are leaders born or made essay

Leaders are Made, Not Born: Examples and Debate Points Essay

Leaders are made, not born introduction, leaders are made, not born: debate points, leaders are made, not born conclusion.

According to Gregory (2009), a leader is an individual who has the capacity and desire to inspire and influence his or her subjects. There has been a lot of debate on whether a leader is born or made. Some people believe that a great leader has some inborn attributes, while others are confident that leadership abilities, just like other skills, can be learned with time. It is vital to agree that leadership is a vital provision; nonetheless, great leaders are not born with their abilities, they are made.

First, most leaders neither carry forward their legacy nor do their backgrounds suggest they can make good leaders. For example, children of great leaders do not necessarily become leaders. This shows that leadership skills are not hereditary traits but skills learned through many processes. In the global arena, Obama’s parents were never leaders; however, their son (Barrack Obama) has managed to nurture his leadership skills to lead the greatest nation in the world. In this context, the greatest leaders are not born. They are made as indicated earlier.

Usually, it starts with a personal decision to become a leader. However, there are certain attributes that constitute good leadership abilities that are inborn. One such attribute is intelligence. A leader should be intelligent enough to make the right decisions in any kind of situation. For example, Nelson Mandela of South Africa managed to nurture his leadership skills.

Generally, leadership skills are hardly hereditary abilities. An individual who eventually becomes a great leader undergoes many learning processes. They study other leaders, try to imitate their conduct, and select their role models. Most American leaders have chosen Abraham Lincoln as their role model due to his intelligence and leadership prowess (Pace, 2006). Of course, great leaders can falter; however, they can improve their skills with the feedback they get from different people. This helps them develop into great leaders since they are able to transform their behaviors for the better (Gill, 2012).

It is vital to agree that most great leaders are not born with abilities and legendary leadership skills. Prominent leaders like Barrack Obama have struggled for ages to attain their status quo and nurture their leadership skills. In order to become a great leader, one has to develop interest, endure, listen to mentors, and transform appropriately. One does not need to be born a leader so as to lead appropriately.

Gill, R. (2012). Theory and Practice of Leadership . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publishers

Gregory, A. (2009). Great leaders are born or made ?

Pace, J. (2006). Professional development series: Books 1-4. Boston: McGraw Hill.

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Great Leaders Are Made, Not Born

• Marshall Goldsmith

Are leaders born or made? This is one of the most frequently asked questions in all leadership development. To begin with, let’s start with a definition of “leader.” My friend and mentor, Dr. Paul Hersey, defines leadership as “working with and through others to achieve objectives.” Given this definition, anyone in a position whose achievement […]

Are leaders born or made?

• MG Marshall Goldsmith is recognized as one of the world’s leading executive educators and coaches. Dr. Goldsmith’s 30 books include What Got You Here Won’t Get You There and MOJO .

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5 Are Leaders Born or Made?

• Published: January 2014
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Whether leadership is “born or made” has long intrigued theorists, management practitioners and the lay public. While many believe that leadership in iconic figures such as Nelson Mandela must surely be something he was born with, the chapter opens with a study of his early life, effectively demonstrating the complexity of the issue. The effects of exposure to adversity early in one’s life, and social, family and non-familial influences on the later development of leadership, are discussed. Some of the most interesting and provocative recent research findings have shown that genetic factors are also implicated in the question of who emerges as a leader, and on leadership behaviors. While most of this research focuses on high quality leadership, the role of family influences in the development of destructive leadership has also been identified

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• Am J Pharm Educ
• v.81(3); 2017 Apr

Point/Counterpoint: Are Outstanding Leaders Born or Made?

Marjan boerma.

a University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Little Rock, Arkansas

Elizabeth A. Coyle

b University of Houston College of Pharmacy, Houston, Texas

Michael A. Dietrich

c Midwestern University College of Pharmacy – Glendale, Glendale, Arizona

Matthew R. Dintzner

d Western New England University, College of Pharmacy, Springfield, Massachusetts

Shannon J. Drayton

e Medical University of South Carolina, College of Pharmacy, Charleston, South Carolina

Johnnie L. Early, II

f The University of Toledo, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toledo, Ohio

Andrea N. Edginton

g School of Pharmacy, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada

Cheryl K. Horlen

h University of the Incarnate Word, Feik School of Pharmacy, San Antonio, Texas

Cynthia K. Kirkwood

i Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Pharmacy, Richmond, Virginia

Anne Y.F. Lin

j Notre Dame of Maryland University, College of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland

Michelle L. Rager

k Shenandoah University, Bernard J Dunn School of Pharmacy, Winchester, Virginia

Bijal Shah-Manek

l Touro University - California, College of Pharmacy, Vallejo, California

Adam C. Welch

m East Tennessee State University, Bill Gatton College of Pharmacy, Johnson City, Tennessee

Nancy Toedter Williams

n Southwestern Oklahoma State University College of Pharmacy, Weatherford, Oklahoma

The question of whether outstanding leaders are born or made has been debated for years. There are numerous examples of historical figures that came naturally to leadership, while others developed their leadership skills through tenacity and experience. To understand leadership, both nature (the genetic component) and nurture (the environmental influences) must be considered. This article represents the work of two Academic Leadership Fellows Program groups who debated each position at the 2016 American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) Interim Meeting in Tampa, Fla., in February 2016.

INTRODUCTION

According to R. M. Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership , “There are almost as many different definitions of leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept.” 1 While there is no standard definition of leader, there are many different kinds of leadership that exist in today’s environment. When thinking about outstanding leaders, whether present day or historical, one may question how they became such a notable leader. Were they born this way or were they taught to lead? The Great Man Theory, popularized in the 1840s by Thomas Carlyle, suggested that leadership traits are intrinsic, meaning that great leaders are born and will emerge when confronted with the appropriate situation. 2 These individuals possess certain qualities and talents, such as deep honesty, moral vision, compassion and care, that make them well-suited for leadership. 3 On the contrary, organizations invest much time and money to help their employees develop leadership skills based on the assumption that leaders can be trained. In fact, US companies spend approximately $14 billion each year on this training, and higher education offers a multitude of degree courses pertaining to leadership. 4 This suggests that leadership itself is a skill that may be learned (ie, extrinsically fostered). This article will examine and provide further perspective on the much debated question: are the foundations of outstanding leadership intrinsic (ie, leaders are born) or extrinsic (ie, leaders are made)?

