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Stephen Krashen developed theories of second language acquisition that reject the central role of grammar instruction and emphasize communication and comprehensible input. His theories were influenced by Vygotsky's work on cognitive development and the zone of proximal development. Krashen proposed five main hypotheses: acquisition-learning, monitor, natural order, input, and affective filter. According to Krashen, language is acquired through meaningful interaction and comprehensible input rather than formal instruction. The natural approach focuses on developing basic communication skills through activities that lower students' anxiety and increase comprehensible input, such as pictures, real-world tasks, and group work. However, some linguists disagree with Krashen's view and argue that formal instruction may be better Read less

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• 1. Krashen Stephen Krashen: specialises in 2nd language acquisition & development – non- English & bilingual
• 2. Theory of Language Reject grammar being central part of lang – in fact gramm structure not require explicit analysis/explanation by lang teacher, learner or teaching materials. Communication as main function: eg of communicative approach No emphasis on ‘theory of language’ at all – some say there is none – such as Gregg,1984. Main focus vocabulary – lexicon – used to send messages – grammar is a by-product Although they say they it is ‘communicative’, similar to audiolinguists in that they see learning occurring in stages.
• 3. Led to collaboration Krashen& Terrell (Tracy, Spanish teacher in California -1977; 1982 – ‘The Natural Approach’). Wanted language to be learned along more naturalistic principles of langacqn. Using Krashen’s theories, ‘The Natural Approach’ published in 1983 – langacqn – Krashen, procedures – Terrell. Emphasis is on: exposure/input not practice making ss emotionally prepared to learn allowing ss to listen before production need to use written & other sources for input
• 4. 5 main hypotheses acquisition-learning monitor natural order input affective filter
• 5. Acquisition learning - 2 independent systems of language: acquired & learned.
• 6. Monitor Relationship between these 2 aspects of a learner. Monitor part of the learner corrects errors or makes speech more acceptable. Can only happen if the learner has enough time to think, if they focus on what is correct and if the rule is known to them.
• 7. Natural Order Research findings by Dulay & Burt, 1974; Fathman, 1975; Makino, 1980 show grammar structures seem to be acquired in a ‘natural order’. So some structures are acquired early & some late. Findings show that the learner’s L1, age, background or how they learned the language make no difference to this. However, according to Krashen, syllabuses should not be designed in a manner which takes this order into account. In fact, it should not be this way at all.
• 8. Input How he tries to explain how the learner acquires the new language. Learner acquires language in this way, not learns it Input needs to be slightly higher than the learner’s level So natural communicative input is essential – ‘comprehensible ‘ input -> with this go 2 further hypotheses: 1) speaking is a result of acquisition & NOT its cause 2) if input is understood, and there is enough of it, the necessary grammar is automatically provided  (Krashen, 1985, p2)
• 9. Affective Filter ‘affective variables’ play a role in 2ndlangacqn Motivation, self-confidence & anxiety – affects the mental block or ‘willingness’ of the acqn- impede langacqn
• 10. Evidence for Input hypothesis: (Krashen, 1985a) People speak to children acquiring 1stlang in certain ways People speak to L2 learners in certain ways L2 learners often go through an early Silent Period Difference in langacqn success reflected in younger/older learners from comprehensible input The more comprehensible input, more L2 proficiency Opposite goes for lack of comp. input Teaching methods are dependent on comprehensible input Immersion teaching works as the input is comprehensible For bilingual programs to be successful, comp. input is nec.
• 11. 5 hypotheses have implications for lang teaching: Present as much comprehensible input as poss Things that help comprehension are NB – such as pics/realia- exposure to wider lexicon Focus should be on reading & listening – speaking comes later when ss ready For a lower filter to work, class needs to be relaxed & ss should focus on meaningful communication
• 12. Syllabus See course organisation from 2 perspectives: 1)Some general goals of most courses – 4 areas: basic personal communication skills: oral e.g. listening to announcements in public spaces basic personal communication skills: written eg reading & writing personal letters Academic learning skills: oral eg. Listening to a lecture Academic learning skills: written eg taking notes in class
• 13. But ‘Natural Approach’ focuses mainly on basic communication skills. 2nd perspective is that “ the purpose of a language course will vary according to needs of the students and their particular interests” – Krashen & Terrell 1983:65.
