, and an article critiquing the novel is a secondary source to help you construct your own interpretation of the novel. If you are writing about the critical reception of a novel, that article critiquing the novel is a primary source. Or, a published version (or even a translation) of a diary, if it is a reliable representation of the actual diary, is for many (but not all) purposes sufficient as a primary source. So be creative in thinking of possible relevant primary sources of information on your topic.  To make things even more confusing, 'primary source' means something different in science and in humanities (and can go either way in social sciences). In science, an academic journal article presenting the results of a researcher’s original experiment is a primary source. But in the humanities, a journal article is a secondary source which presents the results of the researcher’s analysis and critique of primary sources.
• Secondary - Books, articles, and other writings by scholars and researchers build on primary sources by interpreting and assessing primary information.
• Tertiary - Encyclopedias, indexes, textbooks, and other reference sources which present summaries of or introductions to the current state of research on a topic, or provide a list of primary and secondary sources of more extensive information.

Work backwards. Usually, your research should begin with tertiary sources:

• Tertiary - Start by finding background information on your topic by consulting reference sources for introductions and summaries, and to find bibliographies or citations of secondary and primary sources.
• Secondary - Find books, articles, and other sources providing more extensive and thorough analyses of a topic. Check to see what other scholars have to say about your topic.
• Primary - A primary source on its own is likely only a snippet or snapshot of the full picture; thus it is often difficult to interpret on its own. Reference sources and secondary analyses give you a framework for interpreting primary sources. But the real work of research is examining primary sources to test the interpretations, analyses, and views you find in reference and secondary sources. Now that you have a solid background knowledge of your topic, you are better able to understand, interpret, and analyze the primary source information. Use primary sources to find evidence which challenges these interpretations, or evidence in favor of one scholar's interpretation over that of another; then posit an interpretation of your own, and look for more primary sources for evidence to confirm or refute your thesis. When you present your conclusions, you will have produced another secondary source to aid others in their research.  

Here's a brief list of some of the sources you can find in each of these categories; remember, there are many more:  

• Conference proceedings - Scholars and researchers getting together and presenting their latest ideas and findings
• Books - Extensive and detailed discussions of a particular topic or set of topics, written by the scholars and researchers who came up with the ideas or discovered the findings.
• Journal articles - Brief, specific analyses of particular aspects of a topic, written by the scholars and researchers who came up with the ideas or discovered the findings.
• Lab reports - Experiments, observations, etc.
• Historical documents - Official papers, maps, treaties, etc.
• First-person accounts - Diaries, memoirs, letters, interviews, speeches
• Recordings - audio, video, photographic
• Artifacts - manufactured items such as clothing, furniture, tools, buildings
• Newspapers - Some types of articles, e.g. stories on a breaking issue, or journalists reporting the results of their investigations.
• Government publications - Census statistics, economic data, court reports, etc.
• Internet - Web sites that publish the author's findings or research; e.g. your professor's home page listing research results. Note: use caution when using the Internet as a primary source … remember, on the Internet a page citing authoritative findings could have been published by any goofball off the street.
• Manuscript collections - Collected writings, notes, letters, diaries, and other unpublished works.
• Archives - Records (minutes of meetings, purchase invoices, financial statements, etc.) of an organization (e.g. The Nature Conservancy), institution (e.g. Wesleyan University), business, or other group entity (even the Grateful Dead have an archivist on staff).
• Books - collections of historical documents, first-person accounts, archival materials, and other primary sources, compiled and edited by a scholar and published together in a book.  
• Books - Extensive and detailed analyses by scholars providing criticisms, commentaries, and interpretations of primary ideas and findings.
• Journal articles - Brief, specific analyses, criticisms, commentaries, and interpretations of particular aspects of primary ideas and findings.
• Newspapers - Articles which report on earlier findings, or offer commentary or opinions.
• Internet - Web sites that comment on earlier findings or research; see cautionary note above!  
• Encyclopedias - Articles providing introductory or summary information; coverage can be general (e.g. Encyclopedia Britannica) or subject-specific (e.g. Encyclopedia of Sociology).
• Dictionaries - Definitions or brief summaries of terms, ideas, etc.; coverage can be general (e.g. Webster's, Random House) or subject-specific (e.g. Dictionary of Cell Biology).
• Almanacs - Good for concise factual information, e.g. statistics, lists
• Directories - Lists of people or organizations, with addresses, affiliations, etc.; useful guides to finding primary source material
• Atlases - Maps of population, economic, historical, political, geological, biological, climatological, etc. information.
• Indexes - Lists of sources on a subject or set of subjects; once you have some key terms for your topic, use indexes to find secondary and primary sources.
• Next: Where to Find Sources >>
• Last Updated: Jan 25, 2023 12:39 PM
• URL: https://libguides.wesleyan.edu/find

Capstone Form and Style

Evidence-based arguments: types of sources to cite in the doctoral capstone, types of sources to cite in the doctoral capstone.

