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• Academic Writing and Communication

Academic Writing and Communication (MECM10005)

Undergraduate level 1 Points: 12.5 On Campus (Dookie)

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This unit is designed to introduce students to the requirements of university study, engaging students in the transition to university and the concepts of various learning strategies and modes of learning. Academic writing and various communication techniques will be a key focus of the subject providing students with skills that will enhance their university scholarship and experience.

Intended learning outcomes

On completion of this subjects student will:

• Understand the skills required to maximise learning from lectures, tutorials, practicals and other teaching materials
• Have well developed inquiry and critical thinking skills required for university scholarship
• Be able to analyse and produce written and oral arguments for logical structure
• Be able to produce reports and essays which meet accepted academic standards in relation to structure, editing and referencing
• Have skills in research, reasoning and logic that make communications relevant and meaningful
• Be able to prepare written presentations for various purposes and audiences
• Understand how to undertake a literature review
• Be able to prepare and present an oral presentation
• Have developed examination skills and techniques required for successful university scholarship

Generic skills

This subject encompasses particular generic skills so that on completion of the subject students should have developed skills relating to:

• The ability to communicate effectively in both written and oral forms
• Accessing information from the library via both electronic and traditional means
• Understanding, awareness and use of appropriate communication technology
• Analysis and critique of literature
• Reflecting on their own communication skills
• Working collaboratively with other students
• Organisation and time management

Last updated: 31 January 2024

Assessment Tasks: Essays

• About This Guide
• Presentations
• Poster Presentations
• Reflective Writing
• Annotated Bibliographies
• Business Plans

The parts of an essay

Typically, an essay includes these parts:

Introduction

• Introduce the topic & open the discussion
• Capture the reader's attention

Main body of the essay

• Introduce each new point with a new paragraph
• Provide supporting evidence for each point made
• Summarise the main ideas
• Demonstrate how you have proven the point
• Reaffirm the introduction

(Content adapted from University of Queensland, 2019, Planning your assignment )  

How to write a better paragraph

Paragraph Tips:  5 steps on how to write a paragraph (This LibGuide material was last checked and edited in 2020).  

Essay writing: what's in it for you?

Essay writing is more than just an assessment task.  It also helps you in other ways.

Essay Writing Tips

• Read the question carefully
• Notetake as you read
• Use relevant sources of information
• Write a plan
• Stay on topic by referring back to the question as your write
• Highlight keywords in the question to begin researching the topic
• Record reference sources as you go
• Keep to the word limit
• Cite all sources using the style designated by your lecturer or teacher
• Proof read before submitting

(NSW Department of Education & Training, July 2020, Essay Writing Checklist .)  ( CC-BY-4.0-Int )

Task Words: Some Examples

Task words provide you with direction on how to answer your essay question

Glossary of Task Words

Illustration adapted from:  University of NSW, Academic Skills, Glossary of Task Words ,  December 2019.   

@ Melbourne Polytechnic Library ...

Tips for better essay writing

• Know your purpose
• Understand your audience
• Brainstorm about your topic
• Decide on a thesis
• Develop your essay
• Create an essay structure
• Connect ideas
• Choose memorable language
• Invent a strong title
• Edit and proofread

Source: Top Tips for Writing Better Essays (Oxford Dictionaries) https://www.lexico.com/grammar/top-tips-for-writing-better-essays

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• Next: Reports >>
• Last Updated: Sep 7, 2023 2:49 PM
• URL: https://libguides.melbournepolytechnic.edu.au/assessmenttasks

• Melbourne Law School
• MLS Students

Writing for law

Writing for law requires specific skills, here you will find resources and advice on meeting expectations in the law school.

Chapters 5 - 10 of the Guide to Academic Success

These chapters include helpful advice on how to meet the expectations of your professors when writing essays and exams.

Instructions for accessing the Legal Academic Skills LMS Community

LMS Community login

Examples of annotated papers and exams

These annotated papers and exams include the kind of feedback you will receive from your professors. You can use them as a learning tool for establishing your own sense of the expectations of the law school.

Reimagining Design with Nature: ecological urbanism in Moscow

• Reflective Essay
• Published: 10 September 2019
• Volume 1 , pages 233–247, ( 2019 )

Cite this article

• Brian Mark Evans   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1420-1682 1  

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The twenty-first century is the era when populations of cities will exceed rural communities for the first time in human history. The population growth of cities in many countries, including those in transition from planned to market economies, is putting considerable strain on ecological and natural resources. This paper examines four central issues: (a) the challenges and opportunities presented through working in jurisdictions where there are no official or established methods in place to guide regional, ecological and landscape planning and design; (b) the experience of the author’s practice—Gillespies LLP—in addressing these challenges using techniques and methods inspired by McHarg in Design with Nature in the Russian Federation in the first decade of the twenty-first century; (c) the augmentation of methods derived from Design with Nature in reference to innovations in technology since its publication and the contribution that the art of landscape painters can make to landscape analysis and interpretation; and (d) the application of this experience to the international competition and colloquium for the expansion of Moscow. The text concludes with a comment on how the application of this learning and methodological development to landscape and ecological planning and design was judged to be a central tenant of the winning design. Finally, a concluding section reflects on lessons learned and conclusions drawn.

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Principles for public space design, planning to do better

Matthew Carmona

Planning nature-based solutions: Principles, steps, and insights

Christian Albert, Mario Brillinger, … Barbara Schröter

Acknowledgements

The landscape team from Gillespies Glasgow Studio (Steve Nelson, Graeme Pert, Joanne Walker, Rory Wilson and Chris Swan) led by the author and all our collaborators in the Capital Cities Planning Group.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Mackintosh School of Architecture, The Glasgow School of Art, 167 Renfrew Street, Glasgow, G3 6BY, UK

Brian Mark Evans

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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Brian Mark Evans .

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About this article

Evans, B.M. Reimagining Design with Nature: ecological urbanism in Moscow. Socio Ecol Pract Res 1 , 233–247 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42532-019-00031-5

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Received : 17 March 2019

Accepted : 13 August 2019

Published : 10 September 2019

Issue Date : October 2019

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s42532-019-00031-5

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• Referencing styles

General style notes

Before selecting a referencing style, check with your tutor or lecturer for the bibliographic style preferred by the School or Department.

APA style is widely used in the social sciences and other fields, such as education, commerce and nursing.

APA is an author-date style with two key components:

• Citations in the text, including the name of the author and year of publication.
• Reference list at end of paper, alphabetically listing of all references used in the text.

The purpose of referencing is to acknowledge the source and to enable the reader to trace the sources. Referencing information must be accurate and include all the information required to find the original source.

Access to the full style manual

This guide is based on the 7th edition of the APA's style rules which are set out in the  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th edition.

The full style manual is not available as a library eBook.  Print copies are available from the University of Melbourne library. Consult the official manual for more information.

For more information:

• Information about  In-Text Citations and  References are also available on the APA Style  website .
• APA Style Blog  https://apastyle.apa.org/blog

In text citation style notes

• Generally consist of the author's family name and the year of publication,  enclosed in brackets.  eg. (Coates, 2005)
• When a reference has three or more authors, cite the family name of the first author followed by et al. and the year, e.g. (Ng et al., 2007)
• When citing multiple sources in one in-text citation, place citations in alphabetical order. Separate citations with a semi-colon, e.g. (Coates, 2005; McMinn, 2003; Ng & Leung, 2007).
• When multiple references have the  same author/s and year of publication, include a lowercase letter after the year. This combination of year and letter is used in both the in-text citation and the reference list.  e.g., (Pascoe,  2023a), (Pascoe, 2023b).
• Always give specific page numbers for quotations in the text and include a complete reference in the reference list, e.g.,

…(Miller, 1994, p. 276)…

Miller (1994) found that, "the 'placebo effect,'… in all participants" (p. 245).