The purpose of a debate is to search for the truth, or perhaps the best answer, by comparing or contrasting ideas. 5 The structure of a debate can be simplified into three components: the claim, the warrant, and the impact. The claim provides the position that the debater would like to instill upon the audience. Outstanding leaders are born, or made, is the claim. The warrant justifies the claim, either by evidence, or with external opinion. The impact places the claim into perspective and suggests why the audience should be interested. All three components (claim, warrant, and impact) are necessary for a complete argument. 5 The structure of the debate follows a point/counterpoint format, where one side provides an argument, followed by a rebuttal from the other side. The opportunity for targeted questions and answers between debaters also occurs during a typical debate. 5

For this debate, two Academic Leadership Fellows Program (ALFP) groups drew a position at random. The position drawn may not have necessarily represented the personal views of the ALFP group members. Research by each group member involved literature review of primary sources, expert opinion, and historical references. Regardless of the position drawn, each group researched both positions, as opposing research prepares a debater for potential counter-arguments. Sources included Google Scholar, PubMed, ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center), and broad-based Internet searching for known leaders.

After extensive research, each ALFP group began preparing and practicing specific remarks for their position. Preparation involved mock debate sessions that were closely timed. Certain group members posed as the opposing group to better mimic a real debate. The entire preparation process, from research to debate, extended over several months and involved several group meetings, both live and virtual. The culmination was a debate presented at the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) Interim Meeting in Tampa, Fla., in February 2016.

POINT: LEADERS ARE BORN

The role of genetics in leadership.

Over the past three decades, numerous twin studies have been conducted evaluating the heritability of leadership. 6-10 Twin studies provide a good assessment of born and made leadership in that each twin serves as a control for the other. Identical or monozygotic twins who share 100% of their genetic material can be compared to fraternal or dizygotic twins who share 50% of their genetic material to evaluate both genetic and environmental influences on leadership. Data from twin studies have consistently shown that leadership has a substantial degree of genetic basis. 6,7,9 These studies have used a variety of methodologies including questionnaires and mathematical models to evaluate the genetic and shared or unique environmental experiences of twins in leadership roles. A majority of twin studies demonstrate moderate genetic contributions for personality traits of leaders, with an overall relative influence of a genetic relationship for leadership of up to 30%. 7,10 In fact, in a study by DeNeve and colleagues evaluating what traits determine leadership role occupancy, the shared environment of the twins was not significant with only a 10% correlation; whereas, the genetic component was found to be 24%. 7 Overall, twin studies have consistently demonstrated a genetic component to leadership.

In particular, DeNeve and colleagues demonstrate that leadership role occupancy may be associated with the rs4950 genetic marker, a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) that resides on the neuronal acetylcholine receptor gene on chromosome 8. 7 The neuronal acetylcholine receptor gene can be related to personality traits, suggesting a link between leadership role occupancy and personality traits. 7 Indeed, personality traits were considered in the book, Good to Great , where a level 5 (highest) leader often possesses traits such as personal humility and professional will. 11 It follows that a favorable genetic background sets outstanding leaders apart from the rest.

In practice, we can reference historical examples of twins who have demonstrated notable leadership. Identical twins Mark and Scott Kelly, NASA astronauts as well as retired US Navy captains, have both led great discoveries in space. 12 Julian and Joaquin Castro are identical twins from Texas. Julian served as the US Secretary of Housing and Urban Development from 2014 to 2017 and Joaquin is currently a US congressman. 13 Examining twins aids in the understanding of how genes lay the groundwork for leadership. The twins are born with potential and the ability to emerge as leaders if the genetic leadership traits are fostered in the right environment.

The evidence consistently shows a genetic component to leadership. As a result, leaders are born, not made.

Leaders and Followers

We can look to nature to argue that one can be taught to follow, but not to lead. The concept of leadership exists throughout the animal kingdom, and animal models are commonly used to study leadership behavior. 14 The three-spined stickleback fish, for example, serves as a model species for research on personality and social behavior. Individual fish show large differences in the extent in which they emerge from covered areas to explore their environment. Some fish are bold and act as leaders, while others are shy and prefer to follow those that lead. 15,16 To determine how individuals may cope with a forced change in their leadership/follower role, Nakayama and colleagues formed pairs of stickleback fish, each consisting of a member that had shown natural leadership behavior and a member that had naturally taken on a follower role. 15 The followers were rewarded with a small amount of food each time they showed initiative, while the bolder fish received the same reward only when they followed the shyer member of the pair. The resulting behavioral patterns were compared with those resulting from fish being rewarded for showing their natural tendency to lead or follow. While the positive reinforcement helped both leaders and followers to show significantly more follower behavior, the increase in leader behavior was less significant. Moreover, when the fish were forced to swap roles, the overall performance of the pairs, as measured by the amount of food they were able to collect together, was reduced. 17 Altogether, the investigators concluded that fish can learn to follow but struggle to take on a leadership role. If we extend this into human leadership behavior, it may indicate that leadership is mostly born.

COUNTERPOINT: LEADERS ARE MADE

Arguments for the claim that leaders are born should not be supported because (1) there are statistical flaws in the twin studies evaluating leadership; (2) numerous examples exist of historical figures devoid of a family history of leaders; (3) individuals can learn the skills to be an outstanding leader through life experiences and leadership development programs. There has yet to be research to identify one single trait or mix of traits that is found in all leaders. Warren Bennis, author of the book On Becoming a Leader , identifies several characteristics that leaders share: a guiding vision, passion that provides hope and inspires others, integrity (which encompasses candor, maturity and self-knowledge), curiosity, and the willingness to take risks. 18 These are not traits that individuals are born with and cannot change, but rather traits that are developed as a result of life experiences. According to Bennis, “Developing character and vision is the way leaders invent themselves.” 18 Leaders embrace opportunities, engage in skill development, and respond to a set of external circumstances.

There is a lack of experimentation in humans on this issue, so researchers have relied heavily on statistical analysis of variance between pairs of twins to estimate the extent to which differences between the pairs correlate with genetic or environmental factors. The accumulated results of twin studies have consistently estimated the genetic component of leadership role occupancy at only 30% while estimating environmental influence at 70%. 10,19,20 Even more recent studies in molecular genetics have estimated the heritability of leadership at only 24% by demonstrating an association between leadership role occupancy and the rs4950 genotype. 7 Simply having occupancy in a leadership role does not assume that the person is an outstanding leader.

