paul elder framework for critical thinking has three components

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How to Apply Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework

The critical thinking framework provides an efficient method for designers, design students, and researchers to evaluate arguments and ideas through rational reasoning. As a result, we eliminate biases, distractions, and similar factors that negatively affect our decisions and judgments. We can use critical thinking to escape our current mindsets to reach innovative outcomes.

The critical thinking framework is based on three main stages; observe the problem to build rational knowledge, ask questions to analyze and evaluate data, and find answers to the questions that can be formulated into a solution. These stages are translated into six steps ( 6 Steps for Effective Critical Thinking ):

Knowledge – Define the main topic that needs to be covered
Comprehension – Understand the issue through researching the topic
Application – Analyze the data and link between the collected data
Analysis – Solve the problem, or the issue investigated
Synthesis – Turn the solution into an implementable action plan
Evaluate – test and evaluate the solution

Based on the above, the essential part of the critical thinking framework represents building clear, coherent reasoning for the problem, which will help ensure that the topic is addressed in the critical thinking stages.

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The Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework

In 2001, Paul and Elder introduced the critical thinking framework that helps students to master their thinking dimensions through identifying the thinking parts and evaluating the usage of these parts. The framework aims to improve our reasoning by identifying its different elements through three main elements; elements of reasoning, intellectual standards, and intellectual traits.

Elements of Reasoning

Whenever we have a topic or argument to discuss, we tend to use a number of thinking models to understand the topic at hand (i.e. Using Inductive Reasoning in User Experience Research ). These parts are known as the elements of thought or reasoning. Our minds may use these parts over the course to think about the idea:

Purpose – This part of our thinking includes defining the topic’s goal or objective. For example, the goal may involve solving a problem or achieving a target. Attempt – This part includes the attempts that previously addressed the topic or attempts to solve a problem. Assumption – Before solving a problem, we don’t have much information about the topic. Therefore, we build assumptions to act as the base of our research about the issue. We usually start with inductive inferences. Then, we use the research data to validate these assumptions. For example, we assume that all apples are red and start to research the different types of trees to know that some apples are green and some are red. The point of View includes the personal perspective we take while thinking about the topic. For instance, we can think about the product from the consumer perspective rather than the business perspective. Data, Information, and Evidence – Here, we cover the data and information related to the topic. Also, here we have all the supportive evidence. Concepts and Ideas – We have all the principles, models, and theories related to the topic. For example, this part may include all the views associated with applying a specific solution. Inferences and Interpretations – The last part includes the concluded solutions based on the previous factors. The conclusion may consist of the suggested solution to a specific problem. Implications and Consequences – All the reasons must lead to consequences resulting from implementing the results of the reasoning process.

Intellectual Standards

The above reasoning parts require a good quality benchmark to achieve its goals and ensure the accuracy of results. The intellectual standards are nine factors that can evaluate the equality of the reason parts mentioned above. These standards include clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, significance, and fairness. Based on these standards, we can ask ourselves questions to evaluate the parts above. The below table provides examples of the questions that we can ask to assess the equality of our ideas.

The below two videos include Dr. Richard Paul’s lectures about the standards of thought and critical thinking.

Intellectual Traits

As a result of the application for the above reasoning parts and validating them using intellectual standards, The below characteristics are expected to evolve, known as the intellectual traits:

Intellectual Humility

This trait develops one’s ability to perceive the known limitation and the circumstances that may cause biases and self-deceptively. It depends on recognizing that one claims what one’s knows.

Intellectual Courage

Courage represents developing a consciousness to address ideas fairly regardless of its point of View or our negative emotions about it. Also, it helps us develop our ability to evaluate ideas regardless of our presumptions and perceptions about them.

Intellectual Empathy

Empathy is related to developing the ability to put ourselves in others’ shoes to understand them. Also, it forms how we can see the parts of reasoning of the others, such as the viewpoints, assumptions, and ideas.

Intellectual Integrity

This part is related to developing the ability to integrate with other intellectual reasoning and avoid the confusion of our reasoning. Unlike empathy, integrity focuses on the ability to others’ reasoning for the topic and integrate with it.

Intellectual Perseverance

Perseverance develops the need to have a proper insight about the situation regardless of the barriers faced against it, such as difficulties, frustration, and obstacles. This helps us to build rational reasoning despite what is standing against it.

Confidence in Reason

By applying the reasoning parts and encouraging people to develop their reasons, they build confidence in their reason and rational thinking.

Fair-mindedness

This trait develops the ability to start with a fair look at all the reasoning and traits of all the viewpoints, putting aside one’s feelings, raises, and interests.

The critical thinking framework can help us address topics and problems more rationally, contributing to building a clear understanding of topics. This can be achieved through having clear reasoning about the addressed topics. The Paul-Eder Critical Thinking Framework was introduced in 2001 to improve the critical thinking process by understanding the parts of the reasons and providing a method to evaluate it. You can learn more about the framework through the Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking published by the Foundation of Critical Thinking.

Understanding the thinking elements and how to evaluate our reasoning related to each part, we can improve our thoughts through time. Additionally, seven main advantages (intellectual traits) can be achieved.

Paul-Elder’s critical thinking framework identifies the thinking parts through eight elements of reasoning (purpose, attempt, assumption, point of view, data, concepts and ideas, and inference and interpretation). Nine benchmarks are used to evaluate the application of the above elements (clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, significance and fairness).

What are the critical thinking framework elements?

Define the main topic that needs to be covered

Understand the issue through researching the topic

Analyze the data and link between the collected data

Solve the problem, or the issue investigated

Turn the solution into an implementable action plan

Test and evaluate the solution

The application of the Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework is based on identifying eight elements of reasoning: Purpose, Attempt, Assumption, Point of View, Data and Evidence, Concepts and Ideas, Inferences and Interpretations and Implications and Consequences.

Dr Rafiq Elmansy

I'm an academic, author and design thinker, currently teaching design at the University of Leeds with a research focus on design thinking, design for health, interaction design and design for behaviour change. I developed and taught design programmes at Wrexham Glyndwr University, Northumbria University and The American University in Cairo. Additionally, I'm a published book author and founder of Designorate.com. I am a fellow for the Higher Education Academy (HEA), the Royal Society of Arts (FRSA), and an Adobe Education Leader. I write Adobe certification exams with Pearson Certiport. My design experience involves 20 years working with clients such as the UN, World Bank, Adobe, and Schneider. I worked with the Adobe team in developing many Adobe applications for more than 12 years.

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3 thoughts on “ How to Apply Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework ”

it was really helpfull

Thank you for this helpful distillation, as well as including the videos.

Introduction to the Paul-Elder Model of Critical Thinking

Dr. sara rich .

Before choosing your own pseudoscience adventure to think critically through, let’s take a moment to explain our methodology. Namely, we have used the Paul-Elder Model of Critical Thinking to work through each question at issue and to arrive at a well-reasoned conclusion. This process has been made transparent for our readers: each section of each chapter represents one step of the Paul-Elder Model, which leads up to the written research component where all those steps are put together into a coherent argument. Each unit concludes with some critical thinking exercises pertaining to that particular pseudoscience, inspired by Gerald Nosich’s Learning to Think Things Through . This will help readers to further think and apply their learning to the pseudoscience of interest.

Step 1: Elements of Reasoning

The first step of the Paul-Elder Model is the Elements of Reasoning (Fig. 1). We start with the question at issue – identifying the key question that you have about a given topic. Why? All answers first require a question. Furthermore, starting with the question at issue also sets up the thinker with a sense of epistemic humility. In other words, with every question asked, there is an implicit recognition of a gap in knowledge. The questioner becomes like Socrates, who recognized all the things that he did not know. There are limits to human knowledge, and no one knows everything. Critical thinkers recognize the gaps in their knowledge and use ambition and curiosity to rectify them with integrity and responsibility.

paul elder framework for critical thinking has three components

Once the question at issue is established, the critical thinker should proceed around the wheel of the 8+ Elements of Reasoning (always considering the context that undergirds the problem as a whole and alternatives to each element), until finally arriving at conclusions and interpretations. Arriving at a conclusion or interpretation is arriving at a reasoned answer to the question at issue. To go one step further, the critical thinker may return to implications and consequences in order to understand the real-world effects of the conclusion drawn. Many pseudosciences, including science denialism and the conspiracy theories that inform them, are highly consequential on individual and societal scales.

Step 2: Disciplinary Lenses

To fine-tune this conclusion even further, the critical thinker should use relevant disciplinary lenses to think about the problem the way an expert would (Fig. 2).

To provide another example, if your question is about Atlantis, some relevant disciplinary lenses to think with would be history, geology, and archaeology. Using the disciplinary lenses is like taking on the point of view (one of the elements of reasoning) of unbiased experts in relevant fields of study. It also offers the opportunity think using different types of reasoning: namely inductive (history), deductive (geology), and abductive (archaeology). This practice will help ensure that final conclusions are drawn from all the relevant evidence (primary source documents, geological data, and archaeological excavations), that they are placed in context (historical, geological, and archaeological), and that they demonstrate a complete understanding of the most important related concepts (Platonism, plate tectonics, artifact typologies, etc.).

