essay on performance management

Performance Management: Key Strategies and Practical Guidelines Essay

Reflective statement, introduction, performance management background information, developing objectives for individuals and teams, assessing performance and providing feedback, performance support for improvement, philosophy in disciplinary and grievance procedures in an organization, references list.

In this study, there are a number of practical lessons and values learnt that are of the essence to a manager. Firstly, performance management is a process that is geared towards achieving objectives set by a business plan in order to realize success.

This work thus gives a manager an insight onto ways and methods that he or she can use to steer an organization towards performance. In this process, a manager learns soft skills in team management, team structure and team social relations as a creation of a “family setup” in business. This can only guarantee success if properly utilized.

Secondly, in performance management, there is a need to develop objectives and goals. Goals and objectives are developed using certain measures and strategies in order to get the organization on top.

These are skills that a manager learns that they give the right approach to the business. In this process, a manager gets certain knowledge, experience and practice to develop what right, recognize what is above of below the actual requirements of the organization.

In terms of team management, this assessment helps in the future appreciation on values embedded in human relations in the work place. As a manager one can develop the right environment in order to nurture different human perspectives, qualities and concerns.

The lesson is that as a manager one is needed to take the role of an evaluator of the interconnection of many systems and how effective they are. In case something goes wrong, a manager can take actions to provide solutions. This may include disciplinary measures as well performance appraisals for an effective organization.

Performance management recognizes the use of modern technology that is appropriate in the work place. The lesson for a manager lies in choosing what works where and how does it impact to an organization. This helps a manager in the future to determine the best technology to incorporate in the most efficient and effective manner.

Performance management goes beyond the simplistic approach towards the employees only. In the book, “Field Guide to Leadership and Supervision in Business”, McNamara and McNamara (2002) argue that successful management focuses on the organization, departments processes, programs, products projects and teams (Bayazit and Mannix, 2003).

Performance is not about being busy; however, it involves delivering results in line with the survival of the business. A business has no choice, but to ensure that strategic processes opted for are only those meant to increase the effectiveness of the organization. This paper will take a detailed analysis method to explain performance management under the given highlights of this assignment.

The definition of performance management includes various components, which are linked together in a cycle. In this cycle, business strategy forms the starting point of which the summary of the organization is outlined in fair details. Business strategy allows personnel in the organization to grasp the sense of direction. This is because it is clearly outlined and thus the objectives act as a guide to planning (Bacal, 2011).

Secondly, the goals or the objectives that are in an organization must emanate from the business strategy. The objectives or goals must be placed within a time framework where certain activities are guided by each step to the next. Following objectives is the structure of the organization. There must be systems established to work in line with the emerging and on-going strategic issues.

Modern technology and information systems provide competitive advantage if utilized properly. This approach enables the job descriptions to be designed, and the organisation to achieve the prescribed goals.

From these job descriptions, there is mutual agreement between the employer and the employee with certain targets put in mind. The targets, systems, and the organization can thus be expected to perform to the required standards hence the attachment of performance standards (TACK International (Africa) Ltd, 2009).

Emanating from this knowledge, personnel in the organization should be assigned duties that are detailed in the designed job description. For the organization to come up with a job description, job analysis must be conducted to ascertain the key competencies needed to achieve the set goals.

These competencies are explained in terms of knowledge, skills and capabilities. The goals in this line help to indicate the direction to be followed and do form the central frame work of reference and aid to identify success as well as clarify issues and expectations of the organization and the employees (Ridzi, 2004).

On the other hand, the team objectives start from the basic process of laying out the business strategy. A business plan in any organization must communicate its vision to its members. The objectives of the company and direction as directed by the overall strategic planning set the ground for team work.

If the systems in the organization are not incorporated in this aspect, then the sense of direction and objectives may not be a source of motivation to employees and thus this may pull the company vision to individual objectives (Warner, 2002).

Setting goals is a process that requires meetings between the various stakeholders in the organisation. In this process, the individuals form a team, which focuses on development of key attributes like positive attitudes on employees, morale, and job satisfaction. Through team social relations, team effectiveness and participation in decision making enhance in building a team that perceives the level of commitment as very high.

This aids in formation of team objectives that are in line with individual objectives due to the sense of togetherness and positive attitude. By developing such groups of individuals in a team, then every person understands his or her roles and responsibilities and thus adequate resources are provided for it (Cammann, et al., 1983).

The SMART plan is a concept that is used by quite a number of organizations. SMART stands for Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Time framed. The plan makes goals conform to the best ideals and strategies in making objectives.

The links between individual, team, and organization perspectives are put into consideration by allowing individuals to participate in the decision making process through meetings. Through mapping, the process can incorporate performance planning where the profile roles are reviewed to determine the appropriateness and the expected behavioural requirements (Riccucci, 2005).

During the planning stage, as a leader, it is important to identify and reach an agreement on the criteria that should be used to measure how far the objectives have been achieved.

In this section, the assessment should be focused on the objective chosen by the individual in collaboration with a manager, and evaluate how well it has been performed. It is important to put in mind that the objective may be focused on a task, a project, behaviour, values, developmental or performance improvement as well as on going role objectives (Talbot, 2005).

When performing assessment, the following measures should be used to evaluate individual and team performances. Finance as a performance measure seeks to check whether value has been added either to shareholder’s or even income.

On the other hand, output seeks to assess whether new accounts or sales have reached the agreed target. Impact checks the quality of standards, behaviour changes and completion of identified task or project or even innovation.

The measure of reaction seeks to ascertain the judgment gotten from other colleagues who may be internal or external like customers. In terms of time, the assessment analysis refers to the records of the speed taken to respond to something, or to assess the time taken in the process of delivery marketing and retrieval of data in regard to the set timetable (Cummings & Worley, 2009).

Assessment largely involves evaluating what has been achieved in comparison to established standard. Secondly, documenting recorded results in the most appropriate manner and finally communicating the results as feedback to the individual or groups follows.

Feedback in cases of performance management is either positive or negative. One important thing to note as a manager is that feedback must be timely and specific with regard to the objectives established thus acting as standards. When the space between time of performing and feedback is prolonged or hurried untimely, then the appreciable effect is never realized.

With this in mind, the methods of providing feedback must be carefully chosen upon the most relevant communication methods available and used by an organization. The major modes of communication include oral, writing and nonverbal communication systems. Each system has its disadvantages and advantages (Moynihan, 2008).

The writing mode of communication involves the traditional writing of letters, memos reports, manuals, forms and critical summaries. In modern forms, a manager must understand that emails, e-memos, social websites and mobile texts form the most common and advanced usage of writing as a method of communication.

Oral communication involves the use of meetings, forums, and discussion groups that are meant to deliver solutions or chat the way forward through the mechanics of voice variation, tone setting, pitch adjustments and body postures and attitudes (Armstrong, 2006).

Thirdly, the nonverbal method of communication includes all the elements that do not include written or oral expressions of communication. These may be facial expressions, physical movements. Facial expressions may be indicated by a number of things including eye contact.

Therefore, a manager has will use the appropriate communication network for individual and team performance feedback. For teams circle communication method should be the best method of providing feedback and line network is the best for individual feedback (Radin, 2006).

However, the two types must incorporate all modes of communication at the same for purposes of clarity and review. Feedback gives the personnel the window to assess his or her importance in an organization. At the same time, it allows management to come up with rewards for everyone. Individuals and teams are able to identify skills and abilities they should work on and the organization can assess the skills needed for success.

In the process of assessment, conflicts may arise if the program is marred by ineffective strategies or poor planning. Three issues in particular that may bring conflict are, who does the assessment, how often is the evaluation done and thirdly how is performance measured.

Inadequate think through processes may result to lack of diversity in the performance evaluation. Environment, available structures and other issues like gender must be taken into consideration during assessment to avoid or minimise conflicts (Griffin & Moorhead, 2011).

Therefore, the person who does the assessment must put these questions in mind and promote truthful accounting of feedback. The instruments used for assessment like graphs, charts, behaviour observation, forms, questionnaires and calculation indexes must be standard.

In this case, they should be acceptable universally or have international bearing, and provide competent results across the spectrum. The frequency and timing of measure should be stipulated in reasonable periods according to the organizations period of operation.

In the development of objectives like in the MBO plan, managers guide the teams, and individuals to develop objectives in line with what the organization has laid out. In this process, planning, performance review and evaluation have to be backed by the development of the interrelationship between managers and the group.

This development should be based on trust, social interactions, and social relations, which enhance team structure (Heinrich, 2000).

Since goals are developed in line with problems or outlined objectives, the performance improvement cycle involves planning for improvement as the first step. Secondly, the implementation of the improvement follows after review, which is followed closely by evaluation of success of the improvement program.

Finally, from the results, the next step involves making decisions. Therefore, in this cycle, the principles move from the plan, then to check and finally to act (Avis, 2009).

As a manager, one need to support the efforts of teams and individuals should be guided from the top going down. Support should be of different forms in order to enhance performance since changes keep on happening in the management process. The support on performance from management is advantageous since communication is enhanced and during difficult periods.

The support may involve verbal encouragements to individuals or teams from managers. On the other hand, the management as an organization should support the individual and team by providing systems that are needed.

The support systems for teams may include efficient inventory and schedule systems, better hiring systems, improved information systems and appropriate compensation systems. Team leaders and managers must ensure growth of the team and individual towards the outlined objectives (Lussier, 2011). The following is a sample of the performance improvement cycle diagram:

Source: Joint Commission Resources, Inc. 2001, p. 36

Grievances are common in work places and court processes often return to an employer after an ex-employee sues an organization. The philosophy of discipline in an organization revolves around evaluation of work performance.

The process of assessing how much has been gained, as projected in the goals and objectives of individuals, teams and organizations, lead to performance review through continuous performance improvement cycles (Grifffin and Moorhead, 2011).

From the assessment feedback and review, an organizational can determine the right employee suited for a certain job, as well as the needed skills. At the same time, employees are able to identify their areas of improvement using measures like 360 degrees self-feedback mechanism and other measures.

The management takes keen interests in both those who have performed and underperformed. For those who have performed above or as expected through the objectives, rewards, incentives and compensation follow from as a process of support from the organization (Falcone, 2002).

In cases of underperformance, the organization, teams, individuals and managers work together in review meetings to analyse the results and possible failure in the support process or the development of unrealistic objectives. This results to performance improvement cycles until the performance is satisfactory.

However, in situations where the individual consistently espouses underperformance due to lack of ability skills in the presence of necessary supportive systems, then disciplinary actions must prevail (Grifffin and Moorhead, 2011).

The philosophy of disciplinary measures must put in mind the “work place due process” concept. This involves recording of documents that “indicate threefold” warnings to an individual who constantly under performs. These records serve to help the individual assess the procedures and ways she or he can use to improve in order to avert the chance of losing the job.

In this process are the principles of progressive discipline. These principles attempt to indicate to the employee that they stand a chance of losing a job. Therefore, legally, probations, suspensions precede termination which must be founded on just cause (Brousseau, 1978).

Therefore, as a manager, the role is to first support the individual or team found to have underperformed. This is done through various measures of support improvement.

In the progress of serious mistakes or grievances as a manger, I should record the warnings and expressly offer information that places the concerned personnel informed. These roles must fall in the stipulated procedures as stipulated in the Fourteenth Amendment and thus respect the rights of employees and employers.

In summary, an organization must first assess and measure performance of teams or individuals using the appropriate procedures and methods. At this stage, information must be recorded and documented for future purposes and references. In the process, appropriate feedbacks are communicated using the relevant procedures through performance review meetings and forums.

Following this the organization takes to the drawing board to plan and redevelop or assess the objectives laid out in the previous plan. This makes a performance improvement cycle which enhances achieving of objectives.

In case there is under performance, the manager and team leaders refer to documented information and continue to support the areas that need development in an individual. These from the background warnings must accumulate to three or more than three times.

If the performance falls less than below the set goals for three improvement cycles then suspension, probation and summons should precede termination. If these fail, then the manager has the power to terminate on an acceptable cause (Cardy and Leonard, 2011).

For those who perform to the expected goals the organization promotes them to desired levels in order to help the organization to train others in the area or department. Secondly, the organization reviews the performance remuneration to commensurate with the new results hence the profitability of the organization.

Organizations should incorporate performance management strategies in the management process in order to realize the benefits of optimal resource utilization. The human resource in an organization forms one the factors that an organization has the power to use to realize goals and objectives. It is thus paramount that performance management should be regarded positively and accepted by managers worldwide.

Increased improvement and success in organizations has often been attributed to efforts in the team work. The measure of success used to assess teams can have more impact when performance management is put in place. It is thus important for organizations to include performance management in order to achieve success.

Armstrong, M 2006, Performing management: key strategies and practical guidelines (3 rd ed), Pentoville Road, London: Kogan Page.

Avis, J 2009, P2 – Performance Management, Managerial (6ed), Jordan Hill Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Bacal, R 2011, Performance Management (2/E), Burr Ridge New York: Mcgraw Hill Professional.

Bayazit, M and Mannix, EA 2003, Should I stay or should I go? Predicting team members’ intent to remain in the team. Small Group Research , 34(3): 290-321.

Brousseau, KR 1978, Personality and job experience. Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance , 22: 235-52.

Cammann, C, Fichman, M, Jenkins, GD, & Klesh, JR 1983, “Assessing the attitudes and perceptions of organizational members”, in SE Seashore, EE Lawler, P. Mervis and C, Cammann (eds), Assessing Organizational Change , New York: Wiley, pp. 125-175.

Cardy, LB and Leonard, B 2011, Performance Management Concepts, Skills, and Exercises. Business, Park Drive, New York: M.E. Sharpe.

Cummings, TG and Worley, CG 2009, Organization development & change , Australia: South-Western/Cengage Learning.

Falcone, P 2002, The hiring and firing question and answer book , New York: AMACOM Div American Mgmt Assn.

Grifffin WR and Moorhead, G 2011, Organizational Behaviour: Managing People and Organizations , Boulevard, Mason: Cengage Learning.

Heinrich, CJ 2000, Organizational form and performance: An empirical investigation of nonprofit and for-profit job-training service providers. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 19: 233–61.

Joint Commission Resources, Inc. 2001, Using performance improvement tools in ambulatory care , Oakbrook Terrace, IL: Joint Commission Resources.

Lussier, NR 2011, Management Fundamentals: Concepts, Applications, Skill Development (5ed), Boulevard, Mason: Cengage Learning.

McNamara, C and McNamara, T 2002, Field Guide to Leadership and Supervision in Business , New York: Authenticity consulting, LLC.

Moynihan, DP 2008, The dynamics of performance management: Constructing information and reform , Washington, DC: Georgetown Univ. Press.

Radin, BA, 2006, Challenging the performance movement: Accountability, complexity, and democratic values , Washington, DC: Georgetown Univ. Press.

Riccucci, N 2005, How management matters: Street-level bureaucrats and welfare reform , Washington, DC: Georgetown Univ. Press.

Ridzi, F 2004, Making TANF work: Organizational restructuring, staff buy-in, and performance monitoring in local implementation, Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 31:2.

TACK International (Africa) Ltd, 2009. A briefing note on Performance Management . Web.

Talbot, C 2005, “Performance management”, in E Ferlie, LE Lynn and C Pollitt (Eds) The Oxford Handbook of Public Management , Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

Warner, J 2002, The Janus performance management system: A complete performance management support process for individuals, teams, and the entire organization , Amherst, Mass: HRD Press.

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Essay on Performance Management Process

Through performance management, management and workers collaborate to organize, evaluate, and analyze an employee’s job objectives and contributions to the corporation. Performance management is a continual process of creating targets, measuring progress, and offering continuing feedback and coaching to ensure that workers fulfill their objectives and career goals. Armstrong and Baron (1998) consider it a never-ending process that prioritizes the future over the organization’s past. They stress the strategic and holistic character of the process, which aims to improve the efficacy of firms by enhancing the efficiency of the employees and by expanding the capacities of individuals and team contributors. The main goals of performance management are to communicate a common goal of the firm’s mission, define expectations of the firm, and ensure that the employees understand what high performance means and how to accomplish it. Also, it helps increase worker motivation and allows them to track their progress and determine what should be done to enhance overall performance. The process is more than just an annual performance review. The steps to the process can be broken down into four, including; planning, coaching, reviewing, and rewarding.