In the doctoral capstone, students will likely use a variety of sources to support their setting, context, problem, literature review, justification for the method and design, and other information in the document. The bulk of the sources Walden writers use should be from peer-reviewed journal articles, followed by trade journal articles, books, government websites, professional organizations in the field, and other capstones (dissertations/doctoral studies/project studies).

Here is a list of the types of sources commonly used in capstones, with general information regarding each type. We include advice regarding the reliability or strength of the source and therefore the recommended frequency those sources would be cited in the capstone.

Peer-Reviewed (Refereed) Journal Articles

• This means that the journal had blind reviewers who were experts in the field review the article for relevance, rigor, accuracy, and so on before accepting the article for publication.
• The bulk of sources students will use in the capstone should be peer-reviewed (or refereed) journal articles. Walden writers should rely mostly on these sources to provide the background, establish the problem, review the literature, as well as justify the method and design.
• To verify peer review, visit the Walden Library’s Ulrich’s page
• Journal of School Leadership
• The Qualitative Report
• The Sociological Quarterly

Non-Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles

• Some journals are more like trade journals and do not engage in the blind, peer-review process.
• This means that they are still credible sources but should be used as supplemental support for evidence and arguments that are industry specific.
• Though there is no guideline for the number of trade journals or other non-peer-reviewed sources, writers should rely less heavily on the arguments and evidence from these sources and use them as supplemental information in areas where there are also peer-reviewed articles cited.
• Harvard Business Review
• Nursing in Practice
• Teaching and Learning
• Most books are not peer-reviewed-sources and thus have also not gone through the rigorous procedure of verification by experts in the field.
• Books are still useful sources and often seminal works and could be included in a capstone in a limited number.
• The process of publication, even for journal articles, is long, but it is even longer for books. The general timeliness of publication often means that books are not the most recent source on a given topic, so areas like the problem statement or social change implications/significance often do not contain book citations.
• Books are often seminal works, though, and can be relied on for the genesis of a field and background history of a theory. Books are often cited in theory and methods sections, as background and development or rationale.
• Yin, R. K. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods . Sage.

Government Websites

• Walden writers may find that government websites are appropriate for establishing the background and the problem. National statistics, or even state or local statistics, are often helpful for the justification for the research or specific population information.
• Because these are not peer-reviewed sources, we suggest that they should be used as supplemental evidence to add support to information from peer-reviewed sources.
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
• U.S. Small Business Administration

Other Websites

• Walden writers may also want to cite professional websites in the capstone.
• Again, these would not be peer reviewed, so resting an argument on a website alone would not be enough.
• Use these sources to help establish the context, background, or local problem, again in conjunction with peer-reviewed sources.
• For information on masking websites that are from the organization under study, check out this additional Form and Style Page on IRB and Confidentiality ; scroll to the bottom and view the last Q with examples of how to present this information. In addition, Review the Office of Research and Doctoral Services’s page on Masking Partner Organizations .

News Sources

• News articles (typically online) may also be used.
• Walden writers should generally use these sources only to help establish the context or problem—possibly the social change implications and significance—and should generally be avoided in other areas of the capstone.
• Minneapolis Star Tribune

Other Capstones (Dissertations, Doctoral Studies, Project Studies)

• As Walden writers formulate their capstone, it is often helpful to use existing capstones from the field as exemplars or models. We suggest that students review similar capstones from previous Walden students, especially ones that focus on the same topic, method/design, or from their same chair/committee members. Visit the Library page on Walden Dissertations and Theses to search for Walden student capstones.
• As far as citing other capstones in a capstone, they are not peer-reviewed sources; as student work, they are not held to the same standards as the peer-reviewed work, or even books or websites.
• Walden writers could use these to discuss the context of current research, not to establish the background of the study, the problem, the theory, or design. Thus, other student work should not be a primary part of or formulation of the main parts of the document.
• the work is important to the specific topic or current state of research;
• the writer of the capstone has not published any documents using the capstone data since graduating (i.e., always check to see if the writer has turned the capstone into a peer-reviewed journal article and cite that instead); or
• there is no other, recent work, by other authors that is peer reviewed (i.e., it is important to capture the idea/information, but check to see if other authors have done similar or more recent work that is peer reviewed).

Course Resources (Including Course Textbooks and Creswell)

• Course resources should be avoided in all areas of the capstone.
• These are intended as learning materials and are not peer reviewed.
• Instead of citing textbooks by Creswell and other authors, Walden writers should review whom Creswell is citing—often seminal methodologists or experts in the field—and retrieve those sources instead.
• Previous Page: Writing With Integrity
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8 Citing Sources

Dissecting database records.

When it comes to citing sources, some find database records a little confusing. This section will clarify some common mistakes students make regarding the titles of database names, journals, publishers, and other items commonly found in database records.