• 14. BUT – how do you do this for all the ss? Needs differ – so list of topics understood as suggestions not set.
• 15. Types of learning & teaching activities: Focus on comprehensible input – teacher talk focuses on things in classroom & on pics & ss don’t need to say anything till feel ready – less stress ( filter) , but do need to reply to T’s commands & qns in other ways. T talks slowly & clearly Asks qns – 1 word answers Charts/ pics/maps/ realia focal point for qns, then when ss able, talk about other ss Pair/group, followed by whole class activities Techniques often borrowed from other methods & adapted to suit their needs: such as Command-based Act’s from Total Physical Response; Direct Method – mime, gesture, context; CLT – group-work
• 16. Nothing really new, but the way they use them & the COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT, classroom env. that helps with learner anxiety and helps to increase learner confidence.
• 17. Learner roles: Learners trying to ‘acquire’ lang,not learn it in usual way. Slightly more difficult input is given than at level, but by context & extralinguistic info, can understand. Learner’s roles change depending on level and a major aspect is the learner deciding when to speak, what to speak about & what lang to use when speaking. 3 phases: 1) pre-production: no response but participate by egpointing 2) early-production: either/or qns, single words, short phrases, fill in charts, use fixed conversational patterns eg ‘How are you?’ 3) speech-emergent: role-play, games, personal info, opinions, group problem solving ( Krashen & Terrell, 1983:76)
• 18. Learners have 4 responsibilities: Give info on their goals so that topics & situations can be comp. input Take an active role in comp. input.: learn & use conversational man. techniques Decide when to start using speech & what grade to use Where learning exercises such as grammar are a part of program, decide with teacher how much time to spend on them & try to do & check by themselves. PROBLEM – Ls need to comm. with other Ls, so may not get good comp.input slightly above their level – they (K&T) are aware of this, but give no solutions.  
• 19. Teacher Roles: 3 main roles Main source of comprehensible input – constant flow of langnec plus non-linguistic clues to meaning – so very teacher-centred Atmosphere – friendly, interesting, allowing a low affective filter. This is achieved through not expecting production of speech, int topics & not correcting errors Materials need to be of a high standard, very varied & interesting, based not just on what T thinks is nec, but also on ss needs & interests.
• 20. Materials Primary goal of materials to make classroom activities as meaningful as possible by giving “the extralinguistic context that helps the acquirer to understand and thereby to acquire” (Krashen & Terrell, 1983:55). Thus REALIA are of paramount NB, and not textbooks. So pictures, visual aids, schedules, brochures, ads, maps, simple books, games. Thus a lot of work for the teacher!!
• 21. Dialogues Pairwork interviews with personal info Personal charts & tables Preference ranking – opinion polls Giving personal info about self Using imagination Problem-solving activities Games Content activities such as academic subject matter
• 22. Lev SemenovichVygotsky (1896-1934) University of Moscow- teacher of literature but led to developmental psychology, education and psychopathology. influence on Krashen’s second language acquisition theory – application of their theories to second language teaching produces similarities.
• 23. Krashen'sinput hypothesis similar toVygotsky's concept of zone of proximal development. According to the input hypothesis, language acquisition takes place during human interaction in an environment of the foreign language when the learner receives language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then maximum acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. Krashen'sacquisition-learning hypothesis - influenced by Vygotsky.
• 24. Vygotsky speaks of internalization of language, Krashen uses the term language acquisition, both based on a common assumption: interaction. Lang acq defined by Krashen & NB in achieving proficiency is parallel of Vygotsky's view of cognitive development of the person's social history and being a product of it.
• 25. Lots of opposition to these ideas Krashen under pressure from bilingualists – bilingual teaching following his approach is considered by many to be controversial. Other linguists, such as Michael Long, do not agree with Krashen that language acquired through acqn & not learning is better. Reasons…formal teaching seems to be better for the learner in the long run. Although through formal instruction, Ls seem to make more errors initially, they do get better. For naturalistic learners, these errors are still evident much later on.
• 26. As to the question of which type allows you to learn a language faster, hhhmmmm? Does a person who received formal instruction in a language go further in the long run ?? Long feels the answer is yes (1987).