• No distinction is made between print and electronic sources when citing in-text.
• If quoting the full title of a reference in the text, the first word of titles and subtitles and all other major words are capitalised and italicised e.g., When The Handicap Principle: A Missing Piece of Darwin's Puzzle was published…
• With three or more authors, cite only the surname of the first author followed by et al. and the year.
• When two sources would both abbreviate to the same “et al.” form, include as many surnames as needed to differentiate between them. If two or more sources have an identical author/authors and publication year, add letters to the years, e.g. (Smith, 1991a).

These notes apply to the word-for-word reproduction from another author's work.

The quote is fewer than 40 words

• If the quote is fewer than 40 words, incorporate it into the text and use double quotation marks.

According to Palladino and Wade (2010), "a flexible mind is a healthy mind" (p. 147).

In 2010, Palladino and Wade noted that "a flexible mind is a healthy mind" (p. 147).

"A flexible mind is a healthy mind," according to Palladino and Wade's (2010, p. 147) longitudinal study.

• List the complete reference in the bibliography

In fact, "a flexible mind is a healthy mind" (Palladino & Wade, 2010, p. 147).

• If the quote is more than 40 words, display in a freestanding block of text and omit the quotation marks.
• Start the quote on a new line, and indent about half and inch (equal to a tab space or 1.27cm) from the left margin (in the same position as a new paragraph).
• If there are additional paragraphs in the same quote, indent the first line of each by half an inch (one tab space).
• Double-space the entire quotation. Cite the quoted source, page or paragraph number in brackets after the final punctuation mark.
• Use p. for a single page number (Example: p. 15) and pp. for multiple page numbers (Examples: pp. 125-126).
• If citing an online source without page numbers, cite the paragraph number (Example: para. 4).
• When citing multiple authors after a quotation use the ampersand symbol '&' instead of the word 'and'.
• If the quoted source is cited and included in the introductory sentence only the page or paragraph number is required at the end of the quotation.

Jones's (1998) study found the following: Students often had difficulty using APA style especially when it was their first time citing source. This difficulty could be attributed to the fact that many students failed to purchase a style manual or ask their teacher for help. (p. 199)

Block quote with author at beginning

Lyoob, Rossetti and Chen (2013) noted: Many software providers take advantage of these developing technologies to provide new cloud computing services or transform their existing products to the cloud. Since the term cloud could refer to any infrastructure, platform or software that serves for cloud computing, every component in the cloud may be provided as a service. (p. 34)

Block quote with author at the end

Cyber threats are not the only challenge to cloud computing: While security has been a major topic of interest, reliability is a much bigger concern. Cloud computing is based on Internet access, so a fast and constant Internet connection is critical to cloud computing solutions. Therefore, it is imperative to ensure the enterprise's connectivity to the Internet is well-established and that there are backup connections in case of connectivity failure. (Lyoob, Rosetti, & Chen, 2013 pp. 35-36)

• List author year and page number in brackets
• If paragraph numbers are available, use these when page numbers are absent

Basu and Jones (2007) went so far as to suggest the need for a new "intellectual framework in which to consider the nature and form of regulation in cyberspace " (para. 4).

In their study, Verbunt, Pernot, and Smeets (2008) found that "the level of perceived disability in patients with fibromyalgia seemed best explained by their mental health condition and less by their physical condition " (Discussion section, para. 1).

"Empirical studies have found mixed results on the efficacy of labels in education consumers and changing consumption behaviour " (Golan, Kuchler, & Kirssof, 2007, "Mandatory Labelling Has Targeted, " para. 4).

• To cite a web site or a Facebook or Twitter feed as a whole or to discuss it in general, you need only to provide the site URL in parentheses in the text; there is no need for a reference list entry.
• For classical, major religious and very old works not included in the reference list, give the year of the translation or version that you used, with the word trans. or version , and give section numbers rather than page numbers, e.g., (Aristotle, trans. 1931); 1 Cor. 13:1 (Revised Standard Version). When the date of the original publication is available, include that date, e.g., James (1890/1983).

Reference list style notes

• References cited in the text must be listed in the reference list, and all references listed in the reference list must be cited in the text.
• Where an item has no author it is cited by its title, and ordered in the reference list alphabetically by the first significant word of the title (not A or The ) .
• Hong, B.H. & Yeung, K.L. (2001)
• Hong, B.H. & Yeung, K.L. (2009)
• Brown, J., Gold, F., & Black, L. (2007)
• Brown, J., Gold, F., & Greene, H. (2006)
• Smith, J.R. (2008a)
• Smith, J.R. (2008b)
• For a work with up to 20 authors, include all of the names in the reference. When the work has 21 or more authors, include only the first 19 names, an ellipsis(...), and the final name. (see section 9.8, p.286 of the APA Manual).
• APA requires that the reference list be double-spaced
• Entries in the reference list should have a hanging indent (the second and subsequent lines of the reference must be indented five spaces.) e.g.

American Psychological Association (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington D.C: Author.

• Book titles are italicised, e.g., Publication manual of the American Psychological Association . Chapter or section titles within a larger work are not italicised.
• Translated works: if you used the non-English version of a work, cite using the original title and immediately following that title, give the English translation in brackets. If you used the English translation, just cite the English translation.
• Give the publication date (the year the work was copyrighted) in brackets, e.g., (2009). Note: APA uses brackets (…) for standard parts of a reference, e.g., the year of publication, and square brackets […] for information that you have inserted, e.g., format information such as [Audio podcast].
• Inclusive page numbers for all articles and chapters in books should be included in the reference list.
• List page numbers in full (e.g., 132-135, not 132-5).
• Electronic sources: in general, include the same elements, in the same order, as you would for a reference to a printed source and add as much information as needed for others to locate the source.
• DOIs and URLs should both be presented as hyperlinks, i.e. beginning with 'http' or 'https'.
• Journal titles in the reference list must be italicised and be given in title case; do not abbreviate titles (e.g., Journal of Immunology , not J Immunol). Article titles are not italicised.

Acceptable abbreviations in the reference list for parts of books and other publications include:

• Personal communications, such as letters, informal email, or private social media posts
• Classical works or major religious texts
• Web sites or Facebook orTwitter feeds when discussed as a whole

These are just cited in the text.

• If the journal does not use volume, issue, article or page numbers, leave those elements out of the reference
• If the elements (volume, issue, page numbers etc) have not yet been assigned, use the format for advance online publication .
• For more information on what to do if information is missing from a reference,  see t he APA style blog entry.

Explore resources to enable you to effectively integrate and cite sources into your writing and assessment tasks, visit Academic Skills .

View Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

• In Re:cite, there are multiple templates across different style types for the source I am referencing. What should I do?
• I can’t find the specific source in the style guide or on the Re:cite website. What should I do?

Access all referencing FAQs Access further help

Architectural drawings and plans

Note: You must include the revision number or letter (if there is one) as well as the drawing number. This can be a number or letter after the drawing number (ie. Drawing no. A101 rev. a) or part of the drawing number (ie. Drawing no. A101a)

Format for in-text citation

In-text citation example.

