tsunami preparedness essay

Tsunami Warning and Preparedness: An Assessment of the U.S. Tsunami Program and the Nation's Preparedness Efforts (2011)

Chapter: 1 introduction, chapter one introduction, the tsunami threat in the united states.

The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami resulted in catastrophic losses of life and property and demonstrated how destructive tsunamis can be. More than 200,000 people died, with most occurring in Indonesia, which was near the tsunami source, but deaths were also reported in countries as far away as Somalia. Recently, the Samoan (September 2009) and Chilean (February 2010) tsunamis reminded the world of how quickly a tsunami can move onshore and destroy lives. In comparison to extreme weather—such as floods, hurricanes, or tornadoes—tsunamis have caused comparatively few fatalities in the United States over the past 200 years. Modern records kept since 1800 tally less than 800 lives lost due to tsunamis in the United States and territories. 1 In 1960, a magnitude 9.5 Chilean earthquake generated tsunami waves that killed 61 people and caused $24 million in property damage in Hilo, Hawaii (Eaton et al., 1961). The 1964 Good Friday earthquake in Alaska generated a tsunami that devastated local Alaskan communities and inundated distant communities as far south as Crescent City, California.

Earlier tsunamis—yet to be repeated in modern times—include tsunami waves of North American origin in the year 1700 that caused flooding and damage as far away as Japan. Paleo-records indicate that the Cascadia subduction zone off the Washington, Oregon, and northern California coasts has repeatedly generated potentially catastrophic tsunamis (Atwater et al., 2005). Because of the relative infrequency of catastrophic tsunamis in recent U.S. history, mobilizing the required resources to maintain the nation’s warning and preparedness capabilities is challenging.

Tsunamis are caused by a variety of geological processes, such as earthquakes, subaerial and submarine landslides, volcanic eruptions, or very rarely from meteorite impacts ( Box 1.1 ). However, it takes a large event (e.g., typically an earthquake of magnitude greater than 7.0) to generate a damaging tsunami. Therefore, determining the likelihood of future tsunamis for U.S. coastal communities requires an understanding of the likelihood of reoccurrence of such geological processes, the likely magnitude of such events, and the location of the sources (see Chapter 3 for additional details). Because most tsunamis result from earthquakes, the tsunami hazard is high along U.S. shores that adjoin boundaries between tectonic plates, particularly along the subduction zones of Alaska, the Pacific Northwest, the Caribbean, and the Marianas ( Figure 1.1 ). However, U.S. shores are also exposed to tsunamis generated far from them. For example, Hawaii has been struck by tsunamis that have been generated by earthquakes off the coasts of South America, Russia, and Alaska (Cox and Mink, 1963). Submarine landslides,

probably triggered by earthquakes, account for much of the known tsunami hazard along the U.S. Atlantic and Gulf coasts, and in southern California (Dunbar and Weaver, 2008). Seismically active faults and the potential for landslides in the Caribbean pose a significant tsunami risk for that region (Dunbar and Weaver, 2008).

Tsunami hazard zones of U.S. coastal communities contain thousands of residents, employees, and tourists, and represent significant economic components of these coastal communities (Wood, 2007; Wood et al., 2007; Wood and Soulard, 2008). The economic and social risks from tsunamis grow with increasing population density along the coasts. To reduce societal risks posed by tsunamis, the nation needs a clear understanding of the nature of the tsunami hazard (e.g., source, inundation area, speed of onset) and the societal characteristics of coastal communities (e.g., the number of people, buildings, infrastructure, and economic activities)

FIGURE 1.1 Global map of active volcanoes and plate tectonics illustrating the “Ring of Fire” and depicting subduction zones; both areas associated with frequent seismic activity. SOURCE: http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Imgs/Gif/PlateTectonics/Maps/map_plate_tectonics_world_bw.gif; USGS .

that make them vulnerable to future tsunamis. With a clear understanding of the tsunami hazards and social vulnerability that comprise tsunami risk, officials and the general public can then prepare for future events and hopefully reduce this risk. 2

When assessing tsunami hazard and developing risk reduction measures, it is important to consider the distance between a coastal community and potential tsunami sources as well as the probability of occurrence. Near-field tsunamis (see Box 1.1 ) pose a greater threat to human life than far-field tsunamis because of the short time between generation and flooding; because the extent of flooding is likely greater; and because the flooded area may be reeling from an earthquake (National Science and Technology Council, 2005). Near-field tsunamis account for most U.S. tsunami deaths outside of Hawaii, but even Hawaii has suffered losses from near-field tsunamis. Because it takes a very large earthquake to impact the far-field, more triggering events have the potential to impact communities that are within an hour or less from the source. For example, an earthquake generated within the Cascadia fault zone along the northern California, Oregon, and Washington coasts will allow only minutes for evacuation of

the coastal communities after the earthquake is felt. In addition, tsunami observations demonstrate an increase in wave height with proximity to the source, resulting in extensive coastal flooding by a near-field tsunami. Consequences of a near-field tsunami are far greater for any given location.

Far-field tsunamis afford hours of advance notice for evacuation and are likely to have smaller wave heights than those in the tsunami’s near field. However, the farther a coastal community from the earthquake source the less likely it is to have felt the earthquake and the more dependent it is on an instrumental detection system to provide warnings. Timely and accurate warnings are required to implement orderly evacuations and to avoid frequent unnecessary evacuations, which can be costly. The National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) report (2005) concludes that “the challenge is to design a tsunami hazard mitigation program to protect life and property from two very different types of tsunami events.”

GOALS AND SCOPE OF THIS REPORT

The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, spurred two congressional acts intended to reduce losses of life and property from future tsunamis. The Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act for Defense, the Global War on Terror, and Tsunami Relief, 2005 (P.L. 109-13), included $24 million to improve tsunami warnings by expanding tsunami detection and earthquake monitoring capabilities. This Act was followed in 2006 by the Tsunami Warning and Education Act (P.L. 109-424), which directs the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to strengthen the nation’s tsunami warning system (TWS), work with federal and state partners toward the mitigation of tsunami hazards, establish and maintain a tsunami research program, and assist with efforts to provide tsunami warnings and tsunami education overseas.

Section 4(j) of the Tsunami Warning and Education Act calls upon the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) “to review the tsunami detection, forecast, and warning program established under this Act to assess further modernization and coverage needs, as well as long-term operational reliability issues.” In response, NOAA asked the NAS to assess options to improve all aspects of the tsunami program. This request is reflected in the first part of the committee’s charge (see Appendix B ) and accordingly focuses on efforts on tsunami detection, forecasting, and warning dissemination.

The NAS, in accepting this charge and in consultation with NOAA, broadened the review’s scope to include an assessment of progress toward additional preparedness efforts to reduce loss of life and property from tsunamis in the United States as part of the National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program (NTHMP). The main rationale for this broadened scope was to address Section 5(a) in P.L. 109-424, which called for “a community-based tsunami hazard mitigation program to improve tsunami preparedness of at-risk areas in the United States and its territories.” Such a tsunami hazard mitigation program requires partnership among federal, state, tribal, and local governments. Its strategies include identifying and defining tsunami hazards, making inventories of the people and property in tsunami hazard zones, and providing the public with knowledge and infrastructure for evacuation, particularly for near-field

tsunamis that come ashore in a few minutes. The broadened scope aims at encompassing the range of national tsunami warning and preparedness efforts.

The Range of Options Available for Tsunami Hazard Mitigation

As the scope of the study was broadened to include aspects of tsunami hazard mitigation, the committee recognized the need to define the term “mitigation” and set some boundaries for the study, because the full suite of mitigation options exceeds the purview and capacity of this particular study. The definition of hazard mitigation and the actions it includes differ among various hazard communities. Some members of the academic community consider the full range of hazard mitigation options to include three classes of actions (White and Haas, 1975): (1) modifying the natural causes of hazards, (2) modifying society’s vulnerability (e.g., levees, wind- and seismic-resistant houses), and (3) redistributing the losses that occur (e.g., insurance, emergency response). In contrast, natural hazard practitioners consider the range of human adjustment to natural hazards to fall into two major classes of actions: (1) mitigation of potential losses through interventions in the constructed world in ways that lessen potential losses from nature’s extremes (e.g., land-use management, control and protection works, building codes), and (2) preparedness for, response to, and recovery from specific events and their associated losses (Mileti, 1999).