Stephen Krashen’s Second Language Acquisition Theory

Mar 31, 2019

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Stephen Krashen’s Second Language Acquisition Theory. Sharonda Walker Texas Woman’s University. KRASHEN SPEAKS. Language acquisition hypotheses:. Acquisition-Learning Monitor Natural Order Input Affective Filter. ACQUISITION-LEARNING.

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Stephen Krashen’s Second Language Acquisition Theory Sharonda Walker Texas Woman’s University

KRASHEN SPEAKS

Language acquisition hypotheses: Acquisition-Learning Monitor Natural Order Input Affective Filter

ACQUISITION-LEARNING • Hypothesis: The belief  that English Language Learners (ELLs) 'acquire' and 'learn' the target language. • To 'acquire' the language, the ELLs subconsciously process the target language based on feelings (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p.36). • 'Learning' the language is when the ELLs are aware that they are processing the target language through formal instruction and rule learning (Lightbrown & Spada, 2006, p. 36).

MONITOR • Hypothesis: The belief that acquisition results when the English Language Learners (ELLs) can consciously correct errors while speaking in the target language. • The ELLs are able to understand the grammar rules associated with the target language in order to correct their errors by acting as an editor or 'monitor' (Lightbown& Spada, 2006, p. 37).

NATURAL ORDER Hypothesis: Krashen's belief that English Language Learners (ELLs) acquire the target language in predictable sequences. However, the ELLs may be able to acquire the target language early on, or it may develop later in the acquisition process (Lightbown& Spada, 2006, p. 37).

INPUT Hypothesis: Based on comprehensible input (language that a learner can understand) that is provided to the ELLs that is above their level of understanding. This does not take place through learning, but through acquisition (Lightbown& Spada, 2006, p. 37).

AFFECTIVE FILTER Hypothesis: The belief that the English Language Learners (ELLs) ' affective filter ' must be maintained at a low level in order for them to acquire the target language.  The 'affective filter' is a barrier that prevents the ELLs from acquiring the target language (Lightbown& Spada, 2006, p. 37). Positive self-confidence, high motivation, and low anxiety (stress) must be maintained in order for the ELLs to progress through the acquisition process (Lightbown& Spada, 2006, p. 37).

CURRENTRESEARCH • One of the principal critics of Stephen Krashen's second language acquisition theory has been Barry McLaughlin. In "Conscious" versus "Unconscious" Learning, McLauglin disagrees with Krashen's Acquisition-Learning hypothesis. • McLaughlin believes that ELLs learn the target language through "rule" or "feel;” that the ELLs are feeling their way through the target language and can recognize the grammar "rule" while speaking (McLaughlin, 1990, pp. 619-620).

CURRENT RESEARCH In the article Myths and misconceptions about second language learning, McLaughlin states that younger is not always better when acquiring a second language (McLaughlin, 1992, p. 129). Beginning language instruction early for English Language Learners (ELLs) gives them more exposure to the target language; however, this does not predict language acquisition (McLaughlin, 1992, p. 129).

CURRENT RESEARCH Rod Ellis is another researcher that does not fully support Krashen's second language acquisition theory. In Principles of instructed second language acquisition, Ellis believes that implicit and explicit knowledge play a role in language acquisition and that Krashen's "monitor" hypothesis does not take these two concepts into consideration (Ellis, 2008, p. 3). Ellis states that input of implicit knowledge needs to be incorporated into language acquisition and not entirely focused on Krashen's "comprehensible input,” (Ellis, 2008, p. 4).

