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What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips

What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips

Published on August 25, 2022 by Shona McCombes and Tegan George. Revised on November 20, 2023.

Your research methodology discusses and explains the data collection and analysis methods you used in your research. A key part of your thesis, dissertation , or research paper , the methodology chapter explains what you did and how you did it, allowing readers to evaluate the reliability and validity of your research and your dissertation topic .

It should include:

The type of research you conducted
How you collected and analyzed your data
Any tools or materials you used in the research
How you mitigated or avoided research biases
Why you chose these methods
Your methodology section should generally be written in the past tense .
Academic style guides in your field may provide detailed guidelines on what to include for different types of studies.
Your citation style might provide guidelines for your methodology section (e.g., an APA Style methods section ).

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How to write a research methodology, why is a methods section important, step 1: explain your methodological approach, step 2: describe your data collection methods, step 3: describe your analysis method, step 4: evaluate and justify the methodological choices you made, tips for writing a strong methodology chapter, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about methodology.

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Your methods section is your opportunity to share how you conducted your research and why you chose the methods you chose. It’s also the place to show that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated .

It gives your research legitimacy and situates it within your field, and also gives your readers a place to refer to if they have any questions or critiques in other sections.

You can start by introducing your overall approach to your research. You have two options here.

Option 1: Start with your “what”

What research problem or question did you investigate?

Aim to describe the characteristics of something?
Explore an under-researched topic?
Establish a causal relationship?

And what type of data did you need to achieve this aim?

Quantitative data , qualitative data , or a mix of both?
Primary data collected yourself, or secondary data collected by someone else?
Experimental data gathered by controlling and manipulating variables, or descriptive data gathered via observations?

Option 2: Start with your “why”

Depending on your discipline, you can also start with a discussion of the rationale and assumptions underpinning your methodology. In other words, why did you choose these methods for your study?

Why is this the best way to answer your research question?
Is this a standard methodology in your field, or does it require justification?
Were there any ethical considerations involved in your choices?
What are the criteria for validity and reliability in this type of research ? How did you prevent bias from affecting your data?

Once you have introduced your reader to your methodological approach, you should share full details about your data collection methods .

Quantitative methods

In order to be considered generalizable, you should describe quantitative research methods in enough detail for another researcher to replicate your study.

Here, explain how you operationalized your concepts and measured your variables. Discuss your sampling method or inclusion and exclusion criteria , as well as any tools, procedures, and materials you used to gather your data.

Surveys Describe where, when, and how the survey was conducted.

How did you design the questionnaire?
What form did your questions take (e.g., multiple choice, Likert scale )?
Were your surveys conducted in-person or virtually?
What sampling method did you use to select participants?
What was your sample size and response rate?

Experiments Share full details of the tools, techniques, and procedures you used to conduct your experiment.

How did you design the experiment ?
How did you recruit participants?
How did you manipulate and measure the variables ?
What tools did you use?

Existing data Explain how you gathered and selected the material (such as datasets or archival data) that you used in your analysis.

Where did you source the material?
How was the data originally produced?
What criteria did you use to select material (e.g., date range)?

The survey consisted of 5 multiple-choice questions and 10 questions measured on a 7-point Likert scale.

The goal was to collect survey responses from 350 customers visiting the fitness apparel company’s brick-and-mortar location in Boston on July 4–8, 2022, between 11:00 and 15:00.

Here, a customer was defined as a person who had purchased a product from the company on the day they took the survey. Participants were given 5 minutes to fill in the survey anonymously. In total, 408 customers responded, but not all surveys were fully completed. Due to this, 371 survey results were included in the analysis.

Information bias
Omitted variable bias
Regression to the mean
Survivorship bias
Undercoverage bias
Sampling bias

Qualitative methods

In qualitative research , methods are often more flexible and subjective. For this reason, it’s crucial to robustly explain the methodology choices you made.

Be sure to discuss the criteria you used to select your data, the context in which your research was conducted, and the role you played in collecting your data (e.g., were you an active participant, or a passive observer?)

Interviews or focus groups Describe where, when, and how the interviews were conducted.

How did you find and select participants?
How many participants took part?
What form did the interviews take ( structured , semi-structured , or unstructured )?
How long were the interviews?
How were they recorded?

Participant observation Describe where, when, and how you conducted the observation or ethnography .

What group or community did you observe? How long did you spend there?
How did you gain access to this group? What role did you play in the community?
How long did you spend conducting the research? Where was it located?
How did you record your data (e.g., audiovisual recordings, note-taking)?

Existing data Explain how you selected case study materials for your analysis.

What type of materials did you analyze?
How did you select them?

In order to gain better insight into possibilities for future improvement of the fitness store’s product range, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 8 returning customers.

Here, a returning customer was defined as someone who usually bought products at least twice a week from the store.

Surveys were used to select participants. Interviews were conducted in a small office next to the cash register and lasted approximately 20 minutes each. Answers were recorded by note-taking, and seven interviews were also filmed with consent. One interviewee preferred not to be filmed.

The Hawthorne effect
Observer bias
The placebo effect
Response bias and Nonresponse bias
The Pygmalion effect
Recall bias
Social desirability bias
Self-selection bias

Mixed methods

Mixed methods research combines quantitative and qualitative approaches. If a standalone quantitative or qualitative study is insufficient to answer your research question, mixed methods may be a good fit for you.

Mixed methods are less common than standalone analyses, largely because they require a great deal of effort to pull off successfully. If you choose to pursue mixed methods, it’s especially important to robustly justify your methods.

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Next, you should indicate how you processed and analyzed your data. Avoid going into too much detail: you should not start introducing or discussing any of your results at this stage.

In quantitative research , your analysis will be based on numbers. In your methods section, you can include:

How you prepared the data before analyzing it (e.g., checking for missing data , removing outliers , transforming variables)
Which software you used (e.g., SPSS, Stata or R)
Which statistical tests you used (e.g., two-tailed t test , simple linear regression )

In qualitative research, your analysis will be based on language, images, and observations (often involving some form of textual analysis ).

Specific methods might include:

Content analysis : Categorizing and discussing the meaning of words, phrases and sentences
Thematic analysis : Coding and closely examining the data to identify broad themes and patterns
Discourse analysis : Studying communication and meaning in relation to their social context

Mixed methods combine the above two research methods, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches into one coherent analytical process.

Above all, your methodology section should clearly make the case for why you chose the methods you did. This is especially true if you did not take the most standard approach to your topic. In this case, discuss why other methods were not suitable for your objectives, and show how this approach contributes new knowledge or understanding.

In any case, it should be overwhelmingly clear to your reader that you set yourself up for success in terms of your methodology’s design. Show how your methods should lead to results that are valid and reliable, while leaving the analysis of the meaning, importance, and relevance of your results for your discussion section .

Quantitative: Lab-based experiments cannot always accurately simulate real-life situations and behaviors, but they are effective for testing causal relationships between variables .
Qualitative: Unstructured interviews usually produce results that cannot be generalized beyond the sample group , but they provide a more in-depth understanding of participants’ perceptions, motivations, and emotions.
Mixed methods: Despite issues systematically comparing differing types of data, a solely quantitative study would not sufficiently incorporate the lived experience of each participant, while a solely qualitative study would be insufficiently generalizable.

Remember that your aim is not just to describe your methods, but to show how and why you applied them. Again, it’s critical to demonstrate that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated.

1. Focus on your objectives and research questions

The methodology section should clearly show why your methods suit your objectives and convince the reader that you chose the best possible approach to answering your problem statement and research questions .

2. Cite relevant sources

Your methodology can be strengthened by referencing existing research in your field. This can help you to:

Show that you followed established practice for your type of research
Discuss how you decided on your approach by evaluating existing research
Present a novel methodological approach to address a gap in the literature

3. Write for your audience

Consider how much information you need to give, and avoid getting too lengthy. If you are using methods that are standard for your discipline, you probably don’t need to give a lot of background or justification.

Regardless, your methodology should be a clear, well-structured text that makes an argument for your approach, not just a list of technical details and procedures.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Normal distribution
Measures of central tendency
Chi square tests
Confidence interval
Quartiles & Quantiles

Methodology

Cluster sampling
Stratified sampling
Thematic analysis
Cohort study
Peer review
Ethnography

Research bias

Implicit bias
Cognitive bias
Conformity bias
Hawthorne effect
Availability heuristic
Attrition bias

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

In a scientific paper, the methodology always comes after the introduction and before the results , discussion and conclusion . The same basic structure also applies to a thesis, dissertation , or research proposal .

Depending on the length and type of document, you might also include a literature review or theoretical framework before the methodology.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

Reliability and validity are both about how well a method measures something:

Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under the same conditions).
Validity refers to the accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent what they are supposed to measure).

If you are doing experimental research, you also have to consider the internal and external validity of your experiment.

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

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Exam Tips: How to write a research methods essay

Travis Dixon March 17, 2019 Research Methodology , Revision and Exam Preparation

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Updated Feb 2021

One of the most difficult of the five types of exam questions to write about in IB Psychology is research methods. Like most other essay questions, students tend to focus on studies and miss other important aspects of the essay. In this post, I offer my best tips for how to write an excellent essay on research methods.

What-How-Why

IB Psychology - Teacher Support Pack - Chapter 6: Quantitative Methods

Our unit on Quantitative Methods is designed to help students answer these challenging questions.

These three simple questions are an excellent guideline for most of the IB Psych’ course. Research methods essays are no different. You want to show you:

Know what the research methods are
Understand how and why they’re used

The following helps you figure out how to address these key questions. However, the structure and content of your answer will depend on the specific question you’re answering and the materials you’ve used in your course.

Exam tips for writing about research methods and ethics
Biological Research Methods Example Essay (ERQ)
How to explain the use of a research method

Step 1: What?

The first thing to get right is the definition . It’s really important to have a clear, precise and accurate definition of the research method/s you’re writing about. This could be either in the introduction or in the first body paragraph of the essay (i.e. the central argument). After defining the method, the explanation of how and why should begin.

Step 2: How?

Every essay answer should have a central argument that shows knowledge and understanding of the topic in the question (watch this video for more essay advice). In the case of research methods questions, the central argument should be an explanation of how and why the particular method is used in that particular topic . This is a key part of the answer that many students miss.

For example, if you’re explaining the use of a true experiment the “how” would include the nature of the independent variables and perhaps common ways the dependent variable is measured. For instance, in true experiments on the brain the IV is commonly a factor hypothesized to affect brain activity like chemical messengers such as serotonin and the effects of the manipulation of this IV on the brain is measured using fMRI.

Tip: A detailed central argument explaining how and why the method is used is the key to scoring top marks in the “knowledge and understanding” section of the essay rubric. Your explanation of the method would be identical in an SAQ and an essay.

Step 3: Why?

This is straightforward – give reasons why this method is useful. Weak answers will be generic, such as “true experiments are helpful because they can establish causal relationships.” Stronger answers will focus on specific details of the field of psychology in question. For instance, an essay on true experiments might focus on animal experimentation and the benefits of manipulating brain activity in rodents and animals in ways that couldn’t be done in humans but provide valuable additional information alongside human quasi experiments and correlational studies.

Scroll on for more exam tips.

DOWNLOAD Example Research Methods Essay

Common Error: What is a “method”?

One of the biggest mistakes a student can make in a research method essay is writing about a method that actually isn’t a “ research method .” For example, if a student wrote about animal studies, twin studies, or brain imaging technology as a research method they would score very low marks because these are not research methods (according to the IB).

To quote the official IB FAQs document, “…the different research methods for the study of psychology at this level: case studies, naturalistic observations, interviews, experiments, field experiments, quasi-experiments, natural experiments, correlations studies.” Therefore, make sure the method/s you are writing about is from this list.

Tip: Prepare to write about true experiments and/or correlational studies for Paper 1 and 2. These are used in every topic and it simplifies the preparation for this tricky question. Our IB Psychology Revision Textbook follows this approach.

Research Methods from the IB Guide

This screen shot of the online IB Psychology guide shows the list of “research methods” that you have to choose from.

Link to the topic!

A common weakness in research methods essays is they do not fully address the question by explaining the use of the method in relation to the approach or the topic in the question. A good way to check if the answer has applied the explanation to the topic is to read the explanation and see if it could also be true of any topic in IB Psychology. If it’s generic enough so it could be used across multiple topics, then the application needs to be clearer. Another even easier way to check is to see if the topic or approach is even mentioned at all in the explanation!

Explain studies, don’t just describe them!

Examiner’s reports always complain that “there’s too much description in essays”. This is actually the wrong complaint. A lot of description is great, but it needs to be matched with explanation . So the real critique should be “there’s not enough explanation in essays.”

So how do you go beyond describing so you’re explaining a study? The key is in the final 1-3 sentences after the results when you make it clear what the results show about the question, i.e. what conclusions are we drawing from those results?

In research methods essays, however, it’s a little different. Many students make the mistake of explaining what the results show about behaviour , whereas in research methods essays you need to explain how the study shows the use of the method . For example, if using a study that’s a true experiment you explain how the manipulation of the IV in a controlled environment enabled causal conclusions to be drawn, or why it was useful in a correlational study to show the strength of a relationship between the two variables in the study, etc.

Remember : In ThemEd’s three levels of learning, describing means to summarize individual things and explaining means to show how they’re related. In this type of essay, this means explaining how the procedures of a research method are applied in a particular topic (see the example essay for a demonstration of this being done).

Evaluate the method, not the studies

To show critical thinking in a research methods essay, it’s important you can explain strengths and limitations of the research method you are writing about. So when you’re evaluating the studies, it’s not a good idea to explain the limitations of the study (e.g. lacking generalizability) without focusing on how the methods are limited in some way.

For example, if I was writing about Loftus and Palmer’s car crash study to show the use of a true experiment to study cognitive processes, it would not be that relevant to the question to explain a limitation of the study based on the characteristics of the participants (e.g. they had limited driving experience) because this isn’t really linked to the true experimental method. A far better evaluative point to make is to explain that maybe these results in a controlled environment might not be reflective of what happens in real life, possibly due to the fact that in this scenario there were no consequences for a wrong answer and the level of emotion is much lower than when witnessing real crimes. These are better points to make because they are focused on a key aspect of the true experiment – the controlled environment.