One common mistake is to use the database vendor, or company name, instead of the name of the database. This would be a little bit like writing out an address and using US instead of UT: United States instead of Utah. It’s not that the address isn’t in the US, it’s just that there are a lot of other states in addition to Utah, so you need to narrow it down. For example, if you look at the database search screen below, you will see the database vendor’s name, EBSCOhost , and logo directly above the search box (circled), while the name of the database, Academic Search Ultimate , is directly above the search bar (in the box). When creating a citation that requires the name of the database used, students commonly say EBSCOhost , when they are actually searching Academic Search Ultimate .

Another common problem people have is figuring out the name of the journal. One reason for this is that it’s not always referred to as a “journal name” in the database. Sometimes it’s called “publication title”, or as in the example below, “Source”. The name of the journal in which the article below is published is Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback .

How can you be sure to NOT make the mistake of confusing the database name with the vendor name, or confusing the vendor with the journal name?

• When you initially choose a database from the database list, be sure you record the name of the database you selected instead of trying to figure out what it is after you are already searching . When you chose a database, you clicked on the name of that database to find articles. That is your database name. Note that our discovery tool, OneSearch , is not a database for the purposes of citing your sources — it can show you content (e-books, journal articles, etc.) that are within some of our databases, and if you choose to use one of those sources, you will need to pay attention to which database the source is in.
• If there is information on the screen that is confusing to you, open up the actual article. If you look at the PDF of most articles, the journal name will be listed (along with the volume number) in most cases.
• Remember that the names of the journals might be listed as “publication title” or “source,” instead of the more obvious “journal name” or “journal title.”
• Also remember to look carefully at the publication date. Sometimes the “online” date (for articles submitted online) and the publication date (when the article was actually published) are different. Sometimes they will include a “submission date” that tells you when the article was submitted; again, this is not the actual publication date.
• Another thing to look at carefully is the volume and issue numbers. These can be listed in a number of different ways. An article published in issue 2 of volume 14 can be listed as 14.2, 14(2), or written out as volume:14 issue:2. The volume is usually listed first.
• Finally, when you find articles online, be sure to view the actual article to verify the page numbers. Sometimes, only the first page is indicated in the article record, rather than the range of pages
• Still confused or want to make sure? Call, text, or chat with someone at the reference desk. A reference assistant can verify that you have the information correct.

RESOURCES FOR CITING SOURCES

Citations are all about putting things in the right order, making sure all of the required punctuation is present, and making sure appropriate terms are capitalized and italicized. Even more important is that citations are complete (e.g., all of the authors are listed, the whole title listed) and correct (e.g., authors’ names are spelled correctly, volume, issue, and page numbers are listed correctly).

Think of how you address an envelope. You always begin with the name of the person you are sending the letter to, the street address below that, and the city, state, and zip code below that. Citations are similar. APA citations require certain pieces of information about the source written in a certain order. MLA citations are similar, but may require slightly different pieces of information about the source and the items are written in a different order. Both use different punctuation and formatting conventions, but both styles of citation will enable you to locate the item; they just look a little different.

• In the Sample Citations section of this chapter are examples of a few basic citations you may use in this or other classes. Each type of source is cited in APA 7 th edition and MLA 9 th edition, so you can see the differences in style. Some of the rules to remember are recorded below the citations.

The general rule of thumb is this: if you cannot find an example that is exactly like the source you are trying to cite, find the most similar example you can and get it as close as you can. This list presents only a few basic examples from books , articles, and websites . If you are citing a different type of source, the best place to look for information is the official style manual. We have copies of each available at the library reference desk (2 nd floor) and at the reserve desk (1 st floor):

American Psychological Association . (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association . (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

Modern Language Association of America. (2021). MLA Handbook . (9th ed.).

APA and MLA also have official companions to their style guides: The APA Style Blog, located at https://apastyle.apa.org/blog and the MLA Style Center, located at https://style.mla.org/ . The official APA Style website also has examples; it is found at http://www.apastyle.org/ .

INTERNET RESOURCES vs. THE STYLE MANUAL

While it is easy to find examples of citations on the Web, the actual style manual is the only definitive source for the rules.

So, what does this mean for you as a student?

• The style manual is the official source. Always look there first.
• Don’t have access to a style manual? (Most libraries — even public libraries — should have copies of these. Just ask at their service desk.) If you do not have access to the actual manual, take a look at the MLA website or the APA website or blog.
• Avoid searching Google to try and find an example. Many of them are incorrect.
• If you are citing a source that isn’t covered in the manual, the general rule of thumb is to find an example that is most like your source and follow that format.
• If you are citing sources for a class paper or project, the person with the final say is your professor. If you’re unsure of something, or get conflicting information, ask your professor for clarification.

In this class (and in some others), we are very picky about the rules (formatting, punctuation, etc.). In some classes, if you’re close enough, you’re okay. In this case, the professor just wants to know where you found your information. When you are asked to provide a bibliography in a specific style, ask your professor about their expectations.