Focus on Warning and Preparedness

Although land-use planning and adjusting building codes is important in mitigating the impacts of tsunamis, the charge to the committee is focused primarily on the detection, forecast, and warning for near- and far-field tsunamis and issues directly related to the effective implementation of those warnings. To be responsive to its charge, the report focuses on the second class of mitigation actions, which generally includes pre-event planning to develop preparedness plans, appropriate organizational arrangements, training and exercises for issuing event-specific public warnings, an adequate emergency response, and plans for recovery and reconstruction. These types of adjustment are based on the notion that the adequacy of pre-event planning determines the effectiveness of event-specific response. This view also places insurance in the preparedness class.

THE NATION’S TSUNAMI WARNING AND PREPAREDNESS EFFORTS

Only very recently has there been a national interest in tsunami warning and preparedness. Before 2004, most efforts were spearheaded by local, state, or regional initiative operating on very limited budgets. Integrating these existing individual efforts into a national tsunami program has led to a very different type of program than that of a national tsunami warning program designed from the outset. The history of tsunami warning and preparedness efforts can be traced back to two of the six destructive tsunamis that caused causalities on U.S. soil.

These efforts were originally part of the National Geodetic Survey, which developed the two tsunami warning centers (TWCs) in Hawaii and Alaska after the 1946 Aleutian tsunami (Unimak Island, AK) and the 1964 Alaskan tsunami (Prince William Sound, AK) ( Figure 1.2 ). These centers eventually became part of NOAA’s National Weather Service (NWS), but each is located in different NWS regions and is managed independently.

Concern about tsunamis in Washington, Oregon, and California increased in the late 1980s and early 1990s when several new scientific studies revealed their near-field tsunami threat from the Cascadia subduction zone (Atwater, 1987; Heaton and Hartzell, 1987). California was reminded of its potential tsunami threat by an earthquake near Cape Mendocino in 1992, which generated a small tsunami that arrived in Eureka only minutes after the earthquake occurred. These and other developments prompted a more urgent call to produce comprehensive assessments of tsunami risk and preparedness at the state and federal level.

Congress responded to this call in a 1995 Senate Appropriations Committee request to NOAA to develop a plan for reducing tsunami risk to coastal communities. NOAA suggested the formation of a national committee to address tsunami threat, leading to the establishment of the NTHMP that same year. The NTHMP is tasked with coordinating the various federal, state, territorial, and commonwealth tsunami efforts. NOAA’s Tsunami Program was established in 2005 to incorporate all the current tsunami efforts at NOAA (see below). To respond to the committee’s charge (see Appendix B ) and assess progress made toward improved tsunami warning and preparedness, the committee begins its evaluation with an inventory of the elements of the NTHMP and NOAA’s Tsunami Program.

National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program

The NTHMP has a Coordinating Committee (steering committee) that works to collaborate on the tsunami mitigation efforts of the NTHMP and three subcommittees: a Mapping and Modeling Subcommittee, a Warning Coordination Subcommittee, and a Mitigation and Education Subcommittee. 3 In addition to coordinating individual efforts, the NTHMP provides guidance to NOAA’s TWSs. Federal partners include NOAA, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). State partners originally included Hawaii, Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and California, and now include all 29 U.S. coastal states and territories.

The USGS contributes to the seismic network that the TWCs use through operating and maintaining their respective seismic networks and to the tsunami research and risk assessments and conducts an independent seismic analysis of potential tsunamigenic earthquakes at its National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC). The USGS and NOAA both support the Global Seismographic Network (GSN), which provides high-quality seismic data to assist earthquake detection (including tsunamigenic earthquakes). Both agencies also support earthquake and seismic studies to improve tsunami warning efforts and tsunami disaster response and hazards assessments. FEMA is responsible for hazard mitigation and emergency response; as

FIGURE 1.2 Timelines for U.S. tsunami warning centers, programs, tsunami budget, deaths from tsunamis in the United States and its territories, and earthquakes of magnitude 8.0 or larger worldwide since the year 1900. Sources of data for this figure include: NOAA (federal spending); http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard/tsu_db.shtml (tsunami fatalities); http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqarchives/ (great earthquake history). SOURCE: Committee member.

part of its mitigation efforts it has issued Guidelines for Design of Structures for Vertical Evacuation from Tsunamis (Federal Emergency Management Agency, 2008). FEMA becomes the lead federal agency in managing the emergency response once a tsunami has caused damage to U.S. coastlines.

The National Science Foundation (NSF) used to be a partner of the NTHMP, but as its involvement decreased the decision was made in 2009 to remove it from the NTHMP. Its primary function is to provide research funding and to partner with other federal agencies in research and development. NSF provides funding for the GSN. NSF has also been actively involved with investments regarding tsunami research infrastructure, such as the Network for Earthquake and Engineering Simulation (NEES), Earthquake Engineering and Research Centers (EERCs), and the Southern California Earthquake Center (SCEC) (Bement, 2005). Because it is not part of the NTHMP and its funding decisions are primarily driven by the demand in the research community, this report does not include an explicit discussion of NSF’s role but rather discusses the role of the broader research community in the nation’s tsunami efforts.

NOAA has been carrying most of the responsibility and obtains most of the funding to provide tsunami warnings, maintain observing networks (including seismic networks not funded by the USGS in Alaska and Hawaii), manage and archive data, and conduct research (further discussed in the next section).

The coastal states, U.S. territories, and commonwealths contribute their own initiatives and resources to the nation’s preparedness and education efforts; these vary in extent and approach from state to state. In particular, states are responsible for providing communities with inundation maps that allow municipalities to produce evacuation maps and guidance, and to educate the public about the hazard and appropriate responses. Local officials in turn are responsible for transmitting tsunami alerts throughout their respective jurisdictions, issuing evacuation orders, managing evacuations, and declaring all-clears.

NOAA’s Tsunami Program

In 2006, the Tsunami Warning and Education Act (P.L. 109-424) charged NOAA with addressing the nation’s priorities in tsunami detection, warning, and mitigation. NOAA’s Tsunami Program assumed the responsibilities to plan and execute NOAA’s tsunami efforts, primarily the program’s budget, strategic plan, and the coordination of activities among its NOAA organizational components and external partners, including the NTHMP. NOAA’s Tsunami Program advocates an end-to-end TWS, which includes detection, warnings and forecasts, message dissemination, outreach and education, and research.

NOAA’s Tsunami Program is supported by five line offices ( Table 1.1 ): NWS; the Office of Marine and Aviation Offices (OMAO); the National Ocean Service (NOS); Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR); and the National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS). The NWS, as the administrator for NOAA’s Tsunami Program, is primarily responsible for helping community leaders and emergency managers in strengthening their local tsunami

TABLE 1.1 Tsunami Program Matrix

warning and preparedness programs through its TsunamiReady program as well as operating the TWCs.