Step 3: Standards of Critical Thinking

Once the fine-tuned conclusion is reached, it should be self-evaluated using the Standards of Critical Thinking (Fig. 3). These standards can be used to evaluate any empirical claim and the evidence used to support it, but it again requires a certain level of epistemic humility to apply them to your own argument. How well an argument holds up against the standards is a good indicator of how well it has been reasoned.

All relevant empirical claims should also be inspected for weak inductive, deductive, or abductive reasoning. Relevant claims and arguments should also be scrutinized for logical fallacies. Psuedosciences and conspiracy theories are generally brimming with logical fallacies, and learning to identify them can even be a fun pastime for the critical thinker! To learn more about logical fallacies, we recommend the open-access textbooks by Matthew Van Cleave, Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking , and Andrew Lavin, Thinking Well .

Step 4: SEE-I Method

The SEE-I method is an outline for creating a complete and coherent argument (Fig. 4). The SEE-I method can consist of as few as four sentences, or an entire doctoral dissertation can be organized this way. Effectively, the thesis statement – or concise response to the research question – comes first, followed by further elaboration and explanation (provision of context, definition of key concepts, address of the counterargument, etc.). The next section of the argument consists of examples, each in support of the thesis statement. The final step is to illustrate the thesis statement by using an analogy.

Analogy drives home the purpose of the argument and leaves an unforgettable image in the mind of the audience. Analogies compare two dissimilar things in order to make a point; in this way, analogy is different from metaphor or simile, which often function to beautify or elaborate a concept. Composing strong analogies is difficult for many people because it works at the intersection of critical and creative thinking. But as with all things, with some practice, composing original and powerful analogies to illustrate your point will become second nature, and the quality of your arguments will increase as a result. However, always be wary of the false analogy, a common logical fallacy that bring into comparison two things that only share traits in common on a superficial level. Strong analogies still work even after digging deeper into the connections and commonalities between these two dissimilar things.

Step 5: Counterarguments

Now that the argument is structured, it should again be inspected for weak points. This step requires changing your point of view to that of an audience member hearing your argument. If you were presenting this argument at a professional conference, how might a naysayer in the audience counter your claims? If you were a lawyer presenting this argument in a court of law, what might the opposition point out in your argument to prove their own case? What would a skeptical reader find fault with about your argument? Make note of those weak points and counterarguments and address them.

Step 6: Composing the Final Argument

Combining all the above steps, the final step is writing out the complete argument in the form of a research paper (Fig. 5). All the relevant information and evidence has been gathered and evaluated. The argument has been reasoned through and outlined with the SEE-I model. The standards of critical thinking are upheld in every instance. Counterarguments and weak points have been addressed and rectified as needed. Now it’s time to communicate the answer to your research question and how you followed the evidence to arrive at that conclusion.

Embarking on a research project is like setting out on a journey to a place you’ve never been; you may have some idea of the destination, but the path will almost certainly change courses many times, with unexpected encounters along the way, and where you end up will almost certainly be a little different from the idea you first had in mind. So enjoy the adventure!

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View a bibliography of critical thinking scholarship [PDF].

The Critical Thinking Community The Critical Thinking Community website, sponsored by the Foundation for Critical Thinking and the Center for Critical Thinking, provides a comprehensive offering of resources including full-text articles and teaching materials for purchase (books, mini-guides, videos, posters). This is the home site for the Richard Paul and Linda Elder framework of Critical Thinking which has been adopted to guide UofL’s QEP on Using Critical Thinking to Foster Student Learning and Community Engagement.

A Learning College Built on Critical Thinking The Surry Community College website is focused on helping administration, faculty, staff, and students improve and expand their understanding and application of critical thinking. The criteria they used to select the Paul-Elder framework of critical thinking as a common, college-wide model of critical thinking is provided. The site also provides sample course assignments and a grading rubric based on the Paul-Elder framework.

The Critical Thinking Project at Washington State The Washington State University Critical Thinking Project provides a process that can be used to improve and measure students’ higher order thinking skills during the course of their college careers. The project also includes an emphasis on reforming faculty practice. A Department of Education grant is being used to provide a replicable model for assessing the outcomes of broad General Education goals at a large, Research-I, public university. The site includes a critical thinking resource guide and PowerPoint presentations related to the project.

Reasoning Across the Curriculum Program at Prince George's Community College This site is a description of the reasoning across the curriculum program begun at Prince George Community College in fall 2004. Included are workshop and conference materials.

Critical Thinking on the Web A directory of online resources on critical thinking.

Critical Thinking Source , from the University of Minnesota Center for Teaching and Learning Services This site provides an overview of teaching strategies for helping students become better critical thinkers and has 3 components: 1) An essential points page with an overview of main research on critical thinking, 2) an annotated bibliography, 3) a resource page with links to critical thinking sites at other universities.

Teaching Critical Thinking: Online Resources, from the Michigan State University Office of Faculty and Organizational Development This site provides a variety of resources on teaching and developing students’ critical thinking abilities.

This is the critical thinking definition adopted to guide the University of Louisville’s QEP on using Critical Thinking to Foster Student Learning and Community Engagement.

The Perry Network and Center for the Study of Intellectual Development This website focuses on research, support, and assessment of William Perry's Model of intellectual and ethical development.

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The Paul & Elder Critical Thinking Framework is a common standard use to help us model how we think and how we can use that knowledge to help us make better decisions.

Critical thinking is that mode of thinking – about any subject, content, or problem — in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them. (Paul and Elder, 2001).

The Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework has three components:

Elements of Reasoning
Intellectual Standards applied to the elements of reasoning
intellectual traits associated with a cultivated critical thinker that result from the consistent and disciplined application of intellectual standards to the elements of thought

According to Paul and Elder (1997), there are two essential dimensions of thinking that decision-makers need to master in order to learn how to upgrade their thinking.

They need to be able to identify the “parts” of their thinking
They need to be able to assess their use of these parts of thinking

@lantis adds that Communication is important for the ‘parts” to exchange information effectively.

Elements of Thought (reasoning)

The “parts” or elements of thinking are as follows:

All reasoning has a purpose
All reasoning is an attempt to figure something out, to settle some question, to solve some problem
All reasoning is based on assumptions
All reasoning is done from some point of view
All reasoning is based on data, information, and evidence
All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by, l anguage, culture, concepts, and ideas
All reasoning contains inferences or interpretations by which we draw conclusions and give meaning to data
All reasoning leads somewhere or has implications and consequences

Universal Intellectual Standards

The intellectual standards that are to these elements are used to determine the quality of reasoning. Good critical thinking requires having a command of these standards. According to Paul and Elder (1997, 2006), the ultimate goal is for the standards of reasoning to become infused in all thinking so as to become the guide to better and better reasoning. The intellectual standards include:

Clarity Could you elaborate? Could you illustrate what you mean? Could you give me an example? Accuracy How could we check on that? How could we find out if that is true? How could we verify or test that? Precision Could you be more specific? Could you give me more details? Could you be more exact? Relevance How does that relate to the problem? How does that bear on the question? How does that help us with the issue? Depth What factors make this difficult? What are some of the complexities of this question? What are some of the difficulties we need to deal with? Breadth Do we need to look at this from another perspective? Do we need to consider another point of view? Do we need to look at this in other ways? Logic Does all of this make sense together? Does your first paragraph fit in with your last one? Does what you say follow from the evidence? Significance Is this the most important problem to consider? Is this the central idea to focus on? Which of these facts are most important? Fairness Is my thinking justifiable in context? Am I taking into account the thinking of others? Is my purpose fair given the situation? Am I using my concepts in keeping with educated usage, or am I distorting them to get what I want?

Intellectual Traits

Consistent application of the standards of thinking to the elements of thinking result in the development of intellectual traits of:

Intellectual Humility
Intellectual Courage
Intellectual Empathy
Intellectual Autonomy
Intellectual Integrity
Intellectual Perseverance
Confidence in Reason
Fair-mindedness

Characteristics of a Well-Cultivated Critical Thinker

Habitual utilization of intellectual traits produces a well-cultivated critical thinker who is able to:

Raise vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely
Gather and assess relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively
Come to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards;
Think open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and
Communicate effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems

Paul, R. and Elder, L. (2010). The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools. Dillon Beach: Foundation for Critical Thinking Press.

Being Critical is Not Thinking Critically

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Critical thinking is that mode of thinking – about any subject, content, or problem — in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them. (Paul and Elder, 2001).

The paul-elder critical thinking framework has three components:.

The elements of thought (reasoning)
The intellectual standards that should be applied to the elements of reasoning
The intellectual traits associated with a cultivated critical thinker that result from the consistent and disciplined application of the intellectual standards to the elements of thought

According to Paul and Elder (1997), there are two essential dimensions of thinking that decision-makers need to master in order to learn how to upgrade their thinking.