When explaining limitations of correlational studies, don’t just say “correlational doesn’t mean causation” but actually provide examples. For example, how could the relationship work in both directions, or what are some other factors that might explain the relationship? For example, if I was critiquing the use of correlational studies to study personal relationships, I might say that correlational studies (e.g. Gottman and Levenson) that show a correlational between marital satisfaction and communication could be explained in either direction (what we call bidirectional ambiguity): it could be that poor communication is leading to decreased marital satisfaction (being unhappy in a marriage), or that being unhappy in the marriage is causing more poor communication.

Tip: Go beyond one sentence explanations of limitations like “ecological validity.” This post explains exactly how to explain limitations of ecological in detail.

Often a third variable can explain the connection between two variables in a correlational study, like in this example of crime and ice-cream. Explaining possible links like this is an excellent way of highlighting the limitations in correlational studies.

Study one method in depth

My advice to students is to prep true experiments and correlational studies, but for every topic they should choose one of these to prep in depth. This is because there is a good chance you might be asked to write an essay about just one method. For example, if the question was “Evaluate the use of one method to study emotion and cognition.” If you revised two or more methods for this topic, then that would have been a wasted effort. By preparing to write about one in-depth (and perhaps having a second with just one study as an example), you are best-prepared to write an excellent essay.

This post about why depth is better than breadth in IB Psychology might help clarify this point.

Tip: Use one method to critique the other. This is another reason why I like true experiments and correlational studies – their strengths and limitations can be used to evaluate one-anothers.

Discuss vs evaluate – what’s the difference?

There is none. While some teachers will argue that these command terms require different content, I argue (and can demonstrate) that this is simply not the case, especially when it comes to research methods. You can read more about this on this blog post.

One method or two?

A common question is “do quasi and true experiments count as one method or two?” The truth is no-one yet knows how the IB is going to mark this in the exams. It appears from the IB materials that they are considered two (see quote and image above). However, this is another reason why prepping correlational studies and true experiments is a good idea because they are clearly two separate methods.

Example Essay

You can read an example essay that (I hope) follows the advice given in this blog pots. This essay has been taken from the resources in the Quantitative Methods Teacher Support Pack. Even if you’re not teaching using our textbooks, this TSP would still be useful.

Note to students: This has been submitted to turnitin and will be known by your teachers, so it would be very unwise to try to submit this as your own work.

Example Questions

You might be asked about research methods in relation to any of the topics in the IB Psychology curriculum. For example, you might be asked to evaluate the use of one research method used in the study of the brain and behaviour. However, you would not be asked to discuss the method used to study neuroplasticity, since this is a sub-content point related to the broader topic. It’s possible that the question might be linked to the approach as well.

Remember that essay questions will be either discuss, evaluate, to what extent or contrast. It is unlikely that the “to what extent” command term will be used for a research methods essay (but not impossible) and it’s also unlikely that “contrast” will be used as well because it is more likely you’ll be asked to write about “one or more” methods. So here are some example essay questions:

Evaluate the use of one research method used to study cognitive processes.
Discuss how and why one research method is used to study cultural origins of behaviour.
Discuss the use of one or more research methods used to study genes and behaviour.
Evaluate the use of one or more research methods used in the biological approach to understanding human behaviour.
Evaluate the use of one or more research methods used to study etiologies of psychological disorders.
Discuss the use of one research method used to study personal relationships.

Check the IB Guide or your textbooks for a list of the topics in the course.

Good luck and I hope this post was helpful. Remember to check out our store to find the latest revision materials and resources.

Was this helpful? Feel free to leave questions and comments.

Travis Dixon is an IB Psychology teacher, author, workshop leader, examiner and IA moderator.

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How to structure paragraphs using the PEEL method

Sophia Gardner

Sep 1, 2023

You may have heard of the acronym PEEL for essays, but what exactly does it mean? And how can it help you? We’re here to explain it all, plus give you some tips on how to nail your next essay.

There’s certainly an art to writing essays. If you haven’t written one for a while, or if you would like to hone your academic writing skills, the PEEL paragraph method is an easy way to get your point across in a clear and concise way, that is easily digestible to the reader.

So, what exactly is PEEL ?

The PEEL paragraph method is a technique used in writing to help structure paragraphs in a way that presents a single clear and focused argument, which links back to the essay topic or thesis statement.

It’s good practice to dedicate each paragraph to one aspect of your argument, and the PEEL structure simplifies this for you.

It allows you to create a paragraph that is easy and accessible for others to understand. Remember, when you’re writing something, it’s not just you who is reading it - you need to consider the reader and how they are going to be digesting this new information.

What does PEEL stand for?

P = Point: start your paragraph with a clear topic sentence that establishes what your paragraph is going to be about. Your point should support your essay argument or thesis statement.

E = Evidence/Example: here you should use a piece of evidence or an example that helps to reaffirm your initial point and develop the argument.

E = Explain: next you need to explain exactly how your evidence/example supports your point, giving further information to ensure that your reader understands its relevance.

L = Link: to finish the paragraph off, you need to link the point you’ve just made back to your essay question, topic, or thesis.

Download a free PEEL paragraph planner below. 👇

Studiosity English specialist Ellen, says says students often underestimate the importance of a well-structured paragraph.

PEEL in practice

Here’s an example of what you might include in a PEEL structured paragraph:

Topic: Should infants be given iPads? Thesis/argument: Infants should not be given iPads.

Point : Infants should not be given iPads, because studies show children under two can face developmental delays if they are exposed to too much screen time.

Evidence/Example: A recent paediatric study showed that infants who are exposed to too much screen time may experience delays in speech development.

Explanation: The reason infants are facing these delays is because screen time is replacing other key developmental activities.

Link: The evidence suggests that infants who have a lot of screen time experience negative consequences in their speech development, and therefore they should not be exposed to iPads at such a young age.

Once you’ve written your PEEL paragraph, do a checklist to ensure you have covered off all four elements of the PEEL structure. Your point should be a clear introduction to the argument you are making in this paragraph; your example or evidence should be strong and relevant (ask yourself, have you chosen the best example?); your explanation should be demonstrate why your evidence is important and how it conveys meaning; and your link should summarise the point you’ve just made and link back to the broader essay argument or topic.

Keep your paragraphs clear, focused, and not too long. If you find your paragraphs are getting lengthy, take a look at how you could split them into multiple paragraphs, and ensure you’re creating a new paragraph for each new idea you introduce to the essay.

Finally, it’s important to always proofread your paragraph. Read it once, twice, and then read it again. Check your paragraph for spelling, grammar, language and sentence flow. A good way to do this is to read it aloud to yourself, and if it sounds clunky or unclear, consider rewriting it.

That’s it! We hope this helps explain the PEEL method and how it can help you with your next essay. 😊

You might also like: Proofreading vs editing: what's the difference? How to get easy marks in an exam 5 study hacks that actually work

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Using the Toulmin Method

When learning written argument, it is always helpful to observe how others argue effectively or ineffectively. The Toulmin method, based on the work of philosopher Stephen Toulmin, is one way of analyzing a text that we read, with an eye toward responding to that particular argument (as in a writing assignment that asks us to respond) and, ultimately, toward analyzing and improving the arguments we ourselves make.

Definition of the Toulmin Method

Thorough analysis requires us to go beyond the kinds of "gut-level" responses we undergo when reading. To respond analytically to an argument is to do much more than state a basic agreement or disagreement with it; it is to determine the basis of our agreement or disagreement. In other words, analysis is a process of discovering how the argumentative strategies an author employs (the how and why levels of an argument) lead us to respond to the content (the what level) of that argument in the way that we do. Sometimes, too, such analysis can cause us to change our minds about our judgment of how effective or ineffective an argument is.

The Toulmin method, in short, is an effective way of getting to the how and why levels of the arguments we read. It is a type of textual "dissection" that allows us to break an argument into its different parts (such as claim, reasons, and evidence) so that we can make judgments on how well the different parts work together.

Why Use the Toulmin Method?

The Toulmin Method is a way of doing very detailed analysis, in which we break an argument into its various parts and decide how effectively those parts participate in the overall whole. When we use this method, we identify the argument's claim , reasons , and evidence , and evaluate the effectiveness of each.

However, it can be said that Toulmin works somewhat like a formula to be applied to arguments, and that as such it exhibits some limitations. It is often not very well applied, for example, to arguments that are not themselves organized in a linear way and written in the tradition of Western rhetoric. And, as Timothy Crusius and Carolyn E. Channell point out in The Aims of Argument , this method is limited to logical analysis, and therefore excludes other types of evaluation/analysis which are equally important (such as the Critical Reading strategies mentioned elsewhere in the Writing Center.) But Toulmin proves for many to be a good starting point.

Parts of an Argument

Using the Toulmin method requires that we take an argument apart and examine its various elements. This "dissection" allows us to understand the argument more fully, summarize it more accurately, and discuss its effectiveness or ineffectiveness more intelligently than we would have otherwise.

It might be helpful to envision writing the parts of an argument like building a house of cards, in which you work backwards, beginning with the uppermost level (the claim). Each level is balanced precariously on the level beneath it. And in order for an argument to hold up under careful scrutiny, each level must be strong enough to support what is placed on top of it.

Think of the claim in an argument as the most general statement in that argument. It may not be a particularly general statement all by itself, and some for arguments are very narrow indeed. But the claim is like the umbrella statement that all other parts of an argument have to fall under. It is the uppermost level of our "house of cards."

After you have identified an argument's claim, it is important to determine how far the author intends to carry that claim. The next step in this process, in other words, is the identification of any qualifiers or exceptions the author makes to the argument's claim.

Identifying Qualifiers

Qualifiers are words like some, most, many, in general, usually, typically and so on--little words whose value to an argument is immeasurable.

Example of a qualified claim:

Many books by Charles Dickens are fun to read.

Example of an unqualified claim:

Books by Charles Dickens are fun to read.

Without qualifying words like some or many , a claim like this can be interpreted (by the careful analytical eye) as All books by Charles Dickens are always fun for everyone to read.

Although unqualified claims like these are not necessarily a bad argumentation strategy, they do allow ample room for challenges to be made to an argument. An appropriately qualified claim is much easier to defend.

Identifying Exceptions

Oftentimes, an author will specifically exclude from an argument certain cases or situations. Such exceptions serve to restrict a claim, so that it is understood to apply in some situations but not in others.

A claim like

Most books by Charles Dickens are fun to read.

might be limited by the following exception:

Having labored over David Copperfield in high school, I would not rank that book among them.

Exceptions like this one are important, because without them, readers who would like to challenge a claim may begin to concoct exceptions of their own.

Distinguishing Between Qualifiers and Exceptions

Qualifiers and exceptions are similar in that they both put limits on how far a claim may be carried. A qualifier , however, is merely a word (like some or usually ) which serves to limit a claim, while an exception is an e xample of a case or situation in which the claim does not apply.

An example of a qualifier would be the word most in the following claim:

An exception would be an example, usually appearing after the claim, of a situation in which that claim would not apply:

The Reasons

Why does a writer believe the claim s/he makes? The reasons a writer gives are the first line of development of any argument. To use our "house of cards" image again, reasons comprise the second level of an argument, without which the uppermost level (the claim) cannot remain balanced (or, in the language of argument, "effective").

How can we tell if reasons are strong? In other words, how can we determine whether or not they are sturdy enough to support the claim? Using the Toulmin method, we ask two main questions: Is the reason relevant to the claim it supports? and Is the reason effective?

Determining the Relevance of the Reasons

In order to evaluate the effectiveness of reasons used in an argument, we must first determine whether or not they are relevant to the claim they mean to support.

Determining the Effectiveness of the Reasons

If a reason is effective (or "good"), it invokes a value we can believe in and agree with. Value judgments, because they are by necessity somewhat subjective, are often the most difficult to make in arguments. It is, therefore, always a good idea to restate the value being invoked as clearly as possible in your own terms. Then you'll be able to evaluate whether or not the value is good in itself or worth pursuing.

If an argument's claim is

Argumentation is an important skill to learn,

the reason,

No other type of writing requires a great deal of thought.

is arguably not very effective, since many people would not agree with or value this idea. (Notice, too, how qualification might help this reason.) On the other hand, a reason like

If you look at writing assignments given in various disciplines of the university, you will find that many of them include elements that are related in some way to argument

would be likely to give the impression of being effective (and supportable).

The Evidence

We would all probably like to believe that the people we argue with will accept our claims and reasons as perfect and complete by themselves, but most readers are unlikely to do that. They want evidence of some sort--facts, examples, statistics, expert testimony, among others--to back up our reasons. If this level of the house of cards is either unstable or absent, neither of the two levels it supports (the reasons and claim) can be effective.

To be believable and convincing, evidence should satisfy three conditions. It should be sufficient , credible , and accurate .

Determining the Sufficiency of Evidence

As you look at the evidence supporting a reason, ask yourself if the author makes use of enough evidence to convince a reasonable reader.

If one reason given in an argument is

If you look at writing assignments given in various disciplines of the university, you will find that many of them include elements that are related in some way to argument.

An example from one Engineering assignment would most likely be insufficient, where several such examples would provide a more varied range of situations in which the stated reason holds true.

Determining the Credibility of Evidence

It is important to decide how credible (believable and authoritative) a piece of evidence is within an argument. As you look at the evidence supporting a reason, ask yourself whether or not this evidence matches with readers' experience of the world. If it doesn't, does the evidence come from a source that readers would accept as more knowledgeable or authoritative than they are?

On the university level, argument is valued by professors of various disciplines who say that they would like for their students to be able to take a strong position and support it with ample reasons and evidence, statistics taken from The National Inquirer and given in support of this reason will typically be much less credible than ones taken from The Journal of Higher Education .

Determining the Accuracy of Evidence

As you look at the evidence supporting a reason, ask yourself if this evidence "tells the truth." Are statistics gathered in verifiable ways from good sources? Are the quotations complete and fair (not out of context)? Are the facts verifiable from other sources?

Sometimes it is difficult to determine accuracy without having the writer's sources in front of you, but there are oftentimes cases in which you will be suspicious of a piece of evidence for one reason or another.

If, in support of a reason like

College students are very enthusiastic about learning argumentation skills

a writer uses this piece of evidence:

In a survey conducted in my residence hall, 92% of the respondents asserted that they enjoyed writing arguments more than any other activity listed on the questionnaire,

you might be led to ask questions like "Who conducted this survey?" "Who were these respondents?" or "What were the other activities listed on the questionnaire?"

Anticipated Objections and Rebuttal

When we analyze an argument using the Toulmin method, we look for potential objections to the argument's reasons, objections which the writer expects his or her opponents to make. Usually, these are included in arguments as opportunities for the writer to present her or his own reasons as refutations/rebuttals.

