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• Organic Farming Essay

An introduction to Essay on Organic Farming

Organic farming describes how it uses organic elements and composts and tries to expand soil richness by taking care of soil miniature existence with build-ups from life. For example, trash fertilizer, sewage, excrement, plant deposits, food handling squanders, etc. This essay on organic farming will help you to discover the parts and importance of organic farming. 

This article also deals with the advantages and barriers to it. The organic farming essay also explains the principles behind it and how it is different from the traditional farming technique. An essay on organic farming is essential because it helps us understand the advantages of organic farming and also tells us how the effect of normal farming is harmful.

Segments of Organic Farming

Segments of Organic Farming are discussed below in detail.

Organic Manures

Organic manure provides basic nutrients that are required by plants in limited edition. It is a natural practice adopted by farmers to provide food (plant nutrients) to crop plants. There are various organic manures that are used by farmers such as farm wastes, oilcakes, vermicompost, and biological waste - animal bone. 

Biological Pest Management

The preservation of regular pests is significant for evading the utilization of compound pesticides. Organic pesticides, for example, neem, tobacco and other restorative plants need promotion. Specific microbial pesticides, for instance, Bacillus Thuringiensis offer a guarantee. It is essential to have biological pest management to improve the quality of the soil.

Non-Chemical Weed Control 

Mechanical strategy for weed control is commonly polished to lessen the weed populace. Organic control of weed needs promotion. 

Agronomical Practices

Yield revolution, blended trimming, green manuring practices will improve the physical and compound properties of soil. Consideration of leguminous yields in these practices adds to the ripeness. 

Alley Cropping

Coordination of lasting plants (generally leguminous) in the cultivating framework is called backstreet trimming. 

Principles of Organic Farming

No Chemical Fertilizer

In the event that nature is left to itself, fruitfulness is expanded, organic remains from plants and creatures gather and are deteriorated on a superficial level by microbes and growths. Utilizing straw, green compost, and ranch yard excrement, one can get significant returns without substance manure. 

No Use of Herbicide

Straw mulch and impermanent flooding give successful weed control in numerous fields. 

No Use of Pesticides

The preservation of common adversaries of irritations and the utilization of organic pesticides stay away from the utilization of synthetic pesticides. 

Upkeep of Healthy Soil

Soil well-being is kept up by developing vegetables, green manuring, green leaf manuring, crop pivot, entomb, and blended editing, including vegetables.

Importance of Organic Farming Essay

It doesn't bring about any ecological contamination since it evades the utilization of substance and plant insurance synthetic compounds. 

Less energy is utilized in organic cultivating contrasted with ordinary horticulture.

Less motorization is required. 

Less unsettling influence of soil, legitimate structure, high organic issue substance will be kept up. 

Organic food gets more cost than the product acquired by regular strategies.

Threats to Organic Farming

In changing over to organic cultivating, an underlying harvest misfortune, by and large, happens, especially whenever done rapidly. 

Land assets can move unreservedly from organic cultivating to regular cultivating; they don't move the converse way openly. 

Organic controls may have been debilitated, which may take three or four years for deposits to misfortune their impact.

Short Essay On Organic Farming

Organic farming is an essential part of today’s world. Organic cultivating implies cultivating in the organic connection between soil, water, and plants; between soil, soil organisms, and side-effects. This also implies the connection between the plant realm and the collective of animals; among agribusiness and ranger service; between soil, water and environment. Nature receives diverse techniques to gracefully supplement the dirt and keep up the soil’s fruitfulness. The gracefulness of supplements is undisrupted in nature. The plant leaves produce carbs and later change these carbohydrates into sugar, starch, cellulose, lignin, and so on. 

Organic compost includes mixing carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash rich materials. The minor components are available in extent, and the pivotal carbon-nitrogen proportion is neither too high nor excessively low. This sort of arrangement is inside the capability of ranchers. There is no need to include some nitrogenous manure as a supplement. The nitrogenous substance compost agitates the supplement equalization of soil. Nitrogenous manure is known as an energizer of development, and there is furore for it among the ranchers. Organic farming has many benefits in today’s world and it is esteemed to be much more cautious than the traditional ways of farming. This method, when used, can improve the health of people and the richness of soil on which farming is done. The reliance on these methods is beneficial as they provide more nutritious crops and better nourishment.

Through organic farming, the fertility of soil gets improved. Organic movement and the physical and mineral nature of the dirt are contributing factors. Organic farming is preferred over other modes for this very reason.

FAQs on Organic Farming Essay

1. What is the focus of Organic Farming?

Organic creation of yields is fundamentally the same as normal creation for planting, gathering. Assortments are normally the equivalent. Ripeness, weeds and different nuisances should be overseen in a more serious manner. Harvest pivot and timing of mechanical development are basic to progress. The mix of animals, to help gracefully excrement/fertilizer supplements will likewise be an advantage. Consider joining a few of the natural cultivating affiliations, for example, Canadian Organic Growers (COG) or Ecological Farmers of Ontario (EFO) to build your organization of natural cultivating contacts particularly among other natural ranchers in your general vicinity. 

2. What are the six basic methods of Organic Farming Practices?

The six basic methods of Organic Farming practices are crop diversity, soil management, weed management, controlling other organisms, livestock and genetic modification. These different methods are used in organic farming to improve yield and make farming more efficient. Organic farming methods improve the yield by following traditional practices with new scientific technology.

3. How do students learn about the basics of Organic Farming?

Organic farming can be intimidating for beginners, and one can start little by little and then advance. Basics can be learnt through many sources and sites now available even online. Students can learn about the basics of Organic Farming if they go to Organic Farming Essay for Students in English available on this page. This essay deals with what Organic Farming essentially is and what its advantages, as well as disadvantages, amount to. 

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Modern Concepts & Developments in Agronomy

Organic Farming: An Agricultural Waste Management System for Enhancing Soil Properties and Crop Yield

Aliku OO 1 *, Oshunsanya SO 1 and Ikoko CB 2

1 Department of Agronomy, Nigeria

2 Centre for Environmental Management and Control, Nigeria

*Corresponding author: Oreva Oghene Aliku, Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

Submission: July 11, 2019; Published: July 18, 2019

DOI: 10.31031/MCDA.2019.04.000599

ISSN 2637-7659 Volume4 Issue5

• Introduction
• Organic Farming

Sustainable agricultural production systems are crucial for meeting the food demand of the ever-increasing human population. However, these systems generate large amount of wastes which is a major environmental challenge when not properly managed. The difficulty and cost-related constraints associated with achieving sustainable food production through effective soil and crop management practices has led to a paradigm shift from inorganic farming to organic farming, where agricultural wastes are incorporated into the production systems. Organic farming applies natural principles for improved quality and quantity of crop produce while maintaining and/or improving soil health. This paper explores some ways in which agricultural wastes are used and their impacts on soil properties and crop yield in organic farming systems.

Keywords: Organic wastes; Environmental quality; Soil physical properties; Soil organic carbon; Crop yield

Agriculture is very pivotal to human growth and development. This is due to the production of food and fiber which are needed by humans all over the world. However, agriculture is also associated with the production of large amount of wastes such as crop residues, animal manure, etc. [1]. These wastes are usually difficult to dispose and often reduces environmental aesthetics and quality as they are usually disposed on open fields or burnt in most parts of the world. Those left on the field encounter wetting and dry processes which may sometimes cause anaerobic conditions that lead to bad smell, attraction of flies and insects, and spread of epidemic diseases, while those burnt are usually associated with air pollution and release of obnoxious and greenhouse gases [2]. Aiyelari EA [3] explained that burning of agricultural wastes could be detrimental to human health and the environment owing to the release of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere which could also lead to global warming effects. Some consequences of this phenomenon may result into chaotic weather changes, food insecurity, starvation and malnutrition [4]. In recent years, agricultural production has advanced beyond the focus on great yield production to improved food quality, human nutrition and environmental quality via practices that improve environmental health, sound ecology, while enhancing food security. Rodale [5] advised that instead of focusing on greater yields in production agriculture, which will eventually exhaust soil nutrients, the goal should be an agricultural management system that has the capability to preserve or improve soil quality and the environment. Lokeshwari M [2] noted that most agricultural wastes contain biodegradable hemicellulose and cellulose materials, which on decomposition improve soil properties and supply nutrients to crops. Hence, they can be better managed by reusing and/ or recycling them. They may be used as a source of energy, bedding, manure, mulch, compost, organic matter, or plant nutrients which are environmentally friendly practices, or they can be marketable when properly treated [3, 6]. A common practice is to recycle the nutrients in the waste through land application which is an alternative means of supplying nutrients to crops and maintaining soil fertility [6,7]. Hence, their use as a source of plant nutrients for growing vegetable crops could assume increasing importance as they are comparable to chemical fertilizers in crop yield improvement [3,8]. In general, all of these practices have been effectively coordinated under the umbrella of organic farming and have been reported as effective means of managing agricultural wastes for improvement of agricultural land while maintaining environmental quality.