They need to be able to identify the “parts” of their thinking
They need to be able to assess their use of these parts of thinking

Elements of Thought (reasoning)

The “parts” or elements of thinking are as follows:

All reasoning has a purpose
All reasoning is an attempt to figure something out, to settle some question, to solve some problem
All reasoning is based on assumptions
All reasoning is done from some point of view
All reasoning is based on data, information, and evidence
All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by, l anguage, culture, concepts, and ideas
All reasoning contains inferences or interpretations by which we draw conclusions and give meaning to data
All reasoning leads somewhere or has implications and consequences

Universal Intellectual Standards

Intellectual Traits

Consistent application of the standards of thinking to the elements of thinking result in the development of intellectual traits of:

Intellectual Humility
Intellectual Courage
Intellectual Empathy
Intellectual Autonomy
Intellectual Integrity
Intellectual Perseverance
Confidence in Reason
Fair-mindedness

Characteristics of a Well-Cultivated Critical Thinker

Habitual utilization of intellectual traits produces a well-cultivated critical thinker who is able to:

Raise vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely
Gather and assess relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively
Come to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards;
Think open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and
Communicate effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems

Paul, R. and Elder, L. (2010). The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools. Dillon Beach: Foundation for Critical Thinking Press.

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Critical Thinking Models: A Comprehensive Guide for Effective Decision Making

Critical thinking models are valuable frameworks that help individuals develop and enhance their critical thinking skills . These models provide a structured approach to problem-solving and decision-making by encouraging the evaluation of information and arguments in a logical, systematic manner. By understanding and applying these models, one can learn to make well-reasoned judgments and decisions.

Various critical thinking models exist, each catering to different contexts and scenarios. These models offer a step-by-step method to analyze situations, scrutinize assumptions and biases, and consider alternative perspectives. Ultimately, the goal of critical thinking models is to enhance an individual’s ability to think critically, ultimately improving their reasoning and decision-making skills in both personal and professional settings.

Key Takeaways

Critical thinking models provide structured approaches for enhancing decision-making abilities
These models help individuals analyze situations, scrutinize assumptions, and consider alternative perspectives
The application of critical thinking models can significantly improve one’s reasoning and judgment skills.

Fundamentals of Critical Thinking

Definition and Importance

Critical thinking is the intellectual process of logically, objectively, and systematically evaluating information to form reasoned judgments, utilizing reasoning , logic , and evidence . It involves:

Identifying and questioning assumptions,
Applying consistent principles and criteria,
Analyzing and synthesizing information,
Drawing conclusions based on evidence.

The importance of critical thinking lies in its ability to help individuals make informed decisions, solve complex problems, and differentiate between true and false beliefs .

Core Cognitive Skills

Several core cognitive skills underpin critical thinking:

Analysis : Breaking down complex information into smaller components to identify patterns or inconsistencies.
Evaluation : Assessing the credibility and relevance of sources, arguments, and evidence.
Inference : Drawing conclusions by connecting the dots between analyzed information.
Synthesis : Incorporating analyzed information into a broader understanding and constructing one’s argument.
Logic and reasoning : Applying principles of logic to determine the validity of arguments and weigh evidence.

These skills enable individuals to consistently apply intellectual standards in their thought process, which ultimately results in sound judgments and informed decisions.

Influence of Cognitive Biases

A key aspect of critical thinking is recognizing and mitigating the impact of cognitive biases on our thought processes. Cognitive biases are cognitive shortcuts or heuristics that can lead to flawed reasoning and distort our understanding of a situation. Examples of cognitive biases include confirmation bias, anchoring bias, and availability heuristic.

To counter the influence of cognitive biases, critical thinkers must be aware of their own assumptions and strive to apply consistent and objective evaluation criteria in their thinking process. The practice of actively recognizing and addressing cognitive biases promotes an unbiased and rational approach to problem-solving and decision-making.

The Critical Thinking Process

Stages of Critical Thinking

The critical thinking process starts with gathering and evaluating data . This stage involves identifying relevant information and ensuring it is credible and reliable. Next, an individual engages in analysis by examining the data closely to understand its context and interpret its meaning. This step can involve breaking down complex ideas into simpler components for better understanding.

The next stage focuses on determining the quality of the arguments, concepts, and theories present in the analyzed data. Critical thinkers question the credibility and logic behind the information while also considering their own biases and assumptions. They apply consistent standards when evaluating sources, which helps them identify any weaknesses in the arguments.

Values play a significant role in the critical thinking process. Critical thinkers assess the significance of moral, ethical, or cultural values shaping the issue, argument, or decision at hand. They determine whether these values align with the evidence and logic they have analyzed.

After thorough analysis and evaluation, critical thinkers draw conclusions based on the evidence and reasoning gathered. This step includes synthesizing the information and presenting a clear, concise argument or decision. It also involves explaining the reasoning behind the conclusion to ensure it is well-founded.

Application in Decision Making

In decision making, critical thinking is a vital skill that allows individuals to make informed choices. It enables them to:

Analyze options and their potential consequences
Evaluate the credibility of sources and the quality of information
Identify biases, assumptions, and values that may influence the decision
Construct a reasoned, well-justified conclusion

By using critical thinking in decision making, individuals can make more sound, objective choices. The process helps them to avoid pitfalls like jumping to conclusions, being influenced by biases, or basing decisions on unreliable data. The result is more thoughtful, carefully-considered decisions leading to higher quality outcomes.

Critical Thinking Models

Critical thinking models are frameworks that help individuals develop better problem-solving and decision-making abilities. They provide strategies for analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information to reach well-founded conclusions. This section will discuss four notable models: The RED Model, Bloom’s Taxonomy, Paul-Elder Model, and The Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment.

The RED Model

The RED Model stands for Recognize Assumptions, Evaluate Arguments, and Draw Conclusions. It emphasizes the importance of questioning assumptions, weighing evidence, and reaching logical conclusions.

Recognize Assumptions: Identify and challenge assumptions that underlie statements, beliefs, or arguments.
Evaluate Arguments: Assess the validity and reliability of evidence to support or refute claims.
Draw Conclusions: Make well-reasoned decisions based on available information and sound reasoning.

The RED Model helps individuals become more effective problem solvers and decision-makers by guiding them through the critical thinking process ^(source) .

Bloom’s Taxonomy

Bloom’s Taxonomy is a hierarchical model that classifies cognitive skills into six levels of complexity. These levels are remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. By progressing through these levels, individuals can develop higher-order thinking skills.

Remembering: Recall information or facts.
Understanding: Comprehend the meaning of ideas, facts, or problems.
Applying: Use knowledge in different situations.
Analyzing: Break down complex topics or problems into sub-parts.
Evaluating: Assess the quality, relevance, or credibility of information, ideas, or solutions.
Creating: Combine elements to form a new whole, generate new ideas, or solve complex issues.

Paul-Elder Model

The Paul-Elder Model introduces the concept of “elements of thought,” focusing on a structured approach to critical thinking. This model promotes intellectual standards, such as clarity, accuracy, and relevance. It consists of three stages:

Critical Thinking: Employ the intellectual standards to problem-solving and decision-making processes.
Elements of Thought: Consider purpose, question at issue, information, interpretation and inference, concepts, assumptions, implications, and point of view.
Intellectual Traits: Develop intellectual traits, such as intellectual humility, intellectual empathy, and intellectual perseverance.

This model fosters a deeper understanding and appreciation of critical thinking ^(source) .

The Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment

The Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment is a standardized test developed by Diane Halpern to assess critical thinking skills. The evaluation uses a variety of tasks to measure abilities in core skill areas, such as verbal reasoning, argument analysis, and decision making. Pearson, a leading publisher of educational assessments, offers this test as a means to assess individuals’ critical thinking skills ^(source) .

These four critical thinking models can be used as frameworks to improve and enhance cognitive abilities. By learning and practicing these models, individuals can become better equipped to analyze complex information, evaluate options, and make well-informed decisions.

Evaluating Information and Arguments

In this section, we will discuss the importance of evaluating information and arguments in the process of critical thinking, focusing on evidence assessment, logic and fallacies, and argument analysis.

Evidence Assessment

Evaluating the relevance, accuracy, and credibility of information is a vital aspect of critical thinking. In the process of evidence assessment, a thinker should consider the following factors:

Source reliability : Research and understand the expertise and credibility of the source to ensure that biased or inaccurate information is not being considered.
Currency : Check the date of the information to make sure it is still relevant and accurate in the present context.
Objectivity : Analyze the information for potential bias and always cross-reference it with other credible sources.

When practicing critical thinking skills, it is essential to be aware of your own biases and make efforts to minimize their influence on your decision-making process.

Logic and Fallacies

Logic is crucial for deconstructing and analyzing complex arguments, while identifying and avoiding logical fallacies helps maintain accurate and valid conclusions. Some common fallacies to watch out for in critical thinking include:

Ad Hominem : Attacking the person making the argument instead of addressing the argument itself.
Strawman : Misrepresenting an opponent’s argument to make it easier to refute.
False Dilemma : Presenting only two options when there may be multiple viable alternatives.
Appeal to Authority : Assuming a claim is true simply because an authority figure supports it.

Being aware of these fallacies enables a thinker to effectively evaluate the strength of an argument and make sound judgments accordingly.