SAMPLE CITATIONS

In this section are examples of a few basic citations you may use in this or other classes. Each type of source is cited in APA 7 th edition and MLA 9 th edition, so you can see the differences in style. Some of the basic book and article citations are presented in image format, with the specific pieces of the citation labeled. In some cases, rules to remember are recorded below the citations. Types of citations included in this list are:

Sample Citations

• one author and edition
• multiple editors
• multiple authors

eBook from a library database

Magazine article from a library database

Journal article

• from a library database with a Digital Object Identifier (DOI)
• from Google Scholar or an Open Access journal
• with author
• with no individual author

Video from YouTube

Newspaper article from a library database

 PRINT BOOK – ONE AUTHOR AND AN EDITION

Nathe, C. N. (2011). Dental public health and research: Contemporary practice for the dental hygienist (3rd ed.). Pearson.

• List the author’s initials, not their entire first name.
• Include publication year in parentheses after the author name.
• Book titles should be listed in italics.
• If the book has a subtitle, include that after a colon.
• Only capitalize the first letters of the book title and subtitle.
• Edition information appears after the title in parentheses.
• Include publisher name, publisher location does not have to be included.
• Remember to use hanging indentation.
• Remember to double space.

Nathe, Christine N. Dental Public Health and Research: Contemporary Practice for the Dental Hygienist. 3rd ed., Pearson, 2011.

• Spell out the author’s first name completely.
• Capitalize the first letters of almost all words in the book title and subtitle.
• Edition information appears after the title- no parentheses.
• Publication year is listed after the publisher name.

PRINT BOOK – MULTIPLE EDITORS

Miles-Cohen, S. E., & Signore, C. (Eds.). (2016). Eliminating inequities for women with disabilities: An agenda for health and wellness. American Psychological Association.

• Up to 20 editors must be listed. If there are 21 or more editors, list the first 19 editors, followed by an ellipsis . . . and then the final editor’s name.
• List the editors’ initials, not their entire first names.
• For multiple editors, use (Eds.). after the editor names. For a single editor, just use (Ed.).
• Include publication year in parentheses after the editor(s) name(s).

Miles-Cohen, Shari E., and Caroline Signore, editors. Eliminating Inequities for Women with Disabilities: An Agenda for Health and Wellness. American Psychological Association, 2016.

• For two editors, only invert the first editor’s name. The second name should be written first name then last name.
• If there are three or more editors, list only the first editor followed by the phrase ‘et al.’ (Latin for “and others”) in place of the subsequent editors’ names.
• Spell out the editor’s first name completely.
• For books with an editor(s), type the word editor(s) after the editor’s name.
• Capitalize first letters of almost all words in the book title and subtitle.

PRINT BOOK – MULTIPLE AUTHORS

Miller, C. H., & Palenik, C. J. (2014). Infection control and management of hazardous materials for the dental team. Elsevier Mosby.

• Separate authors with the ampersand (&).
• Up to 20 authors must be listed. If there are 21 or more authors, list the first 19 authors, followed by an ellipsis . . . and then the final author’s name.
• List the authors’ initials, not their entire first names.
• Include publication year in parentheses after the author names.

Miller, Chris H., and Charles J. Palenik. Infection Control and Management of Hazardous Materials for the Dental Team. Elsevier Mosby, 2014.

• Separate the two authors names with ‘and’. With two authors, only invert the first author’s name. The second name should be written first name then last name.
• If there are three or more authors, list only the first author followed by the phrase ‘et al.’ (Latin for “and others”) in place of the subsequent authors’ names.
• Capitalize first letters of all words in the book title and subtitle.

EBOOK FROM LIBRARY DATABASE

Wilkonson, P. (Ed.). (2014). Myocardial infarctions: Risk factors, emergency management and long-term health outcomes. Nova Science Publishers.

• If an eBook has an editor instead of an author, use (Ed.) singular, or (Eds.) plural, after the editor name(s).
• Use the publication date only. Do not use others, such as online accepted dates etc.
• Always provide a DOI if available. Be sure to use the APA DOI format – https://doi.org/10…
• If no DOI is available, cite the resource as you would a print resource and include the name of the publisher, publisher location does not have to be included.
• Do not include a URL link or Permalink.

Wilkonson, Pattie, editor. Myocardial Infarctions: Risk Factors, Emergency Management and Long-term Health Outcomes. Nova, 2014. eBook Comprehensive Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) , hal.weber.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=844861&site=ehost-live .

• With two authors, only invert the first author’s name. The second name should be written first name then last name.
• List the abbreviated publisher name (see MLA manual for what to abbreviate).
• List the name of the database where the eBook is located in italics.
• List the web address for where the eBook is located, you may use a permalink, but do not include the http:// in the web address.

MAGAZINE ARTICLE FROM LIBRARY DATABASE

Shuster, S., & Miller, Z. J. (2017, April 17). Dark secrets, dirty bombs. Time, 189 (14), 28-33.