This system makes the best use of crop residues, animal manure, green manure and off-farm organic waste in order to maintain soil productivity, supply plants with necessary nutrients, and control insects, weeds and other pests [9]. It is an agricultural waste management system in which all necessary components are installed and managed to control and use by-products of agricultural production in a manner that sustains or enhances the quality of air, water, soil, plant, animal and energy resources [6]. Organic farming, as a waste management system, consists of six basic functions as shown in Figure 1. Production is a function of the amount and nature of agricultural waste generated by an agricultural enterprise [6]. It varies with type, volume, time etc. The collection of these wastes involves capturing and gathering from point of deposition. The major problem with this as it affects environmental quality is that this aspect is given little or no consideration in most developing countries, including Nigeria. An agricultural waste management system should identify methods of collection, location of collection etc. [6]. Also, the transfer which involves the movement and transportation of waste from the collection point to storage, treatment and utilization site is very crucial. The mode and equipment for transfer will depend on the nature (liquid, semi-solid or solid) of the waste. This will also influence the type of storage facility and the processes required for treatment in order to reduce the pollution potential and/or modify the physical characteristics of the waste prior to utilization. Utilization of agricultural wastes has been reported to improve sanitary conditions, soil quality and crop yield [10]. Some of the soil properties and crop yield shown to be enhanced by use of some agricultural wastes under organic farming, and the forms in which these wastes were used are discussed as follows:

Figure 1: Agricultural waste management functions {Adapted from [6]}.

Effects of organic farming on soil properties

Table 1: Response of soil physical properties to organic and other forms of farming.

Values are mean across applications rates, soil depths or aggregate sizes; 1YACP: first year after compost application; 2YACP: second year after compost application.

Management of agricultural wastes via organic farming has been shown to improve several soil properties. This is due to alterations in soil physical properties, especially soil structural characteristics, which regulate soil functions and processes. Table 1 presents some results of responses of soil physical properties to organic farming. Papadopoulos A [11] reported that organic management significantly affects pore structure and enhances biological activities with positive effects on the environment. Comparing the impact of organic farming and conventional systems of coffee farming on soil properties, Velmourougane K [12] reported 8.4% increase in water holding capacity (WHC) under organic farming system of organic manure (5 tonnes farmyard manure and compost) relative to conventional method of N:P:K 40:30:40 (N:P2O5:K2O kg ha-1 per year). Earlier study by [13] reported improved soil WHC following application of residues and farmyard manure, while the application of vermicompost at 1t ha-1 combined with farmyard manure and its sole application at 2.5t ha-1 and 5t ha-1 increased WHC and soil moisture content [14,15].

This could be as a result of the affinity for water by organic matter which enhances the soil capacity to retain water for crop use, hence reducing the incidence of water loss through deep percolation and runoff. Krol A [16], in a 14-year study on organic farming and conventional farming systems, reported higher water infiltration following compost application than conventional farming of mineral fertilizer. They observed that the repellency index was mostly higher under the conventional farming system. Water repellent soil resists water infiltration and leads to surface runoff and infiltration [17]. Krol A [16] also observed that soil aggregate crushing strength was higher under the organic farming system than the conventional farming system. Nesic Lj [18] demonstrated that organic farming enhanced soil aggregate stability by recording higher mean weight diameter than conventional farming system. With respect to soil bulk density (ρb), the combination of composted coir pith and farmyard manure has also been reported to reduce ρb relative to unamended soil [19]. Soil bulk density was also lower under organic farming than conventional farming by 0.1Mg m-1 [12]. The combined effect of the internal aggregate strength and wettability can result to increased soil stability and water infiltration [20]. This could increase soil resistance to compaction and carbon sequestration.

Table 2: Soil chemical properties as influenced by organic and inorganic farming systems.

Values are means across applications rates, soil depths or aggregate sizes.

Table 3: Influence of organic and inorganic farming systems on soil biological properties.

Values are mean across applications rates, soil depths or aggregate sizes.

The decomposition and mineralization of organic wastes usually result to alterations in the chemical constituents of soils. Several studies have demonstrated the effectiveness in the use of organic wastes as amendments in improving soil chemical properties (Table 2). This is largely affected by the type and amount of organic waste used. For instance, Gosling P [21] reported that there was no significant difference between an organically managed farm and conventional managed farm in organic matter content. In another study, however, Velmourougane K [12] reported significant increase in organic carbon under organic system of farm management. Based on a 50-year study, Blanchet G [22] demonstrated that incorporation of crop residues and farmyard manure increased soil organic carbon content by 2.45% and 6.40% compared to mineral fertilizer, respectively. The application of organic amendments such as crop residues and/or farmyard manure significantly increased soil organic carbon [23,24]. In major nutrients including nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, Velmourougane K [12] reported an increase in nutrient levels under organic farming and conventional farming. They however noted a more pronounced inclination and availability under the conventional system. This could be due to the slow rate of decomposition of organic amendments. Bhogal A [25] explained that the variation in organic farming effects on soil chemical properties may be due to the rate and amount of organic matter added to the soil. The use of organic manure has been reported to give lower electrical conductivity (EC) when compared to the use of mineral fertilizer [12]. Though lower soil pH was reported for organic farming compared to conventional farming [12], the reverse was the order in Krol A [16]. This suggests that the effect of organic amendments on soil chemical properties depends on the type and amount. In terms of soil biological attributes (Table 3), [12] demonstrated that soil respiration and fluorescein diacetate activity were higher in organic managed farm relative to conventional farm. They also noted that organic system had higher macrofauna (31.4%), microbial population (34%), and microbial diversity indices compared to the conventional system of mineral fertilizer application. Although soil urease activity was higher under conventional farming system and the dehydrogenase activity showed no significant difference between the two systems, Velmourougane K [12] concluded that soil cultivated with coffee under long-term organic system has better soil properties than conventional farming system.

Effects of organic farming on crop productivity

The modification of soil properties by organic amendments in organic farming system often results to improved soil productivity and crop yield. Poultry manure and Terminalia catappa leaves compost was evaluated for it effect on okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) by Aiyelari EA [3] as shown in Table 4. They observed that the application of these organic wastes either as compost or mulch significantly improved okra pod yield. For example, 5t ha-1 and 10t ha-1 compost of poultry manure and Terminalia catappa leaves gave 72.7% and 87.4% increase in the number of okra pods produced, while the use of Terminalia catappa leaves as mulch at 10t ha-1 resulted to 1.0% increase. Corresponding values for fresh pod weight (g plant-1) were 204.4% and 267.0% increase under 5t ha-1 and 10t ha-1 compost, while mulching at 5t ha-1 and 10t ha-1 gave 48.4% and 52.7% increase compared to unamended soil.

Table 4: Response of yield attributes of selected crops under organic farming system.

However, some authors have demonstrated that the use of organic wastes as mulch offer little or no significant effect on crop yield. For instance, Gruber S [26] reported that mulching with wood chips had no effect on crop yield. Johnson JM [27] also reported that potato yields were similar in mulched and unmatched plots, but watermelon yield was higher in plots with straw mulch. Doring TF [28] reported no positive effect of straw mulch on potato yield due to the relatively low amounts of straw applied. Though Dauda BM [29] reported similar length of pepper fruit under grass mulch and unamended soil, they observed higher pepper yield in mulched plots than unmatched soil. Nasir M [30] reported that the average cucumber and bitter gourd yield was higher under mulch conditions compared to the control. The application of Gliricidia lopping’s as mulch was reported to significantly enhance the dry fruit yield of chilli as compared to no unmatched treatment [31]. Cocoa husk mulch increased tomato fruits weight per plant compared to the control [32]. In comparison to mineral fertilizers, compost at 5 and 10t ha-1 gave higher okra fresh pod weight than NPK fertilizer by 12.6 and 27.5%, respectively [3]. In another study on swine manure composted with almond leaves, Ogunsesin A [33] reported that swine manure and almond leaves compost gave higher number of pepper fruits (16.8) than NPK 15-1 5-1 5 fertilizer (15.5). They also noted that the organic amendment enhanced the nutritive components of pepper [34-37]. Thus, the impact of organic amendment applied as mulch could depend on the amount, nature and crop response under the prevailing environmental conditions.

Agriculture is associated with the production of large amount of organic wastes that can adversely affect environmental quality and human health if not properly managed. These wastes are biodegradable and rich in nutrient elements that are essential for enhancing soil fertility and crop growth. Therefore, management functions involving the collection, transfer, storage, treatment and utilization of agricultural wastes in organic farming could enable farmers harness the bio-fertilizer potentials in these wastes for agricultural crop production. Their utilization as compost, green manure and farmyard manure improves soil water holding capacity, saturated hydraulic conductivity, organic matter and total nitrogen content, microbial population and crop yield relative to conventional use of chemical fertilizers which are expensive. Thus, the alteration of agricultural wastes and their use as soil amendments would make them easy to handle and environmentalfriendly, hence making organic farming an environmentally sound production system for improving soil properties and crop yield. However, the role of organic farming in managing soil erosion is yet to be fully explored.

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© 2019 Aliku OO. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and build upon your work non-commercially.