Argument Analysis

Analyzing an argument is the process of evaluating its structure, premises, and conclusion while determining its validity and soundness. To analyze an argument, follow these steps:

Identify the premises and conclusion : Determine the main point is being argued, how it is related and substance of the argument.
Evaluate the validity : Assess whether the conclusion logically follows from the premises and if the argument’s structure is sound.
Test the soundness : Evaluate the truth and relevance of the premises. This may require verifying the accuracy of facts and evidence, as well as assessing the reliability of sources.
Consider counter-arguments : Identify opposing viewpoints and counter-arguments, and evaluate their credibility to gauge the overall strength of the original argument.

By effectively evaluating information and arguments, critical thinkers develop a solid foundation for making well-informed decisions and solving problems.

Enhancing Critical Thinking

Strategies for improvement.

To enhance critical thinking, individuals can practice different strategies, including asking thought-provoking questions, analyzing ideas and observations, and being open to different perspectives. One effective technique is the Critical Thinking Roadmap , which breaks critical thinking down into four measurable phases: execute, synthesize, recommend, and communicate. It’s important to use deliberate practice in these areas to develop a strong foundation for problem-solving and decision-making. In addition, cultivating a mindset of courage , fair-mindedness , and empathy will support critical thinking development.

Critical Thinking in Education

In the field of education, critical thinking is an essential component of effective learning and pedagogy. Integrating critical thinking into the curriculum encourages student autonomy, fosters innovation, and improves student outcomes. Teachers can use various approaches to promote critical thinking, such as:

Employing open-ended questions to stimulate ideas
Incorporating group discussions or debates to facilitate communication and evaluation of viewpoints
Assessing and providing feedback on student work to encourage reflection and improvement
Utilizing real-world scenarios and case studies for practical application of concepts

Developing a Critical Thinking Mindset

To truly enhance critical thinking abilities, it’s important to adopt a mindset that values integrity , autonomy , and empathy . These qualities help to create a learning environment that encourages open-mindedness, which is key to critical thinking development. To foster a critical thinking mindset:

Be curious : Remain open to new ideas and ask questions to gain a deeper understanding.
Communicate effectively : Clearly convey thoughts and actively listen to others.
Reflect and assess : Regularly evaluate personal beliefs and assumptions to promote growth.
Embrace diversity of thought : Welcome different viewpoints and ideas to foster innovation.

Incorporating these approaches can lead to a more robust critical thinking skillset, allowing individuals to better navigate and solve complex problems.

Critical Thinking in Various Contexts

The workplace and beyond.

Critical thinking is a highly valued skill in the workplace, as it enables employees to analyze situations, make informed decisions, and solve problems effectively. It involves a careful thinking process directed towards a specific goal. Employers often seek individuals who possess strong critical thinking abilities, as they can add significant value to the organization.

In the workplace context, critical thinkers are able to recognize assumptions, evaluate arguments, and draw conclusions, following models such as the RED model . They can also adapt their thinking to suit various scenarios, allowing them to tackle complex and diverse problems.

Moreover, critical thinking transcends the workplace and applies to various aspects of life. It empowers an individual to make better decisions, analyze conflicting information, and engage in constructive debates.

Creative and Lateral Thinking

Critical thinking encompasses both creative and lateral thinking. Creative thinking involves generating novel ideas and solutions to problems, while lateral thinking entails looking at problems from different angles to find unique and innovative solutions.

Creative thinking allows thinkers to:

Devise new concepts and ideas
Challenge conventional wisdom
Build on existing knowledge to generate innovative solutions

Lateral thinking, on the other hand, encourages thinkers to:

Break free from traditional thought patterns
Combine seemingly unrelated ideas to create unique solutions
Utilize intuition and intelligence to approach problems from a different perspective

Both creative and lateral thinking are essential components of critical thinking, allowing individuals to view problems in a holistic manner and generate well-rounded solutions. These skills are highly valued by employers and can lead to significant personal and professional growth.

In conclusion, critical thinking is a multifaceted skill that comprises various thought processes, including creative and lateral thinking. By embracing these skills, individuals can excel in the workplace and in their personal lives, making better decisions and solving problems effectively.

Overcoming Challenges

Recognizing and addressing bias.

Cognitive biases and thinking biases can significantly affect the process of critical thinking . One of the key components of overcoming these challenges is to recognize and address them. It is essential to be aware of one’s own beliefs, as well as the beliefs of others, to ensure fairness and clarity throughout the decision-making process. To identify and tackle biases, one can follow these steps:

Be self-aware : Understand personal beliefs and biases, acknowledging that they may influence the interpretation of information.
Embrace diverse perspectives : Encourage open discussions and invite different viewpoints to challenge assumptions and foster cognitive diversity.
Reevaluate evidence : Continuously reassess the relevance and validity of the information being considered.

By adopting these practices, individuals can minimize the impact of biases and enhance the overall quality of their critical thinking skills.

Dealing with Information Overload

In today’s world, information is abundant, and it can become increasingly difficult to demystify and make sense of the available data. Dealing with information overload is a crucial aspect of critical thinking. Here are some strategies to address this challenge:

Prioritize information : Focus on the most relevant and reliable data, filtering out unnecessary details.
Organize data : Use tables, charts, and lists to categorize information and identify patterns more efficiently.
Break down complex information : Divide complex data into smaller, manageable segments to simplify interpretation and inferences.

By implementing these techniques, individuals can effectively manage information overload, enabling them to process and analyze data more effectively, leading to better decision-making.

In conclusion, overcoming challenges such as biases and information overload is essential in the pursuit of effective critical thinking. By recognizing and addressing these obstacles, individuals can develop clarity and fairness in their thought processes, leading to well-informed decisions and improved problem-solving capabilities.

Measuring Critical Thinking

Assessment tools and criteria.

There are several assessment tools designed to measure critical thinking, each focusing on different aspects such as quality, depth, breadth, and significance of thinking. One example of a widely used standardized test is the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal , which evaluates an individual’s ability to interpret information, draw conclusions, and make assumptions. Another test is the Cornell Critical Thinking Tests Level X and Level Z , which assess an individual’s critical thinking skills through multiple-choice questions.

Furthermore, criteria for assessing critical thinking often include precision, relevance, and the ability to gather and analyze relevant information. Some assessors utilize the Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment , which measures the application of cognitive skills such as deduction, observation, and induction in real-world scenarios.

The Role of IQ and Tests

It’s important to note that intelligence quotient (IQ) tests and critical thinking assessments are not the same. While IQ tests aim to measure an individual’s cognitive abilities and general intelligence, critical thinking tests focus specifically on one’s ability to analyze, evaluate, and form well-founded opinions. Therefore, having a high IQ does not necessarily guarantee strong critical thinking skills, as critical thinking requires additional mental processes beyond basic logical reasoning.

To build and enhance critical thinking skills, individuals should practice and develop higher-order thinking, such as critical alertness, critical reflection, and critical analysis. Using a Critical Thinking Roadmap , such as the four-phase framework that includes execution, synthesis, recommendation, and the ability to apply, individuals can continuously work to improve their critical thinking abilities.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the main steps involved in the paul-elder critical thinking model.

The Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Model is a comprehensive framework for developing critical thinking skills. The main steps include: identifying the purpose, formulating questions, gathering information, identifying assumptions, interpreting information, and evaluating arguments. The model emphasizes clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, and fairness throughout the critical thinking process. By following these steps, individuals can efficiently analyze and evaluate complex ideas and issues.

Can you list five techniques to enhance critical thinking skills?

Here are five techniques to help enhance critical thinking skills:

Ask open-ended questions : Encourages exploration and challenges assumptions.
Engage in active listening: Focus on understanding others’ viewpoints before responding.
Reflect on personal biases: Identify and question any preconceived notions or judgments.
Practice mindfulness: Develop self-awareness and stay present in the moment.
Collaborate with others: Exchange ideas and learn from diverse perspectives.

What is the RED Model of critical thinking and how is it applied?

The RED Model of critical thinking consists of three key components: Recognize Assumptions, Evaluate Arguments, and Draw Conclusions. To apply the RED Model, begin by recognizing and questioning underlying assumptions, being aware of personal biases and stereotypes. Next, evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of different arguments, considering evidence, logical consistency, and alternative explanations. Lastly, draw well-reasoned conclusions that are based on the analysis and evaluation of the information gathered.

How do the ‘3 C’s’ of critical thinking contribute to effective problem-solving?

The ‘3 C’s’ of critical thinking – Curiosity, Creativity, and Criticism – collectively contribute to effective problem-solving. Curiosity allows individuals to explore various perspectives and ask thought-provoking questions, while Creativity helps develop innovative solutions and unique approaches to challenges. Criticism, or the ability to evaluate and analyze ideas objectively, ensures that the problem-solving process remains grounded in logic and relevance.

What characteristics distinguish critical thinking from creative thinking?

Critical thinking and creative thinking are two complementary cognitive skills. Critical thinking primarily focuses on analyzing, evaluating, and reasoning, using objectivity and logical thinking. It involves identifying problems, assessing evidence, and drawing sound conclusions. Creative thinking, on the other hand, is characterized by the generation of new ideas, concepts, and approaches to solve problems, often involving imagination, originality, and out-of-the-box thinking.