Twin studies also make significant assumptions that limit their validity, such as the equal environment assumption (EEA), which assumes identical and fraternal twin pairs grow up experiencing roughly equal environments. 21 Every person has slightly different perceptions of the world, and they see, hear, and internalize their environment to a different extent. Furthermore, results from twin studies cannot be directly generalized because they do not represent a random sample of the general population. While twin studies and molecular genetics have provided some indirect evidence in the form of statistical correlations or associations with self-reported leadership occupancy, these same studies also conclude that leadership is complex and that it is formed much more significantly by a person’s environment. 7 That is, leadership is not something we are simply born with like blue eyes or red hair. Leaders, especially outstanding leaders, are developed over time through hard work and lived experiences.

Historical Examples

Genetics logic would suggest that outstanding leaders are born to parents who are also leaders. Developing leadership skills through deliberate practice would be unnecessary for outstanding leaders. Both are false, and several historical examples support this statement.

Walt Disney came from humble beginnings and grew up in a home with his unassuming home-maker mother, his entrepreneurial father who failed at most business schemes in which he ventured, and four mostly ordinary siblings. His strict and aloof father disapproved of Walt’s creative leanings and actively forbid his participation in related events. Despite all of this, Walt succeeded, at the age of 29, with Mickey Mouse. He emerged, through perseverance, learning from mistakes and development of his skills to rally a team around an idea, as a pioneer in the field of animation. 22

Another example of an exceptional leader being made despite a less than leader-like pedigree is John D. Rockefeller Sr., the richest American in history. 23 His father was a “snake oil” salesman and bigamist who abandoned his family when John was just a small boy. Despite this “pedigree,” John created and grew Standard Oil, the largest oil refiner in the world, during the turn of the 20th century. 23 Rockefeller established his immense wealth slowly and deliberately, through success and failure, not through a predetermined set of innate leadership abilities.

In addition to Disney and Rockefeller, President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Roman Emperor Claudius Caesar Augustus are two further examples of outstanding leaders from a less than outstanding parental pedigree. 24-26 These leaders were mentored, learned from their environment, and developed through time and experience.

Leadership Industry

It has been demonstrated that it takes thousands of hours of deliberate practice to acquire mastery of skill. Research by Ericsson and colleagues in 1993 demonstrated that deliberate practice was responsible for 80% of the difference in outcomes between elite musicians and committed amateurs. 27 While the probability of succeeding at a high level is relatively low without some talent, the small role for talent is overshadowed by the larger role that preparation seems to play. Walt Disney spent 10 years learning and practicing his leadership skills following a first failed business attempt and ultimately went on to transform the entertainment industry. Leaders can indeed be developed, and leadership can be taught and practiced. Even AACP supports leadership development through various resources and programming, particularly the ALFP program to which the authors are participating.

Billions of dollars are spent yearly by corporations seeking to have their employees develop leadership skills. Leadership development is not a single activity, but rather a set of activities that typically occur over a period of time (ie, several years). Each leadership development activity may contribute to leadership capacity of the individual, of the group, or of the organization. 28

Are leaders born or made? Each ALFP group member, excluding the two leadership facilitators, provided his/her brief opinion on this topic, which is summarized in Table 1 . Consistent themes are noted when reading these statements. The group debating that leaders are born argue that certain innate traits are needed in order to develop into an outstanding leader when life experiences and circumstances present themselves. The group debating that leaders are made argue that training, hard work, and experiences result in the development of outstanding leaders. The answer is likely not just one viewpoint or the other, but rather a combination of both. There is evidence to support a 30% genetic component to being in a leadership role. 7 The genetic evidence, however, largely uses indirect outcomes, such as self-reported leadership role occupancy, which makes no claim to the aptness of leader within that role. Further, studies from nature support that some fish could learn to follow, but were less likely to learn to lead. 14 The translational ability of such a study from fish to humans is not yet demonstrated.

Authors’ Opinions on Outstanding Leaders Debate

Historical examples exist to support both a genetic and environmental component to leadership. Whether an evidence-based endeavor or a financial opportunity, the leadership industry exceeds $14 billion annually and is purportedly committed to making leaders. Leaders most likely arise from a combination of genetic predisposition as well as development through reactions to environmental factors.

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Are Leaders Born or Made?

What does science say about it, leadership traits and how to develop them, leadership demands work.

“Leaders aren’t born, they are made. And they are made just like anything else, through hard work.” These immortal words come from Hall of Fame football coach Vince Lombardi. In this quote, the belief that true leadership comes through experience, determination, and passion surfaces. Others will contend, however, that many leaders are born with leadership characteristics. These “natural-born leaders,” as they’re sometimes called, rise to the occasion because that’s just who they are.

So the question still stands: Are leaders born or made? There is truth to both sides of the coin. However, great leaders are well-rounded in many areas—most of which are learned over time. Whether managing a growing business or leading a major corporation, leaders emerge by developing their natural talents and the beneficial qualities of a person .

Science backs up this claim, too. Research from the University of Illinois shows people can be molded into leaders. If this is true, that means anyone can become a leader if they want to be. That would mean entire companies might have whole teams of leaders ready to break free. We’ll explore this question by first looking at what scientists say. Then learn about some common traits found in great leaders and how you can develop these, too.

Researchers across the globe have tried answering this question. Like many others, they want to know if there’s a genetic component to leadership or if it’s something people learn over time from a  mentor   or coach. One famous  debate  at the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy in 2016 took two groups from the Academic Fellows Program and had them argue over which side had the most evidence in their favor.

These groups looked at several studies of twins to compare leadership traits. The findings were not as conclusive as they likely hoped. The side which argued that leaders are born, not made, showed examples of twins who demonstrated impressive leadership capabilities, such as astronauts Mark and Scott Kelly. The side which favored the “leadership is learned” argument showed examples of leadership principles and traits that cannot be genetic, such as a passion for helping others, integrity, and a vision for the future. The two groups concluded that the answer likely involved some element of both nature and nurture.

Most experts agree that exceptional leaders make time to develop their craft. For this reason, the following characteristics should be of particular focus when working on increasing leadership abilities.

1. Accepting Responsibility

When he was President of the United States, Harry S. Truman famously had a  sign  on his desk stating, “The Buck Stops Here.” That meant that he was ultimately responsible for whatever happened during his administration. Leaders take responsibility and never “pass the buck.” As Jocko Willink teaches in  Extreme Ownership , true leaders take full ownership of everything their team does, including accepting the blame when things fall apart. It’s not always easy to do, but leaders know everyone is counting on them. Team members who see this will want to mimic this behavior as well. As Willink writes, “leadership is contagious.”

