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• © 2016

Research Methodology

The Aims, Practices and Ethics of Science

• Peter Pruzan 0

Department of Management, Politics and Philosophy, Copenhagen Business School, Frederiksberg, Denmark

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• Conveys an appreciation of the nature, rationale, aims and limitations of science
• Gives insight into the differing approaches to uncertainty in research
• Provides checklists for writing up your research
• Uses examples to develop awareness of ethics and responsibility in scientific research
• Includes supplementary material: sn.pub/extras

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Table of contents (10 chapters)

Front matter, introduction.

Peter Pruzan

Hypotheses, Theories and Laws

Scientific statements: their justification and acceptance, measurement, experimentation, scientific method and the design of research, uncertainty, probability and statistics in research, ethics and responsibility in scientific research, back matter.

This book is an in-depth guide to effective scientific research. Ranging from the philosophical to the practical, it explains at the outset what science can – and can’t – achieve, and discusses its relationship to mathematics and laws. The author then pays extensive attention to the scientific method, including experimental design, verification, uncertainty and statistics. A major aim of the book is to help young scientists reflect upon the deeper aims of their work and make the best use of their talents in contributing to progress. To this end, it also includes sections on planning research, on presenting one’s findings in writing, as well as on ethics and the responsibilities of scientists.  

• Guide to good research practice
• Advice for young scientists
• Nature of scientific research
• Aims and limitations of science
• Best practice in science
• Scientific ethics and responsibility
• Design of research project
• Uncertainty and reproducibility in experiment
• Statistics and measurement uncertainty
• Tips for reporting scientific findings
• research ethics

Dr. Peter Pruzan is Professor Emeritus at the Department of Management, Politics & Philosophy, Copenhagen Business School (CBS) in Denmark. He was born and raised in the United States, holds degrees from Princeton (B.Sc.), Harvard (MBA), Case-Western Reserve (PhD), and the University of Copenhagen (Sc.D.). He is a naturalised Danish citizen. Peter Pruzan has been the president of a successful, innovative, international consultancy and held professorships at the Technical University of Denmark, the University of Copenhagen and CBS. He spends roughly half of each year abroad, primarily in India, where he mentors PhD students on Research Methodology. 

Book Title : Research Methodology

Book Subtitle : The Aims, Practices and Ethics of Science

Authors : Peter Pruzan

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-27167-5

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Physics and Astronomy , Physics and Astronomy (R0)

Copyright Information : Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-319-27166-8 Published: 02 March 2016

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-319-80084-4 Published: 07 April 2018

eBook ISBN : 978-3-319-27167-5 Published: 22 February 2016

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XII, 326

Number of Illustrations : 3 b/w illustrations, 1 illustrations in colour

Topics : Measurement Science and Instrumentation , Research Ethics , Research Methodology , Statistics for Life Sciences, Medicine, Health Sciences , Science Education

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Research Methodology A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners

• Ranjit Kumar - University of Western Australia, Australia
• Description

Designed with students, for students and now shortlisted for the British Book Design and Production Awards 2019!

Eight steps, two pathways, one book.  The Fifth Edition of the bestseller  Research Methodology  has reimagined, redesigned, and fully renovated how a textbook can help students achieve success in their methods course or research project.

Eight steps:  Foolproof for any beginner researcher, the book breaks the process of designing and doing a research project into achievable stages. It delivers students from research problem to their written research report at the pace they need, with clear explanations, DIY tasks and study skills support.  In a new  landscape format  it presents figures, models and visualizations elegantly, so they don't break over a page, making even complex concepts easier to understand.

Two pathways:  With an innovative, beautiful design, regular progress checkpoints have been built into the book and its online resources. As students proceed through the 8 steps, each chapter provides regular opportunities for students to check understanding or give themselves a challenge. Each pathway then gives them the resources they need.

• Confused? Stop, practise with quizzes and flashcards, or use a video to look at a concept a different way.
• Up for a challenge? Access a wealth of additional material including research articles, readings, case studies, activities, bibliography tools and inspiration to pursue your curiosity, impress your lecturer, and nail your assignments.