• Article titles are listed in plain text after the publication year.
• Only capitalize the first letters of the article title and subtitle.
• Magazine titles should be listed in italics, after the article title.
• Volume numbers (if available) come next and should be listed in italics.
• Issue numbers (if available) follow volume number and should be listed in parentheses.
• Page numbers (if available) are listed next and should be listed as only a number range.
• If a DOI is available, list it at the end of the citation. The APA format for a DOI is https://doi.org/10…
• If no DOI exists for an article, end the citation after the page numbers.
• When referencing a print article obtained from an online database (in this case we used Academic Search Ultimate), cite the article just like you would a “normal” print citation. It is not necessary to include the database information.

Shuster, Simon, & Zeke J. Miller. “Dark Secrets, Dirty Bombs.” Time , 17 Apr. 2017, pp. 28-33. Academic Search Ultimate , hal.weber.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=asn&AN=122335708&site=ehost-live .

• Article titles should be listed in quotation marks.
• Journal titles should be listed in italics.
• Volume, Issue, Publication Date, and Page numbers (if available) should be listed in this format – vol.*, no.*, Date, pp.*-*
• List the name of the database where magazine is located in italics.
• Always provide a DOI (if available), in this format – https://doi.org/10…
• If no DOI is available, list the Permalink or URL for where the article is located.

JOURNAL ARTICLE FROM LIBRARY DATABASE WITH A DIGITAL OBJECT IDENTIFIER (DOI)

Penetar, D. M., Toto, L. H., Lee, D. Y. W., & Lukas, S. E. (2015). A single dose of kudzu extract reduces alcohol consumption in a binge drinking paradigm. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 153 (1), 194-200 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.05.025

• Journal titles should be listed in italics, after the article title.
• Issue numbers (if available) follow the volume number and should be listed in parentheses.
• The APA format for a DOI is https://doi.org/10…

Penetar, David M., et al. “A Single Dose of Kudzu Extract Reduces Alcohol Consumption in a Binge Drinking Paradigm.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence , vol. 153, no. 1, 2015, pp. 194-200. ScienceDirect , https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.05.025.

• List the name of the database where journal is located in italics.

GOOGLE SCHOLAR OR OPEN ACCESS JOURNAL ARTICLE

Vaughan, M., & Meiser, D. (2019). Hamilton: An economics case study in three acts. Journal of Business Cases and Applications, 25 , 1-6. http://www.aabri.com/manuscripts/193089.pdf

• List the URL for the Google Scholar or Open Access Journal article in your citation.

Vaughan, Michael, and Diana Meiser. “Hamilton: An Economics Case Study in Three Acts.” Journal of Business Cases and Applications , vol. 25, 2019. pp. 1-6. www.aabri.com/manuscripts/193089.pdf .

WEBPAGE WITH AUTHOR

Brown, A. (2022, February 5). 62 stress management techniques, strategies & activities. PositivePsychology. https://positivepsychology.com/stress-management-techniques-tips-burn-out/

• List the author first. List the author’s initials, not their entire first name.
• List a publication date or last updated date if provided. If no publication date or last updated date is provided, list the date as (n.d.).
• List the title of the webpage in italics. Make sure the you list the webpage title and not the website title.
• List the website title in plain text, after the webpage title.
• List the webpage URL , after the website title.

Brown, Amba. “62 Stress Management Techniques, Strategies & Activities.” PositivePsychology, 5 Feb. 2022, positivepsychology.com/stress-management-techniques-tips-burn-out/.

• List the title of the webpage in quotation marks. Make sure you list the webpage title and not the website title.
• List the website title in italics, after the webpage title.
• List a publication date or last updated date if provided. If no publication date or last updated date is provided, use the website copyright date. If no copyright date exists, provide an accessed date at the end of the citation. For example: Accessed 3 Mar. 2022.
• List the webpage URL after the publication, last updated, or copyright date, OR before the accessed date.
• Leave http:// or https:// off of the URL in your citation.

WEBPAGE WITH NO INDIVIDUAL AUTHOR

Mayo Clinic. (n.d.). S tress management . https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/stress-management/about/pac-20384898

• In this example, the Mayo Clinic is the author and the website name. For websites where the author and the website name are one and the same, you will list the website name as the author of the webpage .
• List the title of the webpage in italics. Make sure you list the webpage title and not the website name.
• Do not list the website name again after the webpage title, if the website name is listed as the author.
• List the webpage URL after the webpage title.

“Stress management.” Mayo Clinic , www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/stress-management/about/pac-20384898. Accessed 3 Mar. 2022.

• In this example, the Mayo Clinic is the author and the website name. For websites where the author and the website name are one and the same, you will leave the author field blank and list the website name in italics after the webpage title.
• List the title of the webpage title in quotation marks. Make sure you list the webpage title and not the website name.
• List the website name in italics after the webpage title.

VIDEO FROM YOUTUBE

Big Think. (2012, July 3). Gaming and productivity [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/mkdzy9bWW3E

• If author’s name is not available, provide the creator’s screen name. (On YouTube and many other video-posting websites , users must post under a screen name, which is integral to finding videos on YouTube.) Sometimes, the real name of the person who posted the video is known; this better connects them to the real world as well as to any other sources they may have provided for your paper (e.g., an author who wrote an article and also produced a YouTube video).
• List the date the video was uploaded.
• List the title of the video in italics.
• List [Video] in brackets after the title.
• List the name of the video hosting website next.
• Finally, list the URL for the video.