The Pacific Region’s Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) and the Alaska Region’s West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (WC/ATWC) are administered within the NWS, although the two TWCs report to their respective regional NWS offices. The two TWCs have distinct areas of responsibility as described in Chapter 5 . The NWS also houses the National Data Buoy Center (NDBC), which operates and maintains the Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) buoys. These buoys monitor and alert the TWCs of sea level changes associated with a tsunami. OMAO collaborates by providing detection system maintenance support and conducting coastal surveys. NOS provides state and local coastal emergency managers with hazard-related information such as training and assessment tools, and also operates coastal tide stations and sea level gauges that monitor changes in sea level. OAR comprises a research network involving internal research laboratories, grant programs, and collaborative efforts between NOAA and academic institutions. Pacific Marine Environmentla Laboratory (PMEL), within OAR, focuses on designing optimal tsunami monitoring networks, improving forecast modeling, and improving impact assessment on coastal communities. NESDIS provides access to global environmental data; such as climate, geophysical, and oceanographic data. The National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC), housed within NESDIS, manages a database for historic tsunami events, maps, and DART and tide gauge records. Some negative consequences arising from this distribution of tsunami detection, forecast, warning, and planning functions across different parts of NOAA and across different NTHMP partners is discussed in greater detail in Chapters 3 and 5 .

ASSESSING THE NATION’S EFFORTS

Because tsunami warning and preparedness efforts are distributed across federal and state agencies and were historically conducted without a federal coordination mechanism, the committee faced a number of challenges in assessing progress in the nation’s ability to warn and prepare for the threat of tsunamis. The first challenge results from the need to assess many individual activities. Secondly, it is difficult to extrapolate from these individual activities to assess whether all the distributed efforts can function coherently during a tsunami to warn and evacuate people in a timely fashion. To help address these challenges, the committee began its analysis by sketching the required functions and elements of an idealized integrated warning and preparedness effort based on available research findings in the hazards and high-reliability organizations (HRO) literature (see section below). The committee then sought to compare its vision of an idealized system with the evolving status quo.

An ideal integrated TWS comprises multiple technologies, systems, individuals, and organizations. A comprehensive view of the elements therefore includes technical, organizational, social, and human components. The ideal system incorporates risk assessment, public education, tsunami detection, warning management, and public response ( Figure 1.3 ).

Protecting and warning the public begins with an understanding of the tsunami risk envi-

FIGURE 1.3 Components of an integrated warning system: Risk assessment includes all assessments required to effectively plan evacuations (including tsunami source determination, inundation modeling, and evacuation mapping) and prepare the communities to evacuate in the event a warning is issued or received. Risk assessments identify needs for public education. Public education aims to ensure maximum preparedness and a public that knows what to do when it receives a warning or feels the ground shaking in the case of near-field tsunamis. Threat detection comprises the continuous monitoring of the natural and technological environments that could create an emergency; it informs the warning management and public response component using threshold criteria and communication technology. Warning management interfaces the threat detection component with the public response component and is responsible for tsunami alerts, warnings, and evacuations; in consultation with the threat detection component it will alert and warn the public. Public response is the ultimate outcome of the integrated warning system, and it integrates public education, threat detection, natural cues from tsunami triggers, and warning management. SOURCE: Committee member; design by Jennifer Matthews, University of California, San Diego.

ronment. This must be done before a tsunami is generated in order to design the threat detection system, the education and awareness campaigns, and the evacuation and response plans. To understand the risk environment, both hazards (the physical characteristics of tsunamis and the inundation area) and vulnerabilities (the people and properties in harm’s way) need to be characterized (National Research Council, 2006). Pre-event public education is required to enable at-risk populations to correctly interpret: (1) natural cues from the environment (e.g., ground shaking from the earthquake) or (2) warnings from a technical detection system as a signal to evacuate to higher ground in a timely fashion. The threat detection component monitors the environment for threshold events using cues from natural and technical systems (Mileti, 1999; Mileti and Sorenson, 1990).

Once a significant tsunami is detected, the warning process needs to be managed. Tsunami information needs to be analyzed and decisions have to be made about the extent of the warning. Managers and decision makers issue warnings directly to the public. Ideally, officials managing the response also maintain situational awareness and information flow between the technical detection system and the public to update warnings and messages with the required protective actions to be taken. Because of the dominance of real-time communications, the Internet, and social networking, both the general public and media will increasingly access tsunami information directly from real-time information sources (e.g., the TWCs, seismometers, and water-level gauges) before local officials are able to respond. The public’s real-time access to different information sources, such as social media and networking systems, underscores the importance of public education to prepare both the public and the press for proper interpretation of information and response to detected hazards. An effective warning system monitors the public’s response and reactions in order to improve its processes for effective, understandable, actionable, reliable, and accurate warnings of impending danger. In the following chapters, the report covers the system components and compares the idealized system with current and/or planned efforts.

An integrated TWS has an impact on large populations and on a wide range of resources and, in the event of failure, has the potential to cause enormous economic, social, organizational, technological, and political losses. Although often seen as mainly comprising technical and technological elements, a warning system must, out of necessity, include the human dimension, such as people’s behavior, policies, procedures, and organizations. However, it is the human dimension that poses a significant challenge:

This involves the setting and running of national services (people), and the implementation of complex emergency-preparedness and awareness plans at the national and local levels to immediately inform every person of the threat. In the building of any early warning system, this is the difficult part. (Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, and World Meteorological Organization, 2005).

CHALLENGES TO REDUCING THE NATION’S VULNERABILITY TO TSUNAMIS

Reducing the vulnerability of coastal settlements and infrastructure to tsunami risk poses some unique challenges. Although tsunamis can be devastating, as was seen during the 2004 Indian Ocean event, catastrophic tsunamis are relatively infrequent. This infrequency makes it more challenging to sustain the capacity to educate, warn, and prepare for this particular hazard. As discussed above, the history of tsunami warning and mitigation efforts in the United States shows that significant new funding is often made available only after a tsunami has devastated a coastal community and caused casualties. High funding levels and commitment to tsunami mitigation dissipate over time, leading to difficulties in maintaining efforts, knowledge, and lessons learned over time. Another challenge is the need to relay warnings from the fed-

eral government to state and local officials in just minutes (in the case of a near-field tsunami) or hours (in the case of a far-field tsunami). Sustaining the organizational preparedness and coordination across many jurisdictional boundaries presents a daunting challenge.

The committee recognizes that the nation’s tsunami detection, warning, and preparedness efforts originated in many diverse efforts distributed across several coastal states, and that attempts to integrate these distributed components into a coherent program have only recently begun. In particular, because tsunamis are rapid onset events, there is very little margin for error in the system before failure becomes catastrophic. An organization that operates in a low probability, high-risk environment, allowing few errors, is called an HRO (Roberts, 1990). HROs manifest a number of common properties: flexible and adaptable organizational structures, continually reinforced organizational learning, decision making that is both flexible and mobile, a strongly reinforced organizational culture, constant and effective communication, and trust among members of the system, particularly across organizations (Grabowski and Roberts, 1999; Grabowski et al., 2007). Because the committee identified the need for high-reliability operations in TWSs, the committee draws from the research literature on HROs (Roberts, 1990) and resilient systems (Hollnagel et al., 2008) to highlight particular characteristics that reduce the risks of failure in an idealized end-to-end warning system:

Situational Awareness in an Emergency: Because tsunamis are events that allow only minutes to hours for evacuation, a keen sense of situational awareness and the ability to respond quickly and effectively is required (Weick, 1990, 1993, 2003). HROs require decision making that is adaptable to change and surprise, and that is able to continually reassess needs across distributed organizations (Weick, 1993, 1998; Weick et al., 1999). Such is the case with the nation’s tsunami warning and preparedness efforts, where the TWCs, the state and local offices, and emergency managers and the affected public are geographically dispersed and often lack face-to-face contact. The dispersed and decentralized nature of the end-to-end tsunami warning and preparedness efforts make it a significant challenge to maintain awareness of the evolving situation during a crisis.