CURRENT RESEARCH In Anniversary article : Classroom SLA research and second language teaching,  Lightbowndiscusses ten generalizations from SLA research that favors and opposes certain aspects of Krashen's second language acquisition theory. Lightbownconcurs with Krashen that ELLs 'acquire' the target language; however, she and other researchers believe that ELLs can acquire the target language 'incidentally.' (Lightbown, 2000, p. 439). 

CURRENT RESEARCH In Anniversary article : Classroom SLA research and second language teaching, Lightbownand other researchers agree with Krashen's belief that reading is a positive medium to promote comprehensible input (Lightbown& Spada, 2000, p. 440). ELLs should be provided comprehensible input above their current level of understanding as stated in Krashen's input hypothesis (Lightbown, 2000, p. 443).

CURRENT RESEARCH In the article Pedagogies Proving Krashen’s Theory of Affective Filter, Grace Hui Chin Lin, believes that language acquisition can be effective and efficient for ELLs when the experience is relaxing and provides means in which they can be confident and motivated (Lin, 2008, p. 117). Lin believes that in order for Krashen’s affective filter theory to be effective, there must be a connection between ELLs’ interests, self-esteem, attitudes and motivation to promote confidence in the language acquisition process through the use of games, music, and movies (Lin, 2008, p. 115).

C URRENT RESEARCH • Supplementing Krashen's SLA Theory, written by Xiao-Yue-Hai, discusses Krashen's second language acquisition theory. Yue-hai believes that Krashen’s SLA theory can have a better outcome if a few elements were added. • Yue-Hai believes that L1 can promote comprehension, reading, and writing in L2; that when L1and L2 are utilized together, L2 acquisition is obtained more efficiently and effectively due to prior knowledge (Yue-hai, 2008, p. 17).

CURRENT RESEARCH In the article, Supplementing Krashen's SLA Theory, Yue-hai believes that Krashen’s SLA theory does not address how children and adults acquire a second language (Yue-Hai, 2008, p.17). Yue-Haibelieves that children acquire a second language by listening, speaking, reading, and writing in this order. Adults, on the other hand, acquire a second language by reading, listening, writing, and speaking (Yue-hai, 2008, p. 17).

SLA in the Classroom • Principle 6: Successful instructed language learning requires extensive language input (Ellis, 2008, p. 3). This principle states that language learners must be exposed to the new language in order to acquire it. • The new language needs to be present inside the classroom and the schools need to provide resources to aid in language acquisition, such as extensive reading programs and self-access centers (Ellis, 2008, p. 4).

SLA in the Classroom Principle 9: Instruction needs to accommodate the individual differences of language learners (Ellis, 2008, p. 5). Learning will be more successful when the instruction is matched to the ELLs’ particular aptitude for learning and when the ELLs are motivated (Ellis, 2008, p. 5). The teacher should be aware of the learning styles and pace of their ELLs and offer motivation to enhance the language acquisition process.

SLA in the Classroom • Generalization 6: Isolated explicit error is usually ineffective in changing language behavior (Lightbown, 2000, pp. 446-448). • Error correction can be utilized through recasts, or utterances by the teacher that rephrases the utterance of the learner, preserving the original meaning, but correcting the error(s) that occurred in the original utterance (Long and Robinson 1998).

SLA in the Classroom The ESL teacher must be prepared to work with children from various cultural, social, and linguistic backgrounds (Fillmore and Snow, 2001, p. 5). The ESL teacher must respect the ELLs’ home languages and cultures and incorporate these values into the classroom and learning experience (Fillmore and Snow, 2001, p. 12)

SLA in the Classroom The ESL teacher should emphasize comprehension in the second language acquisition process because comprehension leads to better acquisition, better retention, and positive student attitudes (Krashen, 1985, p. 15). The ESL teacher should provide instruction to promote and enhance the language learners’ comprehension level and skills through reading, role-playing, and talking to each other (Krashen, 1985, p. 15).