How to Accept Responsibility

• Do more than you’re required to do
• Show up on time 
• Admit mistakes
• Apologize when necessary
• Don’t shift blame onto others
• Offer solutions to problems without being prompted

2. Constant Learning

The best leaders have an unyielding appetite for learning. They’re constantly looking for new information. This isn’t just out of necessity for their jobs—it’s also due to their curiosity. They keep up with the news, seek new ways to solve problems, and read about topics outside their expertise. As Bill Gates said in an interview with  The Guardian , “I try to make time for reading each night. In addition to the usual newspapers and magazines, I make it a priority to read at least one newsweekly from cover to cover. If I were to read only what intrigues me—say, the science and business sections—then I would finish the magazine the same person I was when I started. So I read it all.”

Some of the world’s most prominent business leaders have a reputation for wanting to learn all the time.  Jan Koum , the co-founder and former CEO of WhatsApp, lived in extreme poverty in Ukraine before moving to the U.S. where he faced even more difficulties. However, his desire to learn never faded. After only two years in the United States, Koum taught himself computer programming. He even joined a hacking group so he could learn all about cybersecurity, scalability, and networking. All of this hands-on learning would eventually pay off, and today, Koum has a net worth of almost $10 billion.

How to Keep Learning

• Read books, magazines, newspapers, and web articles about a variety of subjects
• Set aside time each day for reading
• Ask questions from people in other industries
• Keep an open mind

3. Motivating to Action

Great leaders hone in on the ability to inspire other people to action. When on a team, they keep their teammates focused on the goal, motivating them every step of the way. At times when frustration may set in, they raise everyone’s spirits. Some business leaders, like  Elon Musk , aim to motivate people by sharing an inspirational vision. For years, Musk has talked about the importance of space exploration, setting goals many thought unachievable (such as having a million people living on Mars by the year 2050). There’s little doubt his employees share that vision and feel motivated by his words and infectious enthusiasm. The sign of a great leader is motivating people to see the seemingly impossible as possible.

How to Motivate Others

• Keep an optimistic attitude
• Focus on the positive and don’t dwell on the negative
• Encourage others to become the best version of themselves
• Share a vision and help others see it

4. Adapting to Changes

No matter the industry, change always happens. Effective leaders can adapt to those changes. They see change as an opportunity to grow and learn. They never take the more pessimistic route and think of change as bad. If anything, they view it all as a challenge to overcome and help other people see it that way, as well.

The ability to adapt goes hand in hand with the constant learning trait discussed above. If a leader always looks for new things to learn, they’ll be in a much better position to adapt to whatever changes occur. They remain focused on their goals but are flexible enough to react to the changing world around them. Returning to the Elon Musk example, SpaceX deals with constant new developments and discoveries that change the landscape of space exploration, but Musk remains firm in his commitment to his vision. SpaceX adapts to technological changes and learns from failed rocket launches to become a better company.

How to Adapt

• Stay calm as changes happen
• Take the time to learn as much about why the change is happening
• Face changes with courage and determination
• Stay focused on goals

5. Showing Empathy

Most people tend to think of great leaders as excellent public speakers and outgoing personalities. While it’s true charisma plays a role in developing followers, that doesn’t mean only extroverts make great leaders. Introverts can be leaders too because much of leadership boils down to how much  emotional intelligence a person has.

Emotional intelligence consists of the leadership skills needed to employ feelings for motivation, planning, and forming bonds with other people. Empathy is part of that equation. Showing empathy means understanding what others are feeling and connecting with them on an emotional level. It’s how leaders solve conflicts, raise spirits, and act appropriately in any social setting.

How to Show Empathy

• Encourage people to voice their opinions and questions
• Support others when they’re struggling
• Praise others when they succeed
• Settle disagreements with compassion and understanding

While some may still argue that natural-born leaders exist, effective leadership still requires work. This indicates that leadership development is something you must do to gain the skills needed for your position. Thinking that true leadership comes from those born with it means only a select few would technically be ready to lead. As Warren G. Bennis notes, “The most dangerous leadership myth is that leaders are born—that there is a genetic factor to leadership. This myth asserts that people simply either have certain charismatic qualities or not. That’s nonsense; in fact, the opposite is true. Leaders are made rather than born.”

Want to learn more about how to make yourself into a leader?  The following articles can help:

• Leadership Traits: 7 Characteristics of a Multiplying Leader
• How to Write an Inspiring Leadership Vision Statement
• Transformational Leadership: Inspiring Positive Change

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• Published May 30, 2020
• 7 Minute Read

Are Leaders Born or Made?

Perspectives From the Executive Suite

Do you think a leader should be a hero or a negotiator? Out in front leading people or behind the scenes, coordinating the work of the group? Are people destined to become leaders, or can leadership skills be developed? Are leaders born or made?

The way we think about leadership affects how we perceive the leaders around us. For instance, if we expect a leader to be a hero, we are likely to see someone who takes charge to save the day as having the  characteristics of a good leader , and someone who asks everyone’s opinions and lets the group make decisions as weak.

Alternatively, if we think a leader should be collaborative and focused on making sure decisions arise from the group, we would view someone who’s directive as aggressive or a tyrant.

In the same way, our beliefs about how people become leaders affect how we evaluate people’s leadership potential. Believing people are born leaders is likely to result in a focus more on selection (identifying the right people) rather than on development (developing the people you have).

On the other hand, believing that people are made into leaders by their experiences would be more likely to result in a greater focus on making sure people had the right opportunities to develop into leaders.

The Impact of Genes on Leadership

For scientists, one key challenge to answering the question “Are leaders born or made?” is that each individual’s growth trajectory is influenced by many factors.  The Minnesota twin studies  have been designed to tackle this challenge.

By comparing identical twins (who share 100% of their genes) and fraternal twins (who share 50% of their genes, on average), researchers reported that genetic factors explained about 30% of individual differences in whether people hold leadership positions in the workplace. However, it’s worth noting that environmental factors, especially work experiences, are substantially important in determining leadership.

Further studies have been conducted to identify specific DNA markers that may be involved in genetic influences on leadership.  One study  examined how a dopamine transporter gene, DAT1, was involved in genetic influences on leadership role occupancy. Researchers found that on one hand, individuals with this gene were more likely to demonstrate moderate rule-breaking behaviors, which is important for becoming a leader.

(Think about some successful business leaders of the century — Steve Jobs, Richard Branson, and Jack Welch — they started demonstrating “rule-breaking” behaviors in their early ages, and later on, they dared to transform the rules and became leaders of the industry.)