Learning and Training: To maintain situational awareness under changing conditions requires training. Therefore, an effective TWS requires that watchstanders, emergency managers, regulators, the public, and the media learn together, and engage in learning that enhances sense-making and developing alertness to small incidents that may cascade into much larger disasters (Weick, 1993; Farber et al., 2006). Because of the low frequency of tsunamis (e.g., California is issued an alert bulletin on average once every three years; Dengler, 2009), a TWS has few opportunities to learn from an event and therefore needs to learn from exercising the system through drills. Trial and error can be disastrous not only because disasters are rare, but also because in the absence of a major catastrophe to focus attention in the system, lessons learned from previous events may be forgotten or misapplied (March et al., 1991; Levitt and March, 1988; De Holan and Phillips, 2004). Learning in a high-reliability organization needs to be systematic, continually reinforced, measured, and made part of the system’s core values.

Fluid Organizational Structures: HRO structures are often adaptable and fluid, allowing the system to expand or contract in response to its environment (Roberts, 1990). TWSs with flexible organizational structures would be able to expand and contract resources in response to shifts and changes in environmental demands, disasters, or periods of slack resources. In the event of a tsunami, TWS managers need to grow effective, functioning response organizations in a period of less than 24 hours, and then adjust the organizational structures to the needs of the response (Tuler, 1988; Bigley and Roberts, 2001). The ability to provide varied organizational structures in response to environmental demands may be critical to the success of TWS organizations, similar to the way fire and emergency organizations expand and contract in response to fire demands (Grabowski and Roberts, 1999). Distributed information technology that connects the system responders can provide the technological glue that ties HRO members together, and fluid organizational structures can allow the organization to grow, expand, contract, and respond to changes in a dynamic, high tempo environment (Bigley and Roberts, 2001). Similar requirements for members and organizations in TWSs can be envisioned as tsunami conditions unfold.

Strong Organizational Culture: Schein (1992, 1996) defines “culture” as a set of basic tacit assumptions, that a group of people share, about how the world is and ought to be; it determines their perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and to some degree, their overt behavior. In many organizations, shared assumptions typically form around the functional units of the organization and are often based on members’ similar educational backgrounds or experiences (Grabowski and Roberts, 1996, 1997). HROs are characterized by strong cultures and norms that reinforce the organization’s mission and goals and that focus attention on procedures, policies, and reward structures consistent with the organization’s mission and safety (LaPorte and Consolini, 1991). HROs have cultures attentive to errors; cultures where closely held ideas about the organization, its mission, and member roles in reliability enhancement are articulated; cultures that encourage learning; and cultures where safe areas—for decision making, communication, and the like—are created as buffers (Weick, 1993). Constructs such as oversight and checks and balances reinforce the strong cultural norms of the HRO. Melding the varied cultures that integrate the system into a cohesive whole can be extremely difficult in distributed systems that are connected by linkages that can dissolve and wane as requirements, organizational structures, and political will change (Weick, 1987; Weick and Roberts, 1993; Grabowski and Roberts, 1999).

Managing decision making across organizations that report to different management structures is a challenge for highly dispersed efforts; this is certainly the case with U.S. tsunami detection, warning, and preparedness efforts. A particular challenge is that the federal government has responsibility to forecast and warn about potential hazards, yet local governments order evacuations. Failure to consider distributed decision making within groups and across multiple units can lead to lack of readiness for the next large-scale catastrophe; e.g., Hurricane Katrina (Roberts et al., 2005; Farber et al., 2006). Building good communication and trust aid in

effective decision making and can increase the likelihood of success in geographically dis-tributed organizations. Trust can be built by common training; opportunities for scientific and operational exchange; and workshops, conferences, exercises, and simulations that build community and coherence across distributed organizations.

TYING IT ALL TOGETHER: REPORT ROADMAP

In the following chapters, the committee assesses progress in the nation’s distributed tsunami preparedness, detection, and warning efforts and compares it to its vision of an idealized warning system ( Figure 1.3 ). Chapter 2 evaluates progress in hazard and vulnerability assessments and identifies potential improvements that could guide the nation’s tsunami risk-assessment efforts. Chapter 3 discusses education and outreach efforts and evaluates pre-event community and organizational preparedness and the coordination between the various entities at the local, state, and federal levels. Chapter 4 examines the technical hazard detection system, including the seismic and sea level sensor networks. Chapter 5 examines the TWCs’ operations and how technology and human capital are used to provide their functions. Appendices present supporting data on tsunami sources, hazard and evacuation maps, educational efforts, seismological methods, and several case-study tsunamis.

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Many coastal areas of the United States are at risk for tsunamis. After the catastrophic 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean, legislation was passed to expand U.S. tsunami warning capabilities. Since then, the nation has made progress in several related areas on both the federal and state levels. At the federal level, NOAA has improved the ability to detect and forecast tsunamis by expanding the sensor network. Other federal and state activities to increase tsunami safety include: improvements to tsunami hazard and evacuation maps for many coastal communities; vulnerability assessments of some coastal populations in several states; and new efforts to increase public awareness of the hazard and how to respond.

Tsunami Warning and Preparedness explores the advances made in tsunami detection and preparedness, and identifies the challenges that still remain. The book describes areas of research and development that would improve tsunami education, preparation, and detection, especially with tsunamis that arrive less than an hour after the triggering event. It asserts that seamless coordination between the two Tsunami Warning Centers and clear communications to local officials and the public could create a timely and effective response to coastal communities facing a pending tsuanami.

According to Tsunami Warning and Preparedness , minimizing future losses to the nation from tsunamis requires persistent progress across the broad spectrum of efforts including: risk assessment, public education, government coordination, detection and forecasting, and warning-center operations. The book also suggests designing effective interagency exercises, using professional emergency-management standards to prepare communities, and prioritizing funding based on tsunami risk.

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A tsunami is a series of ocean waves caused by earthquakes, landslides, or volcanic eruptions. These waves can kill and injure people and destroy entire communities. Tsunamis strike as fast moving walls of water that flood, drain, and re flood the land for hours. Tsunamis can flood more than a mile inland. But we can take action to prepare. Prepare now to protect yourself and your loved ones.

What Should You Do Before a Tsunami

Know your risk  .

• Tsunamis can strike any U.S. coast, but the risk is greatest for communities with Pacific and Caribbean coastlines. Coastal areas such as beaches, bays, lagoons, harbors and river mouths and areas along rivers and streams that lead to the ocean are the most vulnerable.
• If you live on or near a coast, find out if you are in a tsunami hazard zone.

Make Plans to Stay Safe

• Learn about your community’s tsunami evacuation plan. Some communities have maps with evacuation zones and routes. Know and practice these routes in the places where you spend time.
• If your community does not have a tsunami evacuation plan, identify a safe place at least 100 feet (30 meters) above sea level or at least 1 mile (1.6 km) inland.
• Be ready to move quickly to higher ground or inland. Don’t wait for an official alert.
• If you are near the coast, a tsunami could follow an earthquake. As soon as the shaking stops, move quickly to higher ground or inland away from the coast. Don’t wait for an official alert.

Understand Tsunami Alerts and Natural Signs of a Tsunami  

• There are two ways that you may be warned: an official tsunami alert or a natural sign of a tsunami. Both are equally important. You may not get both.
• A natural sign of a tsunami may be your first, best, or only warning that a tsunami is on its way. Natural signs include an earthquake, a loud roar from the ocean, or unusual ocean behavior, such as a sudden rise or wall of water or a sudden retreat of the water, showing the ocean floor. If you experience any of these signs, a tsunami could be coming. Immediately move to higher ground or inland away from the coast. Don’t wait for an official alert.
• Tsunami alerts are shared on local radio, television, weather radios, and other emergency alert systems. Understand the different alerts and what to do when you receive them.

Download the Tsunami Safety Checklist

Checklist Available in English and Spanish

• Tsunami Safety Checklist - English
• Tsunami Safety Checklist - Spanish

Get Preparation Tips for the Whole Family

What Should You Do During a Tsunami

Move to high ground or inland.