Example of an Anticipated Objection

If one reason in an argument is:

On the university level, argument is valued by professors of various disciplines who say that they would like for their students to be able to take a strong position and support it with ample reasons and evidence,

the writer might hold up the following objection:

Many students argue that fields like Engineering and Math have no use for argumentation skills.

Once a writer identifies counter-arguments opponents might make, it would be self-defeating to announce those counter-arguments and not argue against them. Therefore, after stating the objections of opponents, most writers will refute or rebut the objections. Good rebuttal usually requires evidence, so don't forget to look for support for the rebuttal position in that part of an argument. Like all evidence, rebuttal evidence should be sufficient, accurate, and credible.

Example of a Rebuttal

To the anticipated objection:

Many students argue that fields like Engineering and Math have no use for argumentation skills,

a writer might offer the following rebuttal evidence,

However, a recent study appearing in journal, Language and Learning Across the Disciplines indicates that...(fill in the blank)

Drawing Conclusions from a Toulmin Analysis

Once you have completed a Toulmin analysis of an argument, your task is to collect your "results" into an overall, coherent statement about the effectiveness of that argument. In other words, if you are attempting to respond to that argument--whether in a formal response essay or in an arguing essay where you are using the argument as evidence or as opposing evidence--you will need to shape your Toulmin results into a coherent, defensible, narrow claim of your own. To see an example of how you would do this, you might go to the relevant part of the Toulmin demonstration.

Toulmin Worksheet

Click below to access a copy of a Toulmin Worksheet, so that you may practice using the Toulmin Method of analysis on your own, using an argument in a text of your own choice. Remember, as you use this worksheet, that not all elements of an argument are nearly as formulaic as the sheet might suggest. The argument you use might, for instance, use more than three reasons, or it might use only one. Think of this worksheet as a starting point, and feel free to make whatever changes are necessary to incorporate the elements you identify in the argument you are examining.

Example Worksheet

A Toulmin Model for Analyzing Arguments (modified from Timothy W. Crusius and Carolyn E. Channell, The Aims of Argument, p. 34) Claim: Qualifier? Exceptions? *************** Reason 1 What makes this reason relevant? What makes this reason effective? What evidence supports this reason? Is this evidence sufficient? Is this evidence credible? Is this evidence accurate? Reason 2 What makes this reason relevant? What makes this reason effective? What evidence supports this reason? Is this evidence sufficient? Is this evidence credible? Is this evidence accurate? Reason 3 What makes this reason relevant? What makes this reason effective? What evidence supports this reason? Is this evidence sufficient? Is this evidence credible? Is this evidence accurate? *************************************************************** Objection: Rebuttal: Objection: Rebuttal: Objection: Rebuttal:

Toulmin Demonstration

What follows is a sample student argument, analyzed by way of the Toulmin Method. It offers an example of how this method might be implemented as a way of breaking an argument into its parts, then examining those parts to see how they contribute to the overall effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the argument.

Analyze The Claim

Identifying the claim.

Our first step in the Toulmin Method is to identify the claim. In the case of this argument, the claim is stated in a very general way, then is elaborated on throughout the essay. (Therefore, there is no particular point in the essay where the writer states her claim in full.) However, the general statement of the claim could be said to come at the beginning of paragraph 2, where the writer argues, "It is time for us to rethink our landscaping practices." She elaborates on this somewhat in the sentence that follows: " In our arid Western climate and poor soil, the traditional lawn takes too much water, time, and harmful chemicals to maintain." The argument proceeds to prove that this is true, then offers alternatives to "the traditional lawn."

Examining the Claim for Qualifiers

Having identified and paraphrased the claim in paragraph 2 as, "It is time for us to rethink our landscaping practices," the next step in the Toulmin Method is to examine this claim to see if the writer uses any qualifiers--words like "some," "many," "most of the time," etc. In this case, there are no such qualifiers. It can sometimes be damaging to an argument to omit qualifiers, particularly if there are also no exceptions provided. It is up to you as a reader to determine whether the writer's unqualified claim is damaging to this particular argument.

Examining the Claim for Exceptions

After looking for qualifying words in the claim, the next step is to determine what the writer considers to be the situations in which her claim doesn't apply. In other words, it is necessary to identify any exceptions she makes to her claim. In her argument, although she does not mention explicitly any exceptional situations, her claim implies one.

If we look at the writer's claim in paragraph 2, "It is time for us to rethink our landscaping practices," the first thing we should ask is "Who does she refer to when she uses the word `us'?" Clearly, this writer is addressing an audience like herself: homeowners in the West (in Ft. Collins, Colorado perhaps) who are interested in landscaping. Then if we look at the introductory paragraph of the essay, we see that she has described two landscaping situations: one in her home state of Ohio, and one in Fort Collins, Colorado, where she now lives. From all of this, we can assume that the writer intends for her argument to apply primarily to lawns in the West, and that (by implication) she excludes from her argument lawns in other parts of the country, where conditions are different.

Analyze the Reasons

Identifying all the reasons.

Once you have identified and examined the claim (for qualifiers and exceptions), the next step in the Toulmin Method is to identify and examine the reasons which support this claim. In the case of this essay, two of the reasons are given in the same breath as the general claim ("It is time for us to rethink our landscaping practices") in the second paragraph. The sentence which follows this claim is, "In our arid Western climate and poor soil, the traditional lawn takes too much water, time, and harmful chemicals to maintain," and it implies two of the three reasons that the writer will address in the essay. The third reason the writer will address is this: Maintaining the traditional lawn is unnecessary, since varieties of grass that are more appropriate to the West (and "less hungry and thirsty," as the writer says in paragraph 14) are readily available. Click on the reasons below to see where they occur in the example argument.

Maintaining the traditional lawn is:

In paragraph 2: Harmful (because of the chemicals used)
In paragraph 2: Expensive in terms of time (time spent maintaining one's lawn) and money (water usage and cost of chemicals)
In paragraph 11: Maintaining the traditional lawn is unnecessary, since varieties of grass that are more appropriate to the West are readily available.

Identifying and Examining Reason One

In reading on from paragraph 2 to paragraph 3 of the essay, we see that the first reason the writer addresses is the question of harm. At the beginning of paragraph 3, she broaches this question in the following way: "In Fort Collins, we must use herbicides when growing these foreign turfs." The assumption here, of course, is that these herbicides are harmful and undesirable, and the writer shows how this is so by providing evidence of the threats they pose to the environment and to humans.

We have identified Reason One as "In Fort Collins, we must use herbicides [which, by implication, are harmful] when growing these foreign turfs [like Kentucky bluegrass]." Our next step is to determine whether or not this reason is (1) relevant and (2) effective.

Determining the Relevance of Reason One

When examining this reason, it is first necessary to ask the question, "Is it relevant to the claim it attempts to support?" When we look at the claim and this first reason side by side, we see that there is a clear connection between the two.

Reason: "In Fort Collins, we must use herbicides [which, by implication, are harmful] when growing these foreign turfs [like Kentucky bluegrass]."

For this reason...

Claim: "It is time for us to rethink our landscaping practices."

Determining the Effectiveness of Reason One

After determining that Reason One is indeed relevant to the argument's claim, we may go on to determine whether or not it is effective (or "good"). In other words, does the reason invoke a value that most people (most importantly, you as a reader) can believe in and accept?

In this case, the reason, having to do with the danger of herbicides to the environment and to people, invokes the reader's fear and distaste of such harm. This may or may not seem like an effective reason to you, and if it doesn't, then this is something to remember when you complete your analysis of this argument. However, we might predict that most readers would probably feel some kind of fear or distaste for the kinds of harm that the writer refers to, thus making this an effective reason.

Moving from Reason One to Reason Two

In providing a bridge from Reason One to Reason Two, the writer draws on what we will here call Reason Three, paraphrasable as follows: Maintaining the traditional lawn is unnecessary, since varieties of grass that are more appropriate to the West are readily available. After she demonstrates that herbicides are dangerous, the writer shows that this danger is unnecessary, given the existence of buffalo grass and other varieties "that are more resistant to pests, disease, and weeds and better suited to the West" (paragraph 5). She then lists some of the merits of buffalo grass, which are (1) its appropriateness to our region and (2) the fact that it is almost maintenance-free, and therefore economical. This leads the writer directly into her second reason, which has to do with cost.

Identifying and Examining Reason Two

The writer's second reason, having to do with the cost of traditional landscaping in terms of money and time, is developed in paragraphs 6-9. (For the sake of simplicity, we will paraphrase Reason Two in the following way: "Traditional landscaping is costly in terms of both time and money.") Looking back at the essay, this reason can be most easily and clearly identified in two specific sentences:

Paragraph 6: "Choosing a variety that requires little or no watering also saves Fort Collins homeowners money." Paragraph 7: "More appropriate species of grass would save time and money by making fertilizers and amendments obsolete."

With the exception of these two sentences, the majority of the argument in paragraphs 6-9 is given to providing evidence to support these statements, as well as (in paragraph 8) mentioning the cost of having one's lawn professionally cared for.

We have identified Reason Two as (in paraphrased form) "Traditional landscaping is costly in terms of both time and money." Our next step is to determine whether or not this reason is (1) relevant and (2) effective.

Determining the Relevance of Reason Two

Reason: "Traditional landscaping is costly in terms of both time and money."

Determining the Effectiveness of Reason Two

After determining that Reason Two is indeed relevant to the argument's claim, we may go on to determine whether or not it is effective (or "good"). In other words, does the reason invoke a value that most people (most importantly, you as a reader) can believe in and accept?

In this case, the reason, having to do with the cost (in terms of both money and time) of maintaining traditional landscaping, invokes the value the reader places on money and time. This may or may not seem like an effective reason to you, and if it doesn't, then this is something to remember when you complete your analysis of this argument. However, we might predict that most readers would probably be compelled by an argument that proposes economy of both money and time. We could argue, therefore, that this is an effective reason.

Moving from Reason Two to Reason Three

In providing a bridge from Reason Two(having to do with various costs of traditional landscaping) to Reason Three(having to do with the availability of alternative varieties of grasses which are more suited to the West), the writer decides to deal with an objection she anticipates from her audience: "So how come we never hear about these alternative varieties of grasses and their benefits?" In paragraphs 10-12, the writer responds to this hypothetical objection, pointing out the biases of the lawn care industry and directing her audience toward less biased sources of information (or rather, those which are likely to give information about alternative varieties of grasses and means of landscaping).

Identifying and Examining Reason Three

As mentioned previously, we might paraphrase the writer's third reason in the following way: Maintaining the traditional lawn is unnecessary, since varieties of grass that are more appropriate to the West are readily available. Although she directly addresses the "availability" question only toward the end of her essay (in paragraphs 10-13), she refers to alternative varieties of grasses in several areas of the essay. For example, In Paragraph 5: "Varieties of grass that are more resistant to pests, disease, and weeds and better suited to the West make this risk unnecessary." In Paragraph 6: "Choosing a variety that requires little or no watering also saves Fort Collins homeowners money." In Paragraph 7: "More appropriate species of grass would save time and money by making fertilizers and amendments obsolete." In Paragraph 10: "Since the cost of maintaining an alternative lawn is so low, lawn care experts have no stake in keeping us informed about more appropriate species or in making them easy to obtain."

In paragraphs 11-13, however, the writer claims that these alternative varieties do exist and are available to Fort Collins residents, and she offers evidence to back this up.

We have identified Reason Three as (in paraphrased form) "Maintaining the traditional lawn is unnecessary, since varieties of grass that are more appropriate to the West are readily available." Our next step is to determine whether or not this reason is (1) relevant and (2) effective.

Determining the Relevance of Reason Three

Reason: "Maintaining the traditional lawn is unnecessary, since varieties of grass that are more appropriate to the West are readily available."

Determining the Effectiveness of Reason Three

After determining that Reason Three is indeed relevant to the argument's claim, we may go on to determine whether or not it is effective (or "good"). In other words, does the reason invoke a value that most people (most importantly, you as a reader) can believe in and accept?

In this case, the reason, which challenges the necessity of traditional landscaping methods and grasses when alternative ones (more appropriate to the West) are readily available, invokes the value the reader places on convenience and common sense. This may or may not seem like an effective reason to you, and if it doesn't, then this is something to remember when you complete your analysis of this argument. However, we might predict that most readers would probably be motivated by a desire to do something that "makes sense" if it is convenient to do so. Therefore, we might judge this to be an effective reason.

Identifying and Examining Evidence

Once you have identified and examined the reasons supporting the claim in an argument, your next step is to examine the evidence which, in turn, supports those reasons.

Identifying and Examining Evidence for Reason One

The writer's first reason has to do with the danger of using herbicides. In support of this reason (in paragraphs 3 and 4), she offers several pieces of evidence:

Identifying the Evidence:

In paragraph 3, a statistic (from her source, Bormann, Balmori, and Geballe) indicating how many pounds of herbicides and pesticides Americans use each year.
In paragraph 4, her experience with the prevalence of lawn chemical use in Ohio.
In paragraph 4, her reference to the yellow warning flags now used in Ft. Collins when lawns are being sprayed.

Examining the Evidence:

We must first ask ourselves, "Is this evidence sufficient?" That is, we must determine whether or not there is enough evidence offered to support the reason the writer is attempting to use. In this case, given the fact that the writer uses three different pieces of evidence (one from an "official" source and two from personal experience/observation), we could argue that she uses sufficient evidence.

Our second step is to ask ourselves, "Is this evidence credible?" In other words, can we trust the evidence the writer offers us? In this case, where the writer uses what seems to be a credible source (Bormann, Balmori, and Geballe's Redesigning the American Lawn), as well as fairly commonplace, believable personal experience, we could argue that she uses credible evidence.

Our third step is to ask ourselves, "Is this evidence accurate?" This is perhaps the most difficult step in examining the evidence, simply because we can't always be sure of accuracy without having the writer's sources in front of us or without having experienced what she has experienced. In this case, there seems to be no reason to question the accuracy of the evidence given, simply because it doesn't appear unrealistic or outlandish, and it has already been shown to be reasonably credible. Sometimes, however, you might suspect that the evidence offered in support of a reason is inaccurate, and that can be an excellent way to challenge an argument.