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UPMC Hamot Neuroscience Institute, USA

Conxita Mestres Miralles

Ramon Llull University, Spain

Barry Kraynack

White Bear Associates, LLC, USA

Arkady S Voloshin

Lehigh University, USA

Alireza Heidari

California Southern University, USA

Alex Guskov

Institute of Solid State Physics of RAS, Russia

Alan Diego Briem Stamm

University of Buenos Aires, Argentina

Ahmed Nasr Ghanem

Mansoura University, Egypt

Afaf K El Ansary

King Saud University, Saudi Arabia

A Bernardes

University of Coimbra, Portugal

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Recycling of Organic Wastes in Agriculture: An Environmental Perspective

• Review article
• Published: 06 March 2019
• Volume 13 , pages 409–429, ( 2019 )

Cite this article

• Bhavisha Sharma 1 ,
• Barkha Vaish 1 ,
• Umesh Kumar Singh 2 ,
• Pooja Singh 3 &
• Rajeev Pratap Singh 1  

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Inadequate organic waste management leads to a plethora of problems such as environmental pollution, eutrophication, esthetic damage to urban landscape, greenhouse gases emission and effects on human health. Unwise and non-scientific disposal of wastes not only poses a grave threat to environmental quality but also results in loss of economic value of wastes. Since organic wastes are an abundant pool of organic matter and valuable plant nutrients, agricultural recycling of these wastes appears to be a promising alternative enabling value addition and their resourceful utilization. Land application of organic wastes stabilized through techniques such as composting, vermicomposting and anaerobic digestion yielding excellent organic fertilizer like compost augments soil fertility and crop yield. Additionally, the practice incorporates indirect environmental benefits such as reduced greenhouse gas emissions, land conservation due to reduced landfilling of wastes and substitute to chemical fertilizers. Economically also, agricultural utilization of organic wastes reduces the cost of landfilling, transportation of wastes, imports and production cost of chemical fertilizers and opens avenues for rural employment. However, effective utilization of organic wastes for agricultural purposes requires thorough and strict risk assessment to prevent the adverse effects of contaminants like heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants to ensure agro-environmental sustainability. The present article aims to enlist the positives and negatives associated with this practice enabling to devise an approach or strategy deriving maximum environmental and economic benefits.

Article Highlights

Agricultural recycling of organic wastes can be explored as an eco-friendly and sustainable waste management approach.

Organic wastes are a rich source of beneficial plant nutrients (macro and micro) and organic matter.

Organic waste amendments improve soil physico-chemical and biological properties and benefit plant productivity.

Organic wastes offer the potential to be used as a valuable resource.

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Introduction to Organic Wastes and Its Management

Improvement of Soil Quality by Solid Waste Recycling: A Global Perspective

Agricultural Waste: Its Impact on Environment and Management Approaches

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Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to the Dean & Head, Department of Environment and Sustainable Development and Director, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, for providing necessary facilities. RPS is thankful to Department of Science & Technology for providing financial support (DST-SERB P07-678). BS is thankful to University Grants Commission for awarding Junior and Senior Research Fellowship. BV is also thankful to Council of Scientific & Industrial Research for awarding Senior Research Fellowship.

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Sharma, B., Vaish, B., Monika et al. Recycling of Organic Wastes in Agriculture: An Environmental Perspective. Int J Environ Res 13 , 409–429 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41742-019-00175-y

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s41742-019-00175-y

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Organic Farming: History, Timeline, and Impact

Learn how this agricultural movement began and where it stands today.

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Organic farming refers to a method of agriculture that uses fertilizers made from animal and plant wastes and other biological materials. Recognizing the environmental harm of traditional farming, which used chemical pesticides and fertilizers, scientists saw that farming conditions could benefit from the use of animal manures, crop rotation, cover crops, and natural pest controls. Today, organic food has grown in popularity, especially among consumers who are concerned with the potential negative effects of pesticides, GMOs, and hormones.

What Does Organic Mean?

Organic describes any food that is produced without chemical fertilizers, pesticides, or antibiotics. The USDA certifies food as organic if it has been grown in soil that has not been covered in synthetic fertilizer or pesticides for a full three years prior to the food's harvest.

Traditional farming has a greater impact on the environment due to increased greenhouse gas emissions, soil erosion, and water pollution. However, traditional farming generally produces higher crop yields (approximately 5-34% greater) than organic farming. This is one of the reasons why organic produce is more expensive. Conventional farming also uses synthetic insecticides to get rid of pests and diseases, whereas organic farming uses insects and birds.

The Origin and Timeline of Organic Farming

According to a 2020 International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) report, there were at least 2.8 million organic producers in the world in 2018. How did we get here?

Organic agriculture as a concept began at the beginning of the twentieth century as the need to address soil erosion and depletion, lack of crop varieties, and insufficient food quality increased. During the time, the mechanization of agriculture evolved quickly, which drastically increased crop yields and made farming much more affordable. The resulting negative environmental effects spurred the birth of the organic farming movement.

The term was first coined by Walter James in his book "Look to the Land," in which he talked about a natural and ecological approach to farming. He focused on the “farm as an organism,” and his ideas were fundamental in the creation of the worldwide organic farming movement. Also, in the 1940s, the founder of the Rodale Institute , J. I. Rodale, provided his own information on farming methods that avoided the use of chemicals.

Rodale gained inspiration from Sir Albert Howard, a British scientist who spent years in India observing agricultural systems that used green manures and wastes as fertilizer. In 1943, in his book " An Agricultural Testament ," Howard wrote about the importance of using animal waste to maintain soil fertility, which was a concept that later became central to organic farming.  

1950s - 1960s

In the 1950s, the sustainable agriculture movement began to gain traction due to environmental concerns. In 1962, Rachel Carson came out with her book " Silent Spring " which highlighted the effects of DDT and other pesticides on wildlife, the natural environment, and humans. Within this book, Carson called for humans to act in a more responsible manner and be stewards of the earth instead of destroying it. The sustainable agriculture movement and Silent Spring both had a major impact on the progression of the organic farming movement.

In the 1970s, consumers began to become more environmentally aware, and their demand for more sustainable practices fueled the growth of the organic farming industry. With the difference between organic and conventional produce now apparent, the movement aimed to promote locally grown food. This time in history was known as the era of polarization of agriculture into organic and non-organic categories.

However, no one could agree on approaches for the management of organic farming, and so no universal standards or regulations for organic agriculture existed in the 1970s. In the United States at the time, organic certification programs varied by state.

In 1972, IFOAM was founded in Versailles, France to build capacity to assist farmers in making the transition to organic agriculture, to raise awareness on sustainable agriculture, and to advocate for policy changes related to agro-ecological farming practices and sustainable development. Today, they have members from 100 countries and territories and are a leader in the industry.

The 1980s is described as a period in which organic farming received national recognition within the United States. In 1980, the USDA released the Report and Recommendations on Organic Farming with the intention of “increasing communication between the USDA and organic farmers.” In 1981, the American Society of Agronomy held a Symposium on Organic Farming to explore the question: Can organic farming contribute to more sustainable agriculture? The answer was a resounding yes from attendees of the symposium.

Organic agriculture began to be implemented into university curriculums around the world. USDA scientists also conducted research on organic farming with the Rodale Institute. In 1989, in Cuba, the combination of the U.S. trade embargo and the collapse of their Soviet market led to an organic revolution. This was because they found it very difficult to import the chemical fertilizers and heavy machinery needed for traditional agriculture, therefore they turned to organic farming.

In the 1980s around the world, farmers and consumers started to advocate for government regulation of organic farming. This sparked the creation of the certification standards that were enacted in the 1990s. In the European Union and the United States, the majority of aspects of organic food production are government-regulated.

The global retail market for organic food has expanded exponentially each year due to increasing consumer demand. This was a result of the concern over the safety of food that was produced using synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.

In 1990, U.S. Congress passed the Organic Foods Production Act (OFPA) to develop a national standard for organic food production. The OFPA resulted in the creation of the National Organic Standards Board that would make recommendations for which substances could be used in organic production and handling. The board also would assist the USDA in writing regulations to explain the law to farmers, handlers, and certifiers. This was an important milestone in the organic movement as it defined the term “organic" and set site-specific regulations that promoted ecological balance and the conservation of biodiversity.

2000s - 2010s

The regulations under the OFPA took more than a decade to write and the final regulations were finally implemented in 2002. In the 2000s, the worldwide market for organic food began to grow rapidly. Organic farmland increased from 11 million hectares in 1999 to 43.7 million hectares in 2014. Additionally, the global market of organic products was estimated to be $15.2 billion in 1999 and increased to $80 billion in 2014. In 2014, there were approximately 2.3 million organic producers around the world.

From 2004 to 2010, researchers found that organic products cost more than non-organic products, with a premium of above 20% for all organic products except spinach. Additionally, during the 2000s and 2010s, more countries around the world began to implement government-regulated organic certifications. For example, in 2002 the European Union Organic Certification was enacted to enforce strict requirements for organic food production.

The global organic market was greater than 100 billion U.S. dollars in 2018 with the leading country being the U.S., followed by Germany and France. There are approximately 2.8 million organic producers worldwide, with the majority being in India. Farmland also increased to a total of 71.5 million hectares worldwide.

Global organic agriculture has also had a significant contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) . However, there have continued to be criticisms about organic food and whether it is safer and/or more nutritious than conventional foods. Additionally, some have criticized the high costs of organic food as they believe there is a lack of evidence to back that it is more beneficial to health.

Still, organic food continues to grow in popularity, and it is expected that it will become more affordable as production and distribution increase. Additionally, consumers have been seeking out new organic plant-based alternatives, such as oat and soy milk. The popularity of restaurants that only cook food with organic ingredients is also on the rise, specifically in places like Bali, Indonesia. Overall, organic food continues to rise in quality, choice, and affordability.