What are some recommended books to help improve problem-solving and critical thinking skills?

There are several books that can help enhance problem-solving and critical thinking skills, including:

“Thinking, Fast and Slow” by Daniel Kahneman: This book explores the dual process theory of decision-making and reasoning.
“The 5 Elements of Effective Thinking” by Edward B. Burger and Michael Starbird: Offers practical tips and strategies for improving critical thinking skills.
“Critique of Pure Reason” by Immanuel Kant: A classic philosophical work that delves into the principles of reason and cognition.
“Mindware: Tools for Smart Thinking” by Richard E. Nisbett: Presents a range of cognitive tools to enhance critical thinking and decision-making abilities.
“The Art of Thinking Clearly” by Rolf Dobelli: Explores common cognitive biases and errors in judgment that can affect critical thinking.

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Critical Thinking Frameworks: Your Path to Analytical Excellence

Last Updated on March 24, 2024 by Milton Campbell

Are you ready to dive deeper into the world of critical thinking? Today, we’ll focus on the essential concept of critical thinking frameworks. These frameworks provide us with a structured approach to analyzing information, solving problems, and making sound decisions. So, let’s explore the power of critical thinking frameworks and discover how they can enhance our thinking process.

Understanding Different Critical Thinking Frameworks

When it comes to critical thinking frameworks, there are various models and approaches to explore. In this section, we’ll examine some popular frameworks such as the Paul-Elder model, the RED model, and Bloom’s Taxonomy. Each framework brings its unique perspective and structure to guide our critical thinking journey. Get ready to unlock a wealth of knowledge!

The Paul-Elder Model: A Holistic Approach to Critical Thinking

At the core of the Paul-Elder model lies the belief that critical thinking is an active and intentional process, driven by disciplined thought. It provides us with a set of intellectual standards and dimensions to guide our thinking, ensuring that we’re thorough, accurate, and clear in our analysis. So, let’s explore the key components that make up this remarkable framework.

Clarity: Shining a Light on Our Thoughts

The first component of the Paul-Elder model is clarity. It’s all about expressing our thoughts and ideas in a clear and unambiguous manner. By striving for clarity, we ensure that our message is easily understood and that we’re able to communicate our thinking effectively. This involves being aware of our language, avoiding jargon, and using precise terminology to convey our ideas with precision.

Accuracy: Seeking Truth in All Its Forms

The pursuit of accuracy is crucial in critical thinking. It involves challenging assumptions, verifying facts, and seeking evidence to support our claims. By striving for accuracy, we aim to align our thinking with reality and separate the truth from falsehoods. This component encourages us to be meticulous in our research, to question sources, and to analyze information critically before accepting it as truth.

Relevance: Focusing on What Truly Matters

In a sea of information, it’s essential to determine what’s relevant to our thinking. The relevance component of the Paul-Elder model urges us to filter out the noise and focus on what truly matters. It requires us to identify the key elements, concepts, and ideas that are most significant to the task at hand. By embracing relevance, we can streamline our thought processes, saving time and energy for what truly counts.

Logic: Unraveling the Threads of Reasoning

Logical thinking forms the backbone of the Paul-Elder model. This component encourages us to analyze the coherence and consistency of our reasoning. It prompts us to identify any logical fallacies or inconsistencies that may weaken our arguments. By using logical reasoning as a guiding principle, we can build well-structured and sound arguments that carry weight and persuade others effectively.

Depth: Digging Beneath the Surface

Critical thinking is not just about skimming the surface; it’s about diving deep and exploring the underlying complexities. The depth component of the Paul-Elder model challenges us to go beyond the obvious, to question assumptions, and to explore alternative perspectives. By delving beneath the surface and seeking a profound understanding, we enrich our thinking and unlock valuable insights.

Fairness: Embracing Objectivity and Open-Mindedness

Fairness is an integral part of the Paul-Elder model and critical thinking as a whole. It involves approaching information and ideas with an open mind, free from bias or preconceived notions. Fairness recognizes the importance of considering multiple perspectives, including those that challenge our own beliefs. By fostering a fair and impartial mindset, we encourage intellectual growth and broaden our understanding of the world.

Putting the Paul-Elder Model into Action

Now that we understand the key components of the Paul-Elder model, it’s time to put it into action. By incorporating these elements into our thinking process, we can enhance our critical thinking skills and become more effective problem solvers. As we practice this holistic approach, we’ll find ourselves making better decisions, evaluating information more effectively, and communicating our thoughts with clarity and conviction.

In the journey toward mastering critical thinking, the Paul-Elder model serves as a guiding light, providing us with the tools to navigate the vast sea of information that surrounds us. By embracing clarity, accuracy, relevance, logic, depth, and fairness, we can cultivate a well-rounded thinking process that empowers us to tackle complex issues head-on.

The RED Model: Break it Down to Think Clearly

In this section, we’re diving into the world of the RED model, a powerful framework designed by the brilliant minds of Dr. Richard Paul and Dr. Linda Elder.

This model acts as a compass, guiding us to think critically and clearly by breaking down the thinking process into three simple steps: Recognize, Evaluate, and Draw Conclusions. So, let’s dig in and discover how the RED model can help us navigate the complexities of our thoughts.

Recognize: Shining a Light on Our Thinking Patterns

The first step of the RED model is all about recognizing and becoming aware of our thinking. It challenges us to examine the patterns, assumptions, and biases that shape our thoughts. By shining a light on our thinking process, we can identify any potential flaws or limitations. This step is crucial as it lays the foundation for unbiased and objective reasoning.

To recognize our thinking, we must pause and reflect. Are we making assumptions without solid evidence? Are we being influenced by personal biases? By being aware of these thought patterns, we can approach information with a more critical eye and open ourselves to new possibilities.

Evaluate: Putting Our Thinking Under the Microscope

Once we’ve recognized our thinking, it’s time to evaluate it with precision. This step involves analyzing the quality of our reasoning, the strength of the evidence, and the validity of our arguments. Are our claims supported by sound evidence? Are there any logical fallacies in our thinking? By evaluating our thoughts, we ensure that they’re built upon a solid foundation.

Evaluation also requires us to consider different perspectives and challenge our own assumptions. It’s about seeking out diverse viewpoints and weighing them against our own beliefs. This step allows us to build a more comprehensive understanding of the issue at hand.

Draw Conclusions: Illuminating the Path Forward

After recognizing and evaluating our thinking, it’s time to draw conclusions. This step is about making informed decisions based on our analysis. By drawing conclusions, we reach a point where we can confidently articulate our thoughts and take action.

Drawing conclusions involves synthesizing the information we’ve gathered, considering all relevant factors, and coming to a well-reasoned resolution. It’s about being clear and concise in our communication of ideas, ensuring that others can understand and engage with our thoughts effectively.

The Power of the RED Model in Action

By breaking down the thinking process into three simple steps, the RED model empowers us to think clearly and critically. It provides a structured framework that guides us through the complexities of our thoughts, helping us avoid jumping to conclusions or being swayed by bias.

The RED model encourages a disciplined and systematic approach to thinking. It prompts us to question our assumptions, evaluate evidence with care, and communicate our thoughts with clarity. Through practice and repetition, this model becomes ingrained in our thinking process, enabling us to make more informed decisions and solve problems effectively.

Applying the RED model in our daily lives

The beauty of the RED model is its versatility. We can apply it to various situations, from personal decision-making to problem-solving in our professional lives. Whether we’re analyzing an argument, evaluating a piece of information, or making a strategic choice, the RED model helps us approach these tasks with a clear and critical mindset.

As we embrace the RED model and make it a part of our thinking routine, we’ll notice a transformation in our analytical abilities. We’ll become more adept at recognizing our thinking patterns, evaluating evidence objectively, and drawing well-grounded conclusions. The RED model empowers us to think critically and make thoughtful decisions in an increasingly complex world.

Bloom’s Taxonomy: From Knowledge to Evaluation

Developed by educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom, this taxonomy provides a roadmap for mastering new concepts and deepening our understanding. So, let’s dive right in and explore how Bloom’s Taxonomy can fuel our learning adventures.

Building Blocks: Knowledge and Comprehension

At the foundation of Bloom’s Taxonomy lie two essential building blocks: knowledge and comprehension. Knowledge involves acquiring facts, terms, and basic concepts about a subject. It’s the starting point where we gather the essential information necessary to understand a topic. Once we have this knowledge, we can move on to comprehension.

Comprehension goes a step beyond knowledge. It’s about grasping the meaning of the information we’ve acquired. This phase involves interpreting, explaining, and summarizing concepts in our own words. Comprehension helps solidify our understanding and fuels our ability to analyze and apply knowledge effectively.

Putting Ideas into Practice: Application and Analysis

With a solid foundation of knowledge and comprehension, we’re ready to put our ideas into practice. The next two levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy, application, and analysis, take us into the realm of practicality and critical thinking.

Application invites us to take what we’ve learned and apply it to real-life situations. It’s about utilizing our knowledge and comprehension to solve problems, make connections, and demonstrate our understanding. This level of Bloom’s Taxonomy encourages us to think creatively and transfer our knowledge to new contexts.