REFERENCES Fillmore, L. W., & Snow, C. E. (2000). What teachers need to know about language. Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics, Special Report. Retrieved from http://www.cal.org/ericll/teachers/teachers.pdf Krashen, S.D. (1985a). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. London: Longman Lightbown, P. (2000). Anniversary article: Classroom SLA research and second language teaching. Applied Linguistics, 21 (4), 431-462.

REFERENCES Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned, (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford  University Press. Lin, Grace Hui Chin. (2008). Pedagogies Proving Krashen’s Theory of Affective Filter. Hwa Kang Journal of English Language and Literature, n14, p. 113-131. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb McLaughlin, B. (1990). "Conscious" versus "Unconscious" Learning. TESOL Quarterly, 24 (4), 617-634.

REFERENCES You Tube (Constantinide, M.). (1982). Stephen Krashen on Second Language Acquisition, Part 1 of 2. [Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vh6Hy6El86Q Yue-hai, X. (2008). Supplementing Krashen's SLA theory, US-China Foreign Language, 6 ,(7), 15-18. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

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Krashen's Language Acquisition Hypotheses: A Critical Review

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Stephen Krashen’s Five Hypotheses of Second Language Acquisition

Unsplash Monica Melton

Interested in learning more about linguistics and linguists ? Read this way.

What is linguistics? Linguistics is the scientific study of language that involves the analysis of language rules, language meaning, and language context. In other words, linguistics is the study of how a language is formed and how it works.

A person who studies linguistics is called a linguist . A linguist doesn't necessarily have to learn different languages because they’re more interested in learning the structures of languages. Noam Chomsky and Dr. Stephen Krashen are two of the world’s most famous linguists.

Dr. Stephen D. Krashen facilitated research in second-language acquisition , bilingual education, and in reading. He believes that language acquisition requires “meaningful interaction with the target language.”

Dr. Krashen also theorized that there are 5 hypotheses to second language acquisition , which have been very influential in the field of second language research and teaching

Let’s take a look at these hypotheses. Who knows, maybe you’ve applied one or all of them in your language learning journey!

1. Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis states that there is a distinction between language acquisition and language learning. In language acquisition, the student acquires language unconsciously . This is similar to when a child picks up their first language. On the other hand, language learning happens when the student is consciously discovering and learning the rules and grammatical structures of the language.

2. Monitor Hypothesis

Monitor Hypothesis states that the learner is consciously learning the grammar rules and functions of a language rather than its meaning. This theory focuses more on the correctness of the language . To use the Monitor Hypothesis properly, three standards must be met:

• The acquirer must know the rules of the language.
• The acquirer must concentrate on the exact form of the language.
• The acquirer must set aside some time to review and apply the language rules in a conversation. Although this is a tricky one, because in regular conversations there’s hardly enough time to ensure correctness of the language.

3. Natural Order Hypothesis

Natural Order Hypothesis is based on the finding that language learners learn grammatical structures in a fixed and universal way . There is a sense of predictability to this kind of learning, which is similar to how a speaker learns their first language.

4. Input Hypothesis

Input Hypothesis places more emphasis on the acquisition of the second language. This theory is more concerned about how the language is acquired rather than learned.

Moreover, the Input Hypothesis states that the learner naturally develops language as soon as the student receives interesting and fun information .

5. Affective Filter Hypothesis

In Affective Filter, language acquisition can be affected by emotional factors. If the affective filter is higher, then the student is less likely to learn the language. Therefore, the learning environment for the student must be positive and stress-free so that the student is open for input.

Language acquisition is a subconscious process. Usually, language acquirers are aware that they’re using the language for communication but are unaware that they are acquiring the language.

Language acquirers also are unaware of the rules of the language they are acquiring. Instead, language acquirers feel a sense of correctness, when the sentence sounds and feels right. Strange right? But it is also quite fascinating.