" Organic 101: What the USDA Organic Label Means ." U.S. Department of Agriculture .

" What Are the Environmental Benefits of Organic Agriculture? " Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations .

Seufert, Verena, et al. " Comparing the Yields of Organic and Conventional Agriculture ." Nature , vol. 485, no. 7397, 2012, pp. 229-232., doi:10.1038/nature11069

Willer, Helga, et al. " The World of Organic Agriculture: Statistics and Emerging Trends 2020 ." Research Institute of Organic Agriculture, Frick, and IFOAM , 2020.

Paull, John. " Lord Northbourne, the Man Who Invented Organic Farming, a Biography ." Journal of Organic Systems , vol. 9, no. 1, 2014, pp. 31-53.

" The Future of Food and Agriculture: Trends and Challenges ." Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations , 2017.

" Organic Production/Organic Food: Information Access Tools ." U.S. Department of Agriculture .

Willer, Helga, and Julia Lernoud. " The World of Organic Agriculture: Statistics and Emerging Trends 2016 ." Research Institute of Organic Agriculture, Frick, and IFOAM , 2016.

Carlson, Andrea, and Edward Jaenicke. " Changes in Retail Organic Price Premiums From 2004 to 2010 ." U.S. Department of Agriculture , 2016.

" Global Organics Area Continues to Grow ." IFOAM Organics International .

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Home > Books > Strategies of Sustainable Solid Waste Management

Agricultural Solid Wastes: Causes, Effects, and Effective Management

Submitted: 03 July 2020 Reviewed: 14 August 2020 Published: 15 December 2020

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.93601

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The role of the agricultural sector in human development and economic development cannot be overemphasized. Awareness for increased agricultural production is on the increase, arising from the need to feed the ever-increasing human population. Interestingly, almost all agricultural activities generate wastes, which are generated in large quantities in many countries. However, these wastes may constitute a serious threat to human health through environmental pollution and handling them may result in huge economic loss. Unfortunately, in many developing countries where large quantities of these wastes are generated, they are not properly managed because little is known about their potential risks and benefits if properly managed. There are studies that address some of the challenges of agricultural solid wastes as well as suggestions on how they can be properly managed. In this chapter, we intend to explore the major sources of agricultural solid wastes, their potential risks, and how they can be properly managed.

• agricultural solid waste
• animal feed
• environmental safety

Author Information

Isaac oluseun adejumo *.

• Department of Animal Science, Federal University, Nigeria

Olufemi Adebukola Adebiyi

• Department of Animal Science, University of Ibadan, Nigeria

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

Increasing growth in human population has necessitated increased agricultural production. Agricultural production in the last five decades has been said to increase more than three times. Other factors responsible for increased agricultural production include technological advancement toward green revolution and expansion of soil for agricultural production [ 1 , 2 ]. It has been estimated that agricultural sector provides about 24 million tons of food globally [ 1 ] with accompanying health risks and threat on ecosystems [ 3 ]. We cannot do without agriculture because food is a necessity across the globe, but the impact of agriculture on the environment is also evident. For example, it has been documented that about 21% of greenhouse gas emission comes from agriculture. The negative influence of agriculture on the environment, aquatic lives and human health have necessitated improvement in agricultural production, involving effective and efficient ways of handling agricultural solid wastes [ 4 ].

The global leaders have been mandated to prioritize production of more food and energy for increasing human population which is estimated to exceed 10 billion by 2050 as well as to tackle the impacts already caused. However, this mandate is expected to be achieved with lower emissions of pollutants, zero solid waste and less fossil fuel [ 5 , 6 ]. The future prediction for increased agricultural production involves food production for human population, industrial needs, and animal feed [ 7 ]. However, every step of agricultural production, processing and consumption generates quantities of agricultural solid wastes, depending on the type of agricultural produce or product, processing techniques and purpose of use.

The agricultural sector is one of the main sectors generating the largest quantities of agricultural solid wastes, which may be allowed to accumulate indiscriminately and constitute nuisance to global health and threat to food security or used as raw materials for bio-economy [ 8 , 9 ]. The benefits of recycling of agricultural solid wastes include reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and use as fossil fuel as well as contributing significantly to the development of new green markets, creation of jobs, production of bio-energy and bio-conversion of agricultural solid wastes to animal feed [ 10 , 11 ].

The emphasis on the management of agricultural solid wastes cannot be overemphasis. Agricultural solid wastes are generated from many sources. One of such sources are pesticides, including herbicides and insecticides. It has been estimated that the global food production would fall by an estimate of about 42% if the use of pesticide is completely stopped [ 12 ]. The influence of agricultural solid wastes on human health, animal health, and the environment is significant and all hands must be on deck to tackle the menace posed by mismanagement of agricultural solid wastes. Agricultural solid wastes are mismanaged largely owing to ignorance. Many of the farmers and household managers who generate these wastes do not know how to effectively manage them. Many of them do not know the health implications of what they toy with, while some who know are ‘handicapped’. Year after year, large tons of agricultural solid wastes are being produced, with an annual increase of about 7.5% [ 13 , 14 ]. In many parts in developing countries, agricultural solid wastes are indiscriminately dumped or burnt in public places, thereby resulting in the generation of air pollution, soil contamination, a harmful gas, smoke and dust and the residue may be channeled into a water source thereby polluting the water and aquatic environment [ 15 , 16 , 17 ].

2. Classification and causes/sources of agricultural solid wastes

Animal production solid wastes;

Food and meat processing solid wastes;

Crop production solid wastes;

On-farm medical solid wastes;

Horticultural production solid wastes;

Industrial agricultural solid wastes;

Chemical wastes.

Animal production solid wastes —animal production solid wastes are solid wastes generated from the production of livestock for whatever purposes. Examples of such wastes include bedding/litter, animal carcasses, damaged feeders, and water-trough, etc.

Food and meat processing solid wastes —this class of agricultural solid wastes are produced from the processing of crop or animal products for human consumption, such as abattoir or slaughterhouses. Examples of food and meat processing agricultural solid wastes include hoofs, bones, feathers, banana peels, etc.

Crop production solid wastes —crop solid wastes are associated with agricultural solid wastes typically produced from agricultural activities involving crop production. Examples of such agricultural solid wastes are crop residues, husks, etc.

On-farm medical solid wastes —on-farm medical solid wastes refer to solid wastes that are generated from the use of drugs, insecticides or vaccines used on or animals. Examples of such wastes include vaccine wrappers or containers, disposable needles, syringes, etc.

Horticultural production solid wastes —this group of agricultural solid wastes refer to solid wastes generated from cultivation and maintenance of horticultural plants and landscape for beautification. Examples of such wastes are prunings and grass cuttings.

Industrial agricultural solid wastes —agricultural produce and livestock are not only cultivated and produced for dietary consumption. They are used for other uses and it is not unlikely that such activities result in agricultural solid wastes. Wood processing and cuttings readily come to mind as a source of agricultural solid wastes. Paper production using agricultural products as raw materials also generate some quantities of agricultural solid wastes.

Chemical wastes —chemical wastes in this context have to do with agricultural solid wastes generated from the use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides on the farm or store, such as pesticide containers or bottles. Agricultural activities still depend on the use of pesticides, insecticides, and herbicides, being handled by many uneducated and untrained farmers in developing countries, resulting in abuse by these uneducated farmers [ 18 ,  19 ]. Some uneducated farmers mishandle pesticide containers, thereby resulting in unpredictable environmental hazards. It has been reported that about 2% of pesticides remain in the containers after use, which some ignorant and uneducated users may throw in the ponds or on the open field resulting in food poisoning, environmental and water pollution, causing death of many lives [ 20 , 21 ].

Farming activities

Poor road network

Poor electricity or lack of rural electrification

Inadequate drying technique and storage facilities

Food spoilage

Kitchen-generated agricultural solid wastes

Farming activities—the main source of agricultural solid waste generation is agriculture. Beginning from land clearing till harvest, every phase of farming activities results in the generation of agricultural waste. From preparing the pen for the arrival of the animals to the farm, preparation of pasture/paddock till the animals are slaughtered and sold, solid wastes are generated.

Poor road network for transporting harvested produce from the farm to the market or storage is another avenue of generating large quantities of agricultural solid wastes. This happens largely as a result of the bad road network in some developing countries, which may result in a road accident or delay of agricultural produce from farms to markets. When road accident occurs, perishable agricultural produce result easily in wastage, and when delayed, the same result may occur. The spoilt produce is either thrown away on the road or separated to be discarded once the farmer gets to the market. Figure 1 shows agricultural produce being transported in a city in Nigeria.

Poor electricity or lack of rural electrification—the epileptic power supply and lack of rural electrification in some parts of developing countries with significant agricultural activities are contributing in no small measure to the generation of agricultural solid wastes. Stable electricity could have facilitated the cold storage of the harvested produce and thereby reduce spoilage and consequently agricultural solid wastes.