The plans for the Melbourne School of Design Building feature the exposed services (Wardle, 2014). OR In the locality plan, Wardle (2014) designed the building to be....

Format for reference list

Elements, punctuation and capitalisation.

Author. (Year, Month Day). Title of drawing (Drawing/Plan no. xx and revision number or letter [if provided]) [Type of drawing]. Name of Subject LMS site. or http://xxxxx

Reference list example

NADAAA and John Wardle Architects. (2014, January 10). University of Melbourne, Parkville campus, Faculty of Architecture Building and Planning locality plan (Drawing no. AR0100 rev. A) [Construction drawing]. http://archive.abp.unimelb.edu.au/objects/pdfs/Post-construction/Drawings/Architectural-drawings-as-built/AR-0100-A.pdf

Explore resources to help with reference management and enable you to effectively integrate and cite sources into your writing and assessment tasks.

View all referencing FAQs Access further help

Artificial Intelligence software (eg. ChatGPT)

Use this resource to guide you on how to appropriately acknowledge the use of AI tools and technologies in your assessments.

Check with your lecturers and tutors whether artificial intelligence (AI) text generators are permitted in your assessment tasks. For more information, see the Academic Integrity Statement on Artificial Intelligence Tools and Technologies.

(Author of Generative AI, Year)

A source prompt “Is it right to use ChatGPT for my assignment?” was entered by the author into the generative chatbot (OpenAI, 2023).

Author of Large Language Group model. (Year of version used) Title of generative AI/Large Language Model (Month Day version) [Type of software]. URL

OpenAI (2023).  ChatGPT (April 12 version) [Large Language Model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat

Style notes for this reference type

• APA 7 Publication Manual , p.338.
• The date is the year of publication of the version used
• The URL should link as closely as possible to the source of the text
• Use the version number provided by the software. (ChapGPT uses the date of use as the current version)
• The author and the publisher are the same so there is no need to list the publisher

Explore resources to help with reference management and enable you to effectively integrate and cite sources into your writing and assessment tasks .

Books and book chapters, theses, online dictionaries and encyclopedias

Author type, group as author, two authors, three or more authors, book chapter, edited book, electronic book (and audiobook), secondary source in a book, online reference work, conference presentations, proceedings and poster sessions, conference paper type, conference paper, paper presentation or poster session, proceedings published regularly online, proceedings published in book form.

… which has been well supported and illustrated by the data (Noble, 2019)

Statistics from Ayton and Watzl (2007) indicate that…

Elements, punctuation & capitalisation

With DOI 

Author, A. A. (year).  Title of data set [Data set]. Publisher Name or Source of Unpublished Data. https://doi.org/xxxxxxxxx

Without DOI

Author, A. A. (year).  Title of data set [Data set]. Publisher Name or Source of Unpublished Data. URL

Noble, C.(2019). Impacts of habitat disturbance on population health of Bornean frogs [Data set]. Imperial College London. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3485086

Ayton, J.& Watzl, R. (2007). A bibliography of polar medicine related articles [Data set]. Australian Antarctic Data Centre. https://data.aad.gov.au/metadata/records/medical_bibliography

Make sure to look at the style notes

• The  date for  a published data set is the year of publication, for unpublished data, the date should be the year of collection.
• Include a retrieval date only if the data set is designed to change over time.
• The title of the  data set should be italicized.
• A DOI for datasets should be included as part of the reference. If there is no DOI, include the URL of the webpage where the data is indexed.
• The recommended format for including DOI in references is https://doi.org/xxxxxxxxxx
• How do I find a DOI?
• Should I add a DOI, as well as a URL in my reference?

Figures and images (graphs, flow charts, charts, illustrations, drawings)

Figure type - figure/image you have reproduced, figure/image reproduced from a book, figure/image reproduced from a website, figure/image reproduced from a database, figure/image reproduced from a musical score, figure/image reproduced to be included in a work you are publishing, figure/image reproduced from a journal article, images generated by artificial intelligence, figure/image you have created, figure type - figure/image you have referred to, image you have referred to: general notes, referring to a figure/image from a database, referring to an image (artwork) viewed on a gallery website, indigenous knowledge or oral traditions.

The APA Manual, 7th edition (p.260) states that the ways in which the Traditional Knowledge or Oral Traditions of Indigenous people are cited depends on whether, or how they have been recorded.

If the material is not recorded, a variation of the personal communication reference type may be used, describing the source and providing context for its origin.

If the information has been recorded and is recoverable by readers, it should be cited in the text and an  entry in the correct format for the type of source (eg. audio, video, book, interview transcript) should be included in the reference list. If appropriate and available, the author or creator's Nation, Country and /or language group can be recorded in parentheses adjacent to the author information.

Care should be taken that the information is appropriate to share and/or publish before citing works, and that it is represented or reproduced accurately. It may also be appropriate to consider the copyright ownership of material representing the cultural heritage of Indigenous Peoples.

Journal and magazine articles

Journal article type, electronic journal article with doi, electronic journal article without doi, printed journal article (one author), printed journal article (two authors), printed journal article (three or more authors), magazine article, secondary source, legislation and cases (australian).

The APA style guide refers readers wishing to reference legal materials to  The Bluebook: A uniform system of citation ; however,  The Bluebook is unsuitable for use in Australia.  The fourth edition of the  Australian Guide to Legal Citation (AGLC4) should be used for reference list entries for Australian and international legal materials.  The examples in this guide are based on AGLC4 style .

( Name of Act, Year (Jurisdiction) s #)

* see the list of AGLC jurisdiction abbreviations

Monies levied may then be used by ministers ( Major Bank Levy Act 2017 s 3)...

Under the Major Bank Levy Act 2017 (Cth) s 3 ministers may calculate the sum...

Note : s # in the citation refers to the section number, so section 55 is  s 55 in the citation

See AGLC4 rule 3.1.4 p.69

Short Title of Act Year ( Jurisdiction abbreviation)

Major Bank Levy Act 2017 (Cth) 

Make sure you read the style notes below

(Name of Bill Year (Jurisdiction) s #)

In order to regulate how fast water is taken from catchments, and when (Water Legislation Amendment Bill 2023 (Vic.)).

The provisions of the Water Legislation Amendment Bill 2023 (Vic) enable regulation of...

see AGLC rule 1.13 p.35

Title of Bill Year ( Jurisdiction abbreviation) Section (if applicable)

Water Legislation Amendment Bill 2023 (Vic) 

( Name of Case , year)

In extradition proceedings ( Dutton v Republic of South Africa , 1999)...

Dutton v Republic of South Africa (1999) saw the laws around extradition challenged...

Case name (Year) Volume Law Report Abbreviation Starting Page Number

Dutton v  Republic of South Africa (1999) 162 ALR 625

Style Notes

• AGLC is a footnoting style. We have adapted it for APA.  The reference list follows AGLC style, but the citations are formatted in APA style.
• Use short titles only if a case is well known.
• Case names and legislation in the text should be italicised
• See AGLC4 Rule 3.1.3 for a list of Jurisdiction abbreviations
• Pinpoint References Rule 1.1.6, p.4
• Case Law Rule 2, p.39
• Case Law pinpoints Rule 2.2.5, p.52
• Legislation Rule 3 p.67 ,
• Legislation pinpoints Rule 3.1.4, p.69
• Bibliography Rule 1.13, p.35

Manuscripts and advance online publications

Manuscript type, advance online publication, manuscript accepted for publication, manuscript submitted for publication, manuscript in preparation, map type - map that you have reproduced, map from a book or atlas, map in a journal, map retrieved online, google map or other interactive map, sheet map, or sheet map in series, map type - map that you have referred to, map from a book or atlas that you have referred to, map from a journal that you have referred to, map retrieved online that you have referred to, sheet map or sheet map in series that you have referred to, music scores.