While planning, HR must describe the position in detail, including the short- and long-term goals, primary aims, detailed descriptions, and an explicit criterion for evaluating these goals and objectives. The goals should be detailed, quantifiable, attainable, and exact performance requirements should be established. Personnel has an opportunity to provide feedback on the information after managers have completed the defining step (Qureshi et al., 2010). They execute their jobs; therefore, they have a unique perspective on the skills, abilities, and goals that can best help the corporation accomplish its objectives. Both administration and the personnel agree on the role’s description, purpose, and aims. By making the first step of the process collaborative, the management set the tone for the rest of the process to be interactive. Personnel feels participated in goal setting, which is critical.

At the beginning of the process, it is critical to go over performance objectives with personnel, covering both results and behavior they are intended to accomplish during the next cycle. Behaviors are significant because they indicate how employees approach their work, support the team, mentor, and communicate to others (Pulakos, 2014). Some employees produce excellent results, but it is challenging to deal with, unfriendly, and demonstrate maladaptive work behaviors. Behavior is vital to consider in the work environment; such behaviors can be pretty disruptive. On the other hand, a worker can be interpersonally practical, kind, and exceedingly helpful but never achieve significant outcomes.

Coaching is a necessary process and should be done regularly. Employees are coached to solve performance challenges and problems to make an excellent contribution to the corporation. Monitoring performances do not include scrutinizing details of how employees do their allocated duties and activities. During couching, there is an examination of how far the employees have a cone in achieving their goals. Potential roadblocks to the staff’s performance goals and what might be done to overcome them are identified. Thoughts are made on how the team achieves its objectives (Qureshi et al., 2010). Adjustments to the work schedule are determined due to shifts in the corporation’s priorities or when staff is required to take on new duties. The management determines whether more assistance is necessary to help the employee in accomplishing their goals. Setting objectives for specific employees is an integral part of performance management and requires a successful performance evaluation. Thus, there is a need to track how far the employee has progressed towards their objectives. Also, it is important to note how they attained their goals. The idea is to measure frequently and apply the results to coaching and counseling.

A review or appraisal meeting is a chance to examine, analyze, and highlight the employee’s achievements during the appraisal period. Most appraisals include a self-examination component. Workers can analyze their performance in advance of the appraisal meeting by utilizing the performance plan and evaluation form as a guide. The procedure can aid in the identification of discrepancies between the employee’s self-perception and the manager’s perspectives and promote a more in-depth discussion of performance difficulties. To properly analyze employee performance, the manager should evaluate their performance management notes and other documentation collected during the year issues communicated to the employee before the assessment should be included in the record and meeting. Thus, ensuring that the management address performance problems while developing and assuring the employees that the performance evaluation meeting will be free of surprises (Qureshi et al., 2010). A successful review system should include all critical parts of the job, be devoid of contaminating influences, and quantify essential job attributes. It should be trustworthy and free of rating flaws. Equally important, review systems should be fair to everyone as they must meet the criteria of equality legislation.

Recognition and reward are the last steps in the process, and it helps employees stay motivated such as leadership opportunities, time-off, recognition, and new projects. Workers should be motivated by a good incentive and recognition system that aligns their objectives with the company. Staff remuneration and recognition for good performance must maximize competitiveness and yielding pay investment in such a framework. Given the high expense of reward programs, it is critical to have a well-thought-out strategy that reflects their goals and expectations. The significant functions of incentive programs are attracting and retaining qualified people, particularly in tight labor markets, driving workers to fulfill their job aims and impacting the culture, reinforcing and defining the structure like status and hierarchy, and encouraging entrepreneurship, flexibility, participation, and innovation. The end of the performance cycle provides the last opportunity for the employees and the management to give feedback on the process and input and feedback for the first stage for the next cycle.

Performance engagement aids in the development of a culture of support and trust among employees and the business. Workers are more engaged when they are aware that their efforts are recognized and appreciated. Staff who receive feedback from their employers once a year, for instance, will be detached and disengaged (Brown et al., 2018). Performance management can also be helpful when building employee development strategies, indicating that one is anticipating employee development requirements thus, boosting the overall performance.

An aging population has two significant HR impacts in terms of the management process. First, the management can ensure the delivery of knowledge held by the older workers before they retire; second, firms have to address how to maintain reliable levels of efficiency among older workers even as they remain in the firm. As the personnel that drive the knowledge-based economy ages, there seems to be a risk that critical expertise will be lost as the older workers go to retirement (Beardwell & Thompson, 2017). Therefore, knowledge transfer ensures a firm’s success, and knowledge is recognized as the most significant business resource. A performance management process is a deliberate approach for providing the appropriate information to the right individuals at the right time and a method for placing knowledge into practice to enhance corporation performance.

Understanding how diversity influences performance has become a preeminent problem for HRM as the workers continue to be more diversified and inclusive. The impact of diverse populations on workplace results has been investigated. Job satisfaction is favorably and strongly connected to diversity management. Well-managed diversity management leads to a more satisfied workforce. It implies that resources should be allocated to diversity management initiatives and training programs at the corporate level (Beardwell & Thompson, 2017). All personnel, especially supervisors, should consider diversity as a fundamental asset. At the sub-organizational level, the management interested in successful performance management should devote time and effort to comprehending the various views of staff groups. Acknowledging and handling diversity present in teams will lead to the success of the organization. Therefore, HR teams must consider diversity management as a primary instrument in the toolset of performance management. They must endeavor to provide diversity-related competencies and elevate levels of awareness and understanding throughout the company.

In conclusion, human resources are significant to a company’s success. Corporations would be unproductive if they did not have efficient personnel, and they would risk missing to carry out their stated objectives and goals. As a result, every company, as part of its strategy, implements appropriate processes of performance management, a system that aids in the commitment of staff members to the company’s goals. If personnel realize that their effort and devotion are being reviewed, they will be more motivated to continue working. To encourage the growth of remuneration or other forms of incentives like praise and appreciation, as an element related to assessment and plays a vital role in engaging workers. Thus, many multinational businesses use remuneration due to good performance in the company structure (Osmani & Ramolli), 2012). The performance review process is perceived as more formal and should be completed by the management. Still, in most instances, the evaluation of the people is done without assessing the actual capabilities and outcomes of staff performance. While the technique of remuneration is used, it all remains a matter of choice as the evaluation is variable depending on narrow political or personal interests as determined by the management or business leaders. In addition, a component that should be present in performance evaluations is a greater emphasis on the discovery and use of strategies for enhancing performance instead of their application with no beneficial consequences.

Beardwell, J., & Thompson, A. (2017).  Human resource management: a contemporary approach.  (8th ed.). Pearson.

Brown, T. C., O’Kane, P., Mazumdar, B., & McCracken, M. (2018). Performance Management: A Scoping Review of the Literature and an Agenda for Future Research.  Human Resource Development Review ,  18 (1), 47–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484318798533

Osmani, F., & Ramolli), G. M. (2012). Performance Management, Its Assessment and Importance.  Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences ,  41 , 434–441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.04.052

Pulakos, E. (2014).  Performance Management A roadmap for developing, implementing and evaluating performance management systems . https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/trends-and-forecasting/special-reports-and-expert-views/Documents/Performance-Management.pdf

Qureshi, J., Shahjehan, A., & Afsar, B. (2010). Performance management systems: A comparative analysis.  African Journal of Business Management ,  4 (9), 1856–1862. https://academicjournals.org/journal/AJBM/article-full-text-pdf/0ECF0F532323.pdf

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Performance Management Essay

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Communication , Workplace , Development , Employee , Management , Behavior , Goals , Organization

Words: 1200

Published: 11/25/2019

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Performance Management

It is not enough to have a talented workforce in an organization. For the organization to meet its objectives, the manager has to work close to the workforce so as to understand what is being done correctly and wrongly. Moreover, his presents encourage workers as well as showing them how activities are suppose to be done. Therefore, performance management is inevitable if the organization is to succeed. Arguably, in this case, the term ‘performance’ is twofold; it encompasses behavior plus results. In every organization, results and behavior go hand-in hand. This is where the importance of performance management comes in handy, (Adiele, 2009). The term “performance management” is used to refer to a constant, uninterrupted process of communication, illuminating job responsibilities, performance as well as anticipations intended to create a clear and common understanding between the workforce and the manager. Precisely, these are the entire activities that guarantee consistent achievement of organizational goals in a successful and proficient manner. Notably, performance management may be centered on the performance of a department, organization, process or employees as well as other areas, (Bustamante, 2009). It generally concentrates on behavior and results, which are the two crucial elements of performance. It is important to note that, performance management is a viewpoint which values and supports the development of employees through a management style that offers regular feedback as well as promoting teamwork. It accentuates communication and centers on putting in value to the organization through promotion of the performance of jobs and encouraging development of skills, (Bustamante, 2009). Generally, performance management engrosses clarification of job duties, definition of standards of performance, documentation, rating as well as discussion of performance with each and every member of the workforce. Consequently, the major objective of performance management include: boosting two-way communication between the employees and the manager; clarification of goals, missions, priority, tasks and expectations; identification and determination of performance problems; distinguishing quality performance; and lastly, giving a starting point for administrative decisions, (Adiele, 2009). As mentioned above, there are two main parties that are involved in performance management; the employee and the manager. Being the leader, the manager plays various roles as far as performance management is concerned. To begin with, he/she has the responsibility of establishing decisively the results as well as the signs of performance according to the input of the employees, and recording them on the performance chart, (Bustamante, 2009). Precisely, he/she is the one to bring into record the work of employees and the results achieved. Another role is that, he/she checks on the performance of the workforce during evaluation period and informs the workforce on issues concerning their performance consistently. Moreover, it is the responsibility of the manager to assist the employees through the evaluation period to ensure that they improve on the areas that had been identified in need of improvement, (Adiele, 2009). Besides, it is his/her role to seek for feedback from external and internal customers, suppliers, coworkers, team members and from other areas as far as the performance of his/her employees is concerned, to be able to know how the decisions that should me made. The other responsibility of the manager is that of carrying out progress reviews for each and every employee between the opening yearly planning period and the end of the evaluation period. Lastly, the manager should be able to identify employees with high-quality performance and ensure that they are rewarded accordingly. By so doing, these employees will be motivated to work even harder and those are registering low performance rates will try to improve in order to qualify for these rewards. Feedback is a very important element in performance management. As a matter of fact, feedback is two-way; the employee has to seek feedback from his/her manager concerning his/her work performance and also, the manager has to seek feedback from his/her employees in order to determine any probable problem. As a matter of fact, the feedback may be positive or negative. Whichever kind of feedback one might get, it will determine the performance of the individual in the future. For instance, if an employee gets a negative feedback from the manager, he/she becomes aware of what is not being done right, (Adiele, 2009). Therefore, he/she would concentrate on improving his/her performance. If the feedback is positive, it acts as a motivation for the employees to work even harder as they are assured of good performance and output. There are various issues that should be noted as far as performance feedback is concerned. The feedback should be frequent. It should also be focused on solving probable problems. Additionally, the feedback should be centered not on an individual, but on the results. It is of importance as well the manager to enquire about the performance rates of each employee before the beginning of the session and support him/her to be active in participation. Lastly, the manager should identify effectual performance through congratulation, (Bustamante, 2009). Generally, there are three important elements of feedback. To begin with, the employee is made aware of his/her weaknesses and strengths. The other element is that, it acts as a motivational factor for the employees to improve their productivity. Lastly, it plays a significant role in achievement of professional goals of the company as well as developing competencies among the workforce. In some cases, problems may arise in the performance of the employees. It is the work of the manager to chip in to help correct this problem. It is the role of the manager to prepare and embark on a focused discussion of the problem at hand with the affected individuals, (Bustamante, 2009). This should then be followed by stating the need for performance improvement. Thereafter, the manager and the affected individuals should jointly review the situation at hand. After the review, they should then both decide on the steps that are to be undertaken. Through this process, the affected individuals will be able to identify the possible actions to take. To ensure that the problem has been effectively addressed, the manager should take the initiative of following-up the progress on the issue and offer his/her support to the affected individuals to help them regain their self-esteem. Finally, rewards are vital elements in performance management. The manager should be able to identify high performing employees so that they can be rewarded in order to encourage them in their daily activities. This is also an opportunity to motivate poor performing employees to raise their standards. Notably, there are different categories of rewards: monetary or salary related, promotional opportunities, and recognition awards, (Bustamante, 2009).

Adiele, N. (2009). Business Performance Management Explained. Retrieved on 20th July 2011 from http://www.helium.com/items/1334476-performance-management-explained Bustamante, C. (2009). Tips for Conducting Effective Performance Reviews. Retrieved on 20th July 2011 from http://www.helium.com/items/1440842-tips-for-conducting-effective-performance-reviews

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• Performance Management
• Knowledge Hub
• Employee Performance

Increasingly, organizations are understanding that their management systems must be brought into the 21st century if they are going to be competitive in the current market.

Research shows that previous systems, such as yearly appraisals, are outdated and can even serve to decrease employee engagement and motivation. In light of this, more companies are turning to performance management than ever before.

This dynamic and strategic approach to developing improved performance in employees is gaining ground in companies large and small, including many Fortune 500 and industry-leading organizations.

What is performance management?

The importance of performance management, the purpose and goals of performance management, the benefits of performance management, 15 employee performance management best practices, 5 real-world examples of performance management, what is the difference between performance management and performance appraisals.

Performance management is a strategic approach to creating and sustaining improved performance in employees, leading to an increase in the effectiveness of companies.

By focusing on the development of employees and the alignment of company goals with team and individual goals, managers can create a work environment that enables both employees and companies to thrive.

Based on the definition of performance management, a system is built within an organization to measure and improve the performance of the people in that organization.

In practice, performance management means that management is consistently working to develop their employees, establish clear goals, and offer consistent feedback throughout the year.

In contrast to other systems of reviewing employee performance, such as yearly performance appraisals , employee performance management is a much more dynamic and involved process with better outcomes.

For the Human Resources department, performance management is an important system for onboarding , developing and retaining employees, as well as reviewing their performance.

It is increasingly understood that a yearly performance appraisal system does not effectively engage employees, fails to consistently set and meet company objectives, and does not result in a strong understanding of employee performance.

Why is performance management important?

In any organization, no matter the size, it is important to understand what your employees are doing, how they are doing it, and why they are doing it.

Without a system in place to define roles, understand individual strengths and weaknesses, provide constructive feedback , trigger interventions and reward positive behavior, it is much more difficult for managers to effectively lead their employees.

Smart organizations pair their performance management with an incentive management process. The two systems have a lot in common, from defining roles and setting goals to reviewing and rewarding employee behavior, and as such, do very well when run simultaneously. Using incentive management also means that the all-important ‘reward’ step of performance management is done properly.

Talent management is an important part of every organization. Three of the main problems that organizations face are:

• keeping employees engaged
• retaining talent
• developing leaders from within

These are the issues that performance management very effectively targets.

1. Keeping employees engaged

Engagement of employees is a focus of any management team. In a yearly appraisal system, goals would be given at the beginning of the year and then revisited 12 months later to see if they had been met. This long stretch of time without feedback or check-in is an almost certain engagement killer.

In fact, 94% of employees would prefer their manager gives them feedback and development opportunities in real-time, and 81% would prefer at least quarterly check-ins with their manager, according to the Growth Divide Study .

Studies show that employees do best with feedback on a monthly or quarterly basis, with regular check-ins serving as a zone to problem solve, adjust goals as necessary, and to refresh their focus on the goal. In fact, companies where employees meet to review goals quarterly or more frequently are almost 50% more likely to have above-average financial performance.