“Gaming and productivity.”  YouTube , uploaded by Big Think, 3 Jul. 2012, youtu.be/mkdzy9bWW3E.

• Document video and audio sources using the same basic guidelines for citing print sources in MLA.
• If the author’s name is the same as the uploader, start your citation with the video name in quotation marks. If the author is different from the uploader, cite the author’s name before the title of the video.
• List the name of the video hosting website in italics, after the name of the video.
• List the name of the person or entity who uploaded the video, after the name of the video hosting website .
• List the date the video was uploaded, after the name of the uploader.

NEWSPAPER ARTICLE FROM A LIBRARY DATABASE

Perlez, J. (2017, Dec. 1). China is drawing Myanmar closer as the world turns away. The New York Times , A10.

• When referencing a print article obtained from an online database (in this case, Proquest Newsstand), cite it just like you would a “normal” print citation. It is not necessary to include database information.
• Only include a URL if the newspaper article is available online. Make sure you provide the exact URL for the article.

Perlez, Jane. “China is drawing Myanmar closer as the world turns away.” The New York Times , 1 Dec. 2017, late ed., p. A10. Proquest Newsstand , hal.weber.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/1970503992?accountid=14940.

• Newspaper article are cited similar to journal articles.
• Cite the name of the database in italics (e.g. Academic Search Ultimate, ProQuest Newsstand) for any newspaper articles retrieved from a database.
• Be sure to include a DOI, or if no DOI exists, a permalink or URL for the newspaper article.

CITING IMAGES

Citing images in text.

Images should be cited based on the citation style that you are using for the text of your presentation or research paper. In this class, we are using MLA and APA . When you include images in your papers or presentations you need to refer your audience to them. You do this by making a statement about the image and type (fig. 1) or (figure 1). Whichever way you decide to do it, just be consistent throughout. In MLA, don’t capitalize fig. or figure and for APA , you need to capitalize Fig. or Figure. Make sure your captions are double spaced.

For example, let’s say you are writing about Moche ceramics. You might say this:

Moche artists create stunning ceramic designs including the Owl Warrior Bottle , created in the 5th-7th century (fig. 1).

At the end of the paper, before the Works Cited or References, you can include your images along with the caption, which are different from your Works Cited and Reference list citations. Or, you can include them with the text of your paper. You will need to use captions for both MLA and APA .

Captions in APA:

Moche Owl Warrior Bottle, 5th-7th century

Note . From the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In the public domain.

Captions in MLA:

Fig 1. Moche. Owl Warrior Bottle . 5th-7th century, The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

CITING IMAGES IN YOUR BIBLIOGRAPHY

In both MLA and APA formatted papers, images need to be cited along with your other sources on your Works Cited page (MLA) or list of References (APA).

Artwork by a cultural group, with no artist

Moche. (5th-7th century). Owl Warrior Bottle [Ceramic]. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, NY, United States. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/308508

Moche. Owl Warrior Bottle. 5th-7th century. The Metropolitan Museum of Art , www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/308508.

• Give an approximate date range when no exact date is given or known for both APA and MLA citations.

Artwork by a known artist

Cézanne, P. (1878-1879). Apples [Painting]. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, NY, United States. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/435866

Cézanne, Paul. Apples . 1878-1879. The Metropolitan Museum of Art , www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/435866.

Artwork with a sponsor but no known artist OR cultural group, and no date

Wellcome Library. (n.d.). A Plant (Galega Glavenscens): Entire Flowering and Fruiting Plant [Painting]. Wellcome Collection. https://wellcomecollection.org/works/j4m3xvpq

Wellcome Library. A Plant (Galega Glavenscens): Entire Flowering and Fruiting Plant. Wellcome Collection , https://wellcomecollection.org/works/j4m3xvpq.

One of the components of the Research Process , which involves discovering information sources to fulfill the information need identified during the Investigation component.

Giving credit to authors of whose works are used to inform new works, often by Summarizing , Paraphrasing , or Quoting , and providing Attribution , thereby informing readers of where the information came from.

A well-known and respected professional organization representing psychologists and psychological research in the United States, whose purpose is to create, communicate, and apply psychological knowledge for the benefit of society.

A format designed by the Modern Language Association for Citing sources, providing Attribution , and otherwise formatting academic papers and publications.

Traditionally a written or printed work consisting of pages glued or sewn together along one side and bound in covers, also available in audio, electronic, and braille formats, making it both a Multi-Format Information source and one of the Long Formats of information.

A collection of information hosted online with a common URL , usually found by searching a Web Search Engine or navigating directly to a known URL , and generally made up of several related Webpages and organized by the inclusion of a menu linking the pages together.