Musical scores are not discussed in the manual used in the compilation of the APA 7th examples for this module. Our librarians suggest the following, however we advise that you check with your subject guideline or tutor for recommended format.

"It's Alright With Me" (Porter, 1953) was also used in High Society.

Porter (1953) wrote "It's Alright With Me" for the musical Can-Can.

Composer, A. A., & Composer, B. B. (Year of publication). Title of publication [Medium]. Publisher name.

Stravinsky, I. (1975). Rite of spring [Score]. Hansen House.

If the score is part of a collection or anthology:

Whitfield, N., & Strong, B. (1966). I heard it through the grapevine [Score]. In Motown anthology (pp.98–104). Hal Leonard.

If there is an editor:

Porter, C. (1953). It's all right with me [Score]. In W. L. Simon (Ed.), Treasury of great show tunes (pp.104–110). Reader's Digest.

• APA Style Blog
• Basically, a musical score is similar to a book. The composer is entered into the author element, the date when the work was created into the date element (if known), the title of the work, then the publisher of the work.
• A description related to the type of medium may be needed and included in square brackets behind the title and before the period. Examples of medium: score, choral score, miniature score, orchestral score, libretto, song lyrics, etc.
• The title of the work is italicised.
• If you are using a reprint of an old score, there is no need to include the information about the original publishing company, but do include the original publication date in parentheses after the period of the source, e.g. (Original work published 1966).
• Often correct details for referencing items can be found on the Library catalogue record.

Newspaper articles

Newspaper article type, with author, non-english language sources.

• Cite the version of the work you used, if you used the English translation,  cite this version.
• If you use a non-English work, cite the author, date, title and source of the work in the original language. You must include an English translation of the title in square brackets, directly after the title and before the full stop. Refer to the examples.
• If you are only using a section of a source, e.g., a chapter in an edited book, you only need to translate the chapter title, not the book title as well. The translation does not need to be literal. The purpose is to give the reader a sense of what the work is about.
• Note: If the work uses a non-Latin alphabet (e.g., Arabic, Farsi, Mandarin, Japanese, Russian) an extra step is required. Non-Latin alphabets are not used in the reference list in APA Style, so the title needs to be transliterated (that is, converted to the alphabet you are using to write the paper). This is followed by the English translation, in square brackets. For in-text citations, the family of organisation name(s) is used as usual, but must be provided in Latin alphabet. Refer to the examples.

Pinyin is the official romanization system for Standard Mandarin Chinese. One site that converts from Chinese characters to Pinyin is the Chinese-Pinyin Converter .

For example:

Japanese language examples

Amano, N., & Kondo, H. (2000).  Nihongo no goi tokusei [Lexical characteristics of Japanese language] (Vol. 7). Sansei-do.

Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (1997, June 12). Peru jiken chosa iinkai no hokoku ni tsuite no Ikeda Gaimu Daijin no kishakaiken [Press interview with Foreign Minister Ikeda on the report of the investigation committee on the Peru Incident].  Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan . Retrieved from http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko/hoka/peru/ index.html

Original Chinese-language reference

何應欽, 張菀玲, 洪繼開, & 楊喬凱. (2020). 高績效理財專員之個人商業模式與 職能基礎的探討－以ks 銀行為研究對象. Commerce & Management Quarterly, 21 (2), 111–145.

Chinese-language reference after transliteration

He, Y., Zhang, Y., & Yang, Q. (2020). Gāo jì xiào lǐ cái zhuān yuán zhī gè rén shāng yè mó shì yǔ zhí néng jī chǔ de tàn tǎo yǐ yín háng wèi yán jiū duì xiàng [Discussion on the personal business model and functional basis of high-performing financial professionals - KS bank as the research object]. Commerce & Management Quarterly, 21 (2),111–145.

Patents and standards

Reference type, personal communications (interviews, letters, emails).

You may need to consult more than one section to accurately represent the source used (eg. number of authors and source descriptions)

In-text citation

(A.A. Author, personal communication, Month Day, Year)

Eg.…the evidence was inconclusive (J. Smith, personal communication, March 21, 2019).

Not required as personal communications, such as letters and emails are not accessible by the audience for your work. The work should be acknowledged in the text.

• APA 7 Publication Manual , p.179.
• Examples of personal communications include interviews, private letters, and email correspondence.
• An in-text citation to personal communications should include the initials and full surname of the person and date details. For example: (J. Smith, personal communication, March 21, 2019).
• Privacy settings define if content is referenced as a ‘personal communication’. Restricted content that is not published or findable is referenced as personal communications. Content which is accessible to others cannot be defined as a personal communication, except for content which may be held in an archive, repository, gallery, museum, or library.
• Personal communications are not included in the reference list as they are not published or findable by others. However, if you would like to include a personal interview as part of your APA reference list, a general structure for the reference is to include the interviewee, the date of the interview, and the type of interview. For example: Last name, Initial. (Year, Month date). Interview type [email, phone, personal interview, personal interview with [third party Initial. Last Name].
• If there is any additional contextual information that is significant to this communication, please include it in the citation.

PhD and Master's theses

Willis (1997) has shown…

…was found (Willis, 1997).

Willis (1997, p.26) proposes…

For an unpublished thesis (thesis in print form):

Author, A. A. (Year). Title [Unpublished doctoral dissertation/Master's thesis]. Institution issuing degree.

For a thesis available through a database service, such as ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database, include the name of the database and the accession or order number in the reference:

Author, A. A. (Year). Title (Accession or Order No.)[Doctoral dissertation/Master's thesis, Institution issuing degree]. Name of Database.

For a thesis from an institutional database:

A Author, A. A. (Year). Title [Doctoral dissertation/Master's thesis, Institution issuing degree]. URL (persistent identifier)

For a thesis available on the web:

Author, A. A. (Year). Title [Doctoral dissertation/Master's thesis, Institution issuing degree]. URL

When citing the abstract for a thesis, as from Dissertation Abstracts International:

Author, A. A. (Year). Title. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section. Title of section , Volume(Issue), Number of abstract.

Kilpatrick, H. (2019). Writing with feeling: Practising angers in late-medieval English chronicles . [Doctoral dissertation, University of Melbourne]. http://minerva-access.unimelb.edu.au/handle/11343/235596

Willis, J. (1997). Women in architecture in Victoria 1905-1955. Their education and professional life . [Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Melbourne].

• APA 7 Publication Manual , pp.333–334.
• Italicise the title of the thesis, unless citing only the abstract.
• Capitalisation: Capitalise only the first word of the title and of the subtitle, if any, and any proper nouns.
• If pages are being directly referenced in the text, include the cited page number/s in the in-text citation after the year.
• Print format: Unpublished theses retrieved from the issuing university have the name of the issuing university in the Source part of the reference.
• A dissertation or thesis is considered published when it is available from a database, institutional repository, or archive. Place in square brackets after the title both the type of thesis and the institution awarding the thesis.