When surveyed, employees had some negative feelings about a yearly appraisal system:

• 62% of employees feel that their performance review was incomplete
• 48% did not feel comfortable raising issues with their manager in between performance reviews
• 61% feel that the process is outdated
• 74% feel that they would be more effective with more frequent feedback
• 68% of executives don’t learn about employee concerns until the performance review

All of this adds up to a lot of missed opportunities to solve problems and increase employee performance and engagement.

As employee engagement rises, nine key performance indicators show successful outcomes. Absenteeism, turnover, shrinkage, safety incidents, patient safety incidents and defects in quality are lessened by at least 25%, and often more, across the board. Customer experience, productivity and profitability all show positive outcomes.

This study, by Gallup , was conducted across a broad range of industries, showing that employee engagement is a critical factor, no matter the industry.

2. Retaining talent

Employees who have frequent meetings with management to discuss performance, solve problems and receive training are more likely to stay with the company.

If employees see that their management team is putting in the work to develop them professionally, help them succeed with their goals, and reward performance on a consistent basis, then they are more incentivized to both stay with the company and work harder.

3. Developing leaders from within

This consistent development and partnership between managers and employees allow for the development of leaders from within the company.

Recruiting costs can be extremely high, as are costs for onboarding and training new employees. To be able to groom leaders from within the company means that there is already a proven culture fit with this individual and that training costs and resources spent developing this person into an asset are not lost.

This leadership path also serves as a motivating force for employees, who can see that their hard work will be rewarded with promotions and other benefits.

Performance management also creates a need for management to consistently focus on company objectives and goals, and to consider how best to achieve them. This continual revisiting of goals means that they are more likely to stay relevant, as goals will be adjusted in light of new technology, changes in the market, or other factors throughout the year.

According to Forbes , ‘companies that set performance goals quarterly generate 31% greater returns from their performance process than those who do it annually, and those who do it monthly get even better results.’

The purpose of performance management is to give both managers and employees a clear and consistent system within which to work that, in turn, will lead to increased productivity.

• This system shows employees the pathway to success, allows for the measuring of performance coupled with feedback and offers training and development opportunities.
• Performance management allows management to understand what their employees are doing and track progress on company objectives while providing consistent feedback.

There are five main objectives of performance management:

• Develop clear role definitions, expectations and goals
• Increase employee engagement
• Develop managerial leadership and coaching skills
• Boost productivity through improved performance
• Develop a performance reward program that incentivizes accomplishment

These performance management goals show a clear path from the developing of goals to the rewarding of increased accomplishment. If one of these performance management objectives is not done well, then the others will suffer as a result.

Performance management has a multitude of benefits for employees and managers, as well as for the company as a whole. If a company can successfully create an environment of engagement where customers are equally engaged by employees on the front line, their outcome is even better.

When organizations successfully engage their customers and their employees, they experience a 240% boost in performance-related business outcomes compared with an organization with neither engaged employees nor engaged customers. – Gallup

• Having well-defined roles and performance standards makes hiring an easier process, as candidates know what is expected of them, and HR can more easily understand if a candidate is a right fit for the role.
• Those well-defined roles and standards make training easier, as trainers know exactly which areas need to be covered, and which information is nonessential.
• Consistent developing and revisiting of goals ensure that the organization keeps up with changing market forces easily, and reacts quickly as a whole, regardless of the size of the organization.
• Clear expectations and roles set employees up for achieving goals from the start, providing a springboard to success.
• Employees who feel that their company is invested in their success stay with their companies, increasing employee retention.
• Consistent feedback and coaching from managers lead directly to increased engagement from employees while developing the ability to provide good coaching and feedback leads to more skilled managers.
• As employees become more skilled, they can move up through the company, creating a leadership pipeline.
• Productivity will increase thanks to increased engagement, clear goals and upskilling of employees.
• Employees remain incentivized to perform long-term, as they are properly rewarded for their hard work.

While performance management can sound deceptively simple, with just four steps as outlined above, the process itself is very complicated. That’s why we have put together this list of best practices for performance management.

Think of it like the essentials of performance management – these will help make sure that your employee performance management system is performing the way it should.

1. Identify the goals of your performance management initiatives

As you are creating your performance management program, you need to understand what you want to accomplish.

Asking the following questions can help you:

• Is increased productivity a priority?
• Does your organization want to identify leaders from within and develop them?
• Do you want to streamline the compensation process?
• Are you seeking to improve employee retention or engagement?

If you know what you want your program to do, it will be easier to build it to accomplish that goal.

2. Define and describe each role

We mentioned this above, but it bears repeating. It is much harder for an employee to be successful if they don’t know exactly what is expected from them, how they should do it, and what the end result should look like.

3. Pair goals with a performance plan

As you set goals, develop a performance plan to go alongside. Year-long goals often fail, as they are too large and employees can get overwhelmed before they start. A performance plan helps them visualize their path, making it much more likely that they will meet their goal.

4. Monitor progress towards performance targets

Review key areas of performance. Use metrics and analytics to your advantage, tracking how goals are progressing to make sure that interventions can happen early, if necessary.

5. Coaching should be frequent

The point of coaching is to help identify and solve problems before they get too big. If it’s not frequent, it’s not going to help at all. Monthly or quarterly meetings should be held to help keep employees on the right track.

6. Use guidelines to your advantage

Guidelines should be created for each role as part of the first stage of the performance management cycle. These policies or guidelines should stipulate specific areas for, or limits on, opportunity, search and experimentation. Employees do their jobs better when they have solid guidelines to follow.

7. Build a performance-aligned culture

Make sure your workplace has shared values and cultural alignment. A sense of shared values, beliefs and expectations among employees creates a more harmonious and pleasant workplace. Employees should be committed to the values and objectives outlined, and exemplified by, top management.

8. Organize cross-functional workshops

This helps employees – and managers – understand what other departments do, how they think and what their strengths and weaknesses are. They can discover something new and find new connections, which can help them in future work.

9. Management should offer actionable feedback

During these coaching meetings, tensions can arise if the feedback is not given in a constructive, actionable manner. It is not very important to look backward and point fingers, rather management should guide employees towards future success.

10. Keep it professional, not personal

Giving less-than-stellar feedback is hard on both managers and employees, it’s one of the reasons that performance appraisals tend to be a least-liked task. Managers should make sure to keep feedback professional and remember to focus on behavior, rather than characteristics.

For example, pointing out that David regularly turned in important reports late is feedback about a behavior. Saying that David is lazy, and that’s why the reports were often late is feedback about a characteristic. One of these can help an employee own their role in a project’s success (or lack thereof) and the other will make them defensive instantly.

11. It’s not only employees that need training

Management should be trained too. Coaching and offering good feedback are not easy jobs, which is why there are so many specialist coaches out there. For managers to be able to lead well, they should be trained in these skill sets.

12. Take advantage of multiple-source feedback

Ask employees to write feedback for each other. This will give management a more holistic view on employee performance, understand the challenges that teams are facing, and be able to better offer feedback.

13. Don’t depend only on reviews

While the review process is important, it is only one part of the system as a whole. Planning, coaching, and rewarding employees are equally key parts of the system.

14. Problems are not always employee-based

It can be easy to assume that problems are always caused by employees, but that simply is not the case. Problems can arise from external factors such as availability of supplies, internal processes that are causing issues, or organizational policies. Seek out the source of problems as precisely as you can in order to fix them.

15. Recognize and reward performance publicly and frequently

Management cannot expect employees to stay motivated if they are never rewarded, yet many companies overlook this key step. Make sure that employees are compensated and recognized for their hard work, and they will continue delivering for your organization.

Of course, it’s one thing to understand the theory of what performance management is, but it’s another thing to use it in a real company. Let’s take a look at some real-world examples of the performance management process in action:

It’s no surprise that Google would show up on a list of companies that use a newer, innovative system of management. This company has always been a trendsetter, and their performance management process is one that relies on data and analysis, as well as making sure that their managers are well trained.

When assessing their performance management system, Google launched a project dedicated to assessing their managers, which has led to a thorough training and future development process that sets managers, and thus employees, up for success.

They also use a system of setting goals that have caught on across multiple industries. Using their Objectives and Key Results (OKRs) system, they reframe the goal-setting process, with great results.

Another tech trendsetter, Facebook has a performance management process that puts a heavy emphasis on peer-to-peer feedback. In semi-annual reviews, they are able to use that feedback to see how well teams are performing and understand where collaboration is happening – and where it is not. They also have developed an internal software to provide continuous, real-time feedback. This helps employees solve issues before they become problems.

Cargill is a Minnesota-based food-producer and distributor with over 150,000 employees and serves to demonstrate that even huge companies can ditch unwieldy performance appraisals and institute a new system. In following the latest research on the dissatisfaction of management with outdated performance management process, Cargill created their ‘Everyday Performance Management’ system. The system is designed to be continuous, centered around a positive employee-manager relationship, with daily activity and feedback being incorporated into conversations that solve problems rather than rehash past actions.

The Everyday Performance Management system had overwhelmingly positive results, with 69% of employees stating that they received feedback that was useful for their professional development, and 70% reporting that they felt valued as a result of the continuous performance discussions with their manager.

Adobe calculated that managers were spending about 80,000 hours a year on performance reviews, only to have employees report that they left those reviews demoralized and turnover was increasing as a result.

Seeing a system that only produced negatives, Adobe’s leadership team made a bold leap into a performance management system that began by training managers how to perform more frequent check-ins and offer actionable guidance, then the company gave managers the leeway they needed to effectively lead.

Management was given much more freedom in how they structured their check-ins and employee review sessions, as well as more discretion in salaries and promotions. Employees are often contacted for ‘pulse surveys’ – a way for the leadership team to make sure that individual managers are leading their teams well. One of the many positive results of this has been a 30% cut involuntary turnover due to a frequent check-in program.

Accenture is a massive company – over 330,000 people, so changing their systems means a huge effort. When they switched to their new system, they got rid of about 90% of the previous process. Now, they are using a more fluid performance management process where employees receive ongoing, timely feedback from management. This has been paired with a renewed focus on immediate employee development and an internal app for communicating feedback.

There are common threads in all of these examples. Each company has built a system that works for them, rather than following a one-size-fits-all approach. What works for one company might not work for another – it depends on the industry, the speed and flexibility of the company, and the overall goal of the system itself.

With similar names and purposes that sometimes align, it is no surprise that some people find it hard to spot the difference between performance management and performance appraisals.

In fact, performance appraisals are often part of the performance management process , although some companies still rely on performance appraisals alone.

An easy way to understand the difference between the two is that performance appraisals are reactive, and performance management is proactive.

A performance appraisal looks at all of the past actions of the employee within a set amount of time , and rates how well they performed in their role and how many goals they met.

Performance management looks at the present and future of the employee, and what can be done to help future performance and meet future goals . Performance management is focused on the development and training of an employee, and how that can benefit both the employee and the company.

A performance appraisal is a formal, operational task, done according to rigid parameters and in a quantitative manner. HR leads performance appraisals, with input from management. Performance management is much more informal and strategic, led by management with input from the employees in a more flexible manner.

Ivan Andreev

Demand Generation & Capture Strategist

Ivan Andreev is a dedicated marketing professional with a proven track record of driving growth and efficiency in various marketing domains, especially SEO. With a career spanning over a decade, Ivan has developed a deep understanding of marketing strategies, project management, data analysis, and team leadership. His strong commitment to knowledge sharing, passion for process optimization, and turning challenges into opportunities have solidified his reputation as a pivotal player in the marketing team.

Essay on Performance Management

Introduction.

During the Covid-19 crisis, many organizations moved away from performance management due to the setbacks and disruptions when measuring performance. Contrary to these shortcomings of measuring performance management during a crisis, companies must continue and strengthen their performance management (Eklund & Stern, 2021). This will ensure that organizations can retain talent, protect firms from legal risks, offer vital feedback to workgroups and individuals, collect valued business data and describe a firm’s strategic direction. To achieve this, organizations need to develop solutions to overcome the challenges related to performance management during times of crisis. The paper will review academic literature to identify approaches that can be used to improve performance management. This will include assessing methods that can be used to make performance management better.

Review of Academic Literature

Relevance of performance management during crisis.

Performance management refers to a corporate management tool used by managers to evaluate and monitor the performance of employees. Performance management aims to develop an environment where people can become productive to the best of their abilities and produce high-quality work that is done effectively and efficiently (Denisi & Smith, 2014). Performance management tools ensure that employees are productive and that their skills and abilities are maximized to the fullest (Aguinis & Burgi-Tian, 2021). Performance management programs consider traditional tools such as developing and measuring milestones, objectives, and goals. Performance management aims to describe the appearance of effective performance and create approaches to analyze performance. Therefore, performance management is an opportunity for employees to learn. Performance management is a vital aspect of talent management in organizations of all sizes and types.

Performance management should be viewed as a continuous process that identifies, measures, and develops the performance of workgroups and individuals, ensuring that they align their performance with the objectives of an organization (Aguinis & Burgi-Tian, 2021). During the Covid-19 pandemic, most organizations could not continue with performance management due to disruptions brought by the crisis. Many organizations were forced to hibernate and assume a survival mode. This saw many organizations discontinue their standard approaches to measuring performance. One of the significant difficulties during this period was measuring the employees’ performance because their production approaches had been altered by the Covid-19 crisis (Aguinis & Burgi-Tian, 2021). Before the pandemic, most organizations associated their performance with salary. However, many organizations sought to separate performance from pay decisions during the pandemic. During this crisis, most organizations reconsidered their approach of basing pay increases on performance (Tweedie et al., 2019). This made leaders and organizations to ask the question of whether performance management is of relevance and if it is essential during a crisis (Aguinis & Burgi-Tian, 2021). Additionally, there was the question of measuring performance since the workers could not do their work using the previously standard methods. The questions are dangerous because talent management is a significant determinant of organizational performance (Aguinis & Burgi-Tian, 2021). Performance management is beyond the concept of serving administrative purposes. It includes other purposes, such as supporting talent, maintaining a quality workforce, supporting the development of workers, reinforcing strategic agendas, and communication, to name a few.

For this reason, organizations need to continue with performance management if they want to meet their set goals and objectives. During crises, organizations should be able to measure performance. Several reasons support the need for organizations to conduct performance management during a crisis. During a crisis, organizations face much chaos and are forced to look upon the leaders and managers for guidance  ( Aguinis et al., 2012). It is only through performance management that leaders and managers can be able to provide guidance and strategic direction to the employees. Ending performance management during a crisis indicates that the management is not in control and does not know what the workers should do during a crisis. In times of crisis, organizations face numerous issues (Al-Jedaia & Mehrez, 2020). These issues faced by organizations result in performance issues that require immediate attention (Dodhia et al., 2020). Lack of performance management leads to these issues being ignored. This affects the ability of the organization to meet its set goals and objectives. Performance management puts mechanisms into place that make it easy to communicate empathy and provide a roadmap for dealing with the identified issues.

Lack of performance data for an extended period denies the managers an opportunity to provide meaningful and sound feedback to the workers. In such instances, it is difficult for the workers to improve their performance, and they end up misaligned with the organization’s goals and objectives (Gabriel & Aguinis, 2022). Ongoing and frequent feedback provides an opportunity for continuity and assists the employees in developing psychological safety and a sense of belonging. Feedback is essential to an organization’s success (Denisi & Murphy, 2017). Feedback provides clarity on what needs to be done as it helps people learn from the mistakes of other people and develop confidence. Timely and effective feedback resulting from performance management helps in the establishment of performance goals. Giving employees effective feedback on their progress toward set goals and objectives helps them improve their performance and develop approaches to deal with any difficulties that emerge during crises (Al-Jedaia & Mehrez, 2020). Companies that lack performance data for a prolonged period are placed in a risky legal position  ( Aguinis et al., 2012). During times of crisis, organizations tend to force some of the workers. In such instances, performance is considered a significant factor that helps in deciding which employees should be let go (Denisi & Murphy, 2017). Lack of performance data may lead to unfair dismissal, leading to legal lawsuits against the organizations. In such cases, performance data can be used to defend organizations in case lawsuits are presented.