Analysis takes our thinking a step further. It involves breaking down complex information, examining its parts, and understanding the relationships between them. Analysis challenges us to think critically, identify patterns, and draw conclusions based on evidence. This level hones our ability to delve deeper and unravel the complexities within a subject.

Reaching New Heights: Synthesis and Evaluation

As we ascend Bloom’s Taxonomy, we encounter the higher-order thinking skills of synthesis and evaluation. These levels push us to tap into our creativity, critical thinking, and judgment.

Synthesis prompts us to integrate various ideas, concepts, and information to create something new. It’s about putting the puzzle pieces together in a unique way and constructing a cohesive whole. Synthesis stretches our imagination and encourages us to think outside the box, fostering innovation and originality.

Finally, we reach the pinnacle of Bloom’s Taxonomy: evaluation. This level challenges us to make judgments, form opinions, and assess the value and effectiveness of ideas or arguments . Evaluation requires us to consider evidence, weigh different perspectives, and make informed decisions. It’s the critical thinking skill that empowers us to be discerning, reflective, and confident in our assessments.

Mastering Bloom’s Taxonomy for Lifelong Learning

By embracing the levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy, we unlock the power to become lifelong learners. This framework equips us with the tools to progress from knowledge to evaluation, building a solid foundation of understanding along the way. Whether we’re studying for exams, conducting research, or simply expanding our knowledge, Bloom’s Taxonomy serves as our trusty guide, motivating us to think critically and deeply explore the subjects we’re passionate about.

As we climb the ladder of Bloom’s Taxonomy, let’s embrace each level as an opportunity for growth and personal development. Let’s ask questions, seek answers, and challenge ourselves to reach new heights of understanding. By nurturing our curiosity and honing our thinking skills, we’ll become lifelong learners, continuously expanding our knowledge and making meaningful contributions in our chosen fields.

By focusing on critical thinking frameworks, you’ve equipped yourself with valuable tools for analyzing information and making informed decisions. Remember, applying these frameworks is a continuous journey of practice and refinement. Embrace the versatility of different frameworks, experiment with their integration, and be open to new perspectives.

Now, armed with this newfound knowledge, you’re ready to tackle complex challenges with confidence and precision. Whether you’re a student, professional, or lifelong learner, mastering critical thinking frameworks will empower you to navigate the world with analytical excellence.

Analysis of Expert Feedback to Determine Intellectual Standards for Student Pharmacist Clinical Reasoning Development

Nicholas r. nelson.

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Denise H. Rhoney

Objectives. Clinical reasoning (CR) is one of the most important skills for pharmacy learners. Feedback has been proposed as a pedagogy to improve CR skills; however, essential components of CR have yet to be determined within pharmacy education. This study sought to streamline feedback to align with the Pharmacists’ Patient Care Process (PPCP).

Methods. The investigators used deidentified clinical reasoning “Keep,” “Start,” or “Stop” (KSS) feedback comments from student-written CR “think-aloud” sessions with pharmacy students in their third professional year. Sections were mapped to the PPCP and were coded by 2 independent investigators according to proposed essential components of CR, using an adapted grounded-theory approach. Investigators could inductively add codes after conferring with the other. Coded feedback was analyzed using a summative content approach. Intercoder reliability was calculated via Holsti index.

Results. Five essential components of CR were identified after analysis of 635 KSS comments. The 5 essential components of CR were coded 1178 times. “Accurate,” “Concise,” “Specific,” and “Thorough” were identified a priori, while “Connected” was discovered during feedback comment review. Literature analysis added supporting data to these results through the Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework. To maintain consistency in language, these essential components will be referred to as “intellectual standards” moving forward.

Conclusion. This novel study successfully identified 5 key intellectual standards of CR. These intellectual standards provide a framework for pharmacy educators to focus feedback to improve student CR. Future research of other intellectual standards pertinent to experiential education is imperative.

INTRODUCTION

Clinical reasoning (CR) is said to be one of the most important attributes a healthcare professional can possess, and has been likened to the scientific method for clinical practitioners. 1 , 2 It is a highly complex cognitive and noncognitive skill set that shapes how healthcare professionals interact with patients as well as with the environment. 1 , 3 Pharmacists use this skill set in nearly every setting, from community care to ambulatory care to acute management of hospitalized patients. It is through the CR process that pharmacists collect and interpret patient data and medication data, weigh the benefits and risks of actions, and understand patient preferences to optimize pharmacotherapy treatment plans. 3

The terms “critical thinking,” “clinical reasoning,” and “clinical decision-making” are interrelated concepts that are often used interchangeably. However, they are not one and the same, and the subtle differences among them are important for pharmacy educators to understand. Critical thinking, as defined by the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking, is “the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action…that transcend[s] subject matter divisions.” 4 CR comprises the cognitive and metacognitive processes used for analyzing knowledge relative to a clinical situation or specific patient. 5 From the perspective of a pharmacist, CR informs recommendations through data interpretation and analysis; and evaluation of evidence relevant to a specific patient, patient population, or medication therapy problem. Clinical decision-making is an intricate, multifaceted skill that combines evidence-based knowledge and intuition and contextual factors. 5 Critical thinking is the key component of clinical decision-making; it involves some skills and attitudes necessary for the development of CR and is used by pharmacists in the process of identifying and managing medication therapy problems. 6 All 3 of these concepts are important for competent pharmacy practice, as the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE) “Standards 2016” Specific Key Element 25.7 highlights the importance of developing and assessing CR skills within pharmacy education. This element states, “Evidence-based clinical reasoning skills, the ability to apply these skills across the patient’s lifespan, and the retention of knowledge that underpins these skills, are regularly assessed throughout the curriculum.” 7 The main aim of developing critical thinking and CR in pharmacy education is to improve independent clinical decision-making ability. Additionally, critical thinking and CR are the skills underpinning the Pharmacists’ Patient Care Process (PPCP) that inform clinical decision-making; they are essential for effective communication and documentation of the pharmacist’s contribution to the healthcare team. 8 However, best practices for teaching and evaluating these essential skills have yet to be determined.

One proposed method for teaching and evaluating critical thinking and CR skills is through the provision of feedback to learners. Feedback is an important part of clinical training programs for healthcare professionals and is a key element and Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experience curriculum assessment expectation. 7 , 9 - 11 Thus, feedback is frequently provided to pharmacy learners from a multitude of sources to advance a learner’s knowledge and skills closer to that of practicing pharmacists. 10 Specifically, feedback regarding patient workup, where CR skills are essential, is among the most common feedback pharmacy learners will receive. 12 Feedback has many potential benefits and is essential for the correction of student knowledge, reinforcement of correct learning, and documentation of progression toward student goals. 12 In order for feedback to be effective, it must be directly related to the content knowledge, learning, or goals. 13 However, essential components of CR have not been adequately defined in pharmacy education literature. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify possible essential components of CR contextualized in pharmacy practice to help learners to achieve the desired PPCP outcomes through the provision of CR-focused feedback given by pharmacy educators.

This study utilized an adapted grounded theory research methodology to identify essential components of CR needed for successful execution of the PPCP. The adapted grounded theory methodology comprised 4 components: purposive sampling, data collection, coding, and literature analysis. 14 This study was deemed exempt by the institutional review board at the University of North Carolina.

The purposive sample comprised written CR think-aloud sessions (wCRTA) regarding patient cases. These cases encompassed various medication therapy problems and medical conditions submitted within an integrated pharmacotherapy (iPHTH) 3-course sequence. The wCRTA consists of 6 sections aligned with the PPCP 8 : findings, assessment and goals of therapy, recommendations and monitoring, medication education, rationale, and references ( Table 1 ). As a primary pedagogical approach to teach clinical reasoning, faculty content experts provided written feedback on student wCRTAs to make expert thinking visible. 15 In addition to section-specific feedback, faculty also provided global “Keep, Start, Stop” (KSS) feedback. This approach is an easy method for students to categorize and look for patterns. The purpose of KSS feedback is to provide focused and actionable next steps for students to apply to the following wCRTA submission. 16 Feedback providers were not specifically trained how to focus their feedback for the purposes of this study to reduce the risk of confirmation bias. They had been previously trained to provide comments on student clinical reasoning based on how they would approach patients in practice as expert clinicians in their respective fields. To further minimize the risk of bias, neither section-specific feedback nor KSS feedback was shared with subsequent feedback providers. KSS feedback was shared with small-group facilitators who coordinated with the students to develop plans for addressing future wCRTA feedback; however, no facilitator also served as a feedback provider.