Reports (Government, Company, Annual and Industry)

Report type, government and other reports, company information, industry information, annual reports, social media posts, blog and forum posts, youtube videos and mobile apps, facebook, instagram and twitter post, youtube video or other streaming video, online forum, mobile apps.

An in-text citation is not used. A note underneath the table is used instead.

Referring to tables in-text

As shown in Table 5...

Please refer to Table 4 for ...

Include a reference for the original source of the table (see book , book chapter , journal article , report , website , etc.)

Multiple sources

If you create your own table by compiling data from multiple sources, cite each source in the table note.

Table note from journal article

Table note from book

Table note from website.

Table note from multiple sources

Table note in a work to be published

Example - reproduced table

Example - table created with data from multiple sources

• APA 7 Publication Manual , p.194–224.
• Definition Tables are defined as numerical values or textual information arranged in an orderly display of columns and rows. Any other type of illustration is a figure .
• Table numbers Tables should be numbered in the order in which they appear in the text e.g., Table 1, Table 2. In the text, refer to tables by their number (“as shown in table 3”) as opposed to general references (“as shown in the table below”).
• In-text citation There is no in-text citation. Instead, a note should be included the bottom of the table to acknowledge that it is from another source. The word ‘Note’ is included at the start in italics.
• Adapted vs reprinted If you make any changes to the tables (additions, reformatting) include the words 'Adapted from' in the note. If you copy the table without changes use 'From'. Source: APA Style blog .
• Thesis in University of Melbourne repository
• Journal article
• News item on website

In university coursework, you generally do not need to ask the author for permission, contact the Copyright Office if you are unsure. Source: APA Style blog .

Treaties and International Conventions

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) was ratified by Belize…

Australia included a list of reservations (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966)...

Name of Treaty or Convention, Month Day, Year, URL 

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, December 16, 1966, https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-civil-and-political-rights

Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, January 22, 2021, https://treaties.un.org/doc/Treaties/2017/07/20170707%2003-42%20PM/Ch_XXVI_9.pdf

• APA 7 Publication Manual , p.368
• References for treaties and conventions should include the name of the treaty or convention, in Title Case, the signing or approval date and a URL if available.
• APA 7 includes guidance for treaties and international conventions under legal references.  Most legal reference entries begin with the title of the work; as a result, most in-text citations consist of the title and year. (p. 357)

University course materials (Slides and Lecture Notes)

Powerpoint slides (accessible by intended audience), lecture notes (accessible by intended audience), powerpoint slides (not accessible by intended audience), lecture notes (not accessible by intended audience), course material type, video, film and sound recordings, dvd, film & video, online video, streamed video from a database, tv, radio broadcast, music recording, webpage type, web pages with individual author, web pages without individual authors (with a group name), working papers.

…has already been calculated (Wittwer, 2020).

Wittwer (2020) confirms that the bushfires were…

Working Paper with DOI 

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C.C. (Year, Month). Title of work . (Working Paper No. #). https://doi.org/xxxxxxxxx

Working Paper without DOI

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C.C. (Year, Month). Title of work . (Working Paper No. #). URL

Givord, P. (2020, April). How a student’s month of birth is linked to performance at school: New evidence from PISA (OECD Education Working Papers No. 221). https://doi.org/10.1787/19939019

Wittwer, G. (2020, March). The 2019-20 Australian Economic Crisis Induced by Bushfires and COVID-19 from the Perspective of Grape and Wine Sectors (CoPS Working Paper No. G-299). https://www.copsmodels.com/ftp/workpapr/g-299.pdf

Huong, D., Donoghoe, M., Hughes, N., & Goesch, T. (2018, November). A micro-simulation model of irrigation farms in the southern Murray-Darling basin [Working paper]. Australian Bueau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences.   https://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/research-topics/working-papers/micro-simulation-model-irrigation-farms

• APA 7 Publication Manual , p. 330, examples 50 to 59
• Working papers are treated like issues briefs. If they have a number, this should be included in brackets after the title.
• If the working paper has no number, include the description of working paper in square brackets after the title.
• If the working paper will be taken down from the host site, state the retrieved from details before the URL

Quick Guide to APA

Download the Quick Guide to APA for a handy guide to the style, with a summary of the main elements and examples of the most commonly cited reference types.

Sample reference list

Reference list.

1964 Labour Party Manifesto . (n.d.). Retrieved August 9, 2020, from http://www.labour-party.org.uk/manifestos/1964/1964-labour-manifesto.shtml

Ancher, M., Murray and Woolley, Pty. Ltd. (1981). University of Melbourne master plan report 1981 . University of Melbourne. http://hdl.handle.net/11343/130079

Costello, A., Abbas, M., Allen, A., Ball, S., Bell, S., Bellamy, R., Friel, S., Groce, N., Johnson, A., Kett, M., Lee, M., Levy, C., Maslin, M., McCoy, D., McGuire, B., Montgomery, H., Napier, D., Pagel, C., Patel, J., … Patterson, C. (2009). Managing the health effects of climate change. Lancet and University College London Institute for Global Health Commission. The Lancet , 373 (9676), 1693–1733.   https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60935-1

CSIRO. (2021). Our Knowledge, Our Way guidelines . CSIRO. Retrieved April 8, 2022, from https://www.csiro.au/en/research/indigenous-science/indigenous-knowledge/our-knowledge-our-way

Fuimaono, R. S. (2012). The asset-based community development (ABCD) approach in action: An analysis of the work of two NGOs in Samoa: a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand [PhD Thesis]. Massey University.

Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada. (2021, May 25). Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada [Navigation page - institutional profile]. https://www.canada.ca/en/indigenous-northern-affairs.html

Larrikins in Brunswick. (1908, September 18). Age . http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article202181168

Lowe, M., Whitzman, C., & Giles-Corti, B. (2013). Integrated planning for healthy communities: Does\ Victorian state legislation promote it. Proceedings of the State of Australian Cities Conference, Sydney, Australia , 26–29.

McFarlane, B. (1984). Homes fit for heroines: Housing in the twenties. In Matrix, (Ed.), Making Space: Women and the Man-Made Environment (pp. 26–36). Verso.

Spencer, J. C. (1964). Stress & release in an urban estate, a study in action research . [London] Tavistock Publications. http://archive.org/details/stressreleaseinu00spen

Tengan, C., & Aigbavboa, C. (2017). Level of stakeholder engagement and participation in monitoring and evaluation of construction projects in Ghana. Procedia Engineering , 196 , 630–637. https://doi.org/10/gmfv62

Vilar, K., & Cartes, I. (2016). Urban design and social capital in slums. Case study: Moravia’s neighborhood, Medellin, 2004-2014. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences , 216 , 56–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.12.008

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

• What is the difference between a reference list and a bibliography?

Access all referencing FAQs

Further help

If you are unsure about which referencing style to use, check with your tutor, lecturer or supervisor for the style preferred by your Faculty, School or Department.

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Properly Write Your Degree

The correct way to communicate your degree to employers and others is by using the following formats:

Degree - This is the academic degree you are receiving. Your major is in addition to the degree; it can be added to the phrase or written separately.  Include the full name of your degree, major(s), minor(s), emphases, and certificates on your resume.

Double Majors - You will not be receiving two bachelor's degrees if you double major. Your primary major determines the degree (Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science). If you're not fully sure which of your majors is primary, check CheckMarq or call the registrar's office.