According to Aguinis et al. (2012), performance management is also needed to identify and retain top performers. Performance management is the only way that organizations can accurately point out individuals who are top performers and make vital contributions to an organization (Teeroovengadum et al., 2019). In times of crisis, organizations sometimes decide to let go of some employees for a given period. At such times, organizations focus more on maximizing productivity while maintaining the quality of their services or products. This means that organizations need performance data to determine the most productive employees. The performance data is only available when performance management is put into consideration. The Covid-19 crisis forced many firms to abandon and curtail performance management (Eklund & Stern, 2021). The decision’s outcome was the realization of more harm than the intended good (Aguinis & Burgi-Tian, 2021). The dissolution of performance management was not in good faith, and instead, organizations should have focused more on adapting to new measurements for performance management. Neglecting performance measurements during the Covid-19 crisis resulted in the loss of viral information that was critical during this period.

Performance management during a crisis is essential as it identifies new ways to create value by encouraging employees to bring out their imagination and curiosity. Furthermore, performance management during a crisis helps identify approaches to handle pressure and enable multitasking within an organization’s various departments (Tanti et al., 2018). Only through performance management can an organization readjust its priorities to achieve organizational needs during such times. For organizations to meet their set goals and objectives in times of crisis, they must remain calm and resolute. Handling a crisis with pressure can lead to losses; however, organizations can handle change through performance management even in the face of seemingly inadequate resources (Gabriel & Aguinis, 2022). Furthermore, performance management provides the employees with a glimpse of the effects of the crisis on an organization, and these strategies can be developed to help reflect on the changing priorities of an organization. Organizations can translate strategies into action plans and objectives (Dodhia et al., 2020). During times of crisis, organizations significantly change their standard approaches to problems they face. Performance management ensures that an organization can cultivate a wide range of creativity, thought, and knowledge that can be used to handle changes resulting from the crisis.

Setbacks when Assessing Performance in Times of Crises

Performance management has faced challenges; however, the Covid-19 pandemic led to new disruptions and crises. According to Al-Jedaia & Mehrez (2020), organizations during the Covid-19 pandemic faced economic downturns; moreover, there were changes in strategic directions. On the same note, organizations tend to readjust their main concerns and daily activities during crises. The employees’ job duties also change significantly due to the cancellation of original work projects. These changes force organizations to reconsider their approaches to evaluating the performance of their employees.

During a crisis, practicality is also a significant issue of consideration. Employees at all levels are tasked with more work with reduced resources and pulled in different directions. During such times, time becomes a valuable asset. Assessing performance through the standard approaches takes a considerable amount of time, raising the burden on the managers and the employees (Denisi & Murphy, 2017). Such instances result in increased pressure for the workers to perform and meet the goals and objectives of their organizations. For this reason, organizations should reconsider their performance measurement approaches and consider comprehensive, concise, and shorter ones.

During times of crisis, the importance of performance management is put to the test. Standards and measures used to evaluate and assess job functions should be relevant and essential to developing meaning from performance management. Moreover, workers should control job functions (Denisi & Murphy, 2017). However, in times of crisis, many things in an organization are out of order and control, making most performance evaluation standards unavailable, irrelevant, and impossible to meet. This means that performance management should remain relevant despite changes in job functions and jobs.

In regular times, there the behavior of the employees and their productivity outcomes are used to measure performance. These two performance measurement approaches are challenging to consider based on exceptional modern-day circumstances. For instance, workers in roles such as manufacturing or sales are evaluated via their outcomes; however, their outputs can be out of control in a crisis (Denisi & Murphy, 2017). Most of the objectives between supervisors and employees before a crisis become out of reach during a crisis. Assessing workers’ performance based on their behaviors requires a set level of first-hand interactions and observations between the employees and the supervisors. In times of crisis, such as during the Covid-19 pandemic, approximately 62% of the employees worked remotely, making it impossible to implement the open door policy of assessing the employees (Gabriel & Aguinis, 2022). This means that performance management should be adaptable and flexible.

In summary, the question of measuring performance during a crisis remains unanswered. On this note, there is a need to consider a tool that is clear, comprehensive, adaptable, informative, relevant, and straightforward. The performance measurement during a crisis should be helpful in different functional areas, concise, hierarchical in the various departmental levels, complete, and easy to understand. According to Gabriel & Aguinis (2022), prior to Covid-19, most performance measures involved using appraisal forms. The use of appraisal forms does not meet the criteria of performance measures because they are time-consuming and lengthy. During the Covid-19 period, adaptability and simplicity were more critical.

Managing Performance Management during Crises

Outila & Fey (2022) states that the Covid-19 pandemic significantly affected organizations’ performance. Many leaders and managers experienced difficulties due to limited guidance on handling change. A significant challenge for most organizations was how to mobilize the employees to perform when most of them were handling severe illnesses in their homes or the death of their close friends and family. As Eklund & Stern (2021) established, the Covid-19 pandemic increased the demand for management and leadership capacity. The management of performance management during crises calls for the definition of a practical approach before coming to critical decisions concerning the performance of the employees. Furthermore, all the decision-makers in an organization should be aligned (Franco‐Santos & Otley, 2018). During a crisis, decisions in an organization should be made in a shared context. In this context, the company policies on evaluation criteria should be clear (Tanti et al., 2018). Managers and leaders should be called together to align vital criteria and be open on how to assess the consistently and precisely. Furthermore, attention should be paid to overlooked skills and behaviors such as the management of team infrastructure.

Managers and leaders should also monitor each other when analyzing the context of performance (Outila & Fey, 2022). Management of change in an organization during a crisis calls for an organization to embrace changes in planning and direction (Cascio & Aguinis, 2018). Embracing this change leads to developing an inclusive and friendly environment (Tanti et al., 2018). Furthermore, embracing change makes it easy for an organization to handle pressure and communicate to the employees the changes that are made or are to be made. Performance management in such times ensures that team members are in a position to embrace change and adapt to the new normalcy of a crisis (Schleicher et al., 2018). In times of crisis, employees become less productive due to circumstances associated with the crisis. This means that the leaders and managers should review and lighten the performance evaluation approaches. Resetting expectations around responsiveness and work hours can help ensure that there are no biases during the assessment of the employees.

Therefore, during a crisis, there is a need to make it clear that an organization’s objectives experience a shift. This leads to a decline in the priority of objectives considered in the last review of the employees. Some employees are put on hold, while others experience increased duties outside their usual roles and responsibilities (Outila & Fey, 2022). Before a review, the employees should be informed of the changes in performance management. This ensures that surprises do not meet the employees during the performance assessments (Teeroovengadum et al., 2019). Times of crisis call for recognizing soft skills during performance management. During the Covid-19 crisis, workers were forced to devise new mechanisms for meeting the needs of both the consumers and the organization they work for (Efendi, 2021). This saw the employees double on their soft skills. From this, performance management metrics during crises should be able to consider soft skills during the analysis process. Performance management during times of crisis should be able to comprehend that setbacks are inevitable. Crises are unprecedented, as with Covid-19 (Outila & Fey, 2022). There were changes in plans due to government regulations, which saw many people work from their homes. Therefore, during Covid-19, most organizations were not critical during performance assessments. This means that during times of crisis, organizations should avoid being too critical of the staff members.

Handling Performance Measurement Challenges through the Performance Promoter Score

The Performance Promoter Score (PPS) borrows its working approaches from the Net Promoter Score (NPS). As stated by Hyken (2016), the NPS is a measurement tool used to measure customer loyalty by asking simple but great questions on a scale of 1 to 10. According to this scale, customers rated 9, and above are referred to as promoters; those in the range of 7 and 8 are regarded as being passively satisfied, while those rated on a scale of 1 to 6 are referred to as detractors (Hyken, 2016). After the ratings, the NPS is arrived at by subtracting the percentage total of the promoters from the percentage total of the detractors. Drawing from the NPS, it is evident that the PPS can be utilized as an effective tool for measuring the performance of employees, including the top management, workgroups, and departments (Aguinis & Burgi-Tian, 2021). The approach can be applied in crises such as Covid-19 and even after crises.

Using PPS can address performance management setbacks and challenges in several ways. The approach provided flexibility; in times of crisis, unique job responsibilities are fluid due to environmental changes (Aguinis & Burgi-Tian, 2021). Because PPS does not consider technical details of different job roles, or the primary key performance indicators (KPIs), the approach can be utilized under any circumstance. PPS applies to all working environments (Efendi, 2021). The approach is also practical and convenient. A major problem with measuring performance is that the standard approach involves long hours of data collection. Moreover, the appraisal forms are, in most cases, lengthy. The PPS approach is simple and takes less than 5 minutes for an employee to consider and go through. The PPS tool is standardized and can handle employees from different geographical locations, departments, and functional areas (Aguinis & Burgi-Tian, 2021). The PPS is also comprehensive and has two main dimensions: contextual and task performance. PPS also analyzes both task performance and contextual performance. When there is a crisis like the Covid-19 pandemic, many organizations are forced to include their employees in contributing ideas to help their organizations to stay afloat (Outila & Fey, 2022). In such instances, many employees go above their way to utilize their innovations, networks, skills, and talent. In most instances, these efforts are not captured; however, they are essential in times of crisis and can be captured in the PPS.

The use of the PPS is also effective when it comes to the implementation of multisource feedback systems. Multisource systems can be described as using labels that get information from different sources (Aguinis & Burgi-Tian, 2021). The PPS tool can be used for administrative purposes because performance management is associated with administrative work. This means that PPS can be used to make decisions on merit increases, recognitions, terminations, promotions, and salary adjustments (Brenan, 2020). Rewards and recognitions play a vital role when it comes to employee motivation. Therefore, in times of crisis, the PPS approach can be used for administrative purposes (Aguinis & Burgi-Tian, 2021). During times of crisis, organizations are affected by stagnation in their development purposes due to strains that emerge in times of crisis. The PPS tool can be used to generate feedback from employees (Outila & Fey, 2022). The employees can use the feedback to identify areas that require improvements and areas that have strength. The feedback can also be used to identify areas that require additional resources. In times of crisis, performance management is called to improve constructive and timely feedback. The fact that the PPS tool is simple to use means that it can be used to offer frequent performance assessments (Efendi, 2021). In times of crisis, organizations need to remain adaptable and flexible. Increased conversations on performance can play a vital role in helping employees adjust priorities, responsibilities, and work hours.

During the Covid-19 crisis, organizations faced a struggle trying to survive. This saw many organizations discontinue performance management. The outcome of the discussion shows that organizations tend to face challenges in times of crisis, forcing them to discontinue important organizational activities such as performance management. However, the discontinuity of performance management results in more harm when compared to good. Doing away with performance management leads to losing essential and valuable information. During a crisis, organizations require data to make vital decisions that enable them to thrive and survive during the crisis. However, a lack of performance management makes it difficult for an organization to measure the performance of employees. Therefore, organizations should find better solutions and adapt to new performance measurements instead of doing away with performance management. In times of crisis, organizations must identify clear, comprehensive, adaptable, informative, relevant, and simple forms of performance management. The discussion recommends the Performance Promoter Score (PPS), an extension of the Net Promoter Score (NPS), as the best performance management approach in times of crisis. The PPS approach can be used on workers at all levels of an organization. Furthermore, the PPS can tabulate the Net Performance Promoter Score (NPPS), providing room for effective and easy comparisons between collectives and individuals. The analysis shows that the Covid-19 pandemic had a long-lasting impact on the performance of organizations. However, the crisis led to essential discoveries in conducting performance management during the crisis, including the innovation of the PPS. The tool is useful, relevant, and practical not only during a crisis but even when there is no crisis.

Aguinis, H., & Burgi-Tian, J. (2021). Measuring performance during crises and beyond: The Performance Promoter Score.  Business Horizons ,  64 (1), 149-160. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7505577/

Aguinis, H., Gottfredson, R. K., & Joo, H. (2012). Delivering effective performance feedback: The strengths-based approach.  Business Horizons ,  55 (2), 105-111. https://www.academia.edu/download/38599344/BH2012.pdf

Al-Jedaia, Y., & Mehrez, A. (2020). The effect of performance appraisal on job performance in governmental sector: The mediating role of motivation.  Management Science Letters ,  10 (9), 2077-2088.

Brenan, M. (2020). US workers discovering affinity for remote work.  Gallup, available at https://news. Gallup. com/poll/306695/workers discovering-affinity-remote-work. aspx .

Cascio, W. F., & Aguinis, H. (2018).  Applied psychology in talent management . SAGE Publications.

Denisi, A. S., & Murphy, K. R. (2017). Performance appraisal and performance management: 100 years of progress?.  Journal of applied psychology ,  102 (3), 421. https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fapl0000085

Denisi, A., & Smith, C. E. (2014). Performance appraisal, management, and firm-level performance: A review, a proposed model, and new directions for future research.  Academy of Management Annals ,  8 (1), 127-179.

Dodhia, N., Jakhariya, R., Dedhiya, V., & Zalte, M. J. (2020).  Employee Appraisal Evaluation  (No. 4605). EasyChair.

Efendi, S. (2021, June). Implementation of Talent Management as an Effort to Improve Employee Performance. In  2nd Annual Conference on blended learning, educational technology and Innovation (ACBLETI 2020)  (pp. 537-542). Atlantis Press.

Eklund, M. A., & Stern, H. J. (2021). How COVID-19 reshapes businesses and executive pay for sustainability.  Corporate Governance and Sustainability Review ,  5 (1), 107-119. https://virtusinterpress.org/IMG/pdf/cgsrv5i1sip2.pdf

Franco‐Santos, M., & Otley, D. (2018). Reviewing and theorizing the unintended consequences of performance management systems.  International Journal of Management Reviews ,  20 (3), 696–730. https://eprints.lancs.ac.uk/id/eprint/125634/2/Franco_Santos_Otley_2018_Reviewing_and_theorizing_the_unintended_consequences_of_performance_management_system_as_submitted.pdf

Gabriel, K. P., & Aguinis, H. (2022). How to prevent and combat employee burnout and create healthier workplaces during crises and beyond.  Business Horizons ,  65 (2), 183-192. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007681321000392

Hyken, S. (2016). How effective is the net promoter score (NPS).  Forbes Magazine , pp. 12–13. https://romanrepublic.org/roma/wp-content/uploads/mediapress/members/2/309/How-Effective-Is-Net-Promoter-Score-NPS.pdf

Outila, V., & Fey, C. F. (2022). “We have performance appraisal every day and every hour”: Transferring performance management to Russia.  Journal of International Management ,  28 (2), 100901.

Schleicher, D. J., Baumann, H. M., Sullivan, D. W., Levy, P. E., Hargrove, D. C., & Barros-Rivera, B. A. (2018). Putting the system into performance management systems: A review and agenda for performance management research.  Journal of Management ,  44 (6), 2209–2245. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paul-Levy-3/publication/323040479_Putting_the_System_Into_Performance_Management_Systems_A_Review_and_Agenda_for_Performance_Management_Research/links/6106c0661ca20f6f86f11911/Putting-the-System-Into-Performance-Management-Systems-A-Review-and-Agenda-for-Performance-Management-Research.pdf

Tanti, L., Puspasari, R., & Triandi, B. (2018, August). Employee performance assessment with profile matching method. In  2018 6th International Conference on Cyber and IT Service Management (CITSM)  (pp. 1-6). IEEE. https://www.academia.edu/download/65094225/Prosiding_Internasional_1_Agustus_2018.pdf

Teeroovengadum, V., Nunkoo, R., & Dulloo, H. (2019). Influence of organizational factors on the effectiveness of performance management systems in the public sector.  European Business Review .

Tweedie, D., Wild, D., Rhodes, C., & Martinov‐Bennie, N. (2019). How does performance management affect workers? Beyond human resource management and its critique.  International Journal of Management Reviews ,  21 (1), 76–96. https://asset-pdf.scinapse.io/prod/2793384939/2793384939.pdf

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90 Performance Management Research Topics

🏆 best essay topics on performance management, 👍 good performance management research topics & essay examples, 🎓 most interesting performance management research titles, ❓ research questions on performance management.