Identifying and Examining Evidence for Reason Two

The writer's second reason has to do with the cost of traditional landscaping in terms of money and time, and it is supported (in paragraphs 6-9) with several pieces of evidence:

In paragraph 6, statistics representing water usage (the writer's own and the average) in Fort Collins, along with information given in a phone interview with Laurie D'Audni of the Fort Collins Water Utilities.
In paragraph 6, a statistic from her source (Bormann, Balmori, and Geballe) representing water usage in the West.
After paragraph 6, the chart showing levels of water usage (the writer's own and the average) in Fort Collins throughout the year.
In paragraph 7, lawn care experts' recommendation on how often fertilizer should be applied, and on how we "should aerate and thatch as well."
In paragraph 7, personal experience--comparison of time and money spent in Fort Collins as opposed to Ohio.
In paragraph 8: Cost of having lawn care professionally done.
After paragraph 8, statistics on "Basic Cost per Season for Care of Bluegrass" and "Time Spent per Season in Basic Lawn Care"

Identifying and Examining Evidence for Reason Three

The writer's third reason has to do with the availability of alternative varieties of grasses which are more suited to the West. As mentioned previously, this reason is referred to throughout the essay, but it is treated most directly in paragraphs 10-13. Here is some of the evidence, given in different parts of the essay in support of the availability of alternative grasses:

In paragraph 5, testimony from two sources (Bucks and Meyer) as to the merits of buffalo grass and wheatgrass.
In paragraph 10, the phone number of the county extension office, where readers can get information on species of grass suitable to our area.
In paragraph 11, quotes from an article in the Coloradoan about the difficulties of traditional turf grasses and the availability of "a new variety of zoysia, Meyer Z-52).
In paragraph 12, a claim that alternative types of seed may be ordered (and the approximate cost of the seeds).
paragraph 13, suggestions of plants, shrubs, and flowers that thrive in the West.

Analyze the Anticipated Objections and Rebuttal

When writing an argument, writers must anticipate any objections their audience might use to challenge that argument. In other words, they have to make sure, to the best of their ability, that they don't leave room for their audience to pull a card out of one of the levels of their "house of cards" (thereby causing the whole structure of the argument to tumble down). In this argument, the writer has addressed two possible oppositional arguments, one having to do with availability of information on alternative grasses, and one having to do with the cost of switching to alternative landscaping.

Identifying Objection One

Identifying & Examining Rebuttal of Objection One

In paragraphs 10-12, the writer responds to this hypothetical objection, pointing out the biases of the lawn care industry and directing her audience toward less biased sources of information (or rather, those which are likely to give information about alternative varieties of grasses and means of landscaping).

Remember, too, that rebuttal evidence must be examined just like any other evidence. In other words, we have to judge whether or not the evidence offered in the rebuttal is valid in terms of sufficiency, credibility, and accuracy. In this case, we might notice that the writer gives no real evidence that the lawn care industry is biased, but we might also decide that such a thing is common sense, and therefore is well-argued. However, if we were looking for a way to call this reasoning into question, we might want to point out that the writer lacks evidence in this area.

Identifying Objection Two

In paragraph 14, the writer anticipates that her audience might be concerned about the expense of switching from traditional to alternative landscaping.

Identifying & Examining Rebuttal of Objection Two

In forming her rebuttal to this second objection, the writer refers back to arguments she made in paragraph 6 about "the cost saved on water and maintenance." She also mentions in paragraph 14 the possibilities of shrinking lawn space and "giv[ing it] over to heat and drought-resistant varieties of flowers, trees, shrubs, and groundcovers." Finally, she mentions the ways that people can save money by "choosing varieties that are perennial or reseed themselves."

Remember, too, that rebuttal evidence must be examined just like any other evidence. In other words, we have to judge whether or not the evidence offered in the rebuttal is valid in terms of sufficiency, credibility, and accuracy. In this case, we will remember that she has already supported her argument about "the cost saved on water and maintenance." And we might consider that her arguments about shrinking lawn space and about "choosing varieties that are perennial or reseed themselves" to be self-evident (common-sensical), and therefore well-argued. However, if we were looking for a way to call her reasoning into question, we might want to point out that the writer lacks evidence on these last two points.

Draw Conclusions from a Toulmin Analysis

After completing this Toulmin Analysis of the essay, "Landscaping that Makes Sense for the West," it is our task to determine how to "interpret" the results. In other words, how do we take what we have discovered about the argument through analysis and translate it into a formal response to that argument?

Collecting Results

The first step in drawing conclusions is to collect the results of our analysis. To do this, we go back to our responses on the different levels of our "house of cards": claim, reasons, evidence, and anticipated objections/rebuttal. In the case of our sample argument, we have determined that the writer's reasons and much of her evidence are quite strong. Some of her evidence is not as documentable as other evidence, and we could examine her claim (for lack of qualifications) and her rebuttal evidence more closely, but for the most part, our responses at the various levels of this analysis have been positive.

Is the Argument Compelling to You?

The first question you might ask yourself when "interpreting" the results of your analysis is a very general (and emotionally-based) question: Does this argument appeal to me? If it does appeal, then why and how does it appeal? In other words, how do the responses we made about the claim, reasons, evidence, etc. reinforce (or contradict) our "gut-level" response to the argument we have read? In the case of our example argument, we might say that the essay seems immediately compelling for a number of reasons (style, use of examples, the attractive color photo, etc.); then we might note that our overall response to and analysis of the parts of the argument supports this gut-level response.

What is the Overall Effectiveness/Ineffectiveness of the Argument?

In looking at the results of your analysis, it is important to notice how effective or ineffective the argument is based on the strengths or weaknesses you have noticed in the different parts of that argument. This is the part of interpretation which demands that you go beyond your gut-level responses to acknowledge (as "objectively" and as truthfully as possible) the parts of the argument which achieve their purpose effectively, and the parts which do this less effectively. Again, looking at our sample essay, we could argue that most of the parts of the argument (like the claim, reasons, and most evidence) are structured, supported, and expressed effectively, while there are very few areas of possible ineffectiveness (in credibility of evidence, thoroughness of rebuttal, or qualification of claim, for instance).

Overall, though, this argument would probably be considered a strong and well-supported one by most readers, and it is a bit of a stretch even to discuss these few areas of possible ineffectiveness.

Writing a Claim

The last stage of your analysis (and the first stage of writing a response to the essay) is to formulate a claim of your own, based on your analytical reading of the argument. In the case of our sample argument, our claim might read as follows: "Although this writer's argument has elements that might be slightly better qualified, supported, or documented, overall her argument for alternative landscaping is compelling and effective." (Of course, if as a reader you were inclined to disagree with her argument or to be critical of some of the reasons or evidence she offers, your claim would look quite different from this one.)

Nesbitt, Laurel. (2001). Using the Toulmin Method. Writing@CSU . Colorado State University. https://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=58

16 Qualitative Methods Examples

qualitative research examples and definition, explained below

Qualitative research seeks to explore and understand individuals’ or groups’ experiences, behaviors, and social phenomena by collecting non-numerical data, such as text or images, and analyzing it in a narrative, descriptive manner.

Its strength is that it provides a deep understanding of human behavior, experiences, and social phenomena, enabling the exploration of nuances, contexts, and underlying factors that may not be evident through quantitative methods (Aurini, Heath & Howells, 2021 [ 1 ] ; Bhattacharya, 2017 [ 2 ] ).

However, its findings can be subjective, less generalizable due to smaller sample sizes, and may require a significant amount of time, effort, and expertise to collect and interpret the data accurately (Bhattacharya, 2017 [ 2 ] ; Hatch, 2023 [ 3 ] ).

Examples of qualitative research include conducting in-depth interviews to explore patients’ experiences with healthcare, utilizing focus groups to understand consumer perceptions of a product, engaging in ethnographic observation to study cultural practices, and employing case studies to investigate real-life phenomena in detail.

Qualitative Methods Examples

1. case studies.

A case study is a detailed investigation of a specific individual, group, or event over a defined period. It goes in depth in one specific case rather than achieving a broad range of participants or instances of a situation.

The main purpose of a case study is to provide an in-depth analysis and understanding of complex issues that cannot be fully captured through statistical models or broad sweeping quantitative approaches (Bhattacharya, 2017 [ 2 ] ; Lapan, Quartaroli & Riemer, 2011 [ 4 ] ).

This method often involves collecting and analyzing various forms of qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents.

The data is then used to construct a narrative about the case, identify themes or patterns, and draw conclusions. Case studies are often used in fields like psychology, business, and education, due to their ability to produce rich, detailed, and practical knowledge.

Real Case Study Example

Study: “Shoreline changes over last five decades and predictions for 2030 and 2040: a case study from Cuddalore, southeast coast of India.”

Explanation: This study is about estimating the shoreline changes over the past five decades in a part of the southeast coast of India at Cuddalore, and predicting the shoreline evolution for the years 2030 and 2040. This is a case study as it utilizes specific, localized data from Cuddalore to gain in-depth understanding and make future predictions about shoreline changes. However, as it’s a case study with only one location for analysis, it may not be applicable to other shorelines.

Citation: Natarajan, L., Sivagnanam, N., Usha, T., Chokkalingam, L., Sundar, S., Gowrappan, M., & Roy, P. D. (2021). Shoreline changes over last five decades and predictions for 2030 and 2040: a case study from Cuddalore, southeast coast of India. Earth Science Informatics , 14 , 1315-1325. ( Access Here )

See Also: Case Study Advantages and Disadvantages

2. Grounded Theory

Grounded theory is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of qualitative data with the aim of creating theories that are grounded in the data itself.

The defining feature of grounded theory is that it does not text a theory or hypothesis, unlike most other research approaches. Instead, it studies a phenomenon, allowing the theory to emerge naturally from the data (Atkinson, 2015 [ 5 ] ; Mills, Bonner & Francis, 2017 [ 6 ] ).

So, the study ends with a hypothesis by following the data rather than beginning with a hypothesis to be tested.

Researchers engaged in grounded theory begin with an area of study, then gather, code, and analyze the data, allowing the recurring patterns to evolve into a framework (Atkinson, 2015 [ 5 ] ; Mills, Bonner & Francis, 2017 [ 6 ] ).

This process continues up to the point of theoretical saturation, when no new information or themes are emerging from the data.

Real Grounded Theory Example

Study: “Developing a Leadership Identity.”

Developing a Leadership Identity by Komives et al (2005) employs a grounded theory approach to develop a thesis based on the data rather than testing a hypothesis. The researchers studied the leadership identity of 13 college students taking on leadership roles. Based on their interviews, the researchers theorized that the students’ leadership identities shifted from a hierarchical view of leadership to one that embraced leadership as a collaborative concept.

Citation: Komives, S. R., Owen, J. E., Longerbeam, S. D., Mainella, F. C., & Osteen, L. (2005). Developing a leadership identity: A grounded theory. Journal of college student development , 46 (6), 593-611. ( Access Here )

See More Grounded Theory Examples Here

3. Ethnography

Ethnography is a research method often used in anthropology, in which the researcher immerses themselves in the community or culture they are studying (Hammersley, 2018 [ 7 ] ; Jones & Smith, 2017 [ 8 ] ).

The researcher observes, interacts, and records the daily lives, behaviors, and social interactions of the community members from their perspective.

The primary aim of ethnography is to provide rich, holistic insights into people’s views and actions, as well as the nature (i.e., sights, sounds) of the location they inhabit, through the collection of detailed observations and interviews.

During the ethnographic study, the researcher usually lives within the community, allowing them to get deeper insights than they would get from just having occasional contact (Hammersley, 2018 [ 7 ] ; Jones & Smith, 2017 [ 8 ] ).

The result is a detailed description of the community’s social practices, beliefs, and experiences, often looking at such aspects as rituals, ceremonies, interactions, and daily life.

Real Ethnography Example

Study: “Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall.”

Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street by Karen Ho involves an anthropologist who embeds herself with Wall Street firms to study the culture of Wall Street bankers and how this culture affects the broader economy and world.

Citation: Ho, K. (2009). Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street . Duke University Press. ( Access Here )

See More Ethnography Examples Here

4. Autoethnography

Autoethnography combines elements of autobiography and ethnography.

In autoethnography, researchers use their own personal experiences and reflections as the primary data source to gain insights into cultural, social, and individual phenomena (Pretorius & Cutri, 2019 [ 9 ] ).

The intent is to use personal narratives not only to understand the self, but also to understand the cultural context in which the self is situated.

By focusing on their own experiences, emotions, and responses within a specific cultural context, researchers seek to provide a rich, detailed, and personal account that sheds light on broader cultural norms , behaviors, and experiences (Pretorius & Cutri, 2019 [ 9 ] ).

This method is particularly common in social sciences and humanities, where understanding the complexity of human experiences and emotions is of principal importance.

Real Autoethnography Example

Study: “Living Without a Mobile Phone: An Autoethnography”

Living Without a Mobile Phone: An Autoethnography by Andres Luccero (2018) is one of the more captivating academic studies I’ve engaged with in recent months. It explores themes related to the benefits and struggles of voluntarily foregoing mobile phones (including the safety fears Luccero goes through) after systematically collecting field notes over a number of years.

Citation: Lucero, A. (2018). Living without a mobile phone: An autoethnography. In Proceedings of the 2018 Designing Interactive Systems Conference (pp. 765-776). ( Access Here )

See More Autoethnography Examples Here

5. Phenomenology

Phenomenology is a method that focuses on the commonality of a lived experience within a particular group.

The central aim is to interpret and describe the meaning of these experiences in order to capture the ‘essence’ of the phenomenon (Neubauer, Witkop & Varpio, 2019 [ 10 ] ; Zahavi, 2018 [ 11 ] ).

Researchers utilizing this method typically gather data through interviews, written stories, artefacts or other forms of personal narratives from the individuals who have experienced the phenomenon firsthand.

Then, through a process of reflecting on these first-person descriptions, researchers aim to draw out the underlying structures and themes of the experience and thereby provide a richer and deeper understanding of the phenomenon (Neubauer, Witkop & Varpio, 2019 [ 10 ] ; Zahavi, 2018 [ 11 ] ).

Phenomenology is often used in social science, psychology, and health sciences research.

Real Phenomenology Example

Study: “A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology”

A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology by Sebnem Cilesiz represents a good starting-point for formulating a phenomenological study. With its focus on the ‘essence of experience’, this piece presents methodological, reliability, validity, and data analysis techniques that phenomenologists use to explain how people experience technology in their everyday lives.

Citation: Cilesiz, S. (2011). A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: Current state, promise, and future directions for research. Educational Technology Research and Development , 59 , 487-510. ( Access Here )

6. Narrative Research

Narrative research involves collecting and studying individuals’ lived experiences as told through their own stories. Detailed narratives help to produce detailed and nuanced accounts of phenomena (McAlpine, 2016 [ 12 ] .