Example: Primary Major: Psychology ; Secondary Major: Marketing

• Bachelor of Arts Degree in Psychology & Marketing

Primary Major: Marketing ; Secondary Major: Psychology

• Bachelor of Science Degree in Marketing & Psychology

In a letter, you may shorten your degree by writing it this way:

• In May 20XX, I will graduate with my Bachelor's degree in International Affairs.
• In December 20XX, I will graduate with my Master's degree in Counseling Education.

Not sure which degree you are graduating with? Here is a list of Undergraduate Majors and corresponding degrees:

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Undergraduate Admissions Information

About the university of melbourne.

The University of Melbourne offers a world-standard education. We are recognised globally for our academic excellence and pioneering research, and consistently ranked as one of the world's leading universities. Our graduates are sought after by employers in Australia and overseas.

The University of Melbourne has a history of more than 160 years of leadership in research, innovation, teaching and learning. At Melbourne, you will be taught by renowned researchers and industry leaders acclaimed internationally for their outstanding achievements. Your lecturers and tutors are experts at the forefront of their fields, who are engaged in research in areas such as nutritional engineering, breast cancer risk genes and human rights.

You will study alongside top students from Australia and overseas, and on graduation you will join our distinguished alumni who are leaders in their professions.

The University of Melbourne offers you an education that has moved beyond the traditional Australian education system. We offer a curriculum that is in line with the best of international universities in North America, Europe and Asia and will give you the skills you need to realise your potential.

Find out more:

• Campus locations
• Important dates

Applicants with higher education study

This information relates to applicants with higher education study (tertiary study) completed within the last seven years (excluding extension studies taken as part of Year 12). If this information is not relevant for applicants of a specific course, it will be noted in the course-specific information. Applicants whose last study was more than seven years ago should refer to the information about the University's Non-school leaver entry pathway, in the section for applicants with work and life experience below.

When assessing applicants with higher education study, a weighted average mark (WAM) (weighted according to the point value of the individual subjects) is calculated. The WAM is calculated across any undergraduate and graduate coursework study undertaken. Any research study undertaken is considered in addition to the WAM.

Applicants are selected according to academic merit, usually in the form of the WAM.

Applicants with less than a year (1 EFTSL) of higher education study

The entire academic record is considered and both the ATAR (or secondary school result) and the WAM will be taken into account.

If an applicant has completed less than a year (1 EFTSL) of higher education study and does not have a secondary qualification assessed by the University as equivalent to the Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE), then the applicant will not be eligible for entry unless they are eligible under the Non-school leaver entry pathway (see the section for applicants with work and life experience below).

Applicants with a year (1 EFTSL) of higher education study

Generally, the WAM will be primary factor in assessment, particularly if the study is in a relevant discipline.

Applicants with more than a year (1 EFTSL) of higher education study

For most of our undergraduate courses, WAMs will be calculated across all the higher education study and across the last year (1 EFTSL) – then the higher of the two will be considered in assessment. If the points equating to the last 1 EFTSL fall within a study period (eg, semester) then all subjects within that study period will be included in the calculation.

Consideration will also be given to the information provided in the VTAC personal statement regarding your motivation in applying for the course and your future study and career goals.

Personal statements

For applicants with higher education study who are not clearly-in, the VTAC personal statement may be taken into account during assessment. Only some elements of the statement will be considered:

• Relevant work and community experience will be considered only where work experience is specified as part of the selection criteria for the course.
• Extenuating circumstances – we would typically assume that these have been dealt with via special consideration and other internal mechanisms at your previous institution. If this is not the case, you can describe the issue and the impact it had in a personal statement, and attach independent supporting documentation to corroborate your claim.

Please note that applicants with previous higher education study are not eligible for Access Melbourne consideration. We do not look at information provided in the VTAC SEAS application by applicants in this category, only at information provided in the personal statement.

• If you believe your performance was impacted by the discipline you were studying and you are now seeking a ‘fresh start’, you can indicate this in the personal statement form. If your higher education study was consecutive, recent, not more than a year, and your secondary results are above the level required for entry, then in some cases you may be assessed primarily on your secondary results.

For applicants who have completed more than a year of tertiary study, details about your motivation in applying for the course and your future study and career goals will be considered.

Prerequisites

All applicants must satisfy the course prerequisites. For most applicants prerequisites will be satisfied by completion of the relevant Australian Year 12 subject. However, there are other ways to satisfy a course prerequisite.

There is no time limit for satisfying an English prerequisite, but other prerequisites must be satisfied within the last ten years to ensure the knowledge is current.

Advanced standing (credit)

Advanced standing (sometimes known as credit or recognition of prior learning) may be awarded based on prior study. Advanced standing is not awarded for work experience in undergraduate degrees. How to apply .

Applicants with vocational education and training (VET)/TAFE study

This information relates to applicants with vocational education and training (VET)/TAFE study completed within the last seven years. If this information is not relevant for applicants of a specific course, it will be noted in the course-specific information. Applicants whose last study was more than seven years ago should refer to the information about the University's Non-school leaver entry pathway in the section for applicants with work and life experience below.

To be considered for entry, completed VET/TAFE study must be at Diploma or Advanced Diploma level and in a discipline that is cognate/relevant to the course into which entry is being sought. If this is not the case, assessment will be based on other study completed (typically secondary school results).

Applicants are selected according to academic merit, usually in the form of a weighted average mark (WAM) (weighted according to the point value of the individual subject). Qualifications which are not graded (for example, where only competency results are awarded) are not suitable for entry, as assessment is based on the WAM.

Access Melbourne

Applicants with vocational education and training (VET)/TAFE study are eligible to apply for Access Melbourne , the University’s special entry scheme.

For applicants with vocational education and training (VET)/TAFE study who are not clearly-in, the VTAC personal statement may be taken into account during assessment. Only some elements of the statement will be considered:

All applicants must satisfy the course prerequisites. For most applicants this will be done by with the relevant Australian Year 12 subject. However, there are other ways to satisfy a course prerequisite.

There is no time limit for satisfying an English prerequisite, but other prerequisites must be satisfied within the last ten years to ensure that relevant knowledge is current.

Applicants with recent secondary education (within the past two years)

Applicants are selected according to academic merit, in the form of the ATAR or notional ATAR, as calculated by the relevant Tertiary Admissions Centre. Courses which select primarily on ATAR may have guarenteed ATARs set in advance but the lowest selection rank is not pre-determined(although the lowest selection rank from the previous year can be considered as a guide). Only applicants for whom additional criteria has been considered can be selected with an ATAR/notional ATAR that is below the lowest selection rank. The standard required to receive an offer in any intake may be above the published lowest selection rank from the previous year and will be determined as part of the selection process, depending on the pool of eligible applicants and the number of places available.

External assessment is a key component required in all qualifications approved as entry pathways to the University of Melbourne. For this reason, an ATAR or notional ATAR will be required for courses which select primarily on ATAR and study scores will be required to satisfy prerequisites (not simply completion of prerequisite subjects).

The University of Melbourne does not make any adjustments to the ATAR for applicants eligible for the Victorian Baccalaureate.

All applicants must satisfy the course prerequisites. For most applicants, prerequisites will be satisfied by completing the relevant Australian Year 12 subject(s). However, there are other ways to satisfy a course prerequisite.

Criteria that may apply in addition to ATAR

For applicants who are not clearly-in, a number of factors may be taken into consideration in addition to the ATAR or notional ATAR:

Additional consideration is given on an individual basis based on the circumstances described in the SEAS application. For some applicants, selection guarantees may apply. For all applicants eligible for Access Melbourne, offers are regularly made significantly below the guaranteed ATAR (if applicable) and below the lowest selection rank ATAR. More information .