Acquiring a language is a tedious process. It can seem more like a chore, a game of should I learn today or should I just do something else? Sigh

But Dr. Krashen’s language acquisition theories might be onto something, don’t you think? Learning a language should be fun and in some way it should happen naturally. Try to engage in meaningful interactions like reading exciting stories and relevant news articles, even talking with friends and family in a different language. Indulge in interesting and easy to understand language activities, and by then you might already have slowly started acquiring your target language!

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Krashen and the Natural Approach

The guide to the history and development of English Language Teaching covers: grammar translation, audio-lingualism (including structural linguistics and behaviourist theories of learning) and the rise of communicative language teaching. The separate guide to Communicative Language Teaching takes it on from there. You should go to those guides (which open in new tabs) for more on the background and the story so far.

We have a whole guide on the Natural Approach, not because it is hugely influential in itself, but because the theories (or, better, hypotheses) which underlie it have been demonstrably influential in themselves. The approach takes its name from the book by Krashen and Terrell (1983) which outlined an approach to language teaching based on a set of fundamental hypotheses.  It is these we need to focus on before we can discuss methodology arising from them.

In 1982, Krashen published Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning in which he set out five hypotheses.  What follows here is a very brief summary. The full text is, fortunately, now available at http://www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/sl_acquisition_and_learning.pdf.  Please look there for the background, evidence and more detail.

the classroom can be of value, and in fact generally is of value, in language acquisition as well as in language learning Krashen, 2002:48 (emphasis in the original)

Naturally, such a broad and significant range of hypotheses has not been without its critics.  However, whether one accepts the truth of all the hypotheses or not, there are clearly classroom implications to consider.  Consider how you would fill in the right-hand column in this table and then click on it for some comments.

To give you a flavour of how teaching and learning are carried out following the Natural Approach, here are some statements from a handbook of the approach (Krashen and Terrell, 1983).

• Your teacher will speak French exclusively.  You may answer in either English or French.  You are free to use English until you yourself feel ready to try speaking French.  You should not try to use French until you are comfortable doing so.
• When you do try to speak in the new language, the teacher is interested in what you have to say – not whether you have said it perfectly.  Neither you nor the teacher will be overly concerned with grammar errors in your speech while you are a beginner.
• You do not have to use full sentences.  You may talk in short phrases or even use just one word when that is appropriate.
• Remember that as long as you understand what the teacher is saying you are acquiring French.  This means that you should focus on what is being said, the message, rather than how it is being said.

The first of these is known as delayed oral practice and has received quite a lot of attention.  In the past, the assumption has been that intensive oral practice from the outset of the learning process will be effective.  This is now not taken for granted and some evidence shows that learners, especially beginners, need a period of time to assimilate what they hear before being asked to produce the target language.  In other words, to build competence before performance.

Many have noted that this kind of approach is not very far removed from an 'ordinary' communicative-approach classroom.

There's a short, easy test on this .

References: Krashen, S, 2002, Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning , First internet edition, retrieved from http://www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/sl_acquisition_and_learning.pdf Krashen, SD & Terrell, TD, 1983,  The natural approach: Language acquisition in the classroom , London: Prentice Hall Europe Widdowson, H, 1990, Aspects of Language Teaching , Oxford: Oxford University Press

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The affective filter (krashen’s hypotheses series, #6 of 9).

(Previous post in this series: The Input Hypothesis)

The next post in this series (#7/9), The Compelling Input Hypothesis , is found here .

Teach like a MANI A C

A: the affective filter hypothesis, “learning is filtered through the emotions.”.

Psychological safety is one of the most important factors in a successful team. The classroom is no different. Your classroom needs to be a safe space where students are free to take chances. The class must be free of insults, put-downs, judgmental statements and crude language. Even snide remarks, rolling eyes, smirks, mockery, and lack of inclusion can have a negative impact on students’ ability to learn. Establishing behavioral norms and expectations in the classroom and then rigorously enforcing them on a regular basis is crucial if students are to learn at high levels.