This method is typically used when researchers want to capture detailed stories or life experiences related to the study’s focal area from the perspective of participants.

The research involves gathering data through methods such as interviews, diaries, personal notes, or letters, from which narratives are then constructed and analyzed for recurring themes and patterns (McAlpine, 2016 [ 12 ] .

A key value of narrative research is its emphasis on giving voice to participants’ experiences in their own words and context, making it a powerful approach to explore personal histories, cultural narratives, and complex social issues .

Real Narrative Research Example

Study: “Learning to Labour”

Learning to Labour by Paul Willis is perhaps one of the most famous examples of narrative research. In this study, Willis explored the personal identity narratives that working-class English boys created around work and school, demonstrating their choices to reject formal education and its middle-class values while many of them embraced hard work ethic for types of work they valued, namely, creative and productive physical labor.

Citation: Willis, P. E. (1981). Learning to Labor: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs. Columbia University Press. ( Access Here )

7. Action Research

Action Research is a participatory, problem-solving method which aims to improve concrete situations through a cycle of action and reflection (Jacobs, 2018 [ 13 ] ).

The core idea is that the researcher is not a passive observer but actively involved in the phenomenon being studied, working collaboratively with participants to solve real-world problems.

The cycle typically includes problem identification, planning for improvement, implementation of change, observation of the effects, and reflection on the process and results to adjust and refine the plan for the next cycle (Jacobs, 2018 [ 13 ] ).

This type of research is usually employed in education, healthcare, community development, or organizational studies, where the goal is to make practical improvements while also expanding knowledge.

Action research, thus, blurs the boundary between researcher and participant, prioritizing experiential learning, shared decision making and equitable relationships.

Real Action Research Example

Study: “Using Digital Sandbox Gaming to Improve Creativity Within Boys’ Writing”

Using Digital Sandbox Gaming to Improve Creativity Within Boys’ Writing by Ellison and Drew was a research study one of my research students completed in his own classroom under my supervision. He implemented a digital game-based approach to literacy teaching with boys and interviewed his students to see if the use of games as stimuli for storytelling helped draw them into the learning experience.

Citation: Ellison, M., & Drew, C. (2020). Using digital sandbox gaming to improve creativity within boys’ writing. Journal of Research in Childhood Education , 34 (2), 277-287. ( Access Here )

See More Action Research Examples Here

8. Focus Group Research

Focus group research is a form of qualitative research where a group of people are asked about their attitudes, beliefs, experiences, and reactions to a specific subject, product, concept, or idea.

The interaction between the group members is observed and used for gathering data, as it can provide additional depth and complexity to the understanding of the topic being discussed (Guest, Namey & McKenna, 2017 [ 14 ] ; Kamberelis & Dimitriadis, 2013 [ 15 ] ).

Focus group usually involves 6-12 participants, led by a trained facilitator who guides the discussion and ensures everyone’s voice is heard.

Data collected in focus groups can be analyzed qualitatively to identify themes, patterns, or trends in people’s perceptions and experiences.

This research method is widely used in marketing, political studies, public health, and social sciences, due to its ability to provide rich, detailed and nuanced data.

Real Focus Group Example

Study: “Why people use herbal medicine: insights from a focus-group study in Germany.”

.This study investigates the reasons why people in Germany choose to use herbal medicine, including usage aims, factors associated with illness type, and sources of information. The study used a focus group approach, conducting six focus groups with 46 participants of varying ages, then analyzing the data using a content analysis method, which I’ll explain later in this article.

Citation: Welz, A. N., Emberger-Klein, A., & Menrad, K. (2018). Why people use herbal medicine: insights from a focus-group study in Germany. BMC complementary and alternative medicine , 18 , 1-9. ( Access Here )

See More Focus Group Examples Here

9. Semi-Structured Interviewing

Semi-structured interviewing is a common method of data collection in qualitative research where the interviewer directs the conversation using a predetermined set of open-ended questions, but with flexibility to explore topics in more depth (Aurini, Heath & Howells, 2021 [ 1 ] ; Bhattacharya, 2017 [ 2 ] ).

This type of interview does not follow a strict form, allowing the interviewee to express their thoughts and feelings more freely and the interviewer to adapt and probe further based on their responses.

Semi-structured interviews can cover a wide range of topics, gain detailed information, and provide a more nuanced understanding of the interviewee’s perspective and context.

While each interview is guided by a consistent list of topics (interview guide), the order can change depending on the flow of conversation, and additional questions can be asked for clarification or further exploration (Aurini, Heath & Howells, 2021 [ 1 ] .

Real Semi-Structured Interview Example

Study: “English professional football players concussion knowledge and attitude.”

The study examines the knowledge and attitude of English professional football players towards concussion and the misconceptions that exist about it. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to gather in-depth information about the players’ understanding of concussions and establish whether their intended behavior aligns with their knowledge.

Citation: Williams, J. M., Langdon, J. L., McMillan, J. L., & Buckley, T. A. (2016). English professional football players concussion knowledge and attitude. Journal of sport and health science , 5 (2), 197-204. ( Access Here )

10. Structured Interviewing

Structured interviewing is a quantitative research method where all participants are asked the same predetermined and standardized set of questions, with the same wording and in the same order (Aurini, Heath & Howells, 2021 [ 1 ] ; Bhattacharya, 2017 [ 2 ] ).

The structured interview format ensures that comparison and statistical analysis is possible since every respondent is asked exactly the same questions.

Response categories are also often predetermined and fixed, limiting the scope for exploring issues in depth, but permitting the gathering of consistent, comparable data (Aurini, Heath & Howells, 2021 [ 1 ] ; Bhattacharya, 2017 [ 2 ] ).

Structured interviewing reduces the potential impact of interviewer bias, enabling more objectivity in the responses.

This method is commonly used in large-scale surveys, market research, and social science research where researchers are interested in measuring trends, comparison between groups, or relationships between variables.

Real Structured Interview Example

Study: “Tell us about your leadership style: A structured interview approach for assessing leadership behavior constructs”

This study investigates the application of the structured interview method as a way to assess leadership behavior based on Yukl’s leadership taxonomy and examine its ability to predict leadership outcomes. The study uses structured interviews by having supervisors answer questions based on specific leadership constructs and situations, which are then analyzed and compared to other leadership measures such as self-assessments and subordinate ratings.

Citation: Heimann, A. L., Ingold, P. V., & Kleinmann, M. (2020). Tell us about your leadership style: A structured interview approach for assessing leadership behavior constructs. The Leadership Quarterly , 31 (4), 101364. ( Access Here )

11. Observational Research

Observational research is a qualitative research method where researchers observe participants in their natural setting without any direct involvement or intervention (Seim, 2021 [ 16 ] ; Lapan, Quartaroli & Riemer, 2011 [ 4 ] ).

The aim is to study people’s behavior, interactions, routines or events as they naturally occur, and as a result, gain a more authentic and holistic understanding of the phenomena being studied.

Methods of observation can vary vastly ranging from completely unobtrusive and passive observations, where participants are unaware they are being observed, to participant observations, where researchers immerse themselves into the groups to gain firsthand experience (Seim, 2021 [ 16 ] ).

The information gathered can be rich and detailed, including body language, expressions, and the context and sequence of events, offering insights that are not possible through traditional survey and experimental methods.

Real Observational Research Example

Study: “Influence of models’ reinforcement contingencies on the acquisition of imitative responses.”

The Bobo Doll Experiment by Albert Bandura is the quintessential observational study. Bandura had children watch adults interacting with a doll. Half saw adults acting roughly with the doll, the other half saw parents acting carefully with the doll. Then, Bandura observed children playing with a doll. His observations revealed that children’s observations of adult actions affect how the children will subsequently treat the doll.

Citation: Bandura, A. (1965). Influence of models’ reinforcement contingencies on the acquisition of imitative responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1 (6), 589–595. ( Access Here )

See More Observational Research Examples Here

12. Delphi Method

The Delphi Method is a structured communication technique used in qualitative research that relies on a panel of experts (Brady, 2015 [ 17 ] ).

The process begins with researchers presenting a problem to the experts who respond individually, usually through a series of questionnaires or online surveys.

Responses are collected and summarized anonymously, then feedback is given to the group, allowing experts to revise their earlier answers based on the replies of their peers (Brady, 2015 [ 17 ] ).

Throughout multiple rounds, the group seeks to reach a consensus on the issue being investigated while minimizing bias because of group interaction.

The Delphi method is often used in predictive research, policy-making, decision-support, and system and technology forecasting where expert opinions are valuable.

Real Delphi Method Example

Study: “Assessing advisor competencies: A Delphi method study.”

This study aims to identify essential competencies for entry-level academic advisors. The Delphi method was employed through surveys administered to academic advisors with 5 or more years of experience, and their responses were analyzed to build consensus on the essential competencies for entry-level academic advisors. A consensus was reached on three essential competencies: Communication skills, interpersonal skills, and knowledge of university policies and resources.

Citation: Menke, D., Stuck, S., & Ackerson, S. (2018). Assessing advisor competencies: A Delphi method study. The Journal of the National Academic Advising Association , 38 (1), 12-21. ( Access Here )

13. Textual & Content Analysis

Textual analysis , also known as content analysis, is a qualitative research method used to interpret the content and meaning of textual material in a systematic way.

Researchers using this approach analyze the communication content (like books, essays, interviews, speeches, online posts, etc.) in order to decipher patterns, themes, biases, and other cultural, societal, or thematic elements.

A researcher might analyze the themes, symbols, motifs, dialogues, plot structures, or stylistic choices in a text, in an attempt to understand how these elements contribute to its overall meaning and potential effects on its audience.

I have a detailed explanation of how to conduct a qualitative content analysis in my article on inductive coding , and I also highly recommend Attride-Stirling’s (2001) [ 18 ] article on thematic network analysis for a step-by-step guide.

Textual analysis is commonly used in fields such as communication studies, literature, history, sociology, cultural studies, media studies, and more.

Real Textual Analysis Example

Study: “Making sense of “alternative”, “complementary”, “unconventional” and “integrative” medicine.”

This study analyzes the usage and evolution of terms like “alternative”, “complementary”, “unconventional” and “integrative” in medicine. It uses textual analysis by breaking down and examining the context, meaning, and usage of these terms in influential medical publications between 1970 and 2013 to understand their significance and implications in the discourse of unconventional medicine.

Citation: Ng, J. Y., Boon, H. S., Thompson, A. K., & Whitehead, C. R. (2016). Making sense of “alternative”, “complementary”, “unconventional” and “integrative” medicine: exploring the terms and meanings through a textual analysis. BMC complementary and alternative medicine , 16 (1), 1-18. ( Access Here )

See More Content Analysis Examples Here

14. Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis is a qualitative research method used to analyze written, verbal, or sign language use or any significant semiotic event. It differs from textual analysis in its focus on the concept of emergent and dominant discourses , based on Foucauldian theory (Fairclough, 2013 [ 19 ] ).

The main purpose is to understand how language is used in real-life situations and uncover the social, cultural, and psychological structures that underlie the text or talk in its specific context (i.e. the discourses).

Discourse analysis considers language at several levels, such as sounds, words, sentences, speech acts, conversations, and narratives, and explores how these elements shape and are shaped by social practices, identities, relationships, and power dynamics.

It also looks beyond explicit meaning to explore implicit messages, underlying assumptions, and ideological standpoints that are conveyed through language.

This method is applied in a wide range of disciplines, including linguistics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, communication studies, and cognitive and cultural studies.

Real Discourse Analysis Example

Study: “How is Islam portrayed in western media? A critical discourse analysis perspective.”

How is Islam Portrayed in Western Media? By Poorebrahim and Zarei (2013) represents a typical critical discourse analysis. This study combs through a corpus of western media texts to explore the language forms that are used in relation to Islam and Muslims, finding that they are overly stereotyped, which may represent anti-Islam bias or failure to understand the Islamic world.

Citation: Poorebrahim, F., & Zarei, G. (2013). How is Islam portrayed in western media? A critical discourse analysis perspective. International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Research , 1 (2), 57-75. ( Access Here )

See More Discourse Analysis Examples Here

15. Life History Research

Life history research is a qualitative methodology that focuses on understanding people’s lives and experiences through their personal narratives over a prolonged period, usually their entire life (Goodson & Sykes, 2016 [ 20 ] ) .

The objective is to gain in-depth insight into the subjective experiences, cultural contexts, identity development, decision-making processes, and changes over time.

Methods commonly used in life history research include interviews, diaries, photo elicitation or other artifacts, aiming to capture a rich, detailed, and holistic account of the person’s life (Goodson & Sykes, 2016 [ 20 ] ).

In interpreting the data, researchers pay attention to how the individual makes sense of their life trajectory, the pivotal moments, their relationships, and how historical and sociocultural contexts influence their life events and perceptions.

The life history method is suitable for research in diverse fields such as education, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and health sciences, particularly when studying themes like identity, resilience, transformation, and moral development over time.

Study: “The study of life history: Gandhi.”

The Study of Life History: Gandhi by David Mandelbaum conducts a life history analysis of Gandhi by exploring his biographies and texts about his life. Through this analysis, Mandelbaum contextualized Gandhi’s life achievements and decisions in the banal experiences of fatherhood an nationhood, with an attempt to humanize the Indian hero and re-imagine his role in the development of modern India.

Citation: Mandelbaum, D. G. (1973). The study of life history: Gandhi. Current anthropology , 14 (3), 177-206. ( Access Here )

16. Semiotic Analysis

Semiotic analysis is like textual analysis, but has its own range of methods for examining how multimodal texts (images, video, movements) convey meaning in cultural contexts (Andersen et al., 2015 [ 21 ] ; Gualberto & Kress, 2019 [ 22 ] ).

The approach acknowledges that things (signs) can stand for something else and carry a particular meaning, especially within a social or cultural contexts.

So, this approach involves examining the signs and symbols that are used in various forms of communication, such as language, imagery, body language, music, and even things like fashion and food (Gualberto & Kress, 2019 [ 22 ] ).

The process of this method typically includes identifying the signs, exploring the system or code that organizes these signs (syntax), and interpreting how these signs work to inform or influence our ideas and beliefs (semantics).

By providing these insights, semiotic analysis helps researchers understand societal norms, cultural values , power relations, ideological beliefs, and more.

Study: “Visualizing teens and technology: A social semiotic analysis of stock photography and news media imagery.”

This study provides an analysis of how teenagers and their usage of digital media are visually represented in stock photography and news media imagery. Semiotic analysis is used to discern the meanings embedded in these visual representations and identify recurring patterns through the exploration of representational, compositional, and interpersonal meanings to uncover the underlying ideologies at play.