Inadequate drying technique and storage facilities—spoilage of much agricultural produce could be prevented with adequate drying techniques. If farmers have access to adequate drying technique or moisture monitor, it would have gone a long way in militating against food spoilage and agricultural solid waste, thereby enhancing food security and reducing the impact of agricultural solid waste on human health and the environment. Many of the farmers depend largely on the unpredictable solar system to dry their produce before they are stored, as well as rely on the conventional method of moisture monitoring which is neither effective nor accurate. Inadequate monitoring of moisture content in grain before storage has been reported to result in aflatoxin infestation. Aflatoxin is produced by Aspergillus flavus . Aflatoxin infestation is both a cause and a product of food spoilage [ 23 ] and its contamination of food and livestock feed can lead to significant annual crop losses globally [ 24 ].

It has been estimated that about 10% of global crop harvest is destroyed by filamentous fungi through contamination of food and feed with mycotoxins. Aflatoxins have been reported to produce liver carcinogens, impair human health in developing countries, and result in the huge economic losses, in the U.S. corn alone amounting to about $280 million annually. The economic losses could be as high as 1 billion dollars if other crop-infestation such as cotton, peanuts and tree nuts are included. Aflatoxins B1 and B2 which cause preharvest and postharvest crop infestation are produced by Aspergillus flavus [ 23 ].

Food spoilage is another important source or cause of agricultural solid wastes. It has been estimated that about 40% of food is wasted in the US alone annually. This waste has been estimated to cost about 162 billion dollars Natural Resources Defense Council [ 25 ]. Pest and insect infestation may also increase wastage owing to spoilage.

Kitchen-generated agricultural solid wastes: in most cases, the end result of agricultural activities is family consumption. Usually, the consumption of agricultural produce at the family level is not without the production of agricultural solid wastes. Some of these wastes are generated out of necessity. For example, orange peels and banana peels are discarded as agricultural solid wastes in many homes. However, agricultural solid wastes may also be generated unintentionally, arising from food spoilage. Kitchen-generated agricultural solid wastes become significant when restaurants are included as kitchens (commercial kitchens). Of all the kitchen wastes considered in cities in China, agricultural solid wastes (food wastes) constitute between 88 and 94% [ 26 ]. Figure 2 , Tables 1 and 2 respectively show home-generated agricultural solid wastes, the composition of kitchen wastes and nutritional characteristics of kitchen wastes in selected cities in China.

Transportation of agricultural produce in Nigeria. Source: Vanguard Newspaper [ 22 ].

Home-generated agricultural solid wastes.

Composition of kitchen wastes in Chinese cities (unit: %).

Source: Li et al. [ 26 ].

Nutritional characteristics of kitchen wastes in Chinese cities (unit: %).

3. Influence of agricultural solid waste on human health and environment

Health and environmental implication

Food security

Flood: One major cause of flood has been the blockage of waterways. Waterways are blocked primarily when human beings build on waterways or when the canals or waterways are blocked by solid wastes. In an agricultural environment, the indiscriminate dumping of agricultural solid wastes can result in blockage of waterways which when that happens will result in floods which may result in losses of lives and properties.

Health and environmental implication—arising from indiscriminate burning of generated wastes. Indiscriminate dumping and burning of agricultural solid waste have resulted in pollution, a threat to human lives as well as other environmental problems, calling for global attention, although these wastes can be recycled to improve soil fertility, being rich in nutrient required for sustainable agricultural production [ 13 , 29 , 30 ]. Figure 3 shows the agricultural solid wastes being dumped in open space.

Food security and agricultural solid wastes: Continuous human population growth has been linked with increased agricultural activities which consequently results in increased generation of agricultural solid wastes. There are currently about 7.5 billion people around the globe and a significant portion of this population still do not have enough food to eat. Figure 4 is a chart comparing the human population according to continents while Table 3 shows the current human population parameters according to continents. The effects of food insecurity are enormous, ranging from poor health, slow progress in education and employment development [ 34 ]. One of the important 17 Global Sustainable Goals is to end hunger, achieve food security and improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture by 2030. Unfortunately, 10 years ahead of the deadline for this goal, there are still about 821 hungry people across the globe [ 34 ]. It has been argued that the main problem of food insecurity is not that we are not producing enough food, but agricultural solid wastes, mainly food wastage is responsible. Africa and Asia have been noted as the fast-growing population in the world, incidentally, these are the regions with most food insecure people and inefficient waste management [ 33 , 35 ]. It has been estimated that one-third of the food we produce annually is lost or wasted, costing about one trillion US dollars annually. Wastage occurs mostly in developing countries during the production and supply chain while it occurs mainly in developed countries on the plate [ 34 ]. Agricultural solid wastes can be recycled as nonconventional feed ingredients to enhance food security by enhancing animal protein production [ 36 ]. Figures 5 and 6 respectively show food wastage chart in America and estimate of unconsumed food by an average American family.

Dumping of agricultural solid wastes at the public. Sources: Akande and Olorunnisola [ 31 ] and Olayiwola et al. [ 32 ].

Current population of the seven continents. Source: Worldometers [ 33 ].

List of continents ranked by current human population parameters.

Source: Worldometers [ 33 ].

Unconsumed food by an average American family. Source: Rescuing Leftover Cuisine [ 25 ].

Food wastage chart in America. Source: Rescuing Leftover Cuisine [ 25 ].

4. Effective management of agricultural solid wastes

Compositing/organic manure

Substrates for edible fungi cultivation

Nonconventional feed ingredient

Traditional soap making

Alternative energy sources and bio-fuel production

Production of silica

Compositing: Li et al. [ 26 ] recommended that kitchen wastes, largely agricultural solid waste from food wastage could be used as an animal feed via sterilization, fertilizer via composting and bioenergy via anaerobic digestion. These wastes are important candidates for compositing owing to their high organic matter content and nutrients, although their high salt, moisture content and oil may impair composting.

Substrates for mushroom cultivation: mushroom has been grown on different agricultural solid wastes as substrates [ 32 , 37 ]. Steps involved in mushroom cultivation and its benefits are highlighted by Olayiwola et al. [ 32 ].

Nonconventional feed ingredient. Several attempts have been made to feed agricultural solid wastes to livestock as a means of recycling as well as a cheap source of feed for raising animal-source protein. A nonconventional feed ingredient, mycomeat has also been produced from agricultural solid wastes. The wastes served as substrate and a mixture of the substrates and the cultivated fungi (mushroom) was feed to broiler chicks, as a nonconventional feed ingredient, mycomeat [ 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 ] fed some agricultural solid wastes to albino rats and recommended processing of the wastes in order to obtain a better result. Adebiyi et al. [ 41 ] recommended the combination of 40% cassava peel +40% concentrate +20% watermelon wastes for feeding grower pigs. Poultry feathers could be used for several products instead of being indiscriminately discarded or burnt. Traditional, feathers are used for decoration, pillows and could be converted as nonconventional feed ingredients to feed livestock.

Traditional soap making: traditional technology exists in Africa decades ago for turning some of the agricultural solid wastes into useful products. Cocoa pods which could turn agricultural solid wastes are usually either allowed to naturally decompose and enrich the soil or are used to make black soap, which may be used for washing dishes or bathing.

Alternative energy source and bio-fuel production: agricultural solid wastes can be converted to green energy through anaerobic digestion [ 9 ]. High protein and fat contents of these wastes may impair anaerobic digestion stability, as well as unavailability of efficient technology required for disposal of biogas residues [ 53 ]. However, pre-treatment techniques such as mechanical (sonication), chemical addition (acid or alkali), oxidative (ozone), biological (enzyme addition), thermal ad osmotic (freezing and sodium chloride treatment) may improve the physical and chemical properties of the wastes, thereby enhancing their solubilization of organic particles, sterilization effect as well as the promotion of their subsequent recycling (biogas production) [ 54 , 55 ]. Despite many challenges confronting its production, bio-fuel and bio-energy attract many hopes as a sustainable renewable energy source, which tend to promote rural and regional development, reduction of CO 2 emission, creation of job opportunity as well as replacing the energy from nonrenewable fossil fuel with green energy [ 56 , 57 , 58 ]. Agricultural solid wastes (rich in cellulose, hemicellulose, starch, lipids and proteins) which are produced in large tons and burnt in open-field or allowed to accumulate in some developing countries may be channeled toward bio-fuel generation [ 59 , 60 ]. Key players and political leaders, particularly in developing countries should team up with researchers to scale up the conversion of biomass to alternative energy sources or bio-fuel generation. This is expected not only to reduce the health menace arising from open-field agricultural solid wastes burning or dumping but to improve energy production and reduce economic losses of waste disposal as well.

Production of silica: Production of silica: Silicon, the 2nd most abundant nonmetallic element in the earth crust with an atomic weight of 28 [ 61 , 62 ] forms silica and silicates. It is rarely found in its elemental state owing to its affinity for oxygen [ 63 ]. It has been reported as a beneficial trace element, widely distributed in foods. Its health benefits include improvement of the structural integrity of nail, hair, skin, immunity, bone mineralization, bone calcification and reduces the occurrence of atherosclerosis [ 64 , 65 , 66 ]. In the presence of hydrochloric acid and other gastric fluids in the GIT, silicon compounds are degraded into bioavailable forms of silicic acid (ortho, meta, di, and tri-silicates) [ 67 ] and are diffused into different organs of the body [ 68 , 69 ]. Silicon quantity decreases with age and tends to be more in plants than animal-sources, although dietary sources are low in silicon and may need to be supplemented in diets through other means [ 65 , 70 , 71 , 72 ]. It does not bond with plasma proteins, hence, about 75% of plasma silicon is excreted within a few hours after ingestion [ 68 , 73 ]. Agricultural solid wastes are potential sources of silica. Silica has been produced from agricultural solid wastes such as corn cob, rice husk, bagasse and rice straw using chemical, thermal, and microbial methods [ 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 ].