On the other hand, this gene was also associated with a lack of planning, self-control, and perseverance, which are also important leadership competencies. The findings suggest that whether individuals with this gene become leaders or not depends on other factors such as the environment. For instance, if families and organizations provide safe environments to encourage individuals’ innovative behaviors while also encouraging self-regulation, the overall influences of the gene might become positive, and individuals are likely to take up leadership positions.

So, what is the implication of these scientific findings?

Scientific research confirms that it’s the joint influences of both nature and nurture that play important roles. In fact, the data showed that environmental factors weigh heavier in influencing individuals’ leadership journeys.

The implication for most of us is that leadership can be practiced and learned.

Parents, trainers, organizations, and educators should create a learning environment where developmental opportunities are provided to allow individuals to grow as leaders  and fully realize their leadership potential.

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Watch our webinar, How to Scale Development Opportunities for Employees to Prepare for the Future , to learn the 5 key considerations for L&D professionals in offering effective leadership development to all their employees as they serve the entire organization and prepare their workforce to succeed in a diverse and ever-changing world.

Do Leaders at Your Organization Believe That Leaders Are Born or Made?

Understanding whether people in your organization think leaders are born or made is critical because these attitudes play out in recruiting, promotion, and development decisions.

Will your organization spend resources on finding people believed to be born leaders, or on developing people into becoming leaders? Will executives emphasize the selection of talent and only invest in those who they believe have leadership potential? Or will they see value in developing the leadership skills of a broad group of people?

The stance of senior executives on the question of whether leaders are born or made may influence the entire culture of your organization and the way leaders are developed.

For instance, if your CEO or executive team believes leaders are more born, they may focus more on selection. Organizational development may tend to have early identification programs for high potentials, in combination with on-the-job stretch assignments to develop certain leaders.

On the other hand, if your CEO or executive team believes that leaders are more made, a broad-based leadership development strategy may be well received, and expected, by leaders up and down the organization.

Top leaders set the tone for the development of others within their organization, so understanding their views can inform talent identification and development strategies.

Our Research Explores the Question: Are Leaders Born or Made?

We  conducted research  on this question, asking 361 C-level executives “Are leaders born or made?”

We found that their views were decidedly mixed:

• 19% believed that leaders are more born,
• 52% believed they are more made, and
• 29% believed that leaders are about equally born and made.

This distribution suggests that executives don’t really agree on whether leaders are born or made. And neither do leadership scholars — the selection vs. development debate is strong, as arguments for both sides continue to emerge.

We also found that “Born Believers” and “Made Believers” may think a little differently about what creates a leader.

Born Believers place substantially more importance on leader traits than do Made Believers and believe that traits are slightly more important than are experiences.

In contrast, Made Believers believe that experiences are substantially more important than are leader traits (though both agree that experience is important).

Development Is Important, Regardless of Whether Leaders Are Born or Made

Our results indicate that there is little difference in how Borns and Mades at the tops of organizations feel about the availability of learning opportunities within their organizations.

Specifically, 82% of Borns and 89% of Mades believe that their organizations value employee learning and development opportunities. Additionally, 84% of Borns and 82% of Mades believe that learning and developmental resources are available to them in their organizations.

Apparently, even when top executives believe that leaders are more born than they are made, they also believe that learning from experience is important for development . The difference is focus .

Borns are likely to think that organizations should be very selective in who gets developmental opportunities, offering them only to those the leaders believe are most likely to benefit from them.

Improving the Leadership Pipeline

Regardless of how you answer the question “Are leaders born or made?”  you can continue to improve your organization’s leadership bench strength by providing your team with access to varied developmental experiences.

When you make sure that your people have adequate access to developmental experiences, coaching, mentoring, training, and other leadership experiences, they have the opportunity to learn and become better leaders. Whether these experiences draw out and boost natural abilities or create new leadership skills may be debated — but either way, the organization benefits.

Organizations can also benefit in other ways when they provide more general support for development. Access to development has been shown to increase employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and performance. Conversely, the absence of support and development opportunities makes employees want to leave .

In conclusion, as long as there are leaders, people are going to wonder — are leaders born or made?

But overwhelmingly, our research found, executives agree that people become leaders, in large part, as a result of experiences that help them learn how to lead.

Ready to Take the Next Step?

Whether leaders are born or made, your organization will want to offer talent development to your people. We’d love to partner with you to craft impactful, individualized leadership development for your leaders at all levels.

Based on Research by

Bill’s research at CCL focused on examining what leaders, particularly first-time managers, can do to be successful in their work and life, and to avoid derailment. He’s the author of Be the Boss Everyone Wants to Work For: A Guide for New Leaders and co-author of the guidebook Developing Political Savvy .

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What to explore next.

Our research explored how much organizations invest in leadership development. Learn 5 factors HR executives say are part of a successful and effective leadership development strategy.

Watch this webinar to learn 5 key considerations for L&D professionals working to provide enterprise-wide development opportunities to help prepare your workforce to succeed in the changing world.

Scalable leadership development can increase employee engagement, bolstering retention while nurturing and preparing future leaders. Download our paper to learn 3 keys to unlocking motivation, reducing turnover, and building a leadership pipeline.

Organizations that prioritize soft skill development create stronger cultures. Learn the specific people skills our research has found are needed at each leader level, and how to develop them.

Development looks different in the pressure-cooker world of Silicon Valley. Learn from our experience in developing leaders in the tech industry and apply these learnings and leadership development "hacks" at your organization.

Related Solutions

What are your talent development initiatives doing for your organization? Partner with us for a customized talent development program to fit your context and culture.

Build a pipeline of leaders with research-based, highly personal leadership development training. Secure your organization's future today.

The Center for Creative Leadership (CCL)® is a top-ranked, global, nonprofit provider of leadership development and a pioneer in the field of global leadership research. We know from experience how transformative remarkable leaders really can be.

Over the past 50 years, we’ve worked with organizations of all sizes from around the world, including more than 2/3 of the Fortune 1000. Our hands-on development solutions are evidence-based and steeped in our work with hundreds of thousands of leaders at all levels.

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Leaders Are Made, not Born

• Categories: Effective Leadership Leader

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Words: 752 |

Published: Jan 29, 2024

Words: 752 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

Table of contents

Definition and understanding of leadership, examples of leaders who were made, debate points supporting leaders are made, counterarguments and rebuttals, case study 1: abraham lincoln's transformation into a great leader, case study 2: mahatma gandhi's growth as a leader, the importance of education and knowledge in leadership development, the role of experience and practice in developing leadership skills, the significance of personal growth and self-awareness in leadership development, counterargument 1: some individuals possess innate leadership traits from birth, counterargument 2: the influence of genetics and personality on leadership.