Elite Athletes and Artistic Performers Entry Scheme

Additional consideration is given on an individual basis based on the circumstances described in the Elite Athletes and Artistic Performers Entry Scheme application. For some applicants, selection guarantees may apply. For all applicants eligible for the Elite Athletes and Artistic Performers Entry Scheme, offers may be made below the guaranteed ATAR (if applicable). More information .

Adjustments for the following criteria are already made as part of the ATAR calculation and adjustments are not made by the University of Melbourne for:

• Extension studies undertaken as part of Year 12
• Bonus points for completed language subjects.

For applicants with secondary education who are not clearly-in, the VTAC personal statement may be taken into account during assessment. Only some elements of the statement will be considered:

Applicants with work and life experience

Applicants in this category typically fall into one of the following categories:

• Applicants with non-recent secondary education (older than the past two years)

Applicants with secondary study from the last seven years should read the section for applicants with recent secondary education.

Applicants whose last study was more than seven years ago should refer to the information about the Non-school leaver entry pathway below.

• Applicants with an overseas secondary qualification
• Applicants who are eligible for the Non-school leaver entry pathway
• Indigenous applicants who don’t fit into one of the categories described above but are assessed as likely to succeed in the proposed course

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people

The University is committed to improving participation in higher education by Indigenous students . All applicants who indicate through the VTAC course application and/or the VTAC SEAS application that they are of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent will have their status verified by Murrup Barak, the Melbourne Institute for Indigenous Development.

Once verified, an assessment will be made to determine if the applicant is likely to succeed in the proposed course of study. The standard entry requirements and entry standards for the course will not necessarily apply, although they will be considered as part of the assessment of whether the applicant is ‘likely to succeed’. When determining the ‘likelihood to succeed’ the additional support available through Murrup Barak and the Wilin Centre will be taken into consideration.

For some applicants, an Indigenous selection guarantee may apply. Indigenous applicants regularly receive offers when their ATAR (or notional ATAR) is significantly below the lowest selection rank to which an offer was made and the guaranteed ATAR for a course (if applicable).

Domestic applicants with overseas qualifications

The type of student you are depends on your citizenship – not where you have previously studied. If you are an Australian or New Zealand citizen or an Australian permanent resident, then you are considered a domestic student for the purposes of admission to the University. More information .

English language proficiency

All applicants to the University of Melbourne must satisfy the English language requirements. For most domestic undergraduate applicants, this will be done by satisfying the English prerequisite of the course with an approved Australian Year 12 English subject. For all other alternative methods of satisfying the English language requirements .

How to apply

Domestic students apply for undergraduate courses through the Victorian Tertiary Admissions Centre (VTAC) .

Further information about the application process .

The main intake is at the start of the year (for Semester 1) but many of our courses also have a mid-year intake. Further details about the mid-year intake .

International

International students who are studying an Australian Year 12 or who are current University of Melbourne international students apply for undergraduate courses through the Victorian Tertiary Admissions Centre (VTAC) .

All other international students apply online directly to the University.

Further information about the enrolment process once an offer has been made, including how to accept the offer; how to apply for credit for prior study (advanced standing); how to defer an offer; and fees and charges.

Student and campus services (including financial assistance)

The University of Melbourne offers a comprehensive range of student support services .

Student profile

The table below gives an indication of the likely peer cohort for new undergraduate students at the University of Melbourne. It provides data on students who commenced undergraduate study and were enrolled after the census date in Semester 1, 20023. It includes those admitted through all offer rounds across all campuses. It does not include honours degrees.

Where to get further information

• University of Melbourne website
• Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency
• Quality Indicators for Learning and Teaching
• Victorian Tertiary Admissions Centre
• Information about the University of Melbourne selection appeals process

• Academic Skills
• Reading, writing and referencing
• Writing effectively

Connecting ideas

How to connect ideas at the sentence and paragraph level in academic writing.

What is cohesion?

Cohesion refers to the way we use vocabulary and grammatical structures to make connections between the ideas within a text. It provides flow and sequence to your work and helps make your paragraphs clear for the reader.

Cohesive devices are words and expressions that show relationships between parts of text and ideas, such as cause and effect, time, addition, or comparison and contrast.

Watch the video to learn how to make your ideas link together and your narrative flow.

How can I create cohesion?

Let’s look at types of cohesive devices.

Linking words

Academic writing usually deals with complex ideas. To enable the reader to follow your thoughts, they need to be clearly and smoothly linked. To join ideas and sentences, we use a number of connecting words and phrases. For example:

Additionally, and, also, apart from this, as well (as), in addition, moreover, further, furthermore.

If, in that case, provided that, unless.

Correspondingly, equally, for the same reason, in a similar manner, in comparison, in the same way, on the one hand, similarly.

Alternatively, although, but, conversely, despite, even so, even though, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, on the contrary, contrary to, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, on the other hand, rather, still, though, yet, whereas, while.

Again, in fact, interestingly, indeed, it should be noted (that), more important(ly), most importantly, to repeat, (un)fortunately, unquestionably.

A further instance of this is..., an example of this is…, for example, for instance, such as, thus, as follows.

In other words, more simply, namely, simply put, to put it differently / another way, such as, that is.

A / the consequence of, because, due to, for, the effect of …, since, the result of …

Accordingly, as a result/consequence, consequently, for this reason, hence, so, therefore, thus.

Admittedly, although, clearly though, even though, however, indeed, obviously.

As a rule, for the most part, generally, in general, in most cases, normally, on the whole, usually.

First, second, third (etc), next, before, earlier, finally, following, given the above, later, meanwhile, subsequently, then, to conclude, while.

A note about presentation and style

Check a usage guide for exact rules for punctuation. Many introductory phrases have a comma after them. For example, 'therefore,' and 'in addition,'.

Referring backwards

To avoid repeating words and phrases many times, we use cohesive devices to make references to other parts of a text, such as:

• Pronouns: it, he, she, his, her, they, their
• Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
• Articles: a, the
• Adverbs: previously, subsequently

The Australian prime minister has called an early election. The date was selected to coincide with the start of the Olympic Games. This decision was based on the views of his ministerial advisors, who predicted that voter confidence in the government’s policies would be strong at this time . As previously mentioned , decisions on the timing of elections are based on predictions of voter confidence in the existing government.

In the example above:

• The date - refers back to the election date
• This decision - refers to the prime minister calling an early election
• His - refers to the Australian prime minister
• this time - refers to the start of the Olympic Games
• As previously mentioned - refers to all of the earlier information about the selection of election dates

Looking forward

We often use words and phrases to highlight new information for the reader. This helps make a smooth transition from one point to another. Such phrases include: the following, as follows, below, next, subsequently .

The following dates have been proposed for the forthcoming election: September 8, September 15 and 3 October.

The next issue to be discussed is the influence of the media on voter confidence in the government.

Connecting paragraphs

Apart from using the linking words / phrases above, showing the link between paragraphs could involve writing ‘hand-holding’ sentences. These are sentences that link back to the ideas of the previous paragraph. For instance, when outlining the positive and negative issues about a topic you could use the following:

Example (from beginning of previous paragraph):

• One of the main advantages of X is…

When you are ready to move your discussion to the negative issues, you could write one of the following as a paragraph opener:

• Having considered the positive effects of X, negative issues may now need to be taken into account…
• Despite the positive effects outlined above, negative issues also need to be considered...