• Amazon Approach to Management and Performance Evaluation
• The Amazon Company’s Performance Management
• Performance Appraisal and Human Resource Management
• Performance Management and Strategic Planning
• TD Canada Trust Bank’s Performance Management
• Hotel Management: Performance Improvement Plan
• Google Inc.’s Performance Management System
• Leadership, Management Style and Organizational Performance The focus on globalization and multiculturalism has emphasised the importance of understanding Organizational productivity and team effectiveness.
• Performance Management and Appraisal Systems The performance management process is important. During it the HR team works together with other members of the company towards achieving organizational goals.
• Nike Company’s Performance Management & Logistics The conceptualization of Nike as a company dates back to the year 1962 when its founders, Bill Bowerman and Phil Knight.
• Employee Performance Management System In human resource management, it is important to ensure that employees are motivated and satisfied with their work. It can achieve by carrying out employee performance management.
• Informative Speech On Business Performance Management In the troubled days of economic crisis and recession the only way companies have to survive economic uncertainty is by making good use of business “performance management”.
• Options Consulting Solutions Company’s Performance Management Options Consulting Solutions is a recruiting firm headquartered in Toronto, Ontario. The firm was started more than two decades ago.
• Performance Management in Business Performance has now been integrated into the quality management system of the organization. Effective performance measurement influences efficacy of the use of information.
• Why Performance Management Appraisals Fail Performance management appraisal may fail due to judgment by top management and the supervisors. The top management and supervisors sometimes experience errors.
• Performance Management System: Role and Advantages Performance management systems play an important role in the achievement of organisational goals, mission, and vision
• Performance Management Issues: Types and Factors Performance management aims to ensure the effectiveness and growth of the organization through the definition of strategic objectives and management activities.
• Strategic Performance Management Plan for a Sales Manager The paper creates a strategic performance plan for the Dialogue Direct and recognizes the attributes that will be rated regarding the position of the sales manager.
• Importance of Performance Management in Organizations The paper explores the concept of benefits management at the organization plumbing supply company in Olean, New York.
• Information Systems and Project Management Performance The authors assert that requirements instability and requirements diversity are related to stakeholder perception gaps and this can be tied in with project performance.
• Performance Management and KPIs in a Management Measurement System Performance management is a dynamic process that requires timely reports so that procedures are drawn to guarantee that corporate goals are achieved.
• Performance Management Issues of the Organization There is a significant relationship between compensation and performance management. This is because compensation can be a way of performance management.
• Strategic Human Resource Management and Performance For successful performance, human resource managers have to ensure that they recruit employees with potential and possess qualifications that will enable them to create value.
• Portfolio Management: Stock Selection and Portfolio Performance The paper covers the performance of the portfolio, stock selection criteria, each stock performance, and the returns of the portfolio for the period.
• Metrics and Performance Measurement in Operations Management Metrics is indeed a powerful management tool in aligning company strategies and objectives and ensuring people are working towards a common direction.
• Performance Management: Warehouse Performance Measurement The analysis of the costs taken by the organization can be viewed as the first step towards identifying the changes in the warehouse business performance.
• Management: Effective Teamwork Role for Organizations Performance Groups usually pass several important stages: forming, storming, norming, and performing. Depending on the stage, teams and groups demonstrate unique organizational features.
• Performance Management System: Personal Experience Managers collect the data systematically based on each department’s performance. In other words, the performance is measured by the results.
• Negative Performance Management Managers should possess strong planning and problem-solving skills to establish clear goals and strategies to achieve goals on time without losing quality.
• Performance Management and Working Relationships Performance management is an area of execution, and benefits may not be obvious at the project planning stage.
• Quality Management and Performance Improvement in Healthcare There are a number of healthcare quality issues affecting the performance improvement of various caregiving centers.
• Performance Management System in Healthcare The Joint Commission enhances the level of the healthcare services provided to the public. The entity ensures that hospitals have a good performance management system.
• Performance in Safety Management Systems (SMS) The study will collect data on improvement patterns of SMS regulations and technologies as two qualitative independent variables and risk factors.
• Balanced Scorecard: Performance Management Tool This essay presents an assessment of a balanced scorecard used by an organization in a real estate business environment.
• Business Intelligence and Performance Management Business Intelligence encompasses software tools for querying, reporting and analysing. It may be summarised as the processes and tools that turn data into information.
• Organizational Management and Performance: Inter-Organizational Relationships Organization as a system entails that there must be inputs which are to be processed in order to give an output. This output is optimal goal the organization strives to accomplish
• Earned Value Performance Management for Projects In the earned value management system, the project performance is measured by taking into account the actual cost spent for the baseline plan.
• Performance Management: Aspects and the Levels Performance management is a cyclical process that is usually aimed at improving the performance of either under performing group, individuals, to further improve good performers.
• Human Resource Management and Performance of the Organization The success of the company relies on the proper management of its people because the workforce of a company is the major factor that runs the business.
• Performance Management: Term Definition Performance management is assessing the process of achieving goals and objectives to unsure that it is successful through communication and taking the right action.
• Management: Performance Measurement in Organizations Performance measurement is vital in all organizations because the organizations need to verify the validity of the selection methods and to improve the productivity.
• Performance Management: Employee Performance Documentation Organizations that succeed in effective documentation of employee performance can feel secure in the current economic realities.
• Performance Management and Appraisal Plan The Office of Human Resources presents a Management by Objectives (MBO) performance appraisal plan and process that will be implemented in the next month.
• Management Functions for Better Company Performance Managing an organization is not easy when one has to the role of a leader, the role of a manager, and the role of an HRM specialist.
• New Employee’s Success and Performance Management Once a new employee is selected, strategies of how best to maximize employee success on the new job should be put in place.
• Issues Concerning the Use of Social and Environmental Indicators for Performance Management
• Performance Management and Performance Measurement in the Education Sector
• The Relationship Between Performance Management and Organizational Goals
• Effective Performance Management With the Balanced
• Major Constraints and Possible Solutions for Performance Management in Korea
• Performance Management and Key Performance Indicators for Higher Education Institutions in Serbia
• Differences Between Cost-effectiveness and Performance Management
• Performance Management Strategy and Broader Issues of Organizations
• Linking Performance Management Strategy To Corporate Management Strategy
• Relationship Between Hrm and Organisational Performance Management
• Effective Leadership Practices Can Lead to High-Performance Management
• The Difference Between Performance Management and Performance Appraisal
• Performance Management Practices, Employee Attitudes, and Managed Performance
• Factors Influencing Software Team Performance Management
• Power and Performance Management of GPUs Based Cluster
• Strategic Performance Management and Creative Industry
• Global Performance Management Systems: The Role of Trust as Perceived by Country Managers
• Effective Team and Performance Management
• Developing High Performance: Performance Management in the Australian Public Service
• Performance Management and Incentive Plan Design
• Does the Company Size Affect Performance Management System?
• Why Is Strategic Performance Management Important?
• How Is Performance Management Related to Learning and Development?
• What Are the Benefits of Performance Management?
• How Are Performance Management Systems Used for Dual Purposes?
• Why Is Team Performance Management Important?
• Can Performance Management Improve the Skills of an Individual?
• What Is the Impact of Performance Management on Employees?
• How Has Sainsbury’s Used Performance Management to Increase Their Quality of Service?
• What Can Performance Management Offer to Learning and Development Practice Within an Organization?
• How Does Performance Management Help Employees to Learn?
• What’s the Purpose of Performance Management?
• Why Are Learning and Development Important for Performance Management?
• How Does Performance Management Encourage Employee Development?
• What Are the Primary Objectives of Performance Management?
• How Can Performance Management Improve Productivity?
• Why Should HR Connect Performance Management and Learning?
• What Is an Effective Performance Management System?
• How Does Performance Management Work in an Educational Institution?
• What Are the Possible Outcomes From Effective Performance Management?
• How Does Performance Management Contribute to the Output of an Organization?
• What Is the Main Feature of Performance Management?
• How Does Performance Management Add Value?
• What Is the Difference Between Performance Management and Performance Appraisals?
• Why Is Performance Management Important in Training and Development?

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Home — Essay Samples — Business — Performance Management — The Future of Performance Management

The Future of Performance Management

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Current view of performance management, factors impacting organisations today, implication of these factors to performance management, influential research and its impact on performance management, emerging trends in performance management.

• Macro-Economic Environment;
• Globalisation;
• Increased competition.
• Collaboration;

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Introduction Performance management includes a management structure and a supervisor that is responsible for 1) selecting employees who have the capacity to perform essential job functions; 2) designing jobs, tasks and functions, and work processes to facility and support quality performance; 3) establishing clear expectations; 4) providing orientation, training, and continuing education; 4) removing barriers and provide employee with the tools, resources, and physical environment necessary to achieve the desired results; 5) providing feedback to ensure that employees receive the information necessary to meet and even exceed expectations; 6) planning for consequences of doing a job ‘so that it matters if it is done correctly or incorrectly’; 7) holding employees accountable as necessary; and 8) treating all employees fairly and consistently (TDMHMR, 2000, p. 4). According to Fried and Fottler in the text book entitled Fundamentals of Human Resources in Healthcare, they explain that ‘the ultimate goal of human resources management (HRM) is to align the work of individuals and teams with the goals of their organization’ (Fried & Fottler, 2011, p. 157). They further explain that performance management is ongoing and includes managerial responsibilities and activities including ‘setting performance goals with employees, monitoring employees’ progress toward their goals, designing strategies with employees to make and sustain improvements, and providing ongoing feedback and coaching’ (Fried & Fottler, 2011, p. 157). This is described by Fried and Fottler as an appraisal (that generally occurs annually) of the employee’s performance that may include discussions about personnel decisions, such as a promotion, change in compensation, disciplinary action, transfer, or recommendations for training (Fried & Fottler, 2011, p. 169). Fried and Fottler explain that ‘because performance management has historically focused on evaluation or measurement aspects, relatively little attention has been given to its improvement aspects’ (Fried & Fottler, 2011, p. 173). There is also much ‘cynicism’ about performance management, because it is believed that the process can be subjective and punitive, as well as uncomfortable for both the manager and the employee (Fried & Fottler, 2011, pp. 169-170). To diminish the cynicism and to assure that the performance management interview is successful employees should know what is expected of them on a daily basis. Performance management interviews can also deviate from the traditional annual appraisal varying according to an ’employee’s performance and longevity in the organization’ (Fried & Fottler, 2011, p. 174). This way it is possible to tailor the performance interview to the need of the employee. As Fried and Fottler explain, a high performer may need only an annual interview/appraisal (with ongoing feedback). In these cases the performance appraisal serves to support ht employee and reinforce their current abilities. Performance appraisals for average performing employees verify to the employee that they are completing their work as expected. For those who are marginal or poor performing employees, there may be a need for performance appraisals to be completed more frequently (perhaps even monthly), this way, the manager can keep the employee informed of their unsatisfactory job performance and work with them to coach, mentor, and potentially improve their work performance. In cases where the work performance does not improve, the performance appraisal can serve to help the manager to adequately and effectively provide disciplinary action as needed to the employee (Fried & Fottler, 2011, p. 175). In any case, it is imperative that the manager/supervisor prepare for the interview and have a clear set of goals. Managers/supervisors should be prepared prior to presenting the performance information. They should not only be prepared with the appraisal itself, but for the reactions of the employee and to refocus the discussion so that the employee can engage in problem solving (Fried & Fottler, 2011, p. 175). In order to demonstrate the appropriate steps for a performance appraisal let’s consider the fictional employee, Joe Cool, as a reference. We will assume that Joe has been employed by a mental health facility as a psychiatric tech for one year. In his job he is responsible for providing direct patient care including emergency, health, and personal care services. He is also responsible for reporting and documenting patient conditions, interacting with patients therapeutically, and participating in the individualized recovery planning (HHS Job Center, n.d.). Joe’s primary responsibilities include maintaining direct and on-going therapeutic interaction with patients, promoting living and social skills, and encouraging progress toward patient goals in a lesser restrictive environment than the hospital (HHS Job Center, n.d.). Given this, the manager should prepare a performance evaluation that is consistent with Joe’s job expectations. Prior to the appraisal, Joe should have had adequate time to read and review his job description, as well as the criteria for which he will be evaluated during his annual performance appraisal (TDMHMR, 2000). In the case of Joe Cool, the criteria should be chosen from his assigned responsibilities (described above), The performance appraisal will include the following questions: 1) Does the employee (Joe) provide care in accordance with the individualized recovery plan; 2) does the employee complete documentation of patient conditions on time, objectively, and in accordance with agency documentation policies and procedures; 3) Does the employee interact with patients therapeutically; 4) does the employee participate in the individualized recovery plan for those he works with providing clear, objective feedback to the treatment team; and 5) does the employee arrive to work on time and is prepared to for work at the start of the shift? Each of these items is designed to assure that Joe (the employee) is meeting the expectations of his essential job functions. Questions 1, 2, and 5 are designed to look at the delivery of results; questions 3 and 4 are designed to look at communication and teamwork. Given this, the manager responsible for completing the appraisal is also responsible for assuring that multiple sources of information are used prior to determining the level and/or performance appraisal rating that Joe should receive for his work. This is especially important in cases where the manager did not directly observe the employee (Fried & Fottler, 2011, p. 175). For Joe, the manager should review his work documentation, observe him in the work area and while he participates in a treatment team meeting, talk with members of the treatment team, and review patient satisfaction surveys; this way if there is are question as to why Joe received a particular rating, the manager demonstrate to Joe the specific reason he received a particular rating. The rating scale uses should include a three point rating system to be used as follows. The rating of 1 will reflect a score indicating that the employee needs improvement in that area; the rating of 2 will reflect a score indicating that the employee meets the expectation of his or her job functions; and the rating of 3 will reflect a score indicating that the employee exceeds the expectation of his or her job functions (TDMHMR, 2000). Using this system will allow for the manager to clearly identify where the employee is at with regard to their work performance and to be rated solidly into one category or another. The manager will assign a rating of 1-3 for each of the questions listed above and will not only review the assigned number but the reasons for each rating and why. This process is explained in detail below. Once the manager completes the evaluation and is ready to meet with the employee, the manager should secure an appropriate location and bring any relevant and supporting documentation to reference during the interview (Fried & Fottler, 2011, p. 175). For example, if Joe consistently uses abbreviations in when completing his documentation and abbreviations are prohibited by the hospital, it would benefit the manager to bring a few examples of Joe’s documentation to the interview to show Joe where and when he uses the abbreviations. The manager should also bring a copy of the ‘no abbreviations policy’ along to the interview this way the manager can show Joe why he is not allowed to use the abbreviations. It is also the responsibly of the manager/supervisor to ensure that the employee is adequately prepared for the performance management interview. They should do this by providing their employee with ongoing training and continuing education, feedback and coaching, recognition for good work, information about improvement opportunities, and opportunities to correct problems before they become serious (and/or well in advance of the performance interview) (TDMHMR, 2000, p. 8). The performance interview should also not be the first time that an employee first hears of a concern, as ‘there should be no surprises during this discussion’ (Fried & Fottler, 2011, p. 173). It is better for ‘critical information’ about the employee’s performance to ‘have been communicated earlier, closer to the time the particular performance issue happened’ (Fried & Fottler, 2011, p. 173). As explained earlier, this way the employee has time to correct the behavior without significant consequence (especially one tied to compensation). Fried and Fottler explain that ‘a key step in the improvement process is to provide performance information to the employee’ (Fried & Fottler, 2011, p. 173). The performance interview/appraisal a way to do so and should be ‘a time to reflect on past performance and plan for the future’ (Fried & Fottler, 2011, p. 173). The first step in the interview is for the manager to recognize the employee’s current efforts acknowledging 1) a substantial improvement in performance, 2) satisfactory performance over an extended period of time, and/or 3) performance above and beyond that which is normally expected (TDMHMR, 2000, p. 3). This way the employee is assured that their manager and/or supervisor is aware of and supports their efforts, and that the interview is based on credible, consistent, individualized, and proportionate information (TDMHMR, 2000, p. 8). The recognition should be described by the manager in a specific manner using specific characteristics of the employee’s performance. The manager should also explain how the performance helps the employee, the people served by the organization, as well as the other staff in the organization. Finally, the manager should thank the employee for his or her contribution encouraging them to continue (TDMHHMR, 2000, p. 9). In the case of Joe, the manager should not bring up the issues with Joe’s documentation as the first agenda item. Instead, the manager should find something that Joe does well. For example, if Joe is very good at his therapeutic interaction with the patients, the manager should lead the conversation with something such as: Joe, I just want to say that you do an amazing job with the patients. They are always mentioning how you encourage them to follow their plans and that they can really talk to you. Thanks for your hard work. I know that it really makes a positive impact on the patients, and it shows us what you do really matters to our hospital. The next step in the performance interview is where the supervisor/manager ‘can discuss problems and suggest solutions’ for their employee (Fried & Fottler, 2001, p. 173). It is important for the manager to assume a coaching role during this discussion, as the goal is for the employee to improve their performance. During this time, it is important for the manager/supervisor to describe the task/issue very specifically explaining the importance of the task. Next the manager/supervisor should explain why the task should be completed, and the standard used to evaluate the correct performance of the task. The manager must ensure that any discussion remain on employee behavior (i.e., job performance) and results and not on personal traits (Fried & Fottler, 2011, p. 175). In the case of Joe, this is where the manager can discuss the issues with Joe’s documentation. The conversation should remain on the facts. The manager should start with the things that Joe does right, such as: Joe, your documentation is always very thorough and you always complete it on time. There is one thing that you can improve and that is your documentation. The manager can then explain: I am sure that this is no surprise to you, as we have discussed this several times this year. I am confident you can improve your work. Let’s together go over the policy and then take a look at your documentation. If possible, the manager/supervisor should demonstrate the task. If it is not the appropriate time or place for a demonstration, the manager/supervisor schedule a time to demonstrate the task to the employee in an environment where the employee will be able to practice the task in the presence (or review) of the manager/supervisor (where the manager will be able to provide constructive feedback and encouragement until the task is completed correctly) (TDMHMR, 2000, p. 9). In this case, the manager could choose a note that Joe wrote using abbreviations and then demonstrate for Joe how it should be written in the future. It is important for the manager/supervisor to ensure that the focus of the discussion (although it may pertain to previous performance) should be on the future performance of the employee (seeking ways to move forward) this way any current issues can be resolved preventing any future problems (Fried & Fottler, 2011, p. 175). The third step during the performance interview is goal setting. Fried and Fottler explain that goal setting is ‘critical to achieving performance improvement and ‘many managers use the SMART acronym as a guide’ to assure that goals are Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound (SMART). Goals are designed to help the employee to become successful and to assist the employee and the manger to effectively resolve any performance issues, and/or to become better employees. If there is a performance management issue with an employee, it is important that the goal address the issue in a way that sets a very clear expectation (NMSPO, 2010, p. 74). For example, if Joe’s manager wants to write a goal that addresses Joe’s use of abbreviations, the issue may be transitioned into a goal saying: By the end of the quarter, Joe will not use abbreviations more than once per patient assigned to work with him. This way, it is clear to Joe what is expected and when it will be reviewed again. The goal also allows for Joe to have room for error within a three month period. Doing so will allow Joe some flexibility while still improving his work performance, making the goal more realistic to Joe. For employees who do not have a performance issue, it is still important for the manager/supervisor to use the SMART method/acronym. In these cases, goals can be set by the employee and manager that help the employee exceed expectations or that help them to further their job and career development. In either case, setting approximately three goals (two chosen with the guidance of the manager/supervisor and one by the employee) are very manageable for both the employee and the supervisor to work towards throughout the year (TDMHMR, 2000, p. 74). It is imperative that throughout the interview the manager encourages employee participation, possibly through an employee ‘self-appraisal’ as the employee ‘may have greater insight’ into his or her own performance concerns (Fried and Fottler, 2011, p 175). In Joe’s case (especially if the manager has had multiple conversations with him without a change in behavior), the manager can ask Joe, for some insight as to why he uses the abbreviations and what he believes will help to correct this issue. Perhaps, Joe is insecure about his spelling and could benefit from some training on use of the spell check function on the computer. Finally, the manager must plan for follow-up activities and pay attention to expectations and timelines (Fried & Fottler, 2011, p. 175). Doing so will validate the interview and performance management process demonstrating to the employee investment the manager/supervisor has in their success (TDMHMR, 2000).