• Buffet, W. E. (2013). Benjamin Graham, "The Intelligent Investor." (Revised Edition). New York: Harper Collins Publishers.
• Isaacson, W. (2011). Steve Jobs. New York: Simon & Schuster.
• Nadella, S. (2017). Hit Refresh: The Quest to Rediscover Microsoft's Soul and Imagine a Better Future for Everyone. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.

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Are leaders born or made? The answer is . . . yes .

We spoke with prominent leaders and leadership experts to learn their response to this question. The answers reflect a spectrum of leadership insights. Scroll below to see where our leaders land.

Want to learn more? Click on a leader’s name to visit their profile.

Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon them. William Shakespeare

PRIMARILY BORN

PRIMARILY MADE

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Showing 24 Leader profiles

“I think the leaders are born with the ability to become a leader.”

Henry Mintzberg

“[L]eadership really comes from the challenge of difficult jobs and being moved around and having challenges at critical points in your career. That’s how you train leadership. But I think a lot of leadership is kind of born.”

Ambassador Randall L. Tobias

“[C]ertainly leaders that are born can become better leaders, and people who might not expect to be leaders can develop leadership skills.”

Father Theodore Hesburgh

“Put it this way that they have the essential ingredients of understanding, courage, analysis, things that go into leadership. But I don't think they’re born ready-made. I think you have the potential there and you have to develop it. I think leaders are developed over time by facing different crises and solving them pretty much in the right way.”

P.E. MacAllister

“Both . . . I think you take a look at Bonaparte for example. You find somebody who is gifted because he didn’t get much teaching about what he did aside from the artillery in terms of his medical thing. Alexander of Macedon was given not only experience but the most effective military unit in the world to fight battles with in the phalanx so he had a lot going for him but where would it have gone with the average leader and the answer is probably no place. So there had to be a vision there too.”

Stella Nkomo

“You can train them what to do. How they will do it, I have no control over.”

Richard Couto

“Well, we have to start with the basics: willing to take initiative, some sense of values, some sense of the common good. Now once you get past those, what makes some initiatives effective, successful, and others not in that they are not all bound to the leader, obviously; it’s the context. Why was Rosa Parks’ effort successful but a woman six months earlier was not successful? It has to do with the characteristics of the people.”

Robert Lord

“[B]oth is the obvious answer... I mean, you need to be able to have a certain set of skills and be able to manage what you’re doing so that you can then focus on understanding the way other people are reacting to you, what their needs are, and how you can help them do what they need to do.”

Patricia Miller

“Both. You can become a better leader. I can become a better leader. Every day I can.”

Frances Hesselbein

“I would say, to put it differently, leadership cannot be taught, but it can be learned.”

Barbara Kellerman

“Most people who teach leadership don’t self-reflect, don’t question, don’t measure very much. They assume what they’re doing is teaching leadership. On the other end, you have a much smaller number who says, no, leadership can’t be taught. And in the middle you have a mix – I suppose I would put myself in the middle -- of people who say that maybe perhaps under certain circumstances, certain things can be taught. But when people ask me that question, I will say, 'Can playing the piano be taught?' Well, yes. Can you be taught certain skills? Even the most unmusical person can be taught over time to play the reasonably good piano. Can they be taught to become a wonderful pianist? Unless they have innate skills, innate musical skills, bloody unlikely. ”

Joanne Ciulla

“What I always tell my students is human beings haven’t changed. You see leaders doing the same stuff they’ve been doing for a long time, so human nature hasn’t changed; ethics hasn’t changed. It goes in cycles and cultures.”

Thomas Ehrlich

“It’s a combination of both but I certainly think that most of it is being made.”

Alice Eagly

“It’s the nature of organizations that organizations are flatter structures where leaders are not just up here sort of determining things. It’s very complex instead. If you think of building cars or something, you have all kinds of different expertise brought together. It’s very intentional. It’s very complex. So the leader, or the CEO, has to be so engaged in so many ways to do a good job that it does take a lot of social skills as well as other kinds of skills.”

William Mays

“I don’t think you’re born with leadership. You may have leadership qualities, but I think the leadership skills have to be developed, or made.”

Myles Brand

“Nurture. Nature. It’s hard to say. It probably takes both.”

“I think you can learn to be a leader and I think it’s a learned talent. But the motivation to learn it is, it has to be there, so maybe that’s innate.”

Russell Mawby

“It was a great cadre of people who said leaders are born and if you weren’t born into leadership there’s no chance of your being a leader. My own perspective was completely different than that . . . [I]t was just obvious to me that there are certain skills which can be encouraged, nurtured, and taught.”

Max De Pree

“I guess one thing that occurs to me is that leadership . . . is a gift. And if you’re going to indulge in the use of that gift . . . the least you can do is to prepare responsibly to be good at it. I think there are a lot of people who want to be leaders, but they don’t want to pay the price.”

James Morris

“I think you learn to be a leader. Maybe somebody is born with special skills to be a great quarterback: stature, size, strength. But I don’t know if humans are born with an innate, inherent instinct to be helpful, to care, or to have integrity. And I think, through school, through your church, through your family, through your community, you learn to care and learn to think about what you hope for. And that’s acquiring the skill.”

Larraine Matusak

“‘[Y]ou’re either a leader or you’re not.’ I really disagree violently with that.”

Martin Jischke

“The notion that leaders are in some sense naturals in it—you’re sort of born with the set of skills and it’s just a matter of time before they’re manifest—or not. I just resent that as an educator.”

Guy Russell

“Well, you know, it’s something that is not necessarily you’re born with, I don’t think. It’s something at least I had to learn over the years through experience and working with people and whatnot.”

Catherine Milton

“I learned... how there were certain things that I was doing as a leader, that... if I made some... changes, I could be better and more effective.”

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Are Leaders Born or Made?

For some people, the question of whether people are born leaders or made on-the-job is truly intellectual—fodder for a good classroom or dinner party debate. But for people in front-line positions to hire, promote, and fire, the question, “Who has the right stuff to lead?” definitely has more urgency. Getting the answer right can drive an organization’s culture and performance to new levels. Getting it wrong can too—downwards.

Are people born leaders.

The answer to the born leaders question isn’t neat or simple. The facts are, some leadership traits are inborn, and they’re big whoppers. They matter a lot. On the other hand, two key leadership traits can be developed with training and experience—in fact, they need to be.