One the most commonly used Web Search Engines , used widely to search for information on millions of topics. Also used as a verb, meaning to use a Web Search Engine to search for information.

A Web Search Engine designed and operated by the Google company to filter general websites out of results, and retrieve scholarly sources such as articles, books, theses, preprints, and technical reports.

A movement to counter the for-profit scholarly publishing industry and establish a model of authorship and publication that focuses on dissemination and sharing of information rather than profit, whereby authors pay publishing costs and keep the Copyright for their work, enabling readers to access articles, etc., for free.

A unique string of characters used to identify a specific article, website, or other intellectual property typically published online first or only; short for Digital Object Identifier.

The web address of a Website or Webpage , typically found in the page header, search bar, or at the top of the browser window; short for Uniform Resource Locator.

One of the Long Formats of information: a part of a larger Website , usually linked to by a menu or table of contents on the main page (or homepage), like a page in a Book .

Information Navigator Copyright © 2022 by Weber State University Stewart Library is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Donald Trump could face prison time if he is convicted in upcoming NY hush money trial

If former President Donald Trump is convicted on all counts in his New York criminal hush money trial that begins April 15, he could theoretically face more than a decade in prison.

But most legal experts who spoke to USA TODAY said such a dramatic outcome is unlikely. Instead, he would likely be sentenced to something between probation and four years in prison. And he would probably still be out, free to campaign for president as the presumptive or actual 2024 Republican nominee, while his all-but-certain appeal was pending.

Trump faces 34 felony counts of falsifying business records to cover up a hush money payment to adult film actress Stormy Daniels. Each count carries a maximum sentence of four years.

While Trump could in principle be sentenced to serve multiple counts consecutively, several experts said that is unlikely because he has no felony criminal record and the charges don't involve allegations of physical violence.

On the other hand, Trump has tested boundaries and feuded with the judge who may determine his fate.

Prep for the polls: See who is running for president and compare where they stand on key issues in our Voter Guide

Trump has antagonized Judge Juan Merchan

Trump's sentence would be decided by Judge Juan Merchan, who has grown exasperated by the former president's pretrial behavior. Merchan expanded a gag order this month after Trump attacked the judge's daughter on social media over her marketing work with Democratic candidates, including posting a photo of her. Merchan said Trump has a history of attacking the family members of judges and lawyers in his legal cases.

"The average observer, must now, after hearing Defendant's recent attacks, draw the conclusion that if they become involved in these proceedings, even tangentially, they should worry not only for themselves,  but for their loved ones as well ," Merchan wrote in his gag order decision .

John Moscow, a New York lawyer who spent 30 years in the Manhattan District Attorney's Office, told USA TODAY that type of behavior could worsen any sentence Trump faces.

"If I were representing somebody in (Trump's) position, I would suggest to him that the judge is the one who imposes sentence and he ought to be careful," Moscow said.

If Merchan did consider a hefty sentence, it wouldn't be the first time he has taken a harsh view about behavior in Trump's orbit.

In 2023, Merchan was forced to sentence former Trump Organization chief financial officer Allen Weisselberg to only five months in jail because Merchan had previously accepted a plea bargain agreement between Weisselberg and prosecutors specifying that jail term. Weisselberg pleaded guilty to tax and record falsification charges and agreed to testify against the Trump Organization at trial in order to get that sentence.

The judge said, however, that he "would be imposing a sentence much greater than that" had he not accepted the plea bargain before hearing all the evidence at the trial. Without the plea deal, Weisselberg could have faced many years in prison.

What is Trump charged with?

Trump has pleaded not guilty to all counts in the case, which focuses on whether he falsified business records to cover up reimbursements to his former lawyer, Michael Cohen, for a $130,000 hush money payment to Daniels. Daniels has said she had a sexual encounter with Trump soon after Melania Trump gave birth to their son, Barron Trump. Trump denies the claim.

In order to secure felony convictions, Manhattan District Attorney Alvin Bragg's office must convince a 12-person jury that Trump falsified the records in order to commit or conceal another crime. In this case, Bragg argues Trump was trying to conceal a federal campaign finance law violation by falsely recording his reimbursements to Cohen as payments for legal services. The federal violation was a limit-exceeding contribution to Trump's 2016 presidential campaign, as the payment was allegedly designed to keep Daniels' story from hurting the then-Republican nominee's election prospects. Bragg also alleges Trump was trying to conceal a plan to violate New York tax and election laws.

Nothing in the Constitution prevents Trump from becoming president even if he is convicted or sentenced to prison. If he won the election, however, courts may delay any prison time until after his term in office expires .

What is the maximum possible sentence?

The 34 felony counts Trump faces are classified as "Class E felonies" under New York law – the lowest level felony in the state. The maximum penalty on each count is four years of prison, and a judge would have discretion over whether to order Trump to serve sentences on each count at the same time or one after the other. However, New York caps such sentencing for Class E felonies at 20 years .