Summary A successful performance management interview is one that is purposeful and meaningful to the employee. The purpose of a successful performance management interview is to provide mangers, supervisors, and employees with the tools to ‘build superior performance’ by identifying employee expectations, addressing performance concerns, encouraging the employee and fostering the development of the employee so they will succeed in the organization (TDMHMR, 2000, pp 2-3). The appraisal process starts upon hire of the employee, as the employee should be aware of all that is expected of them once they have completed new employee orientation. It is the responsibility of the manager to coach, mentor, guide and correct the employee throughout the appraisal period. They must also make the employee aware of the criterion for which they will be rated (TDMHMR, 2000). Additionally, the manager must reinforce the positive performance of the employee (not only formally at the beginning of the interview), but throughout the interview to ‘ensure that the interview focuses on all aspects of performance, not just the negative. Doing so will validate the appraisal and help to remove any associated cynicism with the appraisal process (Fried and Fottler, 2011).

Recommendations With evaluating employee performance, there comes a great responsibility from the manager. To adhere to this responsibility, the manager and/or supervisor must ‘provide employees with feedback on their performance continually’ (Fried & Fottler, 2001, p. 169). The manager should never end an appraisal without asking the employee if they have any questions about a particular task, the criterion, or the level of performance expected. The manager should always reiterate their continued support for the employee and ways to ask any additional questions that may arise; expressing confidence in the employee and reminding them that they will improve their performance of the task. The manager is expected to follow-up with the employee to ‘ensure mastery of the task’ (TDMHMR, 2000, p. 9).

REFERENCES Fried, B.J., Fottler, M.D. (2011). Fundamentals of human resources in healthcare. Health Administration Press. Pp. 155-179.

Health and Human Services Job Center. (n.d.) Psychiatric nursing assistant. Retrived from https://jobshrportal.cpa.texas.gov/ENG/careerportal/Job_Profile.cfm?szOrderID=246565&szReturnToSearch=1&&szWordsToHighlight=

Texas Department of Mental Health and Mental Retardation (TDMHMR). (2000). Positive Performance Program Participant Manual. Human Resource Development. Internal Facilities Management. Pp. 1-33.

New Mexico State Personnel Office (NMSPO). (2010). Performance Appraisals and Management. Operational Instructions. Pp. 3-82.

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Introduction.

With the current dynamic economic world, organizations have adopted strategic management systems to stay competitive. One of such systems is performance management, which ensures the organization’s goals are achieved. Organizations in both the private and public sectors apply this system. The paper discusses the concept of performance management and its application in the private sector. The paper also analyzes how public organizations in the member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), such as the United Arab Emirates, and the other countries apply this concept.

The Performance Management Concept

The performance management is the process of discovering, assessing and advancing performance in firms by linking individual’s work to the overall mission of the firm (Lin & Lee, 2011).  It aims to improve the organization’s overall performance by raising the level of input of employees. Performance management is crucial to the success of an organization for a myriad of reasons. The first reason is that performance management increases employees’ motivation to performance. When an employee receives feedback about his performance and realizes that the organization recognizes his hard work, he becomes motivated to accomplish more in the future (Aguinis, 2005). Performance management also increases a worker’s self-esteem. When an employee feels appreciated at the firm because of his work, it consequently improves his self-esteem. Another importance of performance management is its role in providing insight into the achievements of employees. Through performance appraisals, managers can understand each employee’s contributions to the organization (Esu & Inyang, 2009). Performance management is also essential as it helps to clarify an employee’s job description. Through the appraisal process, workers can better understand the organization’s expectation of them in their positions and how to achieve success in these posts (Aguinis, 2005). Performance management also assists employees to understand their strengths and weaknesses better. Having this knowledge helps to identify future career trails for the workers. Performance management as a concept provides valid information about an organization’s performance. The company then uses the information for adopting different strategies, such as promotion, transfers, and terminations. It ensures fair distribution of rewards in an organization (Aguinis, 2005).

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Performance management also goes hand in hand with the setting of an organization’s goals and objectives. Employees can understand what they need to do to achieve the organization’s mission. On the legal aspect, performance management documents an organization’s compliance with laws and regulations. Through performance appraisals, matters such as equal treatment of employees are addressed (Aguinis, 2005). It helps to prevent a situation of subjective performance evaluations that have not been noted down that consequently end up causing legal issues.

Performance Management in the Private Sector

As stated in the preceding paragraphs, the administration of an organization’s performance is critical to the private firms as it helps to realize organizations’ missions and goals and to improve the performance of staff. Performance management is at the center of employee management and development in private sector organizations as they operate in a highly competitive and dynamic environment (Rachna & Snigdha, 2015). Performance management in the private sector is achievable through the use of different models. One of the examples is the performance appraisal model. It is a structural official communication between an organization’s supervisor and an employee. It is usually applied in the form of a periodic interview in which the supervisor examines the employee’s work. The system helps to identify the weaknesses and strengths of an employee. It also provides the workers with opportunities for self-improvement (Begum, Sarika & Sumalatha, 2015). However, some performance appraisals are usually not formal. For example, a supervisor or manager can give informal statements regarding an employee’s performance during day to day scheduled work supervision rounds. Appraisals reward an assessment of an employee’s performance and provide feedback and ranking of the worker that is helpful in the improvement of his performance and the achievement of the organization’s goals.

Another model of performance management used by organizations in the private sector is management by objectives. Here, the employees are given the opportunity to set their objectives that they are capable of achieving (Kumari, Kaleramna & Pandey, 2010). The workers then use these objectives to achieve the overall organization’s goals. The performance of the employees is measured based on the workers’ achievements of their set objectives in relation to the organization’s goals. Management by objectives is a useful model of performance management as it motivates employees by encouraging them to foster goal attainment strategies (Abdulaziz, Saad, & Saad, 2011).  The balanced scorecard is another standard model of performance management. The model measures the performance of an organization by using a multi-dimensional performance measurement system. It includes four performance indices. They are the fiscal, customers, domestic and processes on learning. Performance managers use the model to invest the organization’s input at improving the customer, internal and learning process outcomes. Consequently, the investment pays off and results in the improvement of the financial sector of the organization (Northcott & Taulapapa, 2012).

Benchmarking is also an effective performance management model used by organizations in the private sector. A company uses the model to compare its performance with that of another similar or competitor organization. The organization then adopts the strategies of the competitor that are responsible for the success of the organization and uses them to improve its performance (Arnaboldi, Lapsley & Steccolini, 2015).

Performance Management in Public Organizations

Although performance management was initially meant for use in the private sector, it has gained application in the public organizations (Lin & Lee, 2011). In public organizations, performance management focuses on establishing more valid indices that are useful to measure the operation of employees in a public company. It also aims to improve the effectiveness of public services (Talbot, 2010). Public organizations in the Gulf Cooperation Council nations practice performance management. The application of performance management in these public organizations has led to an improvement in efficiency and revenue growth. For example in Oman, public organizations use the performance appraisal model. Once employees are evaluated, public organizations through the government developed the Technological, Vocation, Education and Training system to assist in developing workers’ skills consequently improving their performance (Abdulaziz, Saad, & Saad, 2011).  Also to boost the performance of public workers, the Oman government in 2013 increased the minimum salary of employees by 3 percent. The government of Bahrain has also followed this example. In 2014, it mandated public organizations to increase the minimum wage of employees by 4 percent (Abdulaziz, Saad, & Saad, 2011, p. 22). The GCC nations also use the benchmarking model where they compare the performances of public organizations within the region. It is a preferred system in public organizations because the organizations are not competing and are open to sharing of information (Talbot, 2010). The collaborative learning helps to improve the functioning of the organizations.

Public organizations in the United Arab Emirates have adopted the E-Performance model. It is a competency determined system that measures the performance of employees based on the organization’s standards. The model also measures the corporate performance, tracks and reports performance and conducts external benchmarking with other public organizations in the UAE (Abdulaziz, Saad, & Saad, 2011). By streamlining the process of performance management into a web-based solution, the organization is able to monitor its performance and to reduce unnecessary costs. Public organizations in the UAE also use the Abu Dhabi Accountability Authority performance management model launched by the government. The system coordinates and monitors the performance of the U.A.E ministries and public agencies. It uses over 2500 key performance indicators updated three times a year to measure individual employees’ performances in these organizations (Abdulaziz, Saad, & Saad, 2011, p. 21).

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Public organizations around the world prefer to use the balanced scorecard in performance management. It is determined by the fact that as these organizations are responsible for achieving multiple goals during the same period, they are under pressure to improve performance outcomes. The balanced scorecard being a multi-dimensional performance measurement model is the most appropriate in the achievement of several goals at the same time (Northcott &Taulapapa, 2011). In public organizations, the model operates by re-arranging the four indices so that the customer index is given priority at the top of the hierarchy. The model is effective in public organizations as it provides managers with information needed to measure the performance of the organization and to direct improvements where necessary. The City of Charlotte in the USA and the City of Melbourne in Australia are two of organizations in the world that have successfully implemented the balanced scorecard model and are receiving positive results (Northcott & Taulapapa, 2011, p. 176).

For an organization to stay on top in the competitive world, it is necessary to practice performance management. Performance management is applicable through different models, such as the performance appraisal system, the benchmarking system, and the balanced scorecard. Although initially meant for use in the private sector, public organizations have adopted this system to assist in improving efficiency in the workplaces. The GCC countries prefer the benchmarking model. Public organizations in the UAE use advanced technological models that also conduct benchmarking in performance management. Other public organizations in the world such as the City of Charlotte prefer to use the balanced scorecard model in performance management. All these models have helped to increase the performance of organizations.

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Performance Management Essay

• October 12, 2012
• Posted by: essay
• Category: Free essays

Performance management is defined as a set of activities which ensure that goals are achieved in the most effective manner. Performance management can focus on different spheres. It can be focused on the performance in the organization, departments of the organization of separate employees.  In general, performance management is a comparatively new term in the field of management.  Though the tradition of performance appraisal is not new. However, with the implementation of performance management such processes as planning, budgeting, sales and billing became estimated in the new context. Now they are viewed according to the results they bring the organization.

Performance management makes exact distinction between different processes and results they bring. Performance management centers on the results. Performance management pays little attention to effort and commitment as it centers rather on the result of any activity.

“The major contribution of performance management is its focus on achieving results – useful products and services for customers inside and outside the organization. Performance management redirects our efforts away from busyness toward effectiveness” (Fischer, 1992:196).

The interest to performance management is conditioned by the challenges organizations face recently. Growing competition and changes in the world economy make organizations seek for more effective ways of production and performance management has become a mighty tool which helps to increase the effectiveness.  Coordination of different departments of organization is very important for performance management.  All spheres of performance management are focused on the achievements of results. The results of different departments should be combined all together for the ultimate success of the entire organization.

Performance management may be applied not only to employees. It can be applied on the level of organization, its departments, teams, projects and products. Performance management may also be used to increase the effectiveness of different processes, such as billing, budgeting, financial management and product development. Performance management aims to improve results of all subsystems and thus optimize the overall result of the organization.  In order to achieve the main goal performance management makes several steps. First of all, it is important to distinguish desired results and to find the ways to achieve them. As soon as the goal is defined performance managers can start the choice of necessary means to achieve them.  Other steps include defining standards, measuring progress, exchanging results with the participants of the process, and making corrections in the planning if necessary.