Before going any farther, though, let’s talk about our definition of leadership. It’s comprised of five essential traits. These traits, by the way, do not include integrity, which is a requirement in any leadership position, or intelligence, which is likewise a ticket to the game in today’s complex global marketplace. Nor do they include emotional maturity, another necessity. These three characteristics are baseline—they’re givens and are often found within born leaders.

So let’s go beyond them.

From our experience, the essential traits of leadership are as follows:

• Positive energy: the capacity to go-go-go with healthy vigor and an upbeat attitude through good times and bad.
• The ability to energize others, releasing their positive energy, to take any hill.
• Edge: the ability to make tough calls, to say yes or no, not maybe.
• The talent to execute: very simply, get things done.
• Passion. They care deeply. They sweat; they believe.

As you may have figured, positive energy and the ability to energize are pretty hard-wired within born leaders. They’re basically personality. Similarly, passion feels inborn. Some people just seem to come fully loaded with intensity and curiosity; they naturally love people, life, and work. It’s in them. It is them.

Edge and the ability to execute are different. New hires rarely show up with them in polished form, and even middle managers benefit from training in both. But the best teacher for these two traits is trench warfare. That’s because edge and execution are largely a function of self-confidence. You can say yes or no a heck of a lot better when you’ve done it a bunch of times and seen how well decisiveness works. Likewise, only in real-world challenges can managers truly feel the power of moving quickly, demanding accountability, and rewarding results. They can also experience how damaging it is not to execute—a mistake most effective leaders don’t make twice.

So are leaders born or made? The answer (perhaps not surprisingly) is both. Your best strategy , then, is to hire for energy, the ability to energize, and passion. Go full force in training and developing edge and execution. Promote the people who have a good dose of all five traits. Always remember, though, that not everyone was meant to be a leader. But as long as you are one yourself—it’s your job to find and build those who were.

Source: This article was originally published on  LinkedIn .

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Developing Leaders: Are Leaders Born or Made?

Vince Lombardi is famous for saying "Leaders are not born. They are made. They are made just like anything else, through hard work. That's the price you have to pay to achieve that goal or any goal." Leadership skills can be learned and leadership effectiveness can be developed 1 . Organizations typically identify a leadership gap and then seek to fill the gap through training efforts.

Robert Katz, in his book Skills of an Effective Administrator, explains that leadership is a learned skill. Although people possess varying amounts of aptitude to lead, their skills can be improved through training and practice. Furthermore, even those lacking strong innate ability can improve their performance through coaching and learning. This is the rationale for the establishment of leadership schools -- Plato's Academy, 387 BC; Aristotle's Lyceum, 355 BC; Oxford University, AD 1117; Harvard University, AD 1636; and the U.S. military academies, as well as over 2,000 corporate universities found in American business, industry, and government 3 .

One good way to learn is by studying the masters, those who have gone before. The most effective performers are honest in appraising their current skills and humble enough to learn from others. They copy, adapt, and sometimes surpass the heroes who were the source of their inspiration. They take to heart Yogi Berra's famous slogan "You can observe a lot by watching 4 ."

Individuals who want to develop leadership effectiveness should identify superb leaders and learn from their example. They should observe their behavior and ask questions. Understanding the values and goals of successful leaders, the rationale for their decisions and actions, the principles underlying their skills and techniques, and the resources they use to solve problems and make decisions can serve as an excellent foundation for developing one's own leadership ability.

Although much of what is labeled as leadership development is classroom-based and is provided in courses, seminars, and lectures, important growth can come from on-the-job "stretch" experiences and, sometimes, the crucible of crisis. Experiences having developmental possibilities include early work experience, first-time supervision, responsibility for starting something from scratch or for fixing something (turnaround), expansion of job scope, special projects and task force assignments, and line to staff switch. These experiences usually force people to rise to a challenge or endure a trial they have never faced before. Out of adversity, hardship, and even loss can come meaningful development that cannot be easily achieved in the classroom setting.

Stretch Assignment

A quality shared by most great leaders is a love of learning. They love to stretch their knowledge and skills and expand their capacity to make a difference. Leadership stretch assignments involve taking risks and reaching beyond one’s comfort zone. They are determined efforts to improve leadership performance. Stretch assignments combat complacency and stimulate growth by “changing things up.” Examples of stretch projects include improving personal skills in public speaking, computer literacy, or community service; improving company performance by reconfiguring workflow for better quality; eliminating waste to reduce cost; and improving products and services to satisfy customers 9 .

Both emerging and experienced leaders can use stretch projects to keep themselves fresh and growing. Through personal example, such leaders model continuous improvement as a basic value. In many fields, the difference between average performance and exceptional performance is 10 percent. In baseball, for example, many players hit .275, but the best players hit over .300 (a difference of about 10 percent). A good goal for a stretch project would be to improve individual or group performance by at least 10 percent 10 .

Leaders can enhance professional success through an active program of personal reading. This is an activity that leaders should consider to broaden their perspective and deepen their knowledge. After basic biology, lives are determined by self-talk ("I am a loser," "I am a winner"), the people we are around (some will pull us down; some will pull us up), and the books we read (good ideas in books generate good deeds in life).

What do Employers Want in an Employee?

The number one quality employers want in an employee is honesty. The need for trust is paramount because the employer relies on the employee to serve its customers, protect its property, and uphold its reputation. Employee honesty is essential.

Second, the employer wants someone who will take initiative and be a self-starter. The employee who is eager to serve is viewed as an asset. Demographics are less important than the underlying qualities of self-motivation, desire to learn, and personal commitment. These qualities are important irrespective of age, gender, and ethnicity.

Third, employers want employees with good problem-solving ability, including technical knowledge and skills. For example, the ability to obtain, analyze, and use quantitative information is important in many jobs.

These "big three" qualities are followed by communication skills, the ability to get along well with others, creative responses to setbacks and obstacles, a high-attitude-low-maintenance approach to work, and leadership potential to constitute the characteristics of an ideal employee 20 .

The following are basic rules for succeeding in one’s work:

• Put your best foot forward. Ask what is expected of you and with whom you will be working; then exceed expectations. Build good working relationships from the beginning.
• Deliver results. Be known for reliability and performance. Stay on task, and persevere in the face of challenge. Let your deeds speak louder than the words you use.
• Be considerate. Work cooperatively to accomplish tasks. Lend a helping hand to others in need, and have a one-team attitude in dealing with people.
• Be creative. Keep an open mind, and look for ways to improve your organization and the work you do. Be original and open to new ideas.
• Have integrity. Remember, success comes from doing the right things for the right reasons in the right way. Keep your thinking cap on to know what is right. Keep your character strong to do what is right.