Citation: Thurlow, C., Aiello, G., & Portmann, L. (2020). Visualizing teens and technology: A social semiotic analysis of stock photography and news media imagery. New media & society , 22 (3), 528-549. ( Access Here )

Pros and Cons of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research offers a profound understanding of human behaviors , experiences, and the underlying factors driving these phenomena, which often cannot be achieved through quantitative methods.

By employing methods like in-depth interviews, focus groups, or ethnographic studies, most types of qualitative research allow for a detailed exploration of complex issues , providing rich, contextual insights (Bhattacharya, 2017 [ 2 ] ; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015 [ 23 ] ).

Furthermore, the flexible design of qualitative research enables researchers to adjust their approaches as new themes or patterns emerge during the study, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of the research topic.

However, one of the significant disadvantages of qualitative research is its potential for subjectivity (Hatch, 2023 [ 3 ] ; Weaver-Hightower, 2018 [ 24 ] ). The researcher’s perspectives and interactions with participants can influence the data collection and interpretation, possibly leading to biased or skewed findings.

Additionally, the inherent nature of qualitative research, which often relies on small, non-random samples, may result in findings that are not easily generalizable to a larger population (Bhattacharya, 2017 [ 2 ] ; Lapan, Quartaroli & Riemer, 2011 [ 4 ] ). This lack of generalizability can be a drawback when the goal is to make broader inferences or when comparing findings across different groups or settings.

The following table summarizes the pros and cons:

Read More about Qualitative Research Here

Before you Go

When doing qualitative research, you’ll need to know about qualitative variables. So, read my guide to qualitative variables next – it’ll help with writing your methodology section in your dissertation!

[1] Aurini, J. D., Heath, M., & Howells, S. (2021). The How To of Qualitative Research . SAGE Publications.

[2] Bhattacharya, K. (2017). Fundamentals of Qualitative Research: A Practical Guide . Taylor & Francis.

[3] Hatch, J. A. (2023). Doing Qualitative Research in Education Settings, Second Edition . State University of New York Press.

[4] Lapan, S. D., Quartaroli, M. T., & Riemer, F. J. (2011). Qualitative Research: An Introduction to Methods and Designs . Wiley.

[5] Atkinson, P. (2015). Grounded theory and the constant comparative method: Valid qualitative research strategies for educators. Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research and Policy Studies, 6 (1), 83-86. ( Source )

[6] Mills, J., Bonner, A., & Francis, K. (2017). Adopting a Constructivist Approach to Grounded Theory: Implications for Research Design. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 13 (2), 81-89. ( Source )

[7] Hammersley, M. (2018). What is ethnography? Can it survive? Should it?. Ethnography and education , 13 (1), 1-17. ( Source )

[8] Jones, J., & Smith, J. (2017). Ethnography: challenges and opportunities. Evidence-Based Nursing , 20 (4), 98-100. ( Source )

[9] Pretorius, L., & Cutri, J. (2019). Autoethnography: Researching personal experiences. Wellbeing in doctoral education: Insights and guidance from the student experience , 27-34. ( Source )

[10] Neubauer, B. E., Witkop, C. T., & Varpio, L. (2019). How phenomenology can help us learn from the experiences of others. Perspectives on medical education , 8 , 90-97. ( Source )

[11] Zahavi, D. (2018). Phenomenology: the basics . Routledge.

[12] McAlpine, L. (2016). Why might you use narrative methodology? A story about narrative. Eesti Haridusteaduste Ajakiri. Estonian Journal of Education , 4 (1), 32-57. ( Source )

[13] Jacobs, S. D. (2018). A history and analysis of the evolution of action and participatory action research. The Canadian Journal of Action Research , 19 (3), 34-52. ( Source )

[14] Guest, G., Namey, E., & McKenna, K. (2017). How many focus groups are enough? Building an evidence base for nonprobability sample sizes. Field methods , 29 (1), 3-22. ( Source )

[15] Kamberelis, G., & Dimitriadis, G. (2013). Focus Groups: From Structured Interviews to Collective Conversations . London: Routledge.

[16] Seim, J. (2021). Participant observation, observant participation, and hybrid ethnography. Sociological Methods & Research , 0049124120986209. ( Source )

[17] Brady, S. R. (2015). Utilizing and adapting the Delphi method for use in qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods , 14 (5), 1609406915621381.

[18] Attride-Stirling, J. (2001). Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research. Qualitative research , 1 (3), 385-405.

[19] Fairclough, N. (2013). Critical discourse analysis: The critical study of language . London: Routledge.

[20] Goodson, I., & Sikes, P. (2016). Techniques for doing life history. In The Routledge international handbook on narrative and life history (pp. 82-98). Routledge.

[21] Andersen, T. H., Boeriis, M., Maagerø, E., & Tonnessen, E. S. (2015). Social semiotics: Key figures, new directions . Routledge.

[22] Gualberto, C., & Kress, G. (2019). Social semiotics. The international encyclopedia of media literacy , 1-9.

[23] Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2015). Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation . Wiley.

[24] Weaver-Hightower, M. B. (2018). How to Write Qualitative Research . Taylor & Francis.

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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The Rogerian Method: A Practical Guide to Effective Persuasion

People have studied and practiced the art of persuasion for centuries. As a result, they have developed various methods of conventional persuasive structures and techniques to present arguments. One such method is the Rogerian argument. A Rogerian way of argumentation aims to identify comparable perspectives between opposing viewpoints. This article will explore the Rogerian argument model and its application in essay writing, including its use in a rhetorical analysis essay.

The Rogerian argument is based on the principles of Rogerian communication, named after psychologist Carl Rogers. It seeks to understand the opposition of the audience. A Rogerian argument assumes that each party in a debate has similar moral qualities and can work together to find an acceptable solution. The Rogerian argument method is different from a traditional argument approach. The classical argument sets up a composition that aims to persuade the audience. In the case of the Rogerian argument, the author prioritizes shared interests and works towards finding a mutual solution. By acknowledging the validity of each point, the writer creates a productive dialogue.

In conclusion, the Rogerian argument method provides a unique and effective approach to writing essays. It prioritizes finding shared interests and shared priorities. By focusing on dialogue, cooperation, and compromise, the Rogerian strategy attempts to find overlapping interests. It does so by identifying mutually beneficial objectives and goals. With the right guidance from argumentative essay writers , you can use Rogerian argumentation in your essay. And also promote rhetoric discovery and change.

In the following sections, we will define the Rogerian argument model and explain its structure in detail. It offers tips on how to use it effectively in essay writing, including how to write a Rogerian essay in writing classes.

Definitions of the Rogerian Model

In this section, we will define Rogerian argument model. This method of argumentation seeks to establish mutual objectives between opinions. Psychologist Carl Rogers is the namesake of Rogerian rhetoric. The argument method involves three main parts: preface, body, and conclusion.

Emotionally charged topics need even more attention to audience analysis. You should approach such topics with sensitivity and respect. Take the time to understand the audience or reader’s perspective accurately. By doing so, writers can tailor their arguments to appeal to the reader’s values and beliefs. This can lead to a more productive and respectful dialogue, which will increase the likelihood of finding valid solutions.

The body of the argument paper is where the Rogerian approaches shine. By acknowledging the major barrier, the writer earns the trust of the audience. This approach helps to build a bridge between the two positions.

The conclusion of the Rogerian argument should highlight the two shared values and priorities. It should also propose an alternative solution that accommodates both viewpoints. Following the Rogerian argumentative essay outline can help writers effectively use this technique and promote constructive conflict resolution.

A Rogerian argument is a powerful tool for building bridges between the opposition. Additionally, rhetorical devices tend to be less aggressive than traditional or classical argument. In the next section, we will discuss the structure of the essay in more detail.

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Structure of Essay with Rogerian Method Argumentation

The structure of a Rogerian argument composition is distinct from that of a conventional argumentative essay. The argument begins with the foreword. Here the writer acknowledges the opposition to establish credibility. The conventional structure argumentative essay presents an opposing position, with the writer trying to persuade the audience to adopt their view. In contrast, a Rogerian essay aims to find similar perspectives between opposing viewpoints.

The structure has six main parts: Rogerian argument begins with an introduction. Then comes position 1, transition, position 2, reconciliation, and conclusion. This structure helps the writer to present the opposition fairly and objectively. In this type of writing, the writer also shows readiness to compromise in search of shared interests. In the next sections, we will explore each part of the Rogerian argument example.

Introduction

In a Rogerian argument, the intro is an important stage. The writer not only presents the topic but also acknowledges the other side to establish credibility. This section should also create a sense of goodwill and a willingness to find mutual objectives, setting the tone for the rest of the essay. The Rogerian approach in the introduction sets the stage for the writer’s intention to find a valid acceptable solution together, rather than merely winning an argument. This approach helps to avoid creating an adversarial relationship between the writer and the reader. It also leads to a more productive dialogue.

In the next section, Position 1 of the Rogerian argument, the writer presents the first opposing position or argument. This section should be presented fairly and objectively, without any bias. The writer should explain the opponent’s position thoroughly. For example, by providing supporting evidence for their point. This section is critical because it demonstrates that the writer has taken the time to understand the opposition accurately and can present it effectively to the reader. A Rogerian essay example can be helpful in understanding how to present an opposing view without bias.

In the Rogerian argument structure, the transition section plays a critical role in the essay. This section is where the writer moves from position 1 to position 2 while highlighting the common goals and goals that both viewpoints have in common, which can facilitate finding a valid solution and ultimately help to find the middle ground. By focusing on overlapping values, the writer makes it easier to bridge the gap between opposing positions and find the middle between them. The transition section is an essential part of the Rogerian argument, emphasizing the importance of identifying and acknowledging the overlapping interests and goals of both parties.

In the next section of the Rogerian argument composition, Position 2, the other side or argument is introduced. In this section, you write counterargument in essay. Present the opposing viewpoint fairly and objectively, just like position 1. The writer should explain the position in detail and provide supporting evidence for their argument. This approach ensures that the writer gives equal attention and consideration to both oppositions, which is key to creating a more productive dialogue and finding a valid solution. By acknowledging and addressing both sides of the issue, the writer can build trust and understanding of the reader’s perspective and promote a more collaborative approach to problem-solving.

Reconciliation

In the reconciliation section of a Rogerian essay, the writer aims to bring the two opposing viewpoints closer together. This section is where the writer identifies and highlights the overlapping interests, perspectives, and goals that both viewpoints have in common. By highlighting the mutual objectives between the two positions, the writer creates an atmosphere of goodwill and cooperation in the reconciliation section of the essay. In this paragraph, the writer presents an example of a solution that could be acceptable to both parties. This approach is critical because it shows that the writer is willing to work towards finding a mutual solution for both parties rather than trying to win an argument.

The conclusion should summarize the main points and emphasize the converging opinions and overlapping interests between the two positions. It should also underline the benefits of working towards a mutual solution and demonstrate that the writer is willing to compromise. Overall, The Rogerian argument method is an effective tool for finding solutions that satisfy both parties by prioritizing common goals and finding a middle ground.

The Rogerian argument method provides a unique and effective approach to writing essays. By focusing on finding overlapping perspectives and shared priorities, the writer can build a strong case that is both persuasive and respectful of opposing viewpoints. This approach encourages dialogue and cooperation between opposing parties, leading to a more productive and beneficial outcome for all involved. The Rogerian argument method can promote rhetoric discovery and change.

If you are struggling with writing an argumentative essay using the Rogerian approach, consider seeking help from a professional writer or tutor who can write your argumentative essay for you, or even buy argumentative essays online. To find appropriate topics for a Rogerian essay, consider one that you are passionate about.

Tips on How to Use Rogerian Argumentation in Essay

In the Rogerian essay example, it’s crucial to understand the method’s purpose and structure and know how to write a Rogerian argument effectively. Here are some tips on how to use Rogerian argumentation effectively in an essay:

Acknowledge the Opposition. While using the Rogerian argument method, acknowledge the opposition. This helps you to establish credibility with the audience. The Rogerian approach in the introduction sets the stage for the writer’s intention to find a mutually acceptable solution than merely winning an argument.
Find middle ground. The writer should focus on identifying and acknowledging the overlapping interests. This approach makes it easier to bridge the gap between opposing stances and find a shared point. The writer should suggest an example of a solution that could be acceptable to both parties. The author should also emphasize the importance of finding a mutual solution between the opposing views of the reader.
Be collaborative . Seek common ground and explore the context of the opposing position respectfully and constructively. The writer’s position should be accompanied by a differing opinion.
Consensus Building. Emphasizing consensual beliefs and goals is a crucial aspect of the Rogerian argument. Incorporating opponents’ positions and presenting them impartially support finding common ground. By highlighting an example of a solution, a willing writer shows they are not merely giving lip service to finding an acceptable solution.
Shared solutions. Understand the context in which the opposing viewpoints were formed. By doing so, you can better comprehend how to write a Rogerian argument essay example in your writing classroom. The goal is not to attack or belittle the reader’s position. Instead, you have to find common ground and propose acceptable solutions. Avoid using inflammatory language, as it may make it harder to establish goodwill. Instead, argue, and remain calm and respectful. And focus on the areas of agreement between the two positions. This approach will help build trust with the willing reader and foster productive dialogue.

In a Rogerian essay example, finding overlapping perspectives is the main goal. By considering the reader’s perspective, custom essay writers create a dialogue toward a solution. This way, they tailor their arguments to appeal to the reader’s values and beliefs. It resulted in a persuasive and respectful essay.

To conclude, the Rogerian argument method let essays prioritize shared points. The Rogerian style mostly focuses on finding a compromise and a common ground. As such, it can help resolve conflicts and find answers or alternative solutions. If you find the Rogerian method overwhelming, ask professionals to write your argumentative essay for you. With the right guidance, you can effectively use Rogerian argumentation in your essay. And also promote rhetoric discovery and change.

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Toulmin Argument

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This resource describes how to construct an argument using the Toulmin method, a model for argumentation developed by Stephen Toulmin in the 1950s.

By Erin McNulty

What is the Toulmin Method?

Developed by philosopher Stephen E. Toulmin, the Toulmin method is a style of argumentation that breaks arguments down into six component parts: claim, grounds, warrant, qualifier, rebuttal, and backing . In Toulmin’s method, every argument begins with three fundamental parts: the claim, the grounds, and the warrant.

A claim is the assertion that authors would like to prove to their audience. It is, in other words, the main argument.