There are several approaches in organizations, which use similar means to achieve their goals. These approaches include Strategic Planning, Total Quality Management, Management by Objectives and others. The measurement of results and their improvement is the main focus of attention of Performance Management.  The working process in the organizations which uses performance management is integrated with the overall goals of the organizations.  Trainers who work using this approach often call themselves performance consults. All their training is centered on the optimizing the results. There are several basic steps which constitute performance management.  Despite there may be minor variations in these steps most of them are usually presented in Performance Management approach. These steps are common for all kinds of performance management including the management of organizations, employees, subsystems, team, etc.

The first step includes defining overall goals of the organization.  These goals must contain exact numbers, such as quality, quantity, time limits, etc. If the goals are set for separate department it is necessary to distinguish if there are any changes which should be performed to other department in order to receive desired results.

The next step includes evaluation of the desired results. After measuring results should be divided according to their priority. In some cases final results can not be achieved without accomplishing some changes. In these cases these changes should be included into general planning. Evaluation is an important factor in performance management. Before turning to actions it is important to define the scale of evaluation of the results. This will give the opportunity to make conclusions about progress and failures of the process. Standards for evaluation may be very useful in this case.  The next step includes created a performance plan, which would contain the description of desired results, standards and measurement.  After this part is accomplished the observation of recent performance is necessary. During this stage performance manager should collect information about present performance and make necessary conclusions. During the process of comparison performance manager compares present results with the desired ones and makes conclusions about present performance. If the performance is unsatisfactory the number of steps aiming to change this situation should be performed. If performance is satisfactory the rewards and appraisals should be distinguished.  These steps should be repeated till desired results are achieved. There are different ways to maximize high performance. Recognition of good results and successful performance is a key practice of maximizing high performance. Recognition may occur in different forms and in different situations.  Actions, behaviors, accomplishments and approaches may become the objects of recognition. Recognition and rewards should not only create stimuli and raise self-esteem of the employees. They also can be used to develop personal qualities and other characteristics necessary for good performance. Fairness is a very important  factor in maximizing performance.  Employees should know that each person who achieves the same good results receive the same appraisal. In general, setting up common standards for recognition is a very useful practice. Employees act better when they know exact measurements of their performance and know conditions when they will be rewarded. Regularity is another important factor of maximizing high performance. Rare and not regular appraisal do not create necessary effects for employees. When reward is not regular employees who do not receive it feel dissatisfied and those who receive this reward do not regard it as additional stimuli to improve performance.  Good explanations create additional stimuli for high performance .When employee who receives reward and his colleagues know exactly what is the reason there are more chances that other decide to repeat this success.

There are a lot of ways to give rewards to people. Monetary rewards, career opportunities, written thank notes, positive attention, benefits, gifts and symbol of honors are the most popular types of positive recognition though creative approach in this case is also very helpful.

Performance management deals not only with high performance. It also deals with unsatisfactory performance. First of all when dealing with unsatisfactory performance all employees who are related should be informed about it. Moreover, employees should know exact parts of their performance which are recognized as unsatisfactory. The next step is the correction of the situation. Employees should be proposed help to correct the situation. They may be given specialists’ advice, who show successful performance in this field. Then the performance of employee of group of employees who show unsatisfactory results should be taken under control. After this period the procedure of appraisal starts again.

Performance management is a comparatively new approach in organizational management but it gives good results and helps to increase performance. Hopefully, this approach will grow and develop and give organizations additional opportunities in the future.

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Search strategy, data extraction, risk of bias and applicability, data synthesis and analysis, parent ratings, teacher ratings, youth self-reports, combined rating scales, additional clinician tools, neuropsychological tests, biospecimen, neuroimaging, variation in diagnostic accuracy with clinical setting or patient subgroup, measures for diagnostic performance, available tools, importance of the comparator sample, clinical implications, future research, conclusions, acknowledgments, tools for the diagnosis of adhd in children and adolescents: a systematic review.

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Bradley S. Peterson , Joey Trampush , Morah Brown , Margaret Maglione , Maria Bolshakova , Mary Rozelle , Jeremy Miles , Sheila Pakdaman , Sachi Yagyu , Aneesa Motala , Susanne Hempel; Tools for the Diagnosis of ADHD in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Pediatrics April 2024; 153 (4): e2024065854. 10.1542/peds.2024-065854

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Correct diagnosis is essential for the appropriate clinical management of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents.

This systematic review provides an overview of the available diagnostic tools.

We identified diagnostic accuracy studies in 12 databases published from 1980 through June 2023.

Any ADHD tool evaluation for the diagnosis of ADHD, requiring a reference standard of a clinical diagnosis by a mental health specialist.

Data were abstracted and critically appraised by 1 reviewer and checked by a methodologist. Strength of evidence and applicability assessments followed Evidence-based Practice Center standards.

In total, 231 studies met eligibility criteria. Studies evaluated parental ratings, teacher ratings, youth self-reports, clinician tools, neuropsychological tests, biospecimen, EEG, and neuroimaging. Multiple tools showed promising diagnostic performance, but estimates varied considerably across studies, with a generally low strength of evidence. Performance depended on whether ADHD youth were being differentiated from neurotypically developing children or from clinically referred children.

Studies used different components of available tools and did not report sufficient data for meta-analytic models.

A valid and reliable diagnosis of ADHD requires the judgment of a clinician who is experienced in the evaluation of youth with and without ADHD, along with the aid of standardized rating scales and input from multiple informants across multiple settings, including parents, teachers, and youth themselves.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental conditions in youth. Its prevalence has remained constant at ∼5.3% worldwide over the years, and diagnostic criteria have remained constant when based on rigorous diagnostic procedures. 1   Clinical diagnoses, however, have increased steadily over time, 2   and currently, ∼10% of US children receive an ADHD diagnosis. 3   Higher rates of clinical compared with research-based diagnoses are because of an increasing clinician recognition of youth who have ADHD symptoms that are functionally impairing but do not fully meet formal diagnostic criteria. 4   The higher diagnostic rates over time in clinical samples also results from youth receiving a diagnosis incorrectly. Some youth, for example, are misdiagnosed as having ADHD when they have symptoms of other disorders that overlap with ADHD symptoms, such as difficulty concentrating, which occurs in many other conditions. 5   Moreover, ADHD is more than twice as likely to be diagnosed in boys than in girls, 3   in lower-income families, 6   and in white compared with nonwhite youth 7   ; differences that derive at least in part from diagnostic and cultural biases. 8   – 11  

Improving clinical diagnostic accuracy is essential to ensure that youth who truly have ADHD benefit from receiving treatment without delay. Similarly, youth who do not have ADHD should not be diagnosed since an incorrect diagnosis risks exposing them to unbeneficial treatments. 12 , 13   Clinician judgement alone, however, especially by nonspecialist clinicians, is poor in diagnosing ADHD 14   compared with expert, research-grade diagnoses made by mental health clinicians. 15   Accurately diagnosing ADHD is difficult because diagnoses are often made using subjective clinical impressions, and putative diagnostic tools have a confusing, diverse, and poorly described evidence base that is not widely accessible. The availability of valid diagnostic tools would especially help to reduce misdiagnoses from cultural biases and symptom overlap with ADHD. 12 , 16   – 19  

This review summarizes evidence for the performance of tools for children and adolescents with ADHD. We did not restrict to a set of known diagnostic tools but instead explored the range of available diagnostic tools, including machine-learning assisted and virtual reality-based tools. The review aimed to assess how diagnostic performance varies by clinical setting and patient characteristics.

The review aims were developed in consultation with the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute, the topic nominator American Academy of Pediatrics, key informants, a technical expert panel (TEP), and public input. The TEP reviewed the protocol and advised on key outcomes. Subgroup analyses and key outcomes were prespecified. The review is registered in PROSPERO (CRD42022312656) and the protocol is available on the AHRQ Web site as part of a larger evidence report on ADHD. The systematic review followed Methods of the (AHRQ) Evidence-based Practice Center Program. 20  

Population: age <18 years.

Interventions: any ADHD tool for the diagnosis of ADHD.

Comparators: diagnosis by a mental health specialist, such as a psychologist, psychiatrist, or other provider, who often used published scales or semistructured diagnostic interviews to ensure a reliable DSM-based diagnosis of ADHD.

Key outcomes: diagnostic accuracy (eg, sensitivity, specificity, area under the curve).

Setting: any.

Study design: diagnostic accuracy studies.

Other: English language, published from 1980 to June 2023.

We searched PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO, ERIC, and ClinicalTrials.gov. We identified reviews for reference-mining through PubMed, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Campbell Collaboration, What Works in Education, PROSPERO, ECRI Guidelines Trust, G-I-N, and ClinicalKey. The peer reviewed strategy is in the Supplemental Appendix . All citations were screened by trained literature reviewers supported by machine learning ( Fig 1 ). Two independent reviewers assessed full text studies for eligibility. The TEP reviewed studies to ensure all were captured. Publications reporting on the same participants were consolidated into 1 record.

Literature flow diagram.

The data abstraction form included extensive guidance to aid reproducibility and standardization in recording study details, results, risk of bias, and applicability. One reviewer abstracted data and a methodologist checked accuracy and completeness. Data are publicly available in the Systematic Review Data Repository.

We assessed characteristics pertaining to patient selection, index test, reference standard, flow and timing that may have introduced bias, and evaluated applicability of study results, such as whether the test, its conduct, or interpretation differed from how the test is used in clinical practice. 21 , 22  

We differentiated parent, teacher, and youth self-report ratings; tools for clinicians; neuropsychological tests; biospecimens; EEG; and neuroimaging. We organized analyses according to prespecified outcome measures. A narrative overview summarized the range of diagnostic performance for key outcomes. Because lack of reported detail in many individual studies hindered use of meta-analytic models, we created summary figures to document the diagnostic performance reported in each study. We used meta-regressions across studies to assess the effects of age, comorbidities, racial and ethnic composition, and diagnostic setting (differentiating primary care, specialty care, school settings, mixed settings, and not reported) on diagnostic performance. One researcher with experience in use of specified standardized criteria 23   initially assessed the overall strength of evidence (SoE) (see Supplemental Appendix ) for each study, then discussed it with the study team to communicate our confidence in each finding.

We screened 23 139 citations and 7534 publications retrieved as full text against the eligibility criteria. In total, 231 studies reported in 290 publications met the eligibility criteria (see Fig 1 ).

Methodological quality of the studies varied. Selection bias was likely in two-thirds of studies; several were determined to be problematic in terms of reported study flow and timing of assessments (eg, not stating whether diagnosis was known before the results of the index test); and several lacked details on diagnosticians or diagnostic procedures ( Supplemental Fig 1 ). Applicability concerns limited the generalizability of findings ( Supplemental Fig 2 ), usually because youth with comorbidities were excluded. Many different tools were assessed within the broader categories (eg, within neuropsychological tests), and even when reporting on the same diagnostic tool, studies often used different components of the tool (eg, different subscales of rating scales), or they combined components in a variety of ways (eg, across different neuropsychological test parameters).

The evidence table ( Supplemental Table 10 , Supplemental Appendix ) shows each study’s finding. The following highlights key findings across studies.

Fifty-nine studies used parent ratings to diagnose ADHD ( Fig 2 ). The most frequently evaluated tool was the CBCL (Child Behavior Checklist), alone or in combination with other tools, often using different score cutoffs for diagnosis, and evaluating different subscales (most frequently the attention deficit/hyperactivity problems subscale). Sensitivities ranged from 38% (corresponding specificity = 96%) to 100% (specificity = 4% to 92%). 24 , 25  

Diagnostic performance parent and teacher ratings. For a complete list of scales see Supplemental Appendix .

Area under the curve (AUC) for receiver operator characteristic curves ranged widely from 0.55 to 0.95 but 3 CBCL studies reported AUCs of 0.83 to 0.84. 26   – 28   Few studies reported measurement of reliability. SoE was downgraded for study limitation (lack of detailed reporting), imprecision (large performance variability), and inconsistent findings ( Supplemental Table 1 ).

Twenty-three studies used teacher ratings to diagnose ADHD ( Fig 2 ). No 2 studies reported on rater agreement, internal consistency, or test-retest reliability for the same teacher rating scale. The highest sensitivity was 97% (specificity = 26%). 25   The Teacher Report Form, alone or in combination with Conners teacher rating scales, yielded sensitivities of 72% to 79% 29   and specificities of 64% to 76%. 30 , 32   reported AUCs ranged from 0.65 to 0.84. 32   SoE was downgraded to low for imprecision (large performance variability) and inconsistency (results for specific tools not replicated), see Supplemental Table 2 .

Six studies used youth self-reports to diagnose ADHD. No 2 studies used the same instrument. Sensitivities ranged from 53% (specificity = 98%) to 86% (specificity = 70%). 35   AUCs ranged from 0.56 to 0.85. 36   We downgraded SoE for domain inconsistency (only 1 study reported on a given tool and outcome), see Supplemental Table 3 .

Thirteen studies assessed diagnostic performance of ratings combined across informants, often using machine learning for variable selection. Only 1 study compared performance of combined data to performance from single informants, finding negligible improvement (AUC youth = 0.71; parent = 0.85; combined = 0.86). 37   Other studies reported on limited outcome measures and used ad hoc methods to combine information from multiple informants. The best AUC was reported by a machine learning supported study combining parent and teacher ratings (AUC = 0.98). 38  

Twenty-four studies assessed additional tools, such as interview guides, that can be used by clinicians to aid diagnosis of ADHD. Sensitivities varied, ranging from 67% (specificity = 65%) to 98% (specificity = 100%); specificities ranged from 36% (sensitivity = 89%) to 100% (sensitivity = 98%). 39   Some of the tools measured activity levels objectively using an actometer or commercially available activity tracker, either alone or as part of a diagnostic test battery. Reported performance was variable (sensitivity range 25% to 100%, 40   specificity range 66% to 100%, 40   AUCs range 0.75–0.9996 41   ). SoE was downgraded for imprecision (large performance variability) and inconsistency (outcomes and results not replicated), see Supplemental Table 4 .

Seventy-four studies used measures from various neuropsychological tests, including continuous performance tests (CPTs). Four of these included 3- and 4-year-old children. 42   – 44   A large majority used a CPT, which assessed omission errors (reflecting inattention), commission errors (impulsivity), and reaction time SD (response time variability). Studies varied in use of traditional visual CPTs, such as the Test of Variables of Attention, more novel, multifaceted “hybrid” CPT paradigms, and virtual reality CPTs built upon environments designed to emulate real-world classroom distractibility. Studies used idiosyncratic combinations of individual cognitive measures to achieve the best performance, though many reported on CPT attention and impulsivity measures.

Sensitivity for all neuropsychological tests ranged from 22% (specificity = 96%) to 100% (specificity = 100%) 45   ( Fig 3 ), though the latter study reported performance for unique composite measures without replication. Specificities ranged from 22% (sensitivity = 91%) 46   to 100% (sensitivity = 100% to 75%). 45 , 47   AUCs ranged from 0.59 to 0.93. 48   Sensitivity for all CPT studies ranged from 22% ( specificity = 96) to 100% (specificity = 75%). 49   Specificities for CPTs ranged from 22% (sensitivity = 91%) to 100% (sensitivity = 89%) 47   ( Fig 3 ). AUCs ranged from 0.59 to 0.93. 50 , 51   SoE was deemed low for imprecise studies (large performance variability), see Supplemental Table 5.

Diagnostic performance neuropsychological tests, CPTs, activity monitors, biospecimen, EEG.

Seven studies assessed blood or urine biomarkers to diagnose ADHD. These measured erythropoietin or erythropoietin receptor, membrane potential ratio, micro RNA levels, or urine metabolites. Sensitivities ranged from 56% (specificity = 95%) to 100% (specificity = 100% for erythropoietin and erythropoietin receptors levels). 52   Specificities ranged from 25% (sensitivity = 79%) to 100% (sensitivity = 100%). 52   AUCs ranged from 0.68 to 1.00. 52   Little information was provided on reliability of markers or their combinations. SoE was downgraded for inconsistent and imprecise studies ( Supplemental Table 6 ).