Consider the practice of Alan B. Miller, CEO, and chairman of Universal Health Services, who uses a 3i screen for hiring employees. Miller requires integrity (honesty in all dealings), intensity (self-drive and determination), and intelligence (problem-solving ability) in order of importance. These guidelines trump all other factors, including academic credentials and social connections. Miller believes the 3i's can be difficult to assess, but they are critical for both individual and organizational success. As such, in-depth interviews and background investigation are favored over automated selection methods that fail to measure the "human factors" of success. Although the 3i's are important for all employees to possess, Miller believes integrity, intensity, and intelligence are indispensable qualities for effective leadership.

Peak performance is important for the individual and the organization. It is hard to describe, but you know it when you see it.

To personalize the concept of peak performance, answer the following questions:

• Describe a time in your life when you performed at your personal best. When was it? Who was involved? What happened? What were the results?
• As a result of your personal best, what did you learn about yourself? About other people? About excellence?
• Based on your personal best and lessons learned, what are your plans for the road ahead? What goals do you have? What steps can you take to perform (again) at a peak-performance level?

Whatever you are called to be in life you should perform your work so well that all the hosts of heaven will declare, here is a great baker, machinist, farmer, or chief, who does his or her work well 23 .

• G. Goethals et al., Encyclopedia of Leadership, Vol. 2 (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2004), p. 919; and B. Avolio, Full Range Leadership Development (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010).
• P. Jackson and H. Delehanty, Sacred Hoops (New York: Hyperion, 2006).
• R. Katz, Skills of an Effective Administrator (Boston: Harvard Business Review Reprint Service, 2009); M. Allen, The Next Generation of Corporate Universities (San Francisco: Wiley, 2007); and M. Rademakers, Corporate Universities (London: Routledge, 2014).
• Y. Berra, When You Come to a Fork in the Road, Take It (Waterville, ME: Thorndike Press, 2002).
• L. Bock, Work Rules! (New York: Twelve Publishing, 2015).
• C. Handy, Myself and Other Matters (New York: AMACOM, 2011); and D. Kaplan, "Mars Incorporated," Fortune (February 4, 2013), pp. 72-82.
• M. McCall, "Recasting Leadership Development," Industrial and Organizational Psychology 3 (2010), pp. 3-19.
• N. Griffin, "Personalize Your Management Development," Harvard Business Review (March 2003), pp. 113-19; and J. Kotter, What Leaders Really Do (Brighton, MA: Harvard Business Review Press, 1999).
• M. McCall, Jr., et al., The Lessons of Experience (Lexington, VA: Lexington Books, 1988).
• R. Hughes et al., Leadership (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2015), p. 94.
• S. Kessler, "How to Start a Mentoring Program," Inc., www.inc.com/guides/2010/04/start-mentoring-program.html.
• M. Goldsmith, What Got You Here Won't Get You There (New York: Hyperion, 2008); and N. Klippert et al., Maximizing Returns on Professional Executive Coaching (New York: Corporate Executive Board, 2003).
• D. Dunning, "The First Assistant, in Cynthia Jacobs, ed. Effective Leader, no. 2 (Seattle, WA: Corporate Leadership Consultants, 1996).
• T. Allen et al., "Career Benefits Associated with Mentoring for Protégés," Journal of Applied Psychology 89, no. 1 (2004), pp. 127-36; and M. Goldsmith et al., Coaching for Leadership (New York: Wiley Pfeiffer, 2012).
• S. Berglas, "The Very Real Dangers of Executive Coaching," Harvard Business Review (June 2020), pp. 86-93; and D. Peterson and M. Hicks, Leader as Coach (Minneapolis, MN: Personnel Decisions International, 1996), p. 14.
• T. Kreiner, "Social Entrepreneurship," Businessweek.com, March 9, 2012.
• N. Tichy, The Leadership Engine (Dallas, TX: Pritchett, 2007); and C. McCauley and E. Van Velsor, eds., The Center for Creative Leadership Handbook of Leadership Development (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2010).

J. Conger, "Leadership Development Interventions," in N. Nohria and R. Khurana, eds., Handbook of Leadership Theory and Practice (Boston: Harvard Business Press, 2010); R. Hughes et al., Leadership (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2015); and Nicky Wakefield et al., "Leadership Awakened," Deloitte Human Capital Trends 2016 report, http://dupress.com/periodical/human-capital-trends .

• Authors' files, Correction Corporation of America, 2010 (CoreCivic, 2016).
• O'Toole and Lawler, The New American Workplace; M. Arthur et al., The New Careers (London: Sage, 2007); and ìThe Skills/Qualities Employers Want in New College Graduates," www.naceweb.org (retrieved April 22, 2015).
• D. Goleman, Working with Emotional Intelligence; O'Toole and Lawler, The New American Workplace; and Arthur et al., The New Careers.
• R. Levering and M. Moskowitz, "The 100 Best Companies to Work For," Fortune (January 12, 2004), p. 68.
• R. Grossman, "Blind Investment," HR (January 2005), pp. 40-47; and "Unlocking the DNA of the Adaptable Workforce," IBM Global Services, www.935.ibm.com/services/us/gbs/bus/html/2008ghcs.html (retrieved March 15, 2012).
• M. Goldsmith and L. Carter, eds., Best ≠Practices in Talent Management (San Francisco: Wiley, 2010); and R. Sommer, Retaining Intellectual Capital in the 21st Century (Alexandria, VA: Society for Human Resource Management, 2007).
• M. Buckingham, First Break All the Rules (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999); M. Buckingham and D. Clifton, Now Discover Your Strengths (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2013); and T. Rath, Strength Finders, 2nd ed. (Gallup Press, 2007).
• M. Buckingham, "What Great Managers Do," Harvard Business Review (March 2005), pp. 70-79; and T. Rath and B. Conchie, Strengths Based Leadership (New York: Gallup Press, 2009).
• J. Hudnut, Architecture and the Spirit of Man (New York: Greenwood Press, 1949), p. 3.
• H. Greenberg and P. Sweeney, Succeed on Your Own Terms (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007).
• H. Grant-Halvarson, Nine Things Successful People Do Differently (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business Publishing, 2011); M. Korda, Success! (New York: Ballantine Books, 1978); and M. Jay, The Defining Decade (New York: Twelve, 2013).
• N. Carlson, "The Untold Story of Larry Page's Incredible Comeback," www.businessinsider.com (retrieved April 24, 2014).
• A. Brooks, "Beware the City Dolls," New York Times (May 16, 2014).
• W. Isaacson, Steve Jobs (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2015).

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