The grounds of an argument are the evidence and facts that help support the claim.

Finally, the warrant , which is either implied or stated explicitly, is the assumption that links the grounds to the claim.

This image shows a generic diagram of a Toulmin argument with the claim and grounds linked by a warrant.

For example, if you argue that there are dogs nearby:

This image shows a diagram of a Toulmin argument (

In this example, in order to assert the claim that a dog is nearby, we provide evidence and specific facts—or the grounds—by acknowledging that we hear barking and howling. Since we know that dogs bark and howl (i.e., since we have a warrant) we can assume that a dog is nearby.

Now, let’s try a more academic approach. Let’s say that you are writing a paper on how more research needs to be done on the way that computer-mediated communication influences online and offline relationships (a paper, in other words, very much like the OWL's APA Sample paper ).

This image shows a diagram of an academic Toulmin argument with the grounds and claim linked by a warrant (that when a paper lacks a broad enough perspective, more research would be beneficial to prove its claims).

In this case, to assert the claim that additional research needs to be made on how online communication affects relationships, the author shows how the original article needs to account for technological, demographic, and modality limitations in the study. Since we know that when a study lacks a perspective, it would be beneficial to do more research (i.e., we have a warrant), it would be safe to assume that more research should be conducted (i.e. the claim).

The other three elements—backing, qualifier, and rebuttal—are not fundamental to a Toulmin argument, but may be added as necessary. Using these elements wisely can help writers construct full, nuanced arguments.

Backing refers to any additional support of the warrant. In many cases, the warrant is implied, and therefore the backing provides support for the warrant by giving a specific example that justifies the warrant.

The qualifier shows that a claim may not be true in all circumstances. Words like “presumably,” “some,” and “many” help your audience understand that you know there are instances where your claim may not be correct.

The rebuttal is an acknowledgement of another valid view of the situation.

Including a qualifier or a rebuttal in an argument helps build your ethos, or credibility. When you acknowledge that your view isn’t always true or when you provide multiple views of a situation, you build an image of a careful, unbiased thinker, rather than of someone blindly pushing for a single interpretation of the situation.

For example:

This image shows a diagram of the earlier argument about hearing dogs nearby, with a qualifier, backing, and rebuttal added.

We can also add these components to our academic paper example:

This image shows a diagram of the earlier academic argument about online relationships, with a qualifier, backing, and rebuttal added.

Note that, in addition to Stephen Toulmin’s Uses of Argument , students and instructors may find it useful to consult the article “Using Toulmin’s Model of Argumentation” by Joan Karbach for more information.

Paragraph Development with PIE

Paragraph Development with PIE Podcast

Paragraph development with pie transcript.

Greetings everyone. This is Kurtis Clements with another effective writing podcast. In this episode, I am going to talk about developing body paragraphs with a technique called PIE.

In my experience, writers often have one of two problem areas related to paragraph development: not enough development or not enough of the right kind of development. What I mean by the latter is the idea that just because a paragraph contains a lot of content does not necessarily mean that content is doing the best job developing the idea of the paragraph.

One good way to go about developing paragraphs is to use the PIE method, which is an approach that has been around in some form or another I imagine since the time of Aristotle. So for a long time. PIE is an acronym that stands for develop a limited point (that’s the P) in a paragraph; illustrate (that’s the I”) the point with supporting information; the E stands for explain how the evidence supports the point of the paragraph and relates to the thesis of the essay.

Restated: P = Point I = Illustrate E = Explain

Paragraphs need to make clear and focused points. I mean, that’s the point of a paragraph right? To make a point. Whether or not you use a topic sentence at the start of the paragraph does not matter, for the paragraph still needs to make a point.

In order to make a point, you have to illustrate the point by using evidence—details, facts, statistics, testimony, examples, and the like. Supporting information helps readers understand the point you are trying to make in a paragraph.

Evidence alone will not help you develop the point. What every paragraph needs is elaboration where you explain the relevance of the information presented as it relates to the point of the paragraph as well as the essay as a whole. As the writer, you need to offer thoughtful commentary of the supporting details you use to illustrate the point. This last part is critical to the success of a paragraph, for its this kind of commentary where the writer offers analysis and interpretation of the content as it relates to their point. It’s also how the writer connects the point of the paragraph to the larger point of the essay.

I am going to read a sample paragraph and as I do, listen for the elements of PIE that may be missing:

What did you hear? Or, should I ask, what did you not hear? The paragraph starts out with a clear focus—the proud history of the postal service—and that point is illustrated with some good examples. But what’s it all add up to? Is there any explanation that discusses how the information relates to the point of the paragraph and to the larger point of the essay? Do you have any sense of what this paragraph as a whole is trying to support? Do you sense a connectedness to a thesis? I don’t think so. I see this paragraph as just floating in the sea.

This is how PIE can help you. If you think about your paragraphs as needing those three parts—Point, Illustration, and Explanation—then you are more likely to notice that what is lacking in the paragraph I read is explanation, language that helps readers understand the relevance of the information as it relates to the point of the paragraph and to the larger point, the thesis, of the essay. Listen to the revised version of the paragraph:

The United States Postal Service has a proud history. Benjamin Franklin was named Postmaster General in 1775 even before The Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776 (USPS, 2007). Through the evolution of the service, the mission of the USPS has remained the same: “provide universal service to all Americans. From the bottom of the Grand Canyon to the furthermost point in Alaska, mail gets through” (USPS, 2010,para. 4). In addition to those accomplishments, the USPS also provides nearly 600,000 jobs and has donated over $70 million to breast cancer research through its breast cancer awareness stamps (USPS, 2010). The United States Postal Service has been an important institution and provided valuable services for over two hundred and thirty years—all at no cost to U.S. taxpayers. While the post office needs to redefine how it conducts business in the electronic age, eliminating the service is not the answer. In fact, there is no reason the postal service cannot, once again, change with the times and continue to add to its rich history and accomplishments.

What do you think? Better? Did it seem as if the paragraph was trying to develop a point and that point was connected to a bigger idea? Was there enough explanation—that is, was there enough commentary on the information presented so that you understand better the point of the paragraph as well as how the paragraph relates to the thesis? When you offer explanation, you are, in a sense, taking a step back and examining-analyzing—the information presented and making sure readers understand how the information relates to the point of the paragraph and to the larger point of the essay. The revision offers language such as the “in addition to those accomplishments” and “also” in the sentence “In addition to those accomplishments, the USPS also provides nearly 600,000 jobs and has donated over 70 million dollars to breast cancer research” thereby creating the sense that the USPS already has many accomplishments and on top of those, the postal service also has other accomplishments. The language connects the new piece of information to other pieces of information which are all connected to the idea of proud accomplishments.

The revision also includes three full sentences of explanation after the last piece of information—all of which work to connect that information to the point of the paragraph and to what the essay as a whole is trying to communicate. Listen:

The first version of the paragraph stops after the sentence “The United States Postal Service provides nearly 600.000 jobs and has donated over $70 million to breast cancer research.” That’s it—a paragraph floating in an ocean, insignificant and hardly noticed. But listen to what happens when the writer explains the importance of the information:

In addition to those accomplishments, the United States Postal Service also provides nearly 600,000 jobs and has donated over $70 million to breast cancer research through its breast cancer awareness stamps (USPS, 2010). The United States Postal Service has been an important institution and provided valuable services for over two hundred and thirty years—all at no cost to U.S. taxpayers. While the post office needs to redefine how it conducts business in the electronic age, eliminating the service is not the answer. In fact, there is no reason the postal service cannot, once again, change with the times and continue to add to its rich history and accomplishments.

Do hear the difference? Do you understand the importance not just making a point and illustrating a point but also—perhaps most importantly—explaining the importance of that information through commentary and analysis? The revised paragraph, which is only three sentences and maybe five words longer than the original is better by leaps and bounds.

When you are working on an essay and developing body paragraphs, keep PIE in mind—the idea that body paragraphs need to make a point, information presented needs to illustrate that point, and commentary and analysis is essential to explain the significance of the point. Indeed, PIE is an effective method for developing healthy paragraphs. Thanks for listening, everyone.

Happy writing!

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How to Write a Compare and Contrast Essay Block Method: Expert Tips

My name is Debbie, and I am passionate about developing a love for the written word and planting a seed that will grow into a powerful voice that can inspire many.

How to Write a Compare and Contrast Essay Block Method: Expert Tips

Understanding the ‍Compare and⁣ Contrast Essay‍ Block Method

Compare and contrast⁤ essay block ‌method, benefits of using the ‍block method in compare⁢ and contrast essays, choosing an appropriate topic for a block method ‍compare ⁢and ⁤contrast essay, structuring your compare and contrast essay using⁢ the block ⁢method, crafting⁣ effective⁣ introduction and thesis statements in a block method ⁤essay, developing clear and coherent body paragraphs in a⁤ block method essay, refining your‍ compare and contrast⁢ essay through effective conclusion, frequently asked questions, closing remarks.

In academic writing, one common type ‌of essay is the⁢ compare⁣ and contrast essay. ⁤This⁢ type ⁤of essay aims⁣ to explore the similarities and differences between ‍two or more⁣ subjects.⁢ One popular approach to writing a compare and contrast essay is using the block method. The block method⁢ allows for a more thorough⁤ examination of the subjects being compared, providing a ‍clear and organized structure.

With the block⁤ method, the‌ writer‌ divides ⁤the essay into two main sections: the introduction⁢ and the body. The introduction sets the ⁢stage‍ by⁢ introducing the‌ subjects and establishing the purpose of the essay. It‍ should also ‌provide a ‍thesis statement that presents‌ the main points of comparison. In the body section, each subject is discussed in separate paragraphs. Within each paragraph, the‌ writer‌ presents the similarities and⁤ differences between the subjects, using specific ⁢examples ‌and evidence to support their claims. ‍It is important to‌ use transitional ⁢phrases ⁤to ⁢smoothly transition between paragraphs and ensure a⁢ coherent⁢ flow of ideas throughout the essay.

Advantages‍ of the block method:
Clear organization and structure
Allows‍ for a detailed analysis of each subject
Easy to ⁤follow for⁤ the⁣ reader

When⁣ using the block method, ‌it is essential to maintain ‌a balanced discussion of the ‌subjects ‍being⁢ compared. This⁢ means devoting ⁣equal‍ attention and space to ‍both subjects, ⁤highlighting both their similarities⁤ and differences. ‌By‍ doing so, the writer can provide a comprehensive comparison that helps the reader gain a deeper understanding of the⁤ subjects.

Benefits of ⁣Using the⁣ Block Method in Compare ‍and Contrast Essays

The block method is a⁢ highly ⁣effective approach for ‌writing compare and contrast essays. It offers numerous benefits that⁤ can enhance the clarity ⁢and organization ⁣of your essay. ‌By structuring⁣ your ‌essay using this method, you can present‍ a comprehensive analysis of the‍ similarities and‍ differences ⁢between two subjects.

One major benefit ⁤of the block⁣ method is its simplicity. This⁢ method⁢ allows ‍you to focus on one⁣ subject ⁣at a time, making it easier ‍for ‍the reader to follow along. By dedicating entire paragraphs to each subject, ⁢you can thoroughly explore their ‌characteristics, ‍examples, and supporting evidence. This ‍clear and straightforward‍ structure ensures that⁣ your ‌points ⁢are well-developed⁣ and easy to understand. Moreover, the⁣ block method provides ⁤a logical‌ flow to your essay, allowing for a smooth transition from one subject to the next.

Another advantage of using the block method is that⁢ it allows for ⁤a more detailed and in-depth comparison. By allocating separate paragraphs to each subject, you can⁤ explore their‍ similarities and⁣ differences more‍ thoroughly. This method enables⁣ you to delve into specific ⁤aspects of each ‌subject,‍ providing⁣ a⁣ comprehensive analysis. By organizing your thoughts in this manner, you can‌ avoid⁤ confusion and ensure ‌that your essay⁢ is well-structured and coherent. Additionally, ⁣the block method allows⁣ you to present contrasting ideas side by ‌side, enabling ‌the reader to easily grasp the distinctions between the subjects being discussed.

In summary, the block ‍method is a ⁣highly effective approach⁢ for writing compare and contrast essays. Its simplicity ⁣and logical flow make it easier for readers to follow along and understand your ⁢points. ‌Furthermore, the block method allows‍ for a more detailed and comprehensive analysis of the ‍subjects being compared. Incorporating this method‌ into ⁢your writing can greatly ⁢enhance ‍the quality and ⁣effectiveness ‌of your compare⁢ and ⁣contrast essays.

Once you’ve decided to write a‍ block method compare and contrast essay, the next‌ step ⁤is to carefully choose an appropriate topic. Selecting a topic ⁢that‌ is suitable for this type of ⁤essay is‌ essential to ensure a well-structured and ⁢meaningful comparison. Here are some helpful tips to guide⁣ you in choosing the right ⁤topic:

1. Brainstorm: Begin by⁣ brainstorming ideas and jotting down ⁢potential topics that interest you or are relevant to your ‌field of study. Consider‌ subjects that have distinct similarities and differences, as this will provide you with ample material for comparison.

2. Research:‍ Once you have a list⁢ of potential topics,‌ conduct some preliminary research‍ to explore the available information. Make sure there‌ is enough ‌material to support‌ your comparisons and that you can find credible sources ‌ to ⁢back up your arguments.

3. Balance: Aim to select ⁣a topic where the similarities ‍and differences are reasonably balanced, allowing for‌ a fair⁢ comparison. Avoid topics that are ⁢overwhelmingly one-sided, as this can make‍ your essay appear biased.

4. Significance:⁢ Choose a topic that has significance and relevance within your academic field or the broader societal context. This will not only ⁣make your ⁢essay ⁣more interesting to read but also add value to the discussion.

5. Personal Interest: It is crucial to choose a ‍topic ⁢that genuinely interests you. Writing about something ‌you are passionate about will make the ⁣entire process more enjoyable and engaging,⁢ resulting in a more compelling and well-written essay.

Structuring Your Compare and Contrast Essay⁢ Using ⁣the Block Method

When⁢ it‍ comes to crafting a well-structured compare and contrast essay, using⁢ the block method can be an effective approach.‍ This method organizes your essay by ⁣discussing all ⁣of the points related to one side of the topic, and‍ then‍ exploring all the points related to the other ‌side. By using this method, you can provide a clear and organized analysis that⁣ allows your readers ⁢to ⁢easily⁤ comprehend the similarities and ‌differences between the two subjects being compared.