If your community is under a Tsunami Warning or you see natural signs of a tsunami:  

• DANGER-TAKE IMMEDIATE ACTION! MOVE TO HIGH GROUND OR INLAND (AWAY FROM THE WATER).
• If you are near the coast and experience shaking from an earthquake: DROP , COVER , and HOLD ON to protect yourself. As soon as the shaking stops, MOVE TO HIGH GROUND OR INLAND (AWAY FROM THE WATER).
• Once you have evacuated, stay there until officials say it is safe to return home or direct you to evacuate further inland.

What Should You Do After a Tsunami

Stay safe  .

• Understand the dangers you may face after a tsunami. Many injuries happen during cleanup.
• If you have evacuated, listen to local officials to learn if it is safe to return home. If there is a lot of damage, it may be days before it is safe to return to your community.
• Avoid roads that were flooded, they may be damaged and could collapse.
• Do not touch floodwaters. They may contain sewage, bacteria, and chemicals that can make you sick.
• Avoid damaged or fallen power lines. Assume all wires are live and dangerous.
• When officials allow, inspect the outside of your home for damage before reentering.
• If your home is damaged, it may be safer to wait for a professional.
• Be aware of carbon monoxide poisoning. Do not use gasoline, propane, natural gas or charcoal-burning devices inside a home, basement, garage, tent, or camper — or even outside near an open window. Carbon monoxide can’t be seen or smelled, but it can kill you fast. If you start to feel sick, dizzy or weak, get to fresh air right away — do not delay.
• Avoid using candles because of the fire risk. Use battery- powered lights and flashlights instead.

Stay Healthy

• Monitor your local health department for information about drinking water safety. Tsunamis can contaminate water supplies.
• When in doubt, throw it out. Throw away food that got wet or warm.
• Clean and disinfect everything that got wet. Mud left from floodwaters can contain sewage, bacteria, and chemicals. Mold can become a problem if a building is flooded and not completely dried out within 24-48 hours. Mold exposure can lead to asthma attacks, eye and skin irritation, and allergic reactions.

Clean Up Safely

• Follow all specific recommendations from your local public health officials. Use the right safety gear including gloves, goggles, rubber boots, and N95 masks. Know how to safely operate any needed equipment.
• Pace yourself. Cleaning up is a big job. Rest when you need to. Work with other people and get help lifting heavy objects. Decide which cleanup tasks are most important and focus on those first.
• Avoid heat-related illness. If you are without air conditioning in hot weather, be aware of risk for heat stroke, heat exhaustion, heat cramps, and fainting.

Take Care of Yourself

•  It’s normal to have a lot of bad feelings, stress, or anxiety after a disaster or other emergency.
• Eat healthy food and get enough sleep to help you deal with stress.
• You can contact the Disaster Distress Helpline for free if you need to talk to someone. Call or text 1-800-985-5990

Explore Related Safety Topics

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Article contents

Tsunami preparedness and mitigation strategies.

• James D. Goltz James D. Goltz University of Colorado Boulder, Natural Hazards Center
•  and  Katsuya Yamori Katsuya Yamori Kyoto University, Disaster Prevention Research Institute
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199389407.013.324
• Published online: 28 February 2020

Tsunamis are natural hazards that have caused massive destruction and loss of life in coastal areas worldwide for centuries. Major programs promoting tsunami safety, however, date from the early 20th century and have received far greater emphasis following two major events in the opening decade of the 21st century: the Indian Ocean Tsunami of December 26, 2004, and the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami of March 11, 2011. In the aftermath of these catastrophic disasters, warning systems and the technologies associated with them have expanded from a concentration in the Pacific Ocean to other regions with significant tsunami vulnerability. Preparedness and hazard mitigation programs, once the province of wealthier nations, are now being shared with developing countries. While warning systems and tsunami mapping and modeling are basic tools in promoting tsunami safety, there are a number of strategies that are essential in protecting lives and property in major tsunami events. Preparedness strategies consist of tsunami awareness and education and actions that promote response readiness. These strategies should provide an understanding of how tsunamis occur, where they occur, how to respond to warnings or natural signs that a tsunami may occur, and what locations are safe for evacuation. Hazard mitigation strategies are designed to reduce the likelihood that coastal populations will be impacted by a tsunami, typically through engineered structures or removing communities from known tsunami inundation zones. They include natural or constructed high ground for evacuation, structures for vertical evacuation (either single purpose structures specifically for tsunami evacuation or existing buildings that are resistant to tsunami forces), seawalls, breakwaters, forest barriers, and tsunami river gates. Coastal jurisdictions may also use land-use planning ordinances or coastal zoning to restrict development in areas of significant risk of tsunami inundation. The relative efficacy of these strategies and locations where they have been implemented will be addressed, as will the issues and challenges regarding their implementation.

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Tsunami Warning System: Preparing for the unpredictable

UNESCO is the UN Agency in charge of ocean science. With its Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission joined by 150 Member States, and its expertise in the culture and education fields, UNESCO coordinates actions by governments, scientists, the private sector, civil society and other UN organizations. Together, we created the tsunami warning system. We map the ocean depths, identify species, work to ensure that ocean literacy is included in school curricula and protect ocean sites, which are home to critical biodiversity and incomparable beauty. In this story, we tell you more about UNESCO’s work on the tsunami early warning system, how it works and how it saves lives.

Tsunamis are rare events. But when nature’s fury is unleashed, their deadly effects are devastating. The initial impact may make the front page of news media, but the aftermath on communities, livelihoods and the environment will linger for many years after the natural disaster strikes.

In the last century, 58 of them have claimed more than 260,000 lives, surpassing any other natural hazard. More are expected in the future as the sea-level rises due to climate change.

Therefore, preparing for the unpredictable can mean the difference between surviving and not.

11 March, 14:00 UTC: the Earth shakes

An earthquake occurs in the Atlantic, 100 kilometres east of the Lesser Antilles – the long, delicate arc of small Caribbean islands fanning out between the Caribbean Sea and the open ocean. The volcanic archipelago, home to 3.2 million people, is perched on one of the tectonic plates that sit on the Earth’s crust.

Just as the plate slips along the Caribbean fault line, a massive burst of energy akin to a nuclear warhead explosion sets off a giant shockwave 25 kilometres beneath the planet’s surface.

Strong earthquakes are highly destructive in their own right. But they can also trigger other cataclysmic natural hazards.

As the seabed suddenly rises, it displaces colossal volumes of water, producing powerful waves that spread outward in all directions, just like the ripples from a stone thrown into a pond.

The smaller, ocean-facing Antilles are on the frontline of the looming wave. The larger islands – Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica and Puerto Rico  – as well as the communities in the Gulf of Mexico and coastal Venezuela, are also under threat. Nearly 160 million people are in imminent danger.

Tsunami Waves : digitally-scanned photos from the ITIC collection

11 March, 14:02 UTC: the earthquake is detected, tsunami sensors activate

The monitoring station in Martinique picks up the tremor and estimates it at 8.5 on the Richter scale. The large magnitude is cause for concern. Major earthquakes that occur beneath the sea lead to deadly tsunamis. Still, visual detection in the vast open ocean remains challenging because the powerful tsunami waves are low in height while they travel across deep water.   

That is why shore-based tide gauges and deep-ocean buoys continuously monitor the oceans to detect any threatening changes. These silent sentinels can spy and track any minuscule change in the temperature of the seafloor and its pressure.

An ocean buoy anchored in the depths of Barbuda – a flat coral island hugged by white-and-pink sand beaches and crystal-clear waters – senses the force of the hidden submarine wave and alerts the monitoring centre on the sister island of Antigua.

11 March, 14:05 UTC: the Tsunami Warning System raises the alarm

Antigua feeds the data on the force of the approaching wave into the Tsunami Warning System, which alerts all observatories in the region. Authorities in all neighbouring countries are immediately alerted: the rapid transmission of information to dedicated centres is vital to lessen the damage caused by tsunamis.

Disaster prediction and prevention Preventing large-scale disasters calls for a high degree of international and multilateral cooperation. After the 1960 Chilean tsunami, which left a trail of death and damage as far away as Japan, UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC-UNESCO) stepped in to set up the Pacific Ocean Tsunami Warning System, the first of its kind.