With this one book,  every student gets what they need to succeed. It is the perfect essential text for students and beginner researchers across the social sciences.

See what’s new to this edition by selecting the Features tab on this page. Should you need additional information or have questions regarding the HEOA information provided for this title, including what is new to this edition, please email [email protected] . Please include your name, contact information, and the name of the title for which you would like more information. For information on the HEOA, please go to http://ed.gov/policy/highered/leg/hea08/index.html .

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Good book for beginner

This is an excellent resource on research methodology and very accessible for the students I teach.

This is an excellent book BUT this edition is HIDEOUS.

It is a weird shape and won't fit well on our library shelves. One of my students mentioned she keeps her's on the floor.

The text is at times pink on pink or blue on blue and the contrast is terrible - that's an accessibility issue.

On a more subjective note, the fonts and the neons look like someone was trying to be cool and trendy and it smacks of 'hello fellow kids'. Fire the graphic designer.

I have suggested that my students buy 4th eds used if possible as it looks like a grow-up book for adults, and will fit on a bookshelf, and is actually LEGIBLE especially if they have any eye issues, colour blindness or specific learning difficulties

Standard classic text - appropriate for any level of study. Excellent overview of concepts and terminology.

A colourful and easy to use text book which I think the students will enjoy.

Fantastic research book. Very easy to read, well laid out and informative

An extremely detailed yet accessible introduction to conducting and evaluating research in a variety of subjects. This is a really helpful resource for students and is presented in an engaging manner.

I am no longer the course leader for this module but this is the best book on the market It is so well structured and very informative in an easier to read format than many other books on this topic

Great overview of research in a user friendly presentation, love the bright colours and unusual landscape layout.

Love this book. Very useful to dip in an out of and is bright and engaging. Clearly defined chapters with a good range of practical activities and exercises to reinforce learning. Student friendly and the bonus of online resources.

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Principles of Research Methodology: A Guide for Clinical Investigators (PDF)

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Summary Principles of Research Methodology: A Guide for Clinical Investigators

P rinciples of Research Methodology

Phyllis G. Supino • Jeffrey S. Borer Editors Principles of Research Methodology A Guide for Clinical Investigators Foreword by Stephen E. Epstein

Editors Phyllis G. Supino Professor of Medicine, College of Medicine Professor of Public Health, School of Public Heath Director of Clinical Epidemiology and Clinical Research Division of Cardiovascular Medicine State University of New York (SUNY) Downstate Medical Center Brooklyn, NY, USA Jeffrey S. Borer Professor and Chair, Department of Medicine Chief, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine Director of The Howard Gilman Institute for Heart Valve Disease Director of the Cardiovascular Translational Research Institute SUNY Downstate Medical Center Brooklyn, NY, USA ISBN 978-1-4614-3359-0 e-ISBN 978-1-4614-3360-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3360-6 Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: 2012937226 © Phyllis G. Supino and Jeffrey S. Borer 2012 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifi cally the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfi lms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifi cally for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specifi c statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

F oreword T his superb book on research philosophy and methodology that Drs. Phyllis Supino and Jeffrey Borer have written and edited came out of an experience common to most of us involved in training investigators beginning their research careers. How do you teach these investigators the mostly unwritten ways of an area as complex as medical research? How do you help the research neophyte develop into a creative and reliable researcher? For me and my associates in the Cardiology Branch of the NIH (of which Dr. Borer was one) in the 1970s and 1980s, the teaching process was mostly based on an apprenticeship model, with learning coming in the actual doing of the research. This time-honored approach led to the development, in many research centers, of a cadre of superb researchers—but it was hard to master and the results were necessarily inconsistent, with many young investigators going down wrong paths. D rs. Supino and Borer’s book represents a unique collaboration between an accomplished educator specializing in research methodology and a promi- nent physician-scientist. Drs. Supino and Borer began their collaboration more than 20 years ago at Cornell University Medical College, continuing their work together in what became the Howard Gilman Institute for Valvular Heart Diseases. The Institute, of which Dr. Borer is the Director, now is located at the State University of New York Downstate Medical Center. Working within the context of a research institute housed within a medical school, Dr. Borer soon discovered that most of the fellows coming into his program had no formal research training and scant knowledge of research methodology. Prior to joining the Institute, Dr. Supino had been conducting continuing education in research methodology for scientists and health pro- fessionals since late 1970’s. When Dr. Supino joined the Institute in 1990, she applied her accumulated expertise in this fi e ld to develop a curriculum and lead a comprehensive course providing formal training in research methodol- ogy for Dr. Borer’s fellows and others at the institution. This curriculum and course, developed in partnership with Dr. Borer, turned out to be our good fortune. During the ensuing 20+ years Drs. Supino and Borer gradually devel- oped the pedagogical framework for writing what is one of the best books in the fi e ld. T his book provides in depth chapters containing information critical to creating good research—from the kind of mind-set that generates valuable research questions to study design, to exploring a variety of online data v