Alignment of Written CR Think-Alouds (wCRTA) With Phases of the Pharmacists’ Patient Care Process (PPCP)

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Given the more focused and higher emphasis placed on KSS feedback, deidentified KSS feedback comments from all (n=5) wCRTAs submitted by third-year professional students enrolled in iPHTH in Fall 2019 were collected for analysis. Feedback comments were first uploaded to Atlas.ti. version 8.4.4 (Atlas.ti. Scientific Development GmbH, Berlin, Germany). Each feedback comment was reduced to a unique quotation and categorized according to “Keep,” “Start,” or “Stop.” Quotations were then coded according to a priori–identified essential components of clinical reasoning identified by 2 independent investigators, including “Accurate” (correct information pertinent to the drug therapy or medical condition), “Concise” (succinct, free from extraneous information), “Specific” (details are unique/pertinent to a particular drug, medical condition, or patient) and “Thorough” (includes all information that is necessary in general, ie, not necessarily related to any particular drug or medical condition). These were developed from the collective clinical experience of the investigators. Investigators were able to add or split quotations (eg, split a single “Keep” comment into 2 quotations where one sentence related to “Specific” while the following sentence related to “Concise”) and insert additional codes during data analysis when appropriate. When an additional code was identified, investigators met to discuss the new code and agree upon a code definition for future coding. Coded data were then synthesized for thematic analysis using a summative content approach to identify essential components of clinical reasoning; intercoder reliability was evaluated on all feedback comments for each respective essential component within Atlas.ti using the Holsti Index. Intercoder reliability <60% was considered inadequate for this study, while 60-79% reliability, 80-90% reliability, and >90% reliability were deemed moderate, strong, and almost perfect, respectively. 17 A literature analysis was then conducted for existing critical thinking or CR frameworks for further data analysis.

A total of 635 KSS feedback comments from 155 students within 27 small groups were included for analysis. A breakdown of each proposed essential component is described in Table 2 . Importantly, an additional essential component, “Connected” (interrelated wCRTA/PPCP sections, drug therapy, and/or comorbid medical conditions), emerged through inductive coding. Figure 1 highlights the application of this clinical reasoning framework to pharmacy education and practice. A total of 560/635 (88.2%) of KSS feedback comments were coded to essential components of clinical reasoning. Each essential component was coded with moderate to strong inter-coder reliability. 17 ( Table 1 ) “Thorough” was the most coded essential component (32.9%); however, students had most room to improve on “Specific” and “Connected” based on the percentage of “Start” or “Stop” comments (78.5% and 78.3%, respectively). ( Table 1 ) Students performed similarly on “Accurate” and “Thorough” with 33.6% and 31.1% “Keep” comments, respectively. “Concise” had the highest percentage of “Keep” comments (53.2%), but only accounted for 9.8% of all coded essential components.

Summary of Keep, Start, Stop Feedback Comments and Interrater Reliability of Coded Intellectual Standards

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The phases of the Pharmacists’ Patient Care Process (PPCP) are how pharmacists approach caring for patients. For pharmacists to successfully execute the PPCP, they must utilize appropriate clinical reasoning skills, which include appropriate application of the essential components of clinical reasoning (CR). As a result of the application of essential components of CR to the PPCP will help pharmacists realize the vision outlined by Joint Commission of Pharmacy Practitioners.

The majority of KSS comments related to more than 1 essential component of CR as the 5 essential components were coded a total of 1178 times among the 635 KSS comments. “Specific” and “Thorough” were more-often coded together than with other essential components, followed by “Connected” and “Thorough.” “Accurate” and “Connected” were least commonly coded together, and “Accurate” was more often coded as a singular code while “Connected” was most often coded with other essential components within a single comment.

Table 3 shows the frequency at which each essential component of clinical reasoning was coded to each wCRTA section and corresponding PPCP phase. “Accurate” was most commonly commented on with respect to Recommendations and monitoring and Rationale sections. “Connected” was co-coded to two or more wCRTA sections, revealing linkages from Findings to Assessment and goals of therapy, which help inform student recommendations and monitoring, with goals of therapy especially informing monitoring parameters. The Rationale section explains these “Connected” relationships. “Specific” and “Thorough” feedback was also prevalent in each section, most notably in Findings, Recommendations and monitoring, and Rationale. Similarly, “Concise” comments were most frequent within Findings.

Intellectual Standards Coded According to Written Clinical Reasoning Think-Aloud Section*

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Literature analysis of critical thinking or clinical reasoning frameworks revealed similar components to develop critical thinking skills, including a well-accepted critical thinking framework: the Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework. 18 , 19 The framework has three components to helps students improve their reasoning, including elements of thought, intellectual standards, and intellectual traits. 19 Specifically, as related to this study, the seven of the nine intellectual standards of the Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework were associated with coded essential components of clinical reasoning. Table 4 shows the Paul-Elder Framework intellectual standards of critical thinking mapped to the coded essential components of clinical reasoning within this study.

Mapping of Identified Essential Components of Clinical Reasoning to Paul-Elder Intellectual Standards of Critical Thinking

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To our knowledge, this is the first study that attempted to identify essential components of clinical reasoning from which pharmacy educators could target their feedback on clinical reasoning in the context of the PPCP. The identification of such essential components of clinical reasoning serves as a key initial step to facilitate the development of student clinical reasoning skills. The high degree of feedback comments coded to the 4 proposed a priori (independent from any framework) essential components of clinical reasoning and fifth inductively determined essential component of clinical reasoning, in addition to these data aligning with a well-accepted framework for critical thinking, indicate a good starting place for pharmacy educators to focus their feedback with the aim of improving student clinical reasoning skills. Because of the close alignment of the Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework intellectual standards with the resulting essential components of this study and importance of maintaining consistency within educational language, moving forward the identified essential components of clinical reasoning will be referred to as intellectual standards of clinical reasoning. 19

Consistently utilizing these identified intellectual standards of clinical reasoning can provide pharmacy educators with a standardized approach to ensure the evolution of critical thinking, clinical reasoning, and ultimately, sound clinical decision-making. Since critical thinking is a facilitating component to developing future pharmacists’ clinical reasoning skills, this study sought to identify a framework that could be applied to the context of clinical reasoning necessary within the PPCP. Based upon the results of this study, seven of the nine Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework intellectual standards for critical thinking were aligned to coded clinical reasoning feedback. 19 There may be additional intellectual standards of clinical reasoning, however, that could not be captured in this one semester, single course data but deserves further identification and validation. Other possible intellectual standards which may have a context within clinical reasoning include “Significance” (problem prioritization), “Fair” (consideration of context, minimization of distortions), or “Feasible” (ability of the recommended intervention to succeed). 19

It is likely that some of these uncoded intellectual standards are more applicable earlier in the curriculum or during experiential education, as this study took place during the fifth semester of the students’ curriculum and learners were not in a direct patient care setting. This highlights the significance of applying this model throughout the spectrum of educational development of critical thinking, clinical reasoning, and clinical decision-making in pharmacy education. While considering the application of this model across a pharmacy curriculum, it is important to consider the sequence of introducing these intellectual standards of clinical reasoning. Future research should evaluate the unbundling of these intellectual standards of clinical reasoning throughout pharmacy education.

There are notable limitations to the present study. First, section specific feedback was not assessed in this study. Global KSS feedback was chosen to be analyzed to focus on feedback of key issues deemed most important to feedback providers for improving student clinical reasoning skills. Additionally, these results may not be generalizable to all levels of pharmacy education as this study only assessed students who were in the third professional year of their curriculum as stated previously. Further research into the best sequence by which to introduce these intellectual standards to students throughout the curriculum will be beneficial moving forward.

While clinical reasoning skills are vital to the success of pharmacists to provide quality patient care, optimal teaching and assessment strategies are lacking. This study also proposes a contextualized framework for providing focused and consistent clinical reasoning feedback to student pharmacists using multiple intellectual standards of clinical reasoning, including “Accurate,” “Concise,” “Connected,” “Specific,” and “Thorough.” Further investigation into additional intellectual standards of clinical reasoning and optimized sequence of introduction within pharmacy curricula is needed. Moving forward it is important that pharmacy educators incorporate and focus feedback related to these intellectual standards of clinical reasoning and develop learning experiences with systematic questioning around each of the intellectual standards.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was funded by the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy Scholarship of Teaching and Learning Grant.

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Critical thinking is that mode of thinking – about any subject, content, or problem — in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them. (Paul and Elder, 2001).

The paul-elder critical thinking framework has three components:.

The elements of thought (reasoning)
The intellectual standards that should be applied to the elements of reasoning
The intellectual traits associated with a cultivated critical thinker that result from the consistent and disciplined application of the intellectual standards to the elements of thought

According to Paul and Elder (1997), there are two essential dimensions of thinking that decision-makers need to master in order to learn how to upgrade their thinking.

They need to be able to identify the “parts” of their thinking
They need to be able to assess their use of these parts of thinking

Elements of Thought (reasoning)

The “parts” or elements of thinking are as follows:

All reasoning has a purpose
All reasoning is an attempt to figure something out, to settle some question, to solve some problem
All reasoning is based on assumptions
All reasoning is done from some point of view
All reasoning is based on data, information, and evidence
All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by, l anguage, culture, concepts, and ideas
All reasoning contains inferences or interpretations by which we draw conclusions and give meaning to data
All reasoning leads somewhere or has implications and consequences

Universal Intellectual Standards

Intellectual Traits

Consistent application of the standards of thinking to the elements of thinking result in the development of intellectual traits of:

Intellectual Humility
Intellectual Courage
Intellectual Empathy
Intellectual Autonomy
Intellectual Integrity
Intellectual Perseverance
Confidence in Reason
Fair-mindedness

Characteristics of a Well-Cultivated Critical Thinker

Habitual utilization of intellectual traits produces a well-cultivated critical thinker who is able to:

Raise vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely
Gather and assess relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively
Come to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards;
Think open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and
Communicate effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems

Paul, R. and Elder, L. (2010). The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools. Dillon Beach: Foundation for Critical Thinking Press.