The 9.5 magnitude earthquake in Chile, the largest recorded in the 20th century, set off a tsunami that battered the South American coastline for over 4,000 kilometres with waves up to 25 metres high.

Fifteen hours later, the tsunami, which by then had travelled 10,000 kilometres, struck Hawaii, then Japan and the Philippines. The final death toll was over 2,000.

The scale of the disaster highlighted the need for a warning alert system in the Pacific, where most of the world’s deadliest tsunamis occur. Over the years, the alert system has evolved beyond issuing warnings. UNESCO’s role now includes prevention, preparing communities to respond to tsunami threats and fostering the latest tracking and detection technologies.

Other exposed regions, the Indian Ocean, the Caribbean, the Northeast Atlantic and the Mediterranean, have also adopted Early Tsunami Warning Systems based on the Pacific model.

11 March, 14:15 UTC: public alerts go out

The tidal wave is already in sight of the Lesser Antilles. There is little time left before it hits the coast. Tsunami waves in the deep ocean can travel thousands of kilometres, up to 800 kilometres per hour, the speed of a jet aircraft.

In Martinique, the local government alerts the municipalities and the media, which immediately publish alerts. Police sirens and loudspeakers give evacuation orders. Guided by their teachers, schoolchildren rush out of their classrooms, heading for higher ground. Office workers and tourists seek safety on the rooftops of high-rise buildings.

Empowering communities to react An early warning system can be effective only when the population is well aware of the tsunami phenomenon and knows what to do in case of an emergency.

This is vital when tsunamis are generated close to the coast and there may not be time for official evacuation orders.

As part of IOC-UNESCO coordination plans, communities are empowered to play an active role through self-evacuation if a strong earthquake is felt or a strong roaring sound – similar to a train or a jet aircraft – is heard. Highly visible and labelled evacuation routes help show the best access to nearby higher grounds or the higher floors of tsunami-proof buildings.

11 March, 14:16 UTC: the sea level drops

As the tsunami approaches the coast, the sea is drawn back due to the vacuum effect caused by the wave. The water along the shoreline of Anguilla, the most northerly of the Leeward Islands in the Lesser Antilles, is dragged back dramatically, exposing the shallow coral reef and stranding many marine creatures.

The expanding shoreline is nature’s warning that a tsunami is approaching. It is a sign that there are only seconds or, at best few minutes, before the full impact of the first wave.

When the sea disappears Survivors of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami said the water had receded for up to 2.5 kilometres along the coastlines of Indonesia and Thailand. Bystanders, many of them children, lingered on the exposed beach to observe the phenomenon and collect stranded fish.

The lack of tsunami awareness, combined with the absence of a coordinated alert system, contributed to the high death toll. There were an estimated 227,000 fatalities in 14 countries, with India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Thailand being the hardest-hit.

Still, some coastal communities in Indonesia were able to evacuate despite the lack of alarms, thanks to local traditions and folklore developed during previous tsunami disasters.   

The tragedy highlighted the importance of understanding the early signals of an approaching tsunami.

For example, the "disappearing sea" may not happen at all. Sometimes the sea suddenly swells without any warning signs, surprising people and giving them little time to flee.

Tsunamis can be detected using the human senses

Tsunami evacuation signs.

11 March, 14:20 UTC: the first wave hits

When the swell approaches the shore, the leading edge of the wave begins to slow down in shallow waters. As the tsunami loses its speed nearing the coast, the first wave suddenly swells as much as 20 metres in height. The massive wall of water rushes towards the coastline, demolishing everything in its way. The force of the wave is powerful enough to overturn boats, crumble palm trees and sweep away beach shacks.

Why is it called tsunami ? The flatter the coast, the stronger is the impact from the waves. This is the reason why the effects of the tsunamis are more devastating in ports, beaches and in the mouths of the rivers. It also explains the origin of the word. In Japanese, tsunami means bay or harbour wave.

11 March, 14:40 UTC: the second wave hits

Tsunamis always surge in multiple waves. The first wave may not be the largest, and often it is the second or later waves that are the biggest.

The second wave, towering at 30 metres, hits after as little as five minutes. The coastal areas are completely devastated and under water.

We heard a second wave, and another. There were no houses anymore.

A tsunami survivor

In 1950, Markus Kailhulu was a 12-year-old living in the village of Hutumuri in Indonesia, when a tsunami hit the Moluccas. The villagers had evacuated to higher ground and witnessed the destruction brought by the waves.

We went to see and it looked like a flood from up there. We heard a second wave, and another. There were no houses anymore, all gone,’ he says. ‘The waves swept it all. It hit the edge of the mountain, it went back while taking the houses. The church was the only building left.

11 March, 15:00 UTC: other waves hit

The first two waves were massive walls of water. The others now resemble a surging tide that inundates coastal areas, carrying debris from the destruction caused by previous waves.

Entire neighbourhoods have been washed away. Up on the hills, people stare at the devastation below with fear and incomprehension.

World Tsunami Awareness Day People experiencing a tsunami should be aware that the danger may not have passed and should await official confirmation that it is safe to return. Raising awareness and education among the coastal communities is essential to prepare citizens on how to respond to the risk of tsunamis and cope with their aftermath. The UN-supported World Tsunami Awareness Day is the brainchild of Japan, which due to its repeated experience with tsunamis, has built up over the years major expertise in early warnings and public awareness to reduce future impacts. The event, held every year on 5 November, calls on countries, international bodies and civil society to raise tsunami awareness and share innovative approaches to reduce the death toll and devastation. Posters, flyers, e-learning courses and guidelines as well as games teach children, who are among the most vulnerable groups, how to identify and cope with a tsunami.

World Tsunami Awareness Day

"The game is fun and worth a try." Tsunami Ready board game, World Tsunami Awareness Day 2021, Indian Ocean.

Playing the Tsunami Ready game

The Indian Ocean Tsunami Information Centre has developed a Tsunami Ready board game for children living in the coastal communities. "Playing the game, I’m able to learn a lot, such as what are the mitigation efforts that we can do at community, family as well as individual levels," says Sasa Tsairoo, a young game player who took part in the World Tsunami Awareness Day in 2021. "The game is fun and worth a try."

11 March, 19:43: rescue and recovery begins

Local authorities issue an "all clear" that it’s safe to return to the coastal areas. People rush out into the streets, stunned. In the midst of flooding and devastation, search and rescue teams are busy across the archipelago in a desperate attempt to find survivors. Essential utilities like water, telecommunications, gas lines and electricity are inoperable. The coastline is devastated with flooding, damaged buildings, debris, fires and hazardous spills. Many are missing. Many more have lost their homes and may have to stay in shelters or public buildings until the reconstruction begins.

Reality or fiction? This report is, in fact, the fictional scenario of a tsunami in the Caribbean, based on a drill exercise.

Caribe Wave is an annual tsunami preparedness exercise set up by the United Nations and overseen by IOC-UNESCO. The date and time of the simulation are not a random choice: it is the anniversary of the Japan earthquake and tsunami that killed nearly 16,000 people on 11 March 2011.

Under IOC-UNESCO’s oversight, the drills allow different countries and territories, emergency management agencies and communities at risk to test, validate and update their tsunami response plans. 

The exercise, which in 2019 involved up to 800,000 people to simulate a catastrophic scenario, focuses on the coordination among countries, improving response procedures and training the local population to become prepared.

It also plays a crucial role in fostering resilient communities. Tsunamis are a real threat in the Caribbean. At least 75 have hit the region over the past 500 years. Some countries facing the Gulf of Mexico are also exposed to the double threat of tsunamis along their Pacific coastlines.

Thanks to Caribe Wave, over 50 coastal communities are now considered Tsunami Ready. This means that these communities now have the tools to face not just tsunamis, but also other coastal hazards.