vi Foreword bases, to the elements making for compelling research grants and papers, and to the wonderfully informing chapter on the history of the application of ethics to medical research. There also is a valuable chapter on statistical considerations and a fascinating discussion on the origins and elements of hypothesis generation. I t’s also important to emphasize that this superb text is not only for the new investigator, but for experienced investigators as well. This results from the fact that Drs. Supino, Borer, and their coauthors write their chapters in ways that are not only easily accessible to the new investigator, but at the same time are suffi c iently sophisticated so that the seasoned investigator will profi t . A s an example, I particularly enjoyed the fi r st chapter, written by Dr. Supino, which provides some down to earth examples of, in essence, why there should be a clearly defi n ed primary endpoint in clinical investigations. As I was reading her chapter, I realized I had forgotten the “why” of this requirement, and that I was just taking the requirement for granted—a situation that could make investigators vulnerable to dismissing its importance. In this regard, over the years I’ve found it not uncommon for investigators, who fi n d that the effi c acy of the intervention they’re studying signifi c antly improves one or another secondary endpoints but not the primary endpoint, to freely attack this “requirement” and argue they’ve proven the effi c acy of their inter- vention. But Dr. Supino reminds us what good science is by providing an elegantly simple example of the marksman who boasts his skills after inter- preting the results of his shooting a gun at a piece of paper hung on the side of a barn. The marksman, it turns out, does not prospectively defi n e the “bull’s eye”. Rather, after multiple bullets are fi r ed at the piece of paper, he inspects the bullet hole-riddled paper, sees the random bullet hole patterns, and then draws a circle (bull’s eye) around a group of holes that by chance have fallen into a tight cluster. The post hoc defi n ition of the bull’s eye (i.e., now the “primary endpoint”) speaks (unjustifi a bly) to the marksman’s skill. By this simple anecdote, Dr. Supino makes the critical importance of prospectively defi n ing the primary endpoint exquisitely clear. A foreword is no place to provide extensive details of what a book con- tains. I’ll therefore limit myself and just enthusiastically say this fi r st chapter I read is representative of the high quality of the chapters to come. Drs. Supino and Borer have used the many years they have developed their course extraordinarily well—they and their outstanding coauthors have produced a book that is well written, beautifully edited, and contains wisdom and insight. It is a book, whether reading it in its entirety or perusing individual chapters, that presents the reader with a superb learning experience. The authors have certainly hit the bull’s eye. W ashington, DC, USA Stephen E. Epstein, MD