“When the input does not contain i+1 … and when the students’ affective filter is high, comprehensible input is not good enough.” (Krashen, 1982)

APPLYING THE AFFECTIVE FILTER HYPOTHESIS IN THE CLASSROOM :

• Model open and accepting behavior yourself.  To counteract a negative culture you will have to clearly model positive comportment and then explain what you are doing. Show students with you body language what acceptance and care look like.

• Have clear behavioral expectations. Set clear and high expectations for student behavior.

• Practice and use procedures. Reinforce your expectations with well thought out classroom procedures .

• Enforce the class norms. Consistently enforce the classroom norms of courtesy and respectful behavior.

• Show and tell them what you expect. Expect students to “play the game.” Use an interpersonal self-assessment to define what you mean.

• Control of your own behavior. You set the tone for the class by controlling your thoughts and actions. It’s not exactly as simple as “think good thoughts” … but almost. Students can pick up on the unconscious and unintended body language messages you are sending out when you judge them. Banish disappointment and disapproval from your mind because students will smell it on you and react negatively. There are techniques for this that I have seen work wonderfully.

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Vlasov torsion theory

Assumptions.

• Warping can be constrained
• Derivative of section rotation about the axis of the twist is not constant

Differential Equation

The rotation of the beam cross-section follows the following differential equation (Hoogenboom 2006):

Refer to torsion page for the notation used in the above equation.

According to Vlasov to the theory, the applied torque causes the following three types of stresses:

• shear stresses due to unrestrained torsion
• shear stresses due to restrained warping
• normal stresses due to restrained warping

These stresses are combined with stresses due to axial, bending and shear loading. For example the total axial stress can be obtained as follows (Hoogenboom 2006):

• V.Z. Vlasov: "Thin-Walled Elastic Bars" (in Russian), 2nd ed., Fizmatgiz, Moscow, 1959.
• Zdenek P. Bazant: Nonuniform torsion of thin-walled bars of variable cross section, Publications, IABSE, 25, p. 245-167, 1965.

External Links

• P.C.J. Hoogenboom: Vlasov Torsion Theory , October 2006

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Simulation of the sulfide phase formation in a KhN60VT alloy

• Simulation of Metallurgical and Thermal Processes
• Published: 23 September 2017
• Volume 2017 , pages 447–453, ( 2017 )

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• I. V. Kabanov 1 ,
• E. V. Butskii 1 ,
• K. V. Grigorovich 2 &
• A. M. Arsenkin 2  

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The conditions of the existence of sulfide phases in Fe–Ni–S alloys and four-component Fe–50 wt % Ni–0.001 wt % S– R ( R is an alloying or impurity element from the TCFE7 database) systems are studied using the Thermo-Calc software package and the TCFE7 database. The modification of nickel superalloys by calcium or magnesium is shown to increase their ductility due to partial desulfurization, the suppression of the formation of harmful sulfide phases, and the uniform formation of strong sulfides in the entire temperature range of metal solidification. The manufacturability of superalloys can decrease at a too high calcium or magnesium content because of the formation of intermetallics with a low melting temperature along grain boundaries.

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F. Kristofory, M. Mohila, D. Mikulas, and J. Vitec, Acta Metallurgica Slovacia 10 (3), 236–241 (2004).

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Software Package. Thermodynamic Calculations of Phase Diagrams for Multicomponent Systems . http://www.thermocalc.com.

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OAO Metallurgical Plant Elektrostal’, Elektrostal’, Moscow oblast, Russia

I. V. Kabanov & E. V. Butskii

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On the Centenary of Plant “Elektrostal”

Original Russian Text © I.V. Kabanov, E.V. Butskii, K.V. Grigorovich, A.M. Arsenkin, 2017, published in Elektrometallurgiya, 2017, No. 3, pp. 13–21.

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Kabanov, I.V., Butskii, E.V., Grigorovich, K.V. et al. Simulation of the sulfide phase formation in a KhN60VT alloy. Russ. Metall. 2017 , 447–453 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1134/S0036029517060106

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Received : 21 November 2016

Published : 23 September 2017

Issue Date : June 2017

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1134/S0036029517060106

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