In addition, New York judges often impose sentencing ranges, where an incarcerated person becomes eligible for parole at the low end of the range. For Class E felonies, the lowest end of a range would be one-and-a-third years per count, while the highest would be four years. Good behavior in jail or prison can speed things up even more.

A sentence limited to probation?

Merchan would also have discretion to order a fixed sentence of less than those ranges, including probation.

That's what Mitchell Epner, a New York lawyer with decades of criminal law experience, expects would happen even if Trump were convicted on all counts. Epner noted the felony charges aren't violent and don't involve drugs.

"With a defendant who has no prior criminal record, my absolute expectation would be a sentence of probation," Epner told USA TODAY.

Epner wasn't alone in thinking that could be the sentencing outcome.

"This is a case that does not involve any physical violence, and it doesn't – there's not sort of a 'named victim,' so to speak – and so the court is going to take that into consideration," Anna Cominsky, who directs the Criminal Defense Clinic at New York Law School, told USA TODAY.

"In addition, I think it is unlikely that he would be sent to prison given who he is, given both the fact that he has no criminal record, and there is no getting around the fact that he is a former president of the United States," Cominsky said.

Incarceration a real possibility

Norman Eisen, a Brookings Institution senior fellow who served as special counsel to the House Judiciary Committee during Trump's first impeachment, thought a sentence that includes some incarceration is likely.

Eisen co-authored a report looking at sentencing for other defendants with no criminal history who were convicted of falsifying business records in New York. There, he noted one construction executive was sentenced in 2015 to spend two days each week in jail for a year for falsifying records to conceal payments in a bribery scheme. In 2013, two corporate executives were ordered to spend four to six months in jail for falsifying records to misclassify their salaries as expenses under their employer's larger bribery and fraud scheme.

"I think he's likely to face a sentence of incarceration if he's convicted," Eisen told USA TODAY.

Cominsky said the evidence Merchan hears at trial could also influence his thinking when it comes to sentencing.

"Often you'll hear judges refer to testimony at trial, evidence that was presented at trial, and say, 'This is why I'm imposing this sentence, because I heard from this particular witness or I saw this particular piece of evidence,'" Cominsky said.

Moscow pushed back against the assumption that Trump's sentences on each count would run simultaneously, instead of being stacked on top of each other. Just as a judge may take into account that a defendant has won a Nobel Peace Prize or lifted orphans from poverty, the judge may look at significant evidence of bad acts, Moscow said.

"When you start attacking the judge's daughter, and making her out to be a target, you have just breached the normal rules," Moscow said.

Trump has also posted a photo of himself wielding a bat, with his eyes directed toward an adjacent photo of Bragg, among other attacks on the district attorney. Bragg's office has received thousands of harassing emails, calls, and texts – including death threats – after Trump's social media attacks, it said in a court filing .

Diana Florence, a New York lawyer who spent decades in the Manhattan District Attorney's office, said Merchan's sentence would need to have some relation to what other white-collar defendants in similar cases have received, and she would be surprised if someone had ever gotten a sentencing range for falsifying business records with a minimum of 10 years or more.

Such a long sentence "would be very, very, very, very unusual, and if Judge Merchan wanted to make a point and do that, I highly doubt the appellate division would allow that to stand," she said. "It's just too much time for the conduct."

However, Florence added that a reasonable sentencing range could include a minimum period of more than a year incarcerated.

Sentencing someone with Secret Service protection?

Contemplating any jail or prison sentence would take Merchan into unchartered territory: Trump is the first former president ever criminally charged, and the Secret Service provides him with around-the-clock security.

But avoiding a sentence of incarceration on that basis risks undermining the idea of equal treatment under the law, Moscow suggested.

"If I were the judge − and I don't know what a judge would do in this case − I would reject out of hand the concept that because he was once president, and because as a matter of policy the Secret Service guards former presidents, that therefore he can't go to jail," Moscow said.

The question would then become how to reconcile equal treatment with ensuring a former president's security, according to Moscow. The judge could get creative, for example by ordering the former president to stay in a hotel wing or at a military base, where he is isolated just like any other prisoner but still has Secret Service protection.

"You can structure things to achieve the proper result without conceding that the defendant has the upper hand," Moscow said.

Chances of immediate prison? 'Less than 1%'

Many convicted defendants are "remanded" pending sentencing, a process in which they are taken into custody while they await their sentence, Florence said.

But Florence didn't expect Merchan to give that order when it comes to Trump, and even if Merchan did, Trump would likely be able to get bail set by an appeals court in the thousands of dollars to stay free during his appeal. That's all the more likely if Trump receives a low sentence, since the appeal could take longer than his actual sentence, she said.

"The chances of him going to prison immediately, even if he's convicted in whatever, six weeks from now or whenever, are I would say less than 1% because he would immediately be released on bail pending appeal," according to Florence.

Eisen agreed Trump probably wouldn't be incarcerated by Election Day, even if he's convicted on all counts.

"I think he's extremely unlikely to be forced to serve that sentence pending appeal," Eisen said.