P reface T his book has been written to aid medical students, physicians, and other health professionals as they probe the increasingly complex and varied medi- cal/scientifi c literature for knowledge to improve patient care and search for guidance in the conduct of their own research. It also is intended for basic scientists involved in translational research who wish to better understand the unique challenges and demands of clinical research and, thus, become more successful members of interdisciplinary medical research teams. T he book is based largely on a lecture series on research methodology, with particular emphasis on issues affecting clinical research, that the editors designed and have offered for 21 years to more than 1,000 members of the academic medical communities of Weill Cornell Medical College and the State University of New York (SUNY) Downstate Medical Center, both located in New York City. The book spans the entire research process, begin- ning with the conception of the research problem to publication of fi n dings. T he need for such a book has become increasingly clear to us during many years of conducting a program of training and research in cardiovascular dis- eases and in our general teaching of research methodology to students, train- ees, and postgraduate clinical physicians and researchers. Though agreement on the fundamental principles of scientifi c research has existed for more than a century, the application of these principles has changed over time. The pre- cision required in defi n ing study populations and in detailing methodologies (and their defi c iencies) is continually increasing. In addition, a bewildering arsenal of statistical tools has developed (and continues to grow) to identify and defi n e the magnitude and consistency of relationships. Simultaneously, acceptable formats for communicating scientifi c data have changed in response to parallel changes in the world at large, and under the pressure of an “information explosion” which mandates succinctness and clarity. D espite these demands, there are few books, if any, that comprehensively and concisely present these concepts in a manner that is relevant and comprehensible to a broad professional medical community. This text is designed to resolve this defi c iency by combining theory and practical application to familiarize the reader with the logic of research design and hypothesis construction, the impor- tance of research planning, the ethical basis of human subjects research, the basics of writing a clinical protocol, the logic and techniques of data generation and management, and the fundamentals and implications of various sampling vii

viii Preface techniques and alternative statistical methodologies. This book also aims to offer guidance for assembling and interpreting results, writing scientifi c papers, and publishing studies. T he book’s 13 chapters emphasize the role and structure of the scientifi c hypothesis (reinforced throughout the various chapters) in informing meth- ods and in guiding data interpretation. Chapter 1 describes the general characteristics of research and differentiates among various types of research; it also summarizes the steps typically utilized in the hypothesis-testing (hypothetico-deductive) method and underscores the importance of proper planning. Chapter 2 reviews the origins of clinical research problems and the types of questions that are commonly asked in clinical investigations; it also identifi e s the characteristics of well-conceived research problems and explains the role of the literature search in research problem development. Chapter 3 introduces the reader to various modes of logical inference utilized for hypothesis generation, describes the characteristics of well-designed research hypotheses, distinguishes among various types of hypotheses, and provides guidelines for constructing them. Chapter 4 takes the reader through classic epidemiological (observational) methods, including cohort, case–control, and cross-sectional designs, and describes their respective advantages and limitations. Chapter 5 discusses the meaning of internal and external validity in the context of studies that aim to examine the effects of purposively applied interventions, identifi e s the most important sources of bias in these types of studies, and presents a variety of alternative study designs that can be used to evaluate interventions, together with their respective strengths and weak- nesses for controlling each of the identifi e d biases. Chapter 6 defi n es and describes the purpose of the clinical trial and provides in-depth guidelines for writing the clinical protocol that governs its conduct. Chapter 7 describes methodologies used for data capture and management in clinical trials and reviews associated regulatory requirements. Chapter 8 explains the steps involved in designing, implementing, and evaluating questionnaires and interviews that seek to obtain self-reported information. Chapter 9 reviews the pros and cons of systematic reviews and meta-analyses for generating secondary data by synthesizing evidence from previously conducted studies, and discusses methods for locating, evaluating, and writing them. Chapter 10 describes the various methods by which subjects can be sampled and the implications of these methods for drawing conclusions from clinical research fi n dings. Chapter 11 introduces the reader to fundamental statistical princi- ples used in biomedical research and describes the basis of determination of sample size and defi n ition of statistical power. Chapter 12 describes the ethi- cal basis of human subjects research, identifi e s areas of greatest concern to institutional review boards, and outlines the basic responsibilities of investi- gators towards their subjects. Finally, Chapter 13 provides practical guidance on how to write a publishable scientifi c paper. T he authors of this book include prominent medical scientists and meth- odologists who have extensive personal experience in biomedical investiga-

Preface ix tion and in teaching various key aspects of research methodology to medical students, physicians, and other health professionals. They have endeavored to integrate theory and examples to promote concept acquisition and to employ language that will be clear and useful for a general medical audience. We hope that this text will serve as a helpful resource for those individuals for whom performing or understanding the process of research is important. B rooklyn, NY, USA Phyllis G. Supino Jeffrey S. Borer

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