5. Conclusion

Food wastage is an important source of agricultural solid wastes. Hence, the prevention of food wastage at all levels before they are created will salvage some of these wastes and prevent unnecessary ill-health and environmental disadvantages as well as huge economic losses. This can be achieved through proper education and awareness of those involved with agricultural activities at all levels as well as being a little more generous by feeding hungry people with fresh food instead of keeping them till they are spoilt. There are hungry people everywhere in the world. Feeding animals saves food scraps and bioconversion of agricultural by-products, which may turn to agricultural solid wastes if their values are not enhanced and will go a long way in preventing such wastes as well. Composting and conversion of agricultural solid wastes to a renewable energy source is another effective way of managing agricultural solid wastes. It is high time attention is focused on turning these huge potential agricultural solid wastes to wealth, particularly in developing countries. To make our world safer for us to live, all hands must be on deck. Research activities should be geared toward commercial scaling of some productive findings made toward the efficient recycling of agricultural wastes.

Proper awareness should be made to everyone involved in agricultural activities whether at a middleman or woman, farmer, or consumer on the effects of indiscriminate disposal of agricultural solid wastes and benefits of efficient management of agricultural solid wastes. Political leaders, particularly in developing countries should be open-minded and formulate policies that ensure the efficient recycling of agricultural solid wastes and appropriate funds should be earmarked to achieving this. Attention should be focused on minimizing wastage by creating a more efficient sustainable agricultural supply chain through the development of sustainable durable markets and improving rural infrastructures such as electrification, roads, and storage [ 34 ].

It should also be noted that huge revenue could be generated from the conversion of agricultural solid wastes into useful products, as it has the potential of employing people if well-harnessed. Hence, its importance goes beyond the health implication but includes income generation for individual and governments which receive tax from companies and individual working in such establishments involved in the conversion of wastes to useful products. Also, it could contribute significantly to minimizing civil unrest plaguing some villages in developing countries. Some idle youths used to foment trouble could be scarce to find if they are gainfully employed, and that gainful employment could be companies or individuals who are efficiently engaging in turning agricultural solid wastes to wealth. Recycling of agricultural solid wastes into useful products could generate other sets of agricultural solid wastes, which may serve as raw materials for another useful products, thereby necessitating the continuous recycling of agricultural solid wastes until every potential waste is converted into wealth.

Conflict of interest

We have no conflicts of interest.

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• Published: 04 May 2024

Effective food waste management model for the sustainable agricultural food supply chain

• Yuanita Handayati 1   na1 &
• Chryshella Widyanata 1   na1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  10290 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Environmental social sciences
• Sustainability

The extensive research examines the current state of agricultural food supply chains, with focus on waste management in Bandung Regency, Indonesia. The study reveals that a significant proportion of food within the agricultural supply chain goes to waste and discusses the various challenges and complexities involved in managing food waste. The research presents a conceptual model based on the ADKAR change management paradigm to promote waste utilization, increase awareness and change people's behaviors. The model emphasizes the importance of creating awareness, fostering desire, providing knowledge, implementing changes, and reinforcing and monitoring the transformation process. It also addresses the challenges, barriers, and drivers that influence waste utilization in the agricultural supply chain, highlighting the need for economic incentives and a shift in public awareness to drive meaningful change. Ultimately, this study serves as a comprehensive exploration of food waste management in Bandung Regency, shedding light on the complexities of the issue and offering a systematic approach to transition towards more sustainable waste utilization practices.

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Introduction.

The food industry comprises roughly 30% of the world’s total energy consumption, and when there is food loss and waste, the resources invested in food production go to waste 1 . Consequently, this contributes to the depletion of natural resources. Additionally, approximately 22% of greenhouse gas emissions, which have adverse environmental effects and contribute to global warming, originate from these food sectors 2 , 3 . To address this challenge, the United Nations has integrated the problem of food wastage into the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, specifically under Sustainable Development Goal 12, which focuses on promoting responsible consumption and production. Sustainable Development Goal 12 serves as a pivotal initiative to steer away from irresponsible resource utilization and mitigate harmful effects on the planet.

Food waste management can be categorized into two main approaches: preventing the generation of waste and handling waste that has already been produced 4 . The strategies for implementing food waste management vary depending on the underlying causes of each specific food waste scenario. This is because food loss and waste can manifest differently and require distinct treatments or solutions, occurring at various stages of the supply chain, ranging from production upstream to consumption downstream 5 . Efforts to address these issues can also be observed within different stages of the supply chain. For instance, at the production stage, optimization of production factors, such as infrastructure improvements 6 or the use of forecasting to prevent overproduction 7 is emphasized. In the distribution stage, enhancing efficiency in the distribution process can be achieved by shortening the supply chain 8 or by fostering coordination among supply chain participants 9 , 10 . Similarly, at the consumption stage, efforts often focus on enhancing supply chain processes to increase efficiency by utilizing waste to create more valuable product, ultimately reducing waste, which is commonly referred to as waste prevention.

Many nations worldwide have embraced the United Nations' objectives of minimizing food waste and promoting sustainability, demonstrating a collective dedication to addressing crucial environmental and social issues. The UN's Sustainable Development Goal 12 emphasizes the importance of curbing food waste across supply chains. This has spurred countries to take tangible steps and enforce policies aimed at reducing food waste 11 . For instance, the European Union (EU) has committed to ambitious targets outlined in its Circular Economy Action Plan to slash food waste by 2030. Strategies such as standardized date labeling, awareness campaigns, and support for surplus food donation align with the UN's sustainability agenda. Similarly, nations like South Korea have implemented innovative approaches, including pricing based on waste volume, mandatory food waste separation, and promoting the conversion of food waste into compost or biogas. These initiatives not only resonate with sustainability goals but also contribute to mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.

Furthermore, scholarly research available in publications such as "Resources, Conservation & Recycling" and "Waste Management" investigates the impact of diverse national policies on food waste reduction and sustainability. These studies analyze the effectiveness of specific interventions and offer insights into successful strategies adopted by different countries. By citing these examples and research outcomes, one can illustrate how nations are actively aligning themselves with the UN's aims of reducing food waste and promoting sustainability through a combination of policy frameworks and practical implementations.

In relation to that, food waste pre-treatment technologies have also been extensively developed to reduce the carbon loss as Carbon dioxide during storage/transport; improve the surface properties for easier access to microbes; (reduce the accumulation of volatile fatty acids at early stages or during storage and transport; and alter biological properties to support microbiomes from anaerobic digestion / dark fermentation 15 , 16 . This pre-treatment can be carried out either through physical and mechanical pre-treatments, Thermal pre-treatment, Chemical pre-treatment and Biological pre-treatment 16 . Nevertheless, landfilling of food waste is a very common disposal method in developing countries e.g., India, China, Thailand, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, etc. It is due to their national budget for waste management. Due to insufficient funding for recycling, some developing nations have attempted to introduce a system for managing food waste in their legislative frameworks. However, budgeting remains a significant problem in developing countries for handling waste 17 , 18 .

Indonesia faces significant food waste issue, with food waste accounting for 28.6% of total waste. To address this problem, the government has outlined plans in its 2020–2024 National Mid-Term Development Plan to reduce waste by up to 80% 19 , including food waste. The Ministry of Agriculture’s Strategic Plan for 2020–2024 and The Indonesia Food Sustainable System 2019 further emphasize efforts to combat food waste by following decentralized approach, giving local goverments the authority to manage related issue. This approach encourages collaboration among all stakeholders, both nationally and locally 20 . Notably, the Bandung Regency government is one local authority actively addressing food waste. 20 2019 To address this issue, Development Agency at Sub National Level is actively working on establishing a more sustainable food supply chain for the implementation in Bandung Regency. In the context of advancing food security in Bandung Regency, the government’s strategy consists of five core concepts, encompassing food supply chain efficiency, connectivity, price regulation, logistics cost reduction, enhanced production capacity, and sustainability. This sustainability aspect also encompasses initiatives related to waste processing, as outlined by Bappeda Kabupaten Bandung 21 . The latest attempt in developing a sustainable supply chain in Bandung Regency is the establishment of a food hub is an endeavor by the government to build a more efficient supply chain, which is described as an aggregator capable of integrating all parties involved, acting as a logistical service provider, marketing, agricultural product added-value development, and information hub 22 .

23 When considering the five key concepts for enhancing food security in Bandung Regency, the establishment of the food hub addresses four of these concepts, primarily focusing on waste prevention. However, there is a notable absence of detailed research or government reports that specifically address the fifth concept, which pertains to sustainability and effective management of existing food waste. As previously mentioned, one of the primary contributors to the increasing waste issue is the lack of proper handling of generated waste. Furthermore, the linear economy approach, which categorizes all unused products as waste, exacerbates the problem. Additionally, the growing population is a factor leading to increased waste, while the landfill capacity remains limited. Hence, while waste prevention is crucial, there's still a pressing need for well-planned food waste management, particularly in terms of waste utilization because waste can be utilized wisely to make it more valuable 23 . To optimize waste utilization, it is imperative to develop a comprehensive waste management strategy to avoid the oversight of waste reduction 24 . This strategic planning encompasses the crucial step of waste identification, involving the collection of data regarding the types of waste, the locations where waste is generated, and potential methods for waste utilization 19 , 24 . Understanding the composition and sources of waste will greatly facilitate effective waste management 25 .