Forty-five studies used EEG markers to diagnose ADHD. EEG signals were obtained in a variety of patient states, even during neuropsychological test performance. Two-thirds used machine learning algorithms to select classification parameters. Several combined EEG with demographic variables or rating scales. Sensitivity ranged widely from 46% to 100% (corresponding specificities 74 and 71%). 53 , 54   One study that combined EEG with demographics data supported by machine learning reported perfect sensitivity and specificity. 54   Specificity was also variable and ranged from 38% (sensitivity = 95%) to 100% (specificities = 71% or 100%). 53   – 56   Reported AUCs ranged from 0.63 to 1.0. 57 , 58   SoE was downgraded for study imprecision (large performance variability) and limitations (diagnostic approaches poorly described), see Supplemental Table 7 .

Nineteen studies used neuroimaging for diagnosis. One public data set (ADHD-200) produced several analyses. All but 2 used MRI: some functional MRI (fMRI), some structural, and some in combination, with or without magnetic resonance spectroscopy (2 used near-infrared spectroscopy). Most employed machine learning to detect markers that optimized diagnostic classifications. Some combined imaging measures with demographic or other clinical data in the prediction model. Sensitivities ranged from 42% (specificity = 95%) to 99% (specificity = 100%) using resting state fMRI and a complex machine learning algorithm 56   to differentiate ADHD from neurotypical youth. Specificities ranged from 55% (sensitivity = 95%) to 100% 56   using resting state fMRI data. AUCs ranged from 0.58 to over 0.99, 57   SoE was downgraded for imprecision (large performance variability) and study limitations (diagnostic models are often not well described, and the number and type of predictor variables entering the model were unclear). Studies generally did not validate diagnostic algorithms or assess performance measures in an independent sample ( Supplemental Table 8 ).

Regression analyses indicated that setting was associated with both sensitivity ( P = .03) and accuracy ( P = .006) but not specificity ( P = .68) or AUC ( P = .28), with sensitivities lowest in primary care ( Fig 4 ). Sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy were also lower when differentiating youth with ADHD from a clinical sample than from typically developing youth (sensitivity P = .04, specificity P < .001, AUC P < .001) ( Fig 4 ), suggesting that clinical population is a source of heterogeneity in diagnostic performance. Findings should be interpreted with caution, however, as they were not obtained in meta-analytic models and, consequently, do not take into account study size or quality.

Diagnostic performance by setting and population.

Supplemental Figs 3–5 in the Supplemental Appendix document effects by age and gender. We did not detect statistically significant associations of age with sensitivity ( P = .54) or specificity ( P = .37), or associations of the proportion of girls with sensitivity ( P = .63), specificity ( P = .80), accuracy ( P = .34), or AUC ( P = .90).

We identified a large number of publications reporting on ADHD diagnostic tools. To our knowledge, no prior review of ADHD diagnostic tools has been as comprehensive in the range of tools, outcomes, participant ages, and publication years. Despite the large number of studies, we deemed the strength of evidence for the reported performance measures across all categories of diagnostic tools to be low because of large performance variability across studies and various limitations within and across studies.

We required that studies report diagnoses when using the tool compared with diagnoses made by expert mental health clinicians. Studies most commonly reported sensitivity (true-positive rate) and specificity (true-negative rate) when a study-specific diagnostic threshold was applied to measures from the tool being assessed. Sensitivity and specificity depend critically on that study-specific threshold, and their values are inherently a trade-off, such that varying the threshold to increase either sensitivity or specificity reduces the other. Interpreting diagnostic performance in terms of sensitivity and specificity, and comparing those performance measures across studies, is therefore challenging. Consequently, researchers more recently often report performance for sensitivity and specificity in terms of receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curves, a plot of sensitivity versus specificity across the entire range of possible diagnostic thresholds. The area under this ROC curve (AUC) provides an overall, single index of performance that ranges from 0.5 (indicating that the tool provides no information above chance for classification) to 1.0 (indicating a perfect test that can correctly classify all participants as having ADHD and all non-ADHD participants as not having it). AUC values of 90 to 100 are commonly classified as excellent performance; 80 to 90 as good; 70 to 80 as fair; 60 to 70 as poor; and 50 to 60 failed performance.

Most research is available on parental ratings. Overall, AUCs for parent rating scales ranged widely from “poor” 58   to “excellent.” 59   Analyses restricted to the CBCL, the most commonly evaluated scale, yielded more consistent “good” AUCs for differentiating youth with ADHD from others in clinical samples, but the number of studies contributing data were small. Internal consistency for rating scale items was generally high across most rating scales. Test-retest reliability was good, though only 2 studies reported it. One study reported moderate rater agreement between mothers and fathers for inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity symptoms. Few studies included youth under 7 years of age.

AUCs for teacher rating scales ranged from “failed” 33   to “good.” 34   Internal consistency for scale items was generally high. Teacher ratings demonstrated very low rater agreement with corresponding parent scales, suggesting either a problem with the instruments or a large variability in symptom presentation with environmental context (home or school).

Though data were limited, self-reports from youth seemed to perform less well than corresponding parent and teacher reports, with AUCs ranging from “failed” for CBCL or ASEBA when distinguishing ADHD from other patients 33   to “good” for the SWAN in distinguishing ADHD from neurotypical controls. 36 , 37  

Studies evaluating neuropsychological tests yielded AUCs ranging from “poor” 60 , 61   to “excellent.” 50   Many used idiosyncratic combinations of cognitive measures, which complicates interpretation of the results across studies. Nevertheless, extracting specific, comparable measures of inattention and impulsivity from CPTs yielded diagnostic performance ranging from “poor” to “excellent” in differentiating ADHD youth from neurotypical controls and “fair” in differentiating ADHD youth from other patients. 42 , 60 , 62   No studies provided an independent replication of diagnosis using the same measure.

Blood biomarkers yielded AUCs ranging from “poor” (serum miRNAs) 63   to “excellent” (erythropoietin and erythropoietin receptors levels) 52   in differentiating ADHD from neurotypical youth. None have been independently replicated, and test-retest reliability was not reported. Most EEG studies used machine learning for diagnostic classification. AUCs ranged from “poor” 64   to “excellent” when differentiating ADHD youth from neurotypical controls. 65   Diagnostic performance was not prospectively replicated in any independent samples.

Most neuroimaging studies relied on machine learning to develop diagnostic algorithms. AUCs ranged from “poor” 66   to “excellent” for distinguishing ADHD youth from neurotypically developing controls. 57   Most studies used pre-existing data sets or repositories to retrospectively discriminate youths with ADHD from neurotypical controls, not from other clinical populations and not prospectively, and none assessed test-retest reliability or the independent reproducibility of findings. Reporting of final mathematical models or algorithms for diagnosis was limited. Activity monitors have the advantage of providing inexpensive, objective, easily obtained, and quantified measures that can potentially be widely disseminated and scaled.

Studies of combined approaches, such as integrating diagnostic tools with clinician impressions, were limited. One study reported increased sensitivity and specificity when an initial clinician diagnosis combined EEG indicators (the reference standard was a consensus diagnosis from a panel of ADHD experts). 67   These findings were not independently replicated, however, and no test-retest reliability was reported.

Many studies aimed to distinguish ADHD youth from neurotypical controls, which is a distinction of limited clinical relevance. In clinically referred youth, most parents, teachers, and clinicians are reasonably confident that something is wrong, even if they are unsure whether the cause of their concern is ADHD. To be informed by a tool that the child is not typically developing is not particularly helpful. Moreover, we cannot know whether diagnostic performance for tools that discriminate ADHD youth only from neurotypical controls is determined by the presence of ADHD or by the presence of any other characteristics that accompany clinical “caseness,” such as the presence of comorbid illnesses or symptoms shared or easily confused with those of other conditions, or the effects of chronic stress or current or past treatment. The clinically more relevant and difficult question is, therefore, how well the tool distinguishes youth with ADHD from those who have other emotional and behavioral problems. Consistent with these conceptual considerations that argue for assessing diagnostic performance in differentiating youth with ADHD from those with other clinical conditions, we found significant evidence that, across all studies, sensitivity, specificity, and AUC were all lower when differentiating youth with ADHD from a clinical sample than when differentiating them from neurotypical youth. These findings also suggest that the comparison population was a significant source of heterogeneity in diagnostic performance.

Despite the large number of studies on diagnostic tools, a valid and reliable diagnosis of ADHD ultimately still requires the judgement of a clinician who is experienced in the evaluation of youth with and without ADHD, along with the aid of standardized rating scales and input from multiple informants across multiple settings, including parents, teachers, and youth themselves. Diagnostic tools perform best when the clinical question is whether a youth has ADHD or is healthy and typically developing, rather than when the clinical question is whether a youth has ADHD or another mental health or behavioral problem. Diagnostic tools yield more false-positive and false-negative diagnoses of ADHD when differentiating youth with ADHD from youth with another mental health problem than when differentiating them from neurotypically developing youth.

Scores for rating scales tended to correlate poorly across raters, and ADHD symptoms in the same child varied across settings, indicating that no single informant in a single setting is a gold-standard for diagnosis. Therefore, diagnosis using rating scales will likely benefit from a more complete representation of symptom expression across multiple informants (parents, school personnel, clinicians, and youth) across more than 1 setting (home, school, and clinic) to inform clinical judgement when making a diagnosis, thus, consistent with current guidelines. 68   – 70   Unfortunately, methods for combining scores across raters and settings that improve diagnosis compared with scores from single raters have not been developed or prospectively replicated.

Despite the widespread use of neuropsychological testing to “diagnose” youth with ADHD, often at considerable expense, indirect comparisons of AUCs suggest that performance of neuropsychological test measures in diagnosing ADHD is comparable to the diagnostic performance of ADHD rating scales from a single informant. Moreover, the diagnostic accuracy of parent rating scales is typically better than neuropsychological test measures in head-to-head comparisons. 44 , 71   Furthermore, the overall SoE for estimates of diagnostic performance with neuropsychological testing is low. Use of neuropsychological test measures of executive functioning, such as the CPT, may help inform a clinical diagnosis, but they are not definitive either in ruling in or ruling out a diagnosis of ADHD. The sole use of CPTs and other neuropsychological tests to diagnose ADHD, therefore, cannot be recommended. We note that this conclusion regarding diagnostic value is not relevant to any other clinical utility that testing may have.

No independent replication studies have been conducted to validate EEG, neuroimaging, or biospecimen to diagnose ADHD, and no clinical effectiveness studies have been conducted using these tools to diagnose ADHD in the real world. Thus, these tools do not seem remotely close to being ready for clinical application to aid diagnosis, despite US Food and Drug Administration approval of 1 EEG measure as a purported diagnostic aid. 67 , 72  

All studies of diagnostic tools should report data in more detail (ie, clearly report false-positive and -negative rates, the diagnostic thresholds used, and any data manipulation undertaken to achieve the result) to support meta-analytic methods. Studies should include ROC analyses to support comparisons of test performance across studies that are independent of the diagnostic threshold applied to measures from the tool. They should also include assessment of test-retest reliability to help discern whether variability in measures and test performance is a function of setting or of measurement variability over time. Future studies should address the influence of co-occurring disorders on diagnostic performance and how well the tools distinguish youth with ADHD from youth with other emotional and behavioral problems, not simply from healthy controls. More studies should compare the diagnostic accuracy of different test modalities, head-to-head. Independent, prospective replication of performance measures of diagnostic tools in real-world settings is essential before US Food and Drug Administration approval and before recommendations for widespread clinical use.

Research is needed to identify consensus algorithms that combine rating scale data from multiple informants to improve the clinical diagnosis of ADHD, which at present is often unguided, ad hoc, and suboptimal. Diagnostic studies using EEG, neuroimaging, and neuropsychological tests should report precise operational definitions and measurements of the variable(s) used for diagnosis, any diagnostic algorithm employed, the selected statistical cut-offs, and the number of false-positives and false-negatives the diagnostic tool yields to support future efforts at synthetic analyses.

Objective, quantitative neuropsychological test measures of executive functioning correlate only weakly with the clinical symptoms that define ADHD. 73   Thus, many youth with ADHD have normal executive functioning profiles on neuropsychological testing, and many who have impaired executive functioning on testing do not have ADHD. 74   Future research is needed to understand how test measures of executive functioning and the real-world functional problems that define ADHD map on to one another and how that mapping can be improved.

One of the most important potential uses of systematic reviews and meta-analyses in improving the clinical diagnosis of ADHD and treatment planning would be identification of effect modifiers for the performance of diagnostic tools: determining, for example, whether tools perform better in patients who are younger or older, in ethnic minorities, or those experiencing material hardship, or who have a comorbid illness or specific ADHD presentation. Future studies of ADHD should more systematically address the modifier effects of these patient characteristics. They should make available in public repositories the raw, individual-level data and the algorithms or computer code that will aid future efforts at replication, synthesis, and new discovery for diagnostic tools across data sets and studies.

Finally, no studies meeting our inclusion criteria assessed the consequences of being misdiagnosed or labeled as either having or not having ADHD, the diagnosis of ADHD specifically in preschool-aged children, or the potential adverse consequences of youth being incorrectly diagnosed with or without ADHD. This work is urgently needed.

We thank Cynthia Ramirez, Erin Tokutomi, Jennifer Rivera, Coleman Schaefer, Jerusalem Belay, Anne Onyekwuluje, and Mario Gastelum for help with data acquisition. We thank Kymika Okechukwu, Lauren Pilcher, Joanna King, and Robyn Wheatley from the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), Jennie Dalton and Paula Eguino Medina from PCORI, Christine Chang and Kim Wittenberg from AHRQ, and Mary Butler from the Minnesota Evidence-based Practice Center. We thank Glendy Burnett, Eugenia Chan, MD, MPH, Matthew J. Gormley, PhD, Laurence Greenhill, MD, Joseph Hagan, Jr, MD, Cecil Reynolds, PhD, Le'Ann Solmonson, PhD, LPC-S, CSC, and Peter Ziemkowski, MD, FAAFP who served as key informants. We thank Angelika Claussen, PhD, Alysa Doyle, PhD, Tiffany Farchione, MD, Matthew J. Gormley, PhD, Laurence Greenhill, MD, Jeffrey M. Halperin, PhD, Marisa Perez-Martin, MS, LMFT, Russell Schachar, MD, Le'Ann Solmonson, PhD, LPC-S, CSC, and James Swanson, PhD who served as a technical expert panel. Finally, we thank Joel Nigg, PhD, and Peter S. Jensen, MD for their peer review of the data.

Drs Peterson and Hempel conceptualized and designed the study, collected data, conducted the analyses, drafted the initial manuscript, and critically reviewed and revised the manuscript; Dr Trampush conducted the critical appraisal; Ms Brown, Ms Maglione, Drs Bolshakova and Padkaman, and Ms Rozelle screened citations and abstracted the data; Dr Miles conducted the analyses; Ms Yagyu designed and executed the search strategy; Ms Motala served as data manager; and all authors provided critical input for the manuscript, approved the final manuscript as submitted, and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

This trial has been registered at PROSPERO (identifier CRD42022312656).

COMPANION PAPER: A companion to this article can be found online at www.pediatrics.org/cgi/doi/10.1542/peds.2024-065787 .

Data Sharing: Data are available in SRDRPlus.

FUNDING: The work is based on research conducted by the Southern California Evidence-based Practice Center under contract to the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), Rockville, MD (Contract 75Q80120D00009). The Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute (PCORI) funded the research (PCORI Publication No. 2023-SR-03). The findings and conclusions in this manuscript are those of the authors, who are responsible for its contents; the findings and conclusions do not necessarily represent the views of AHRQ or PCORI, its Board of Governors, or Methodology Committee. Therefore, no statement in this report should be construed as an official position of PCORI, AHRQ or of the US Department of Health and Human Services.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST DISCLOSURES: The authors have indicated they have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

area under the curve

Child Behavior Checklist

continuous performance test

functional magnetic resonance imaging

receiver operating characteristics

strength of evidence

technical expert panel

Supplementary data

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