Tsunami Ready recognition As of 2021, six countries have piloted UNESCO’s Tsunami Ready Programme, while seven more are in progress. The programme aims to build resilient communities through awareness and preparedness strategies that will protect life, livelihoods and property from future tsunamis.

One of the achievements in becoming Tsunami Ready for us in Saint Kitts and Nevis was the ability to enhance our disaster preparedness. That was very vital and critical in also encompassing coastal hazards

"The ability to enhance our disaster preparedness" – World Tsunami Awareness Day 2021, Saint Kitts and Nevis

Preparing for future tsunamis

Millions of people live in coastal areas across the world where the rising sea level is increasing the risk of tsunamis.

In 2021, the United Nations set the goal of making all at-risk communities Tsunami Ready by 2030. IOC-UNESCO Tsunami Ready recognition has shown how different countries and communities can work together to reduce the risk of catastrophic coastal hazards that can cause death and destruction, hitting the livelihoods of vulnerable populations.

By improving warnings, enhancing preparedness and practicing response drills, these communities can prepare and become resilient, together.

"The Tsunami Ready programme reduces the risk for our communities." World Tsunami Awareness Day 2021

Related items

• Warning systems

A U.S. Marine helicopter loaded with food flies over Lampuuk in northern Sumatra after a tsunami killed most of the village's 7,000 residents–and nearly 230,000 people on coastlines around the Indian Ocean.

Tsunami safety tips

These massive waves involve intense force and overwhelming volumes of water. Here's how to prepare.

With the ability to approach shores at 30 miles an hour and rise more than 100 feet high, tsunamis pose a deadly threat to coastal populations. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and the 2011 Tohoku tsunami are two vivid and tragic examples of these waves' destructive power.

The most important step in staying safe during a tsunami—or any natural disaster, for that matter—is to know how vulnerable your area is in the first place. Many local governments map hazard areas and evacuation routes for communities at risk, while the U.S. National Weather Service offers a nationwide map with links to resources .

"Know what your risks are," says Kevin J. Richards, a natural hazards officer for the Hawaii Emergency Management Agency. "What's likely going to impact your home or your area?"

How to prepare

● Know the warning signs of a tsunami: rapidly rising or falling coastal waters, a loud roar from the ocean, or rumblings of an earthquake . “If people along the Indian Ocean coastline on December 26, 2004, were aware of and heeded these natural warnings, fewer people would have died,” says Rocky Lopes, administrator of the National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program . He adds, “A strong myth is that tsunamis always cause the ocean to recede before [the powerful] waves flood in. In some areas, particularly on islands, water recession may not happen.”

● Familiarize yourself with your government's warning system and subscribe to alerts. In the U.S., NOAA Weather Radio is a good resource.

● Map your evacuation route—not just for your home, but work, school or caregivers , or any place else where your family tends to be. Know how to get to safety on foot—roads may not always be feasible.

● Have your evacuation plan ready and rehearsed now. That way, Richards says, "You don't have to think about it. You just go and do it."

● Keep an emergency kit or "go bag" handy at home or in your car. The American Red Cross offers tips for stocking it here , including food, water, and a cell phone with chargers.

● Coordinate with loved ones on reuniting. "What happens when the family has to respond from separate areas?" Richards recommends asking. "How do you eventually come back together?"

During a tsunami

● If you're in a tsunami area and there is an earthquake, first drop to the floor, cover your head and neck, and hold on to something stable. If you're in a low-lying area, move inland as soon as possible.

● Listen for official warnings, but also listen and watch for natural signs. "Listen to the authorities, but do not wait for tsunami warnings and evacuation orders," counsels the U.S. site Ready.gov .

● People often mistake the distance they have to go to be safe. "Many people think they've got to go miles," Richards says, "when it might be just right behind Johnny's house." If you're a visitor staying in a tall concrete hotel, he adds, going above the fourth floor likely will be safer than evacuating.

● Stay put in a safe area until an official all-clear is given. The first wave of a tsunami may not be the last or the strongest and the danger can last for hours or even days, according to the National Weather Service .

After a tsunami

● Stay clear of damaged or flooded areas and downed power lines.

● Listen for further alerts and instructions about evacuation zones and shelters.

● Use texts and social media to communicate with loved ones, as phone systems are likely to be down or busy. The American Red Cross has a registry where you can list yourself as safe and well .

Follow these common-sense guidelines from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention on food and water safety, including using bottled, boiled, or treated water and throwing away perishable foods left unrefrigerated for more than four hours.

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108 Tsunami Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Tsunamis are natural disasters that can have devastating impacts on coastal communities. They are often caused by underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides, and can result in massive waves that can cause widespread destruction and loss of life.

If you are studying tsunamis or writing an essay on the topic, it can be helpful to have a list of potential essay topics to choose from. Here are 108 tsunami essay topic ideas and examples to help inspire your writing:

• The causes of tsunamis
• The effects of tsunamis on coastal communities
• Tsunami warning systems and their effectiveness
• The history of tsunamis and notable events
• How tsunamis are formed
• The role of climate change in increasing the frequency and intensity of tsunamis
• The psychological impact of tsunamis on survivors
• Tsunami preparedness and response strategies
• The economic impact of tsunamis on local economies
• How tsunamis are different from other natural disasters
• The impact of tsunamis on marine ecosystems
• Tsunamis in popular culture and media
• The role of technology in monitoring and predicting tsunamis
• The connection between tsunamis and earthquakes
• Tsunamis and their impact on tourism
• The role of international cooperation in responding to tsunamis
• Tsunamis and their impact on infrastructure
• The role of education in preparing communities for tsunamis
• Tsunamis and their impact on global climate patterns
• The cultural significance of tsunamis in different societies
• The role of NGOs and aid organizations in providing relief after a tsunami
• Tsunamis and their impact on food security
• The impact of tsunamis on water quality and sanitation
• Tsunamis and their impact on vulnerable populations
• The role of social media in spreading information during a tsunami
• The impact of tsunamis on mental health
• Tsunamis and their impact on wildlife
• The role of government policies in mitigating the impact of tsunamis
• Tsunamis and their impact on renewable energy sources
• The connection between tsunamis and tsunamigenic volcanoes
• The impact of tsunamis on agriculture and food production
• Tsunamis and their impact on transportation systems
• The impact of tsunamis on coastal erosion
• Tsunamis and their impact on indigenous communities
• The connection between tsunamis and climate change adaptation
• The impact of tsunamis on fisheries and aquaculture
• Tsunamis and their impact on water resource management
• The role of early warning systems in reducing the impact of tsunamis
• Tsunamis and their impact on cultural heritage sites
• The connection between tsunamis and tectonic plate movements
• The impact of tsunamis on the tourism industry
• Tsunamis and their impact on coastal biodiversity
• The role of education in raising awareness about tsunamis
• Tsunamis and their impact on gender equality
• The connection between tsunamis and subduction zones
• The impact of tsunamis on urban planning and development
• Tsunamis and their impact on water scarcity
• The role of community-based organizations in responding to tsunamis
• Tsunamis and their impact on waste management
• The connection between tsunamis and seismic activity
• The impact of tsunamis on public health
• Tsunamis and their impact on energy infrastructure
• The role of international aid in responding to tsunamis
• Tsunamis and their impact on social cohesion
• The connection between tsunamis and tsunamigenic fault lines
• The impact of tsunamis on air quality
• Tsunamis and their impact on disaster risk reduction efforts
• The role of insurance in mitigating the impact of tsunamis
• Tsunamis and their impact on emergency response systems
• The connection between tsunamis and underwater landslides
• The impact of tsunamis on renewable energy infrastructure
• Tsunamis and their impact on water pollution
• The role of community resilience in responding to tsunamis
• Tsunamis and their impact on climate change adaptation strategies
• The connection between tsunamis and coastal erosion
• The impact of tsunamis on disaster preparedness efforts
• Tsunamis and their impact on coastal development
• The role of indigenous knowledge in responding to tsunamis
• Tsunamis and their impact on informal settlements
• The connection between tsunamis and sea level rise
• The impact of tsunamis on healthcare systems
• Tsunamis and their impact on food systems
• The role of community engagement in responding to tsunamis
• Tsunamis and their impact on climate change adaptation policies
• The connection between tsunamis and deforestation
• The impact of tsunamis on education systems
• Tsunamis and their impact on biodiversity conservation efforts
• The role of technology in improving early warning systems for tsunamis
• Tsunamis and their impact on disaster recovery efforts
• The connection between tsunamis and coastal habitat destruction
• The impact of tsunamis on water resource availability
• Tsunamis and their impact on social inequality
• The role of community-based adaptation in responding to tsunamis
• Tsunamis and their impact on climate change mitigation efforts
• The connection between tsunamis and ocean acidification
• The impact of tsunamis on ecosystem services
• Tsunamis and their impact on climate change resilience
• The role of gender mainstreaming in responding to tsunamis
• Tsunamis and their impact on renewable energy access
• The connection between tsunamis and coastal land loss
• The impact of tsunamis on water scarcity
• Tsunamis and their impact on global food security