Currently, there is no available data or research on food waste management in the Bandung Regency's Food Supply Chain. This study aims to address this gap by identifying food waste in the region's supply chain, with the goal of promoting the development of a more sustainable food supply chain. Therefore, this study aims to develop effective food waste management that can be implemented in Bandung Regency’s food supply chain. In addition, study by Nattassha et al. 26 emphasized the importance of integrating waste management actors, including scavengers, sorters, and processors, with resource suppliers and producers to facilitate the reuse of treated waste. This study collected data from these stakeholders to enhance understanding and proposed a conceptual model to improve waste management knowledge among producers. It advocates for a comprehensive approach involving all actors in food waste management, which hasn't been previously explored.

The real-world situation of food supply chain in Bandung Regency

The supply chain at Bandung Regency involves three primary participants: farmers, intermediaries, and customers. Each of these actors assumes distinct roles and responsibilities within the agricultural product supply chain. Farmers are individuals responsible for producing agricultural products. Intermediaries are entities that aid farmers in the distribution of their products to the primary consumers. These intermediary participants can be categorized into two groups: wholesalers and retailers. Wholesalers are entities that acquire these products from farmers, either directly or indirectly, and subsequently sell them to purchasers in bulk quantities. Meanwhile, retailers are parties who directly sell products to the end consumers 27 .

There are two categories of wholesalers: merchant wholesalers and agents or brokers. The distinction between a merchant wholesaler and an agent or broker is found in how they participate in the supply chain process of distributing goods. Agents or brokers primarily facilitate connections between farmers and wholesalers who have direct market or customer access. They do this through communication and negotiation without physically handling the agricultural products, a role often referred to as being intermediaries or middle-men 27 , 28 . On the other hand, supermarkets are larger, modern retailers with a self-service concept, aiming to fulfill consumers' complete grocery and household product needs 27 . Online retailers conduct transactions without the need for physical interaction between sellers and buyers, operating through online platforms.

Lastly, customers are individuals or entities that use or consume the agricultural products, either for personal use or for further distribution as different products. In the agricultural product supply chain within Bandung Regency, customers can be categorized into two groups based on how they utilize the purchased items: the consumer market and the business market 27 . Consumer markets involve individuals who use products for personal consumption, while business markets consist of customers who purchase and distribute products in bulk, often to other businesses or consumers after processing.

Figure  1 illustrates the movement of agricultural products, particularly vegetables and fruits, within the agricultural supply chain of Bandung Regency. The figure depicts that agricultural products have their source in farmers or crop producers and ultimately reach consumers, encompassing both business clients and individual end users.

Bandung Regency’s Current Agricultural Supply Chain.

Current handling of unused product during the supply chain process

While it may seem that agricultural products follow a path from farmers as producers to eventual consumers, not all of these products find buyers and are sold. According to the data gathered, a significant portion of unsold products ends up as waste. Interestingly, not all of these products are in poor condition, and some still possess quality suitable for sale in the market. These unsold products can be categorized into three broad groups based on their condition, as outlined in the matrix proposed by Teigiserova, Hamelin, and Thomsen 29 : surplus food, food waste, and food loss.

To reduce food surplus, the "reduce" principle can be applied through measures like careful production planning or the utilization of advanced storage technologies, such as cold chain management. As per the interviews, certain actors, particularly those in financially stable positions like supermarkets, exporters, and restaurants, have successfully implemented waste reduction efforts, and the outcomes have indeed assisted them in waste reduction. However, some other actors still face challenges in implementing these measures, primarily due to limited financial resources (additional obstacles can be found in Fig.  2 , the Rich picture).

Rich Picture of Bandung Regency’s Agriculture Supply Chain and Current Waste Management Practice.

The "reuse" principle, particularly for surplus edible products, is crucial alongside prevention measures. Common methods include distributing to food collection organizations, providing to local communities for free, selling at reduced prices, and processing into other food items. Selling at lower prices is the most commonly adopted. Partially edible products are often reused, while true food waste can be repurposed through recycling for animal feed, composting, insect rearing, and material recovery. However, recycling efforts are limited due to a lack of knowledge, leading some to dispose of unused products. Another option is energy generation through anaerobic digestion, but it's currently underutilized.

Meanwhile, according to government officials interviewed, it was emphasized that independent waste management efforts by the community were essential. This was seen as necessary because it would be impossible for the government alone to handle all waste-related responsibilities. A key limitation from the government's perspective is the inadequate waste management infrastructure in Bandung Regency.

As stated in the 2018 performance report of the Bandung Regency Environmental Service, with only 100 waste transport vehicles, the government was able to collect and transport a mere 16.32% of the waste, a figure that decreased further in 2019 to 12.6% due to a rise in waste generation. Consequently, the Bandung Regency government encourages residents to take a more active role in waste management.

The government has initiated various efforts to enable citizens to participate in waste reduction. However, in practice, people have been slow to embrace waste management practices. Even with organizational support, only 40% of the population actively engages in these programs, as per representatives from non-governmental organization s during telephone interviews on June 16, 2022. Additionally, when not continuously supported, people tend to discontinue their participation. Meanwhile, the organizations themselves face resource limitations, preventing them from providing ongoing assistance and monitoring to residents. The challenges faced by various actors and their competing priorities often lead them to opt for waste disposal rather than utilization. Figure  2 , the Rich Picture, illustrates the complex issues within the agricultural product supply chain in Bandung Regency and waste management.

Root definition

The Rich Picture diagram illustrates that actors have not fully embraced waste utilization. Despite the obstacles and concerns expressed in interviews, the main challenge lies in changing people's ingrained habit of disposing of anything they consider useless. Society is accustomed to discarding items, while the government aims to encourage people not to waste potentially useful items and find ways to repurpose them. This is a significant hurdle as these habits have persisted for a long time and are deeply ingrained. When asked why they don't utilize waste, some individuals couldn't provide specific reasons and considered discarding waste as an automatic and unquestioned habit.

However, other barriers contribute to people's reluctance to utilize waste. Interviews reveal that a common obstacle is the lack of public awareness about the significance and urgency of waste issues, as well as limited knowledge about waste management. Many interviewees indicated that they hadn't experienced any negative consequences from waste accumulation, and some considered littering as a normal practice driven by their circumstances.

The issue of low public awareness of waste problems is also acknowledged by government agencies and non-governmental organization’s working in the solid waste sector. The abandonment and limited success of various waste reduction programs and facilities can be attributed to this problem. As mentioned earlier, even when the government and non-governmental organization’s assisted communities in implementing waste reduction programs, these initiatives were not adopted by 100% of the residents, and often not even by half of them. This drop-off in participation occurred particularly when residents were no longer under active supervision, despite initially appearing proficient in executing the programs during mentoring periods. Consequently, the model areas or waste processing assistance efforts were not sustained, and residents reverted to their old habits. (Non-governmental organization Representatives, Telephone Interview, 16/06/2022).

Waste can be used wisely to make it more valuable. Certain agricultural products such as fruit remnants can be repurposed into other valuable products by recovering their bioactive compounds through valorization techniques 23 . Some individuals have attempted to reuse waste by processing it into fertilizer, selling it in the market, or transforming it into other products. However, the outcomes often did not justify the effort expended, leading them to revert to discarding waste. The comparison between results and effort involved revolves around the processed products' energy, time, and additional costs required for waste processing. For example, energy generated from waste processing in a biodigester was only sufficient for 1-2 nearby houses or a community meeting hall, indicating limited impact.

The economic value of waste utilization presents as second obstacle. While some individuals are willing to utilize waste for economic benefits, many view its main advantage as environmental. This perspective is especially common among economically disadvantaged individuals. Market challenges, such as distance from potential users and a lack of awareness about product benefits, also hinder waste utilization. Additionally, farmers may continue to harvest even in oversupplied markets, leading to increased costs and waste. This economic focus discourages waste processing.

The third obstacle is limited resources, such as time, funding, manpower, and technology. Time constraints are the major issue, as supply chain actors prioritize their core income-generating activities. Financials limitations, especially among unstable actors, hinder investments in technologies like cold storage or food processing tools.

Supermarkets, in particular, face space limitations for waste processing, and these constraints can lead to discontinuation of waste utilization programs in favor of waste disposal through cleaning services. Overall, changing waste management habits is challenging when immediate waste disposal is the norm, and public awareness of the government's goals is lacking. Perceived benefits, distribution challenges, and resource limitations further deter habit changes. A CATWOE analysis, aimed at shifting waste handling habits towards waste utilization, is detailed in the table below.

The Table 1 CATWOE analysis shows how the ideal system is to produce an effective transition to the habit of utilizing waste.In the CATWOE framework, the first element is the "customer," which, in this context, refers to society at large within the agricultural supply chain. The second element, the "actor," encompasses all stakeholders committed to changing food waste disposal habits. Collaboration is essential to effectively bring about this change. The third element, "transformation," aims to change habits while considering the factors driving and inhibiting change. The fourth element, "Weltanschauung," emphasizes that this change system should align with individuals' fundamental needs for achieving and sustaining change. The "owner," as the fifth element, is the government, which not only acknowledges the food waste issue but also holds the authority to influence and regulate societal behavior. The final element, the "environment," encompasses the entire agricultural product supply chain, extending beyond Bandung Regency.