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Paul and Elder 1 Critical Thinking Model
How to Apply Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework
How to Apply Critical Thinking Using Paul-Elder Framework
Elements of thought, reproduced from Paul & Elder (2019)
How to Apply Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework
Paul Elder Model of Critical Thinking

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Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework
Critical thinking is that mode of thinking - about any subject, content, or problem — in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them. (Paul and Elder, 2001). The Paul-Elder framework has three components:
How to Apply Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework
These stages are translated into six steps (6 Steps for Effective Critical Thinking): Knowledge - Define the main topic that needs to be covered. Comprehension - Understand the issue through researching the topic. Application - Analyze the data and link between the collected data. Analysis - Solve the problem, or the issue investigated.
PDF Paul Elder Model of Critical Thinking
Adapted from Elder, L., & Paul, R. (2010). The thinker's guide to analytic thinking. Dillon Beach, CA: Foundation for Critical Thinking Press. Paul‐Elder Model of Critical Thinking Can be used to help learners critically evaluate information during learning and think critically, to probe
Introduction to the Paul-Elder Model of Critical Thinking
Critical thinkers recognize the gaps in their knowledge and use ambition and curiosity to rectify them with integrity and responsibility. Fig. 1. Elements of Reasoning according to the Paul-Elder Model of Critical Thinking. Courtesy of Charis Williams, 2023. Once the question at issue is established, the critical thinker should proceed around ...
Resources
The site also provides sample course assignments and a grading rubric based on the Paul-Elder framework. The Critical Thinking Project at Washington State ... This site provides an overview of teaching strategies for helping students become better critical thinkers and has 3 components: 1) An essential points page with an overview of main ...
PDF Paul-Elder Critical thinking Model
She is President of the Foundation for Critical Thinking and Executive Director of the Center for Critical Thinking. Dr. Elder has taught psychology and critical thinking at the college level and has given presentations to more than 50,000 educators at all levels. Useful model because "Paul-Elder framework's comprehensiveness, discipline ...
PDF Enhancing Critical Thinking Across The Undergraduate Experience: An
The Paul-Elder critical thinking framework was used to design course assignments and develop a holistic assessment rubric. The curriculum was re-designed to include deliberate teaching of critical thinking and assessment in at least one key course for every student each year of their undergraduate curriculum.
PDF Become Certified in the Paul-Elder Framework for Critical Thinking
The Paul-Elder Framework for Critical Thinking is the most integrated approach to critical thinking in the world, and is based in the natural languages we speak every day. Our approach-also referred to as the Paulian Approach to Critical Thinking™- offers a developed language for critical thinking and a conceptual framework that
PDF Engaging Freshman Engineers Using the Paul-Elder Model of Critical Thinking
This paper describes a critical thinking assignment intended to reinforce the critical thinking framework and increase students' engagement in department presentations. Section two discusses the Paul-Elder framework and how it is used in critical thinking instruction in our Introduction to Engineering course.
Paul & Elder Critical Thinking Framework
The Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework has three components: Elements of Reasoning; Intellectual Standards applied to the elements of reasoning; intellectual traits associated with a cultivated critical thinker that result from the consistent and disciplined application of intellectual standards to the elements of thought
Lesson 1, The Army Profession Flashcards
The Paul-Elder framework for critical thinking has three components inherent in improving the quality of thinking. Those components are _____, _____, and _____. The elements of thought, intellectual standards, and intellectual traits. Cognitive biases are unconcscious beliefs that condition, govern and compel our behavior. ...
[PDF] Critical Thinking: Competency Standards Essential to the
Corpus ID: 146309493; Critical Thinking: Competency Standards Essential to the Cultivation of Intellectual Skills, Part 4 @article{Elder2012CriticalTC, title={Critical Thinking: Competency Standards Essential to the Cultivation of Intellectual Skills, Part 4}, author={Linda Elder and Richard W. Paul}, journal={Journal of Developmental Education}, year={2012}, volume={36}, pages={30-31}, url ...
Paul & Elder Critical Thinking Framework
The Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework has three components: The intellectual standards that should be applied to the elements of reasoning. The intellectual traits associated with a cultivated critical thinker that result from the consistent and disciplined application of the intellectual standards to the elements of thought. According to ...
Critical Thinking Models: A Comprehensive Guide for Effective Decision
Both creative and lateral thinking are essential components of critical thinking, allowing individuals to view problems in a holistic manner and generate well-rounded solutions. ... The Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Model is a comprehensive framework for developing critical thinking skills. The main steps include: identifying the purpose ...
Elements of thought, reproduced from Paul & Elder (2019)
For this new action-based (embodied) framework, we use Paul and Elder's (2019) 'elements of thoughts' model (see figure 1 in section 2.1), which provides a comprehensive set of possible (cognitive ...
PDF Become Certified in the Paul-Elder Framework for Critical Thinking
The Paul-Elder Framework for Critical Thinking is the most integrated approach to critical thinking in the world, and is based in the natural languages we speak every day. Our approach - also referred to as the Paulian Approach to Critical Thinking - offers a developed language for critical thinking that can be incorporated into the
Critical Thinking Frameworks: Your Path to Analytical Excellence
When it comes to critical thinking frameworks, there are various models and approaches to explore. In this section, we'll examine some popular frameworks such as the Paul-Elder model, the RED model, and Bloom's Taxonomy. Each framework brings its unique perspective and structure to guide our critical thinking journey.
Analysis of Expert Feedback to Determine Intellectual Standards for
Literature analysis of critical thinking or clinical reasoning frameworks revealed similar components to develop critical thinking skills, including a well-accepted critical thinking framework: the Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework. 18, 19 The framework has three components to helps students improve their reasoning, including elements of ...
Paul & Elder Critical Thinking Framework
The Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework has three components: The elements of thought (reasoning); The intellectual standards that should be applied to the elements of reasoning; The intellectual traits associated with a cultivated critical thinker that result from the consistent and disciplined application of the intellectual standards to the elements of thought
PDF Become Certified in the Paul-Elder Framework for Critical Thinking
The Paul-Elder Framework for Critical Thinking™ is the most integrated approach to critical thinking in the world and is based in the natural languages we speak every day. Our approach - also referred to as the Paulian Approach to Critical Thinking™ - offers a developed language for critical thinking and a conceptual framework that
Certification in the Paul-Elder Approach to Critic
The Paul-Elder Framework for Critical Thinking - also referred to as the Paulian Approach to Critical Thinking - is the most integrated conception of critical thinking in the world, and is based in the natural languages we speak every day. Our framework provides an internationally recognized, comprehensive approach to analyzing, assessing ...
Army CCC
Choose matching definition. Intuition. Innovative. Humility. Insistent. Quiz yourself with questions and answers for Army CCC - Think Critically and Creatively Posttest, so you can be ready for test day. Explore quizzes and practice tests created by teachers and students or create one from your course material.

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How to Apply Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework

The Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework

Elements of Reasoning

Intellectual Standards

Intellectual Traits

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Introduction to the Paul-Elder Model of Critical Thinking

Step 1: Elements of Reasoning

Step 2: Disciplinary Lenses

Step 3: Standards of Critical Thinking

Step 4: SEE-I Method

Step 5: Counterarguments

Step 6: Composing the Final Argument

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The Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework has three components:

Elements of Thought (reasoning)

Universal Intellectual Standards

Intellectual Traits

Characteristics of a Well-Cultivated Critical Thinker

Added By: Ira Gorelick

Critical thinking is that mode of thinking – about any subject, content, or problem — in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them. (Paul and Elder, 2001).

Elements of Thought (reasoning)

Universal Intellectual Standards

Intellectual Traits

Characteristics of a Well-Cultivated Critical Thinker

Critical Thinking Models: A Comprehensive Guide for Effective Decision Making

Key Takeaways

Fundamentals of Critical Thinking

Definition and Importance

Core Cognitive Skills

Influence of Cognitive Biases

The Critical Thinking Process

Stages of Critical Thinking

Application in Decision Making

Critical Thinking Models

The RED Model

Bloom’s Taxonomy

Paul-Elder Model

The Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment

Evaluating Information and Arguments

Evidence Assessment

Logic and Fallacies

Argument Analysis

Enhancing Critical Thinking

Critical Thinking in Education

Developing a Critical Thinking Mindset

Critical Thinking in Various Contexts

Creative and Lateral Thinking

Overcoming Challenges

Dealing with Information Overload

Measuring Critical Thinking

The Role of IQ and Tests

Frequently Asked Questions

Can you list five techniques to enhance critical thinking skills?

What is the RED Model of critical thinking and how is it applied?

How do the ‘3 C’s’ of critical thinking contribute to effective problem-solving?

What characteristics distinguish critical thinking from creative thinking?

What are some recommended books to help improve problem-solving and critical thinking skills?

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Clarity: Shining a Light on Our Thoughts