To structure your compare and contrast⁢ essay using the block method, ‌follow these steps:

1. Start with ⁤a compelling introduction that grabs ‌the reader’s attention and clearly states the purpose of your essay. You can use ‍an intriguing⁢ anecdote or a thought-provoking question ⁢to engage ‍your audience from the beginning.

2. Create⁣ a thesis statement that clearly indicates the purpose of your essay⁣ and ‍presents the main points ‍you will⁤ discuss in your‍ body paragraphs. ⁣Your thesis should⁤ provide ⁤a clear roadmap⁣ for‌ your ⁣readers, outlining the ‌focus of your essay⁤ and⁣ what they can expect ‌to discover ⁣from your ‍analysis.

3.⁣ Begin with ⁣the first subject and present all the relevant points or arguments related to it. ⁢Each point should be ‍supported by‌ evidence or examples to⁤ strengthen your ‌argument. Use clear ‍and concise language⁤ to ensure your readers can easily follow your train of thought.

4. Transition smoothly into discussing the ‌second subject, and present all the relevant‍ points or arguments‌ related to it. Again, back up⁣ each ⁣point with ‌evidence or examples ⁢to ⁢solidify your ⁤analysis. Make ⁣sure your arguments are as logical ⁤and well-supported as possible.

Crafting Effective ‍Introduction and Thesis Statements in a Block Method⁣ Essay

Crafting ⁣an effective introduction‌ and⁤ thesis statement ‌in a block⁢ method‌ essay lays the ⁣foundation for⁤ a⁢ cohesive and well-structured‍ piece of writing. By capturing the reader’s attention‌ and clearly stating the⁣ argument, you can set the stage‌ for a compelling essay that presents both sides of ⁣the topic. Here are some key tips to master this ⁣critical part of your‌ essay:

1. Grab the reader’s ‌attention: Start ‍your introduction with a‌ captivating hook that ⁣intrigues the reader ⁢and makes ⁣them want to continue reading. This could be a surprising fact, ⁤a thought-provoking question, or a vivid anecdote related to your topic. It’s crucial to make a ‍strong ⁢first‍ impression ‍to⁣ engage the reader’s interest‍ right from the⁢ beginning.

2. Provide background ‍information: ‌After hooking the reader, provide some context about your topic.⁢ Briefly explain the main issue or controversy ⁣you⁤ will discuss in your essay. ⁢This helps ⁤your⁤ readers understand the significance of the subject ‌matter and⁤ its relevance in a broader context.

3. Clearly state your thesis: Your thesis‌ statement is⁣ the backbone of your ‍essay and should⁤ be concise, clear, and argumentative. ⁢It should present a debatable claim that you will support throughout your essay. Make sure your thesis⁤ is ‍specific and reflects the main points you will address in your ‍essay.⁢ Bold it in your introduction to make‌ it stand out and guide your readers.

Crafting an effective introduction and ⁤thesis statement in a block method ⁤essay requires careful consideration of your target audience ⁣and‍ the overarching‌ goal of your essay. By employing these strategies, you will create a strong foundation for your essay‍ and captivate ⁢your readers⁤ from the very beginning.

When writing a block ⁢method essay, it ‍is crucial to maintain ⁣a logical and organized ⁤structure⁤ in⁣ your body paragraphs. By following a few simple guidelines, you can ensure ‍that your ideas flow smoothly and coherently, ⁤allowing your reader to easily understand your⁣ arguments.

Here⁤ are some tips to help you develop clear ‌and coherent ‍body ⁢paragraphs:

Topic sentence: Start each body ‌paragraph with‍ a clear ⁢and⁢ concise topic sentence that introduces the main idea you⁣ will be discussing. This sentence should act as a mini-thesis statement for that specific ‌paragraph.
Supporting evidence: ⁤ Provide relevant supporting evidence, such as ⁢facts, statistics, or⁤ examples, to validate⁣ your claims and ‌strengthen your ⁢arguments. Remember to cite your sources properly.
Transitional ⁣phrases: Use ⁢transitional phrases ⁣to smoothly connect your ideas ‍and create a logical flow ‌between⁢ paragraphs. Phrases like ‍”similarly,” “in contrast,” or ‌”on‌ the other hand” ⁤can help‌ guide your reader through your essay.

By ⁣employing these techniques, you will be able to craft body paragraphs that effectively present your ideas and ‌arguments in a clear⁤ and coherent⁢ manner. ⁤Remember, ‍the⁢ goal is to⁤ provide⁢ your‍ reader⁤ with a well-structured and engaging essay that leaves no room for confusion.

Refining Your Compare and ‌Contrast ‌Essay through Effective ⁣Conclusion

When‌ it comes to writing a ‌compare and ⁢contrast essay, the conclusion is a crucial element that allows you to leave⁢ a lasting impression on your⁢ readers. A ⁤well-crafted conclusion not only summarizes the main points you have discussed ‌but⁢ also adds depth ⁢to your analysis ‍and helps tie everything ⁤together. Here are some tips to ‍refine your ⁢compare and⁣ contrast essay through an ⁤effective conclusion:

Revisit your ⁤thesis statement: Start your conclusion by⁣ reminding your readers of the ‍main argument you presented in ‌your introduction.‍ This will help⁢ reinforce your⁤ central idea and keep⁣ your essay focused.
Summarize⁣ your main points: Provide a brief summary of⁢ the key⁤ similarities and differences you ‌discussed throughout your essay. Be concise, but ensure that all important points are⁣ included to leave a lasting impression on your readers.
Pose a⁣ thought-provoking question: Engage your ‍readers’ critical thinking by ending your essay with a powerful‌ question⁢ related to ⁣the topic. This encourages further reflection and⁣ demonstrates your‌ expertise on the ⁢subject matter.

Remember, the conclusion is your last opportunity⁣ to ‌make⁤ a lasting impact ⁣on your ‌readers. Therefore, make sure ‌to follow⁣ these tips to refine your compare ⁣and contrast essay, leaving your audience with a sense⁢ of satisfaction and an‍ appreciation for your thoughtful analysis.

Q: What is a compare and contrast essay? A: A compare and contrast essay is a type of academic writing that requires you to analyze ⁢the similarities and‌ differences between two ‍or more⁣ subjects. It ‌helps ⁢develop critical‌ thinking‌ skills‌ and⁤ enhances your ability to analyze ‌information ⁤effectively.

Q: ‍What is the ⁣block method? A: The ⁢block method is one of the‍ most common ‍approaches used to write a⁤ compare⁤ and contrast essay.⁣ In this method, you⁤ address one subject entirely in one‍ paragraph, ‍followed by another‍ paragraph‌ focusing on ‌the ⁢second subject. The‌ block method‌ allows for ‍a clear and organized presentation of ⁢ideas.

Q: How do I start ⁤my essay using⁢ the block method? A: Begin ‍by introducing ‍your ‍two subjects and establish the⁢ purpose of‌ your essay. Provide some⁣ background information to give your readers⁢ a context.‌ This ‍can be done through‍ a brief description or an ⁣engaging anecdote. State your thesis statement, which should highlight the main‌ points ⁢of comparison and contrast between‍ the subjects.

Q:⁢ How do I organize the body‍ paragraphs in the block method? A: Each body ⁣paragraph ‍should focus ⁤on one ⁣subject entirely. Start by presenting the key ‍points and supporting‍ details relevant ⁤to that subject. Follow a logical order when presenting your ‌arguments and be ⁣sure to‍ use transitional phrases to improve the ⁣flow of ‌your essay. Avoid mixing the information about the two subjects within the same paragraph‌ to maintain‌ clarity.

Q: ⁣How do I ensure ‌coherence in my essay? A: To ensure⁢ coherence,‍ it is important to‌ establish a clear relationship between your⁤ points of comparison or contrast. Use topic sentences at‍ the beginning of ‌each paragraph to introduce the main idea, and provide‍ evidence or examples to support your claims. Always refer back to your thesis statement to maintain ‍the focus of your essay.

Q: How ⁤do⁣ I conclude my ⁢essay using the block method? A: In your conclusion, summarize the main points you discussed in‌ the body paragraphs. Restate ⁣your‌ thesis statement and ⁣provide⁣ a concise assessment of the similarities and differences between ⁤the two subjects.‍ You can also offer some ‍insights or‌ suggest further areas of research. Make sure your conclusion leaves a lasting‌ impression on the reader.

Q: What are some ⁣tips for writing a successful compare and contrast essay using the block method? A: – Choose subjects that have ⁣clear similarities and differences. – Create a well-structured outline to organize⁤ your thoughts before ⁤you start ‍writing. – Use appropriate transitional⁢ phrases to smoothly transition between ‍ideas. -‌ Make sure to provide evidence⁣ and examples ⁢to ⁢support your claims. – Proofread your essay ⁤to ⁤eliminate ⁢any grammar or spelling errors. – Seek feedback from peers‍ or professionals to improve the content and clarity‍ of your ‌essay.

Q: ⁣Are there any other methods to write a compare and contrast essay? A: Yes, ⁢apart ‌from ⁤the block ‍method, you can ⁢also use the point-by-point‌ method. In this approach, you alternate ⁤between discussing points related to both subjects⁢ throughout the ⁤essay. The choice between⁢ the block‍ method and the point-by-point method⁤ depends on personal preference and the⁣ nature of the subjects being compared.

In conclusion, mastering the block method for writing a compare‌ and contrast essay can enhance your skills and ensure⁤ an effective and organized‌ argument.

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What Is a Research Methodology?
Step 1: Explain your methodological approach. Step 2: Describe your data collection methods. Step 3: Describe your analysis method. Step 4: Evaluate and justify the methodological choices you made. Tips for writing a strong methodology chapter. Other interesting articles.
Exam Tips: How to write a research methods essay
So here are some example essay questions: Paper One. Evaluate the use of one research method used to study cognitive processes. Discuss how and why one research method is used to study cultural origins of behaviour. Discuss the use of one or more research methods used to study genes and behaviour.
Scientific Writing Made Easy: A Step‐by‐Step Guide to Undergraduate
For example, if your dependent variable changed in response to a treatment, report the magnitude and direction of the effect, with the P-value in parentheses. "By day 8, cowbirds reared with host young were, on average, 14% heavier than cowbirds reared alone (unpaired t 16 = −2.23, P = 0.041, Fig. 2A)."
Research Methods Essay Example
Research Methods: Application And Evaluation. Introduction This research paper examines the usability and demand of the thread mill bicycle in the UK market. The concept of the thread mill bicycle is a new concept and it's quite useful for the users. This process combines different mechanical parts and improves its usefulness for the users.
How to structure paragraphs using the PEEL method
P = Point: start your paragraph with a clear topic sentence that establishes what your paragraph is going to be about. Your point should support your essay argument or thesis statement. E = Evidence/Example: here you should use a piece of evidence or an example that helps to reaffirm your initial point and develop the argument. E = Explain ...
Guide: Using the Toulmin Method
Toulmin Demonstration. What follows is a sample student argument, analyzed by way of the Toulmin Method. It offers an example of how this method might be implemented as a way of breaking an argument into its parts, then examining those parts to see how they contribute to the overall effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the argument.
PDF ICE: Introduce, Cite, and Explain Your Evidence
Smith suggests that "if the introduction to your quote isn't a dependent clause, it doesn't need to be followed by a comma" (1). Smith observes the following in his article: "When you use a colon to introduce a quote, you need a complete sentence preceding the colon" (1). CITE: Provide appropriate parenthetical citations for all ...
Sample Toulmin Argument
Sample Toulmin Argument. Now that you have had the chance to learn about Toulmin, it's time to see what a Toulmin argument might look like. Below, you'll see a sample argumentative essay, written according to MLA formatting guidelines, with a particular emphasis on Toulmin elements. Click the image below to open a PDF of the sample paper.
Compare & Contrast Assignments
Sample Block-Method Paragraph: 2. Point-by-Point Method When using point-by-point method, arrange your paragraph according to the main points, rather than by topic. The paragraph ... Use point-by-point method for longer essays to more closely compare and contrast the two topics. A reader won't be as likely lose track of the main ideas if they ...
Comparative Essay
A point-by-point comparison essay discusses two subjects using the same set of criteria. The criteria are applied to each subject, one point at a time. In this way, the point-by-point method can ...
PDF ORGANIZING A LEGAL DISCUSSION (IRAC, CRAC, ETC.)
Example: The Court will likely rule that Officer used unconstitutionally excessive force under the Graham test as applied to the facts of this case. Good: state the relevant issue in a neutral fashion. Example: The judge must then decide whether the balancing test in Graham warrants a finding of excessive force.
Sample papers
The following two sample papers were published in annotated form in the Publication Manual and are reproduced here as PDFs for your ease of use. The annotations draw attention to content and formatting and provide the relevant sections of the Publication Manual (7th ed.) to consult for more information.. Student sample paper with annotations (PDF, 4.95MB)
16 Qualitative Methods Examples (2024)
Qualitative Methods Examples 1. Case Studies. A case study is a detailed investigation of a specific individual, group, or event over a defined period. ... Researchers using this approach analyze the communication content (like books, essays, interviews, speeches, online posts, etc.) in order to decipher patterns, themes, biases, and other ...
The Rogerian Method: A Practical Guide to Effective Persuasion
A Rogerian essay example can be helpful in understanding how to present an opposing view without bias. Transition. ... To conclude, the Rogerian argument method let essays prioritize shared points. The Rogerian style mostly focuses on finding a compromise and a common ground. As such, it can help resolve conflicts and find answers or ...
Toulmin Argument
What is the Toulmin Method? Developed by philosopher Stephen E. Toulmin, the Toulmin method is a style of argumentation that breaks arguments down into six component parts: claim, grounds, warrant, qualifier, rebuttal, and backing.In Toulmin's method, every argument begins with three fundamental parts: the claim, the grounds, and the warrant.
Paragraph Development with PIE
When you are working on an essay and developing body paragraphs, keep PIE in mind—the idea that body paragraphs need to make a point, information presented needs to illustrate that point, and commentary and analysis is essential to explain the significance of the point. Indeed, PIE is an effective method for developing healthy paragraphs.
How to Write a Compare and Contrast Essay Block Method: Expert Tips
A: The ⁢block method is one of the‍ most common ‍approaches used to write a⁤ compare⁤ and contrast essay.⁣ In this method, you⁤ address one subject entirely in one‍ paragraph, ‍followed by another‍ paragraph‌ focusing on ‌the ⁢second subject. The‌ block method‌ allows for ‍a clear and organized presentation of ...