Conceptual model

The CATWOE analysis indicates a need for a mechanism to enhance how people utilize waste. To address this, a conceptual model was developed in this study, utilizing the ADKAR change management paradigm, which was introduced by Prosci in 1998. The selection of the ADKAR model was based on its appropriateness for implementing changes that require acceptance from those undergoing the change, in this case, society. This choice was made considering the scope and impact of the change. Therefore, Fig.  2 , titled "The Conceptual Model," illustrates the system for altering people's behaviors to maximize waste utilization.

According to the ADKAR model in Figure 3 , the first step in facilitating change is to create awareness among those involved. This awareness should encompass an understanding of the reasons for change and the potential risks if change is not implemented. In the context of promoting waste utilization 30 , it's crucial for change agents to ensure that people comprehend the issues surrounding food waste and how utilizing waste can address these concerns. Without this understanding, people may be hesitant to change their habits. The subsequent step in driving change is to stimulate people's desire to use waste, as this motivation is what can encourage active participation in the change process. In the context of waste utilization, change agents must grasp the community's desires and needs regarding waste use to motivate them for necessary changes. However, the lack of perceived benefits from changing routines has hindered supply chain actors' embrace of waste utilization. Interviews with those who have used waste revealed a positive impact, especially on environmental aspects, but this alone wasn't enough motivation to continue, except for individuals in supermarkets who viewed environmental concerns as part of their corporate social responsibility. Their primary focus, though, was on economic aspects. In fact, most respondents indicated that they would be more interested in waste utilization if processed waste products could provide economic value by increasing income or reducing expenses.

The Conceptual Model.

The next step involves changing people's behavior by providing them with information on effective waste utilization. This goes beyond theoretical knowledge and includes practical understanding of the new tasks and responsibilities associated with these changes, along with training. Four key aspects must be addressed when influencing change knowledge: existing community knowledge, the community's learning capacity, available resources for education and training, and access to information. It's crucial to consider these factors for effective knowledge delivery. Change agents should tailor their approach to the specific audience they are addressing.

Once the community has the necessary knowledge, the next phase is to implement waste utilization. This phase includes developing strategies and action plans and evaluating the effectiveness of implementation. Putting knowledge into practice is vital because theory and practice can differ. To sustain these changes, reinforcement is essential. This can be achieved through incentives, recognition, or even government policies mandating the changes. Finally, change agents must continuously monitor and control their efforts to alter waste utilization habits, understanding that forming new habits takes time, especially in large-scale changes. Monitoring and control ensure alignment with government objectives and allow for necessary adjustments.

The ADKAR model outlined in the context of waste utilization provides a structured approach to driving change by focusing on awareness, desire, knowledge, action, and reinforcement. The applicability and effectiveness of the model in the context of waste utilization depend on its successful adaptation to local contexts, effective stakeholder engagement, practical knowledge delivery, and ongoing monitoring and reinforcement efforts. When implemented thoughtfully and comprehensively, the model can serve as a valuable framework for driving sustainable change in waste management practices.

Based on the issues outlined in the root definition and conceptual model, it's evident that those driving change must initially focus on raising awareness and fostering a desire for the intended change. However, it's crucial to emphasize that planning these efforts should not be divorced from setting specific change objectives in advance to ensure that these endeavors stay on course. The first approach to achieve this is through expansion.

Factors such as economic conditions, income levels, and the cost associated with waste disposal services significantly affect individuals' decisions about managing their waste 31 . In addition, sociocultural beliefs, societal norms, and perceptions regarding waste disposal practices also play a crucial role in waste management 32 . Moreover, individual behaviors, preferences, and levels of environmental consciousness significantly influence how people dispose of their garbage 33 .

Therefore, expansion is needed to raise awareness and shift people's perspectives about waste. The intention is to strengthen their knowledge in waste management and its impact. According to research by McCoy 34 , the role of expansion is to alter how people perceive and manage something, in this case, food waste. Collaborating with broad array of experts and stakeholders offers an opportunity to enhance education and understanding of food waste, serving as a foundation for instigating habitual changes towards its utilization.

Behavioral science research, exemplified by Cialdini's on social influence and persuasion underscores the significance of comprehending human behavior to shape attitudes and encourage the adoption of new practices. Employing principles from behavioral psychology can assist in devising interventions that advocate for the adoption of effective waste disposal methods 35 . Therefore, involving the community in decision-making processes concerning waste management interventions instills a sense of ownership. Studies like those conducted by Lockwood et al. highlight the importance of community engagement and participatory approaches in waste management initiatives, resulting in enhanced acceptance and sustainability of implemented measures 36

Efficient communication and educational campaigns are instrumental in gaining public support and comprehension. Research by Maibach et al. emphasizes the significance of targeted communication strategies in facilitating behavioral changes related to environmental issues, including waste management 37 .

Therefore, utilizing social media as a educational campaign tool to raise public awareness is one viable method to create more efficient communication. Given the continuous growth in the number of internet and social media users in Indonesia, social media can be an effective medium for disseminating information to enhance public awareness. According to research by Jenkins et al. 38 , social media has demonstrated a positive impact on raising awareness and contributing to the reduction of food waste, particularly at the consumer level. In addition to the awareness issue, it was previously noted that another challenge is the perceived lack of benefits by society. Nattassha et al.'s 26 research highlights the critical role of incentives in encouraging cassava supply chain growers to adopt a circular economy, thereby motivating them to remain engaged in the supply chain. Presently, the benefits expected by the community are linked to the economic value of waste disposal. The establishment of a circular economy represents one strategy to align people's desires with waste utilization.

Further, intelligence and digitalization play a crucial role in shaping an effective waste management model. These approaches can offer several advantages, such as real-time monitoring of waste collection, optimizing routes for garbage trucks, and improving recycling processes through data analysis 39 . Studies published in journals like "Separation and Purification Technology" often explore the realm of intelligent waste management systems. These systems utilize digital technologies such as IoT (Internet of Things), AI (Artificial Intelligence), and data analytics to streamline waste collection, recycling procedures, and resource allocation. For instance, Babaei and Basu 40 delve into the implementation of IoT and AI in waste management in their work 40 .

Additionally, research by Tao et al. 41 utilize 20-kHz ultrasound, this study extracted phenolics from Chinese chokeberry using distilled water and 50% aqueous ethanol, revealing that adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) successfully correlated extraction parameters with high total phenolic yield, while identifying the effectiveness of different solvents for extracting specific phenolic compound.

Technological progress holds a significant role in waste management. Progress in waste-to-energy technologies, recycling processes, and intelligent waste management systems profoundly affects the effectiveness and sustainability of waste management practices 42 . Therefore, continuous evolution of policies is essential, taking into account technological advancements, socio-economic changes, and environmental considerations. This flexibility and adaptability within policies are crucial to ensure the effectiveness and relevance of waste management strategies amidst changing circumstances and emerging challenges.

In conclusion, effective communication and educational campaigns, including the use of social media, can enhance public awareness and understanding of waste management. Furthermore, implementing a circular economy and integrating intelligence and digitalization into waste management systems are crucial for improving their effectiveness and sustainability. However, the study has limitations. It focuses solely on Bandung Regency, potentially limiting the generalizability of its findings. Additionally, constraints related to data availability and resources, as well as the complexity of interdisciplinary approaches to waste management, may impact the research. Future studies should address these limitations by conducting comparative studies across different regions to identify variations in waste management practices. Longitudinal studies are also needed to assess the long-term effectiveness of interventions and monitor changes in waste management behaviors over time. Additionally, exploring innovative approaches to enhance community engagement and participation in waste management initiatives is essential.

The research method employed in this study is Soft Systems Methodology (SSM), which was developed by Checkland in 1989. The choice of this methodology is based on its suitability for addressing the research questions, considering the study's context and subject matter. This research aims to identify the current management of food waste and the potential for food waste utilization in Bandung Regency, with a focus on waste flow within the agricultural supply chain. The study involves gathering insights from various stakeholders.

Given that this research utilizes the Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) approach, the research process follows the steps outlined by Checkland. Checkland's SSM involves a seven-stage model, and Figure 4 illustrates how the research is conducted.

Seven Stages of SSM.

Primary data is acquired through a primary semi-structured interview conducted via purposive sampling. Interviews were carried out with a total of 27 respondents who had connections to and involvement in the agricultural product waste supply chain in Bandung Regency. These respondents represented various roles, including farmers, domestic and overseas merchant wholesalers (exporters), traditional market wholesalers, retail sellers in traditional markets, supermarket representatives, restaurant managers, small and medium-sized food business owners, cattle fattening workers, chicken farmers, private agricultural extension agents, farmer cooperation representatives, public relations personnel from non-profit organizations focused on waste, government representatives, and end-users. Secondary data is sourced from existing literature.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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These authors contributed equally: Yuanita Handayati and Chryshella Widyanata.

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Handayati, Y., Widyanata, C. Effective food waste management model for the sustainable agricultural food supply chain. Sci Rep 14 , 10290 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-59482-w

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Received : 05 September 2023

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-59482-w

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