These are just a few examples of the many possible essay topics related to tsunamis. Whether you are writing a research paper, a reflective essay, or a creative piece, there are plenty of angles from which to explore this important and impactful natural phenomenon. Happy writing!

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Fighting inequality for a resilient future

Tsunamis pose a significant threat to all of us, but they are particularly dangerous for certain groups of people, such as women, children, people with disabilities, and older persons. The main objective of this year's World Tsunami Awareness Day is to raise consciousness about reducing the risks created by these giant waves and improving community preparedness.

Although tsunamis are infrequent, they can have devastating consequences. In the last century, only 58 tsunamis have occurred, but they have claimed over 260,000 lives. On average, each disaster has caused the death of 4,600 people, more than any other natural hazard (United Nations, 2022).

This year's World Tsunami Awareness Day theme is "Fighting Inequality for a Resilient Future," which mirrors the subject highlighted during the International Day for Disaster Reduction . The observance encourages all sectors of society to engage and collaborate on disaster risk reduction.

The activities during this observance aim to explore the relationship between tsunamis and inequality. Specifically, they focus on how inequality can make tsunamis more dangerous for certain populations and how the aftermath of a tsunami can drive vulnerable people further into poverty, thus worsening inequality.

#GetToHighGround

In 2022, the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) launched the #GetToHighGround campaign to promote awareness about reducing the risk of tsunamis. The campaign encourages citizens to participate in drills, runs, or walks along tsunami evacuation routes, which helps communities prepare for natural disasters and build their resilience. These events are inclusive and engaging, and they involve all people in raising awareness about reducing tsunami risk.

Tsunamis can be deadly, but they needn’t be. Early warning and early action are effective tools to protect people, saving lives, and preventing the hazard from becoming a disaster. To be effective, tsunami early-warning systems must cover every at-risk person, they must be multi-hazard, and communities must be prepared so they can act quickly.

In December 2015, the UN General Assembly  designated  5 November as World Tsunami Awareness Day, calling on countries, international bodies and civil society to raise tsunami awareness and share innovative approaches to risk reduction.

World Tsunami Awareness Day was the brainchild of Japan, which due to its repeated, bitter experience has over the years built up major expertise in areas such as tsunami early warning, public action and building back better after a disaster to reduce future impacts.  UN Disaster Risk Reduction  (UNDRR) facilitates the observance of World Tsunami Awareness Day in collaboration with the rest of the United Nations system.

Tsunamis are rare events but can be extremely deadly. In the past 100 years, 58 of them have claimed more than 260,000 lives, or an average of 4,600 per disaster, surpassing any other natural hazard. The highest number of deaths in that period was in the Indian Ocean tsunami of December 2004. It caused an estimated 227,000 fatalities in 14 countries, with Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India and Thailand hardest-hit.

Just three weeks after that the international community came together in Kobe, in Japan’s Hyogo region. Governments adopted the 10-year  Hyogo Framework for Action , the first comprehensive global agreement on disaster risk reduction.

They also created the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System , which boasts scores of seismographic and sea-level monitoring stations and disseminates alerts to national tsunami information centres.

Rapid urbanization and growing tourism in tsunami-prone regions are putting ever-more people in harm’s way. That makes the reduction of risk a key factor if the world is to achieve substantial reductions in disaster mortality – a primary goal of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 , the 15-year international agreement adopted in March 2015 to succeed the Hyogo Framework.

What are tsunamis?

The word "tsunami" comprises the Japanese words "tsu" (meaning harbour) and "nami" (meaning wave). A tsunami is a series of enormous waves created by an underwater disturbance usually associated with earthquakes occurring below or near the ocean.

Volcanic eruptions, submarine landslides, and coastal rock falls can also generate a tsunami, as can a large asteroid impacting the ocean. They originate from a vertical movement of the sea floor with the consequent displacement of water mass.

Tsunami waves often look like walls of water and can attack the shoreline and be dangerous for hours, with waves coming every 5 to 60 minutes.

The first wave may not be the largest, and often it is the 2nd, 3rd, 4th or even later waves that are the biggest. After one wave inundates, or floods inland, it recedes seaward often as far as a person can see, so the seafloor is exposed. The next wave then rushes ashore within minutes and carries with it many floating debris that were destroyed by previous waves.

What are the causes of tsunamis?

Earthquakes

It can be generated by movements along fault zones associated with plate boundaries.

Most strong earthquakes occur in subduction zones where an ocean plate slides under a continental plate or another younger ocean plate.

All earthquakes do not cause tsunamis. There are four conditions necessary for an earthquake to cause a tsunami:

• The earthquake must occur beneath the ocean or cause material to slide into the ocean.
• The earthquake must be strong, at least magnitude6.5 on the Richter Scale
• The earthquake must rupture the Earth’s surface and it must occur at shallow depth – less than 70km below the surface of the Earth.
• The earthquake must cause vertical movement of the sea floor (up to several metres).

A landslide which occurs along the coast can force large amounts of water into the sea, disturbing the water and generate a tsunami. Underwater landslides can also result in tsunamis when the material loosened by the landslide moves violently, pushing the water in front of it.

Volcanic eruptions

Although relatively infrequent, violent volcanic eruptions also represent impulsive disturbances, which can displace a great volume of water and generate extremely destructive tsunami waves in the immediate source area.

One of the largest and most destructive tsunamis ever recorded was generated in August 26, 1883 after the explosion and collapse of the volcano of Krakatoa (Krakatau), in Indonesia. This explosion generated waves that reached 135 feet, destroyed coastal towns and villages along the Sunda Strait in both the islands of Java and Sumatra, killing 36,417 people.

Extraterrestrial collisions

Tsunamis caused by extraterrestrial collision (i.e. asteroids, meteors) are an extremely rare occurrence. Although no meteor/asteroid-induced tsunamis have been recorded in recent history, scientists realize that if these celestial bodies should strike the ocean, a large volume of water would undoubtedly be displaced to cause a tsunami.

Social media

Help spread the message with visuals from the social media toolkit . #TsunamiDay #GetToHighGround

Did you know?

• Globally, over 700 million people in low-lying coastal areas and Small Island Developing States are exposed to extreme sea-level events, including tsunamis (World Health Organization, 2019)
• An early warning system can be effective only when the population is well aware of tsunami risk and knows what to do in case of an emergency.  This means ensuring that at-risk populations have equal access to information and evacuation routes (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2022).
• Inequality creates the conditions that lead people to become exposed and vulnerable to disasters, such as tsunamis.  The poorest and most at-risk are disproportionately impacted, thus furthering inequality. Reducing vulnerability to disasters includes addressing poverty, exposure and vulnerability.