It is always important to make paragraphs part of a coherent whole text; they must not remain isolated units.

Checking for paragraph links in your own work

When you are editing your next written assignment, ask yourself the following questions as you read through your work (Gillett, Hammond, & Martala, 2009):

• Does the start of my paragraph give my reader enough information about what the paragraph will be about?
• Does my paragraph add to or elaborate on a point made previously and, if so, have I made this explicit with an appropriate linking word / phrase?
• Does my paragraph introduce a completely new point or a different viewpoint to before and, if so, have I explicitly shown this with a suitable connective?
• Have I used similar connectives repeatedly? If yes, try to vary them using the above list.

Strategies to improve cohesion

• Select a piece of writing, preferably from a textbook or journal article, from your area of study.
• Choose a paragraph and underline or highlight all the different forms of cohesion used, such as using linking words, referring backwards, looking forwards or adding synonyms.
• Which forms are the most common?
• Choose a couple that you think are effective and practice using them in your own writing.
• Try to use a variety of ways to show the relationship between your ideas.

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Home — Essay Samples — Geography & Travel — Travel and Tourism Industry — The History of Moscow City

The History of Moscow City

• Categories: Russia Travel and Tourism Industry

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Published: Feb 12, 2019

Words: 614 | Page: 1 | 4 min read

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Reflective essay

One aspect of assessment which can be puzzling is the distinction between the two main types of essays you will be asked to write, the research essay and the reflective essay. A number of students have confirmed that they are not completely certain what a "reflective essay" is, and how it differs from a normal research essay. Of course, individual lecturers often state their own expectations of the essay form, and these will in all cases over-ride the general comments offered as a guide here. We can, however, offer you these general pointers, and leave you to apply them with discretion.

Writing on a "horizontal" axis: an overview of the course

First, if you think of a research essay as a "vertical" axis (delving quite deeply into a quite narrow field of inquiry), then the reflective essay works on a more "horizontal" axis, attempting to range quite broadly over the whole course and, consequently, not trying to go into as much detail as you might for a research essay

Telling the reader what you make of the topic

The topics of reflective essays are often much broader, and more general, than those of research essays. This is a deliberate ploy to open the course up as widely as possible to your speculation. Nonetheless, the greater breadth can be a problem, and can put you at risk of writing a very general and vague essay. Far more so than a research topic, the reflective essay question usually puts the onus on you to state what you have made of a general topic, and to explain to your reader how you intend to address it. Look out for deliberately vague terms such as "political" revolution and "social" revolution, or "conservative" and "radical". They are open invitations for you to weigh in and do some purposeful personal definitions

A (relatively) decreased emphasis on substantiation

A corollary of this is your substantiation. In a research essay, you are trying to prove that you have read and understood the texts on a set list of readings: you have to put them on an extensive bibliography, and you have to footnote extensively, if only to demonstrate that you have really read them. These readings are extra readings, in addition to tutorial readings. In a reflective essay, you are not expected to do extra reading, although you may do so if you wish to. You are really responding to work you have already done in the course, so in a sense you may take it as "read". True, if you refer to a reading, you should do so clearly by author and title, so that your reader knows exactly to whom you are referring. You would not be expected to footnote extensively unless you quote directly from the author's text, in which case you are obliged to do so. Your lecturer might tell you to put only a minimal bibliography, or none at all

The secret of revision: "trawling" through your notes

A reflective essay might require some ingenuity, as well as some basic revision. It is true that, in many historical studies subjects, you could write a basic sort of an essay using only the readings from the final weeks of semester, but a truly excellent essay would seek to engage with the course as a whole. In a sense, you are trying to throw a broad net over the whole course,both in terms of addressing the large themes that run through it, and in terms of mentioning some of the key readings

Demonstrating your intellectual mastery of the readings

You should also try, however, to tie in some of the more specific articles, and you should learn to refer to an important article in one short, deft statement which demonstrates that you have understood the essence of its argument or historical significance. This does not mean that your essay should become one monotonous review of every reading: you should weave these references meaningfully into the overall line of reflection you are pursuing. In a sense, you are giving a "cameo sketch" of a piece of scholarship, showing that you have a command of its broad significance, and that you have now reflected upon how that unit of meaning fits into a broad reflection on the period of study. One of the most painless ways of doing this is to cruise back through your book of readings, perhaps also your tutorial notes, maybe even your lecture notes, and you will be surprised how much information, both factual and analytical, will come flooding back to you. With so much information ready at hand, you will find that your mind will be free to concentrate on the more difficult part of the exercise, which is that of pondering the broad themes and significance of the period of study

Setting up time-frames

Remember that because you are pondering the broad span of an historical period, rather than the highly specific time-frame typical of a research essay, it might be useful to set up a distinction between the short term and the long term

Showing awareness of the changing meanings of key terms

One of the most useful distinctions you can draw is a linguistic one: remember that it might be relevant to take key words from your field of study - words which are so common as to have a fixed, universal meaning - and to do a subtle analysis of how they had radically different meanings a) between different social types and b) at different times

Demonstrating a sense of the definition of social class

As in a research essay, remember to avoid vast social categories which can be meaningless. Remember that a category that is too broad can lead you into a statement that is absurd. If you are doing a course which involves writing about a social class, try to "nail it down" before you get too far into your essay: try to give a quick little definition of who they are and what sorts of people you are talking about. Remember that in the vast majority of cases, the terms we use to describe classes, such as 'bourgeoisie' and 'working class' are woefully inadequate to capture their full complexity, so you can impress your reader with a sense of real accuracy and sophistication by setting up clearer definitions and distinctions

The MOBIUS online library catalog will temporarily suspend services MOBIUS borrowing and lending services starting on April 18 as it migrates to a new operating and software system. For material requests, please use interlibrary loans via ILLiad . For further details, see the Temporary Disruption to MOBIUS Service article .

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Winners of the 2024 Neureuther Essay Contest

The Washington University Libraries are pleased to announce the winners of the 37th annual  Neureuther Student Book Collection Essay Competition . Named for Carl Neureuther, a 1940 graduate of the Washington University School of Business who set up an endowed book fund for the University Libraries, the contest was designed to inspire reading for pleasure among students and to encourage the development of personal book collections.

The competition is open to all full-time Washington University students, and awardees win four cash prizes of $1000 and $500 at the undergraduate and graduate levels. Participants submit brief essays about the books in their collections. Washington University faculty read the essays to select the award-winning entries.

undergraduate student winners

In the undergraduate category, Brooke Sanchez , a first-year student majoring in political science, was awarded the first prize for her essay, “ Unveiling the Comfort of Female Narratives: Tragedy, Identity, and Embodied Power .” Eliana Jenkins , a senior majoring in global studies and writing, won the second prize for her essay, “ A Lust Letter to Print: Understanding Human Carnality Through the Zines of the World .”

graduate student winners

Perry Parsons , an MA student in theatre and performance studies, won the first prize in the graduate category for the essay, “ My Culture of One; Eight Relational Dances With My Books .” Nicholas Dolan , a PhD student in English and American literature, won the second prize for his essay, “ My Mother’s Planned Parenthood: A Book Sale Elegy .”

The organizing committee thanks all the students who participated in this year’s contest. Neureuther competition’s award-winning essays, from 2003 to the present, can be accessed on  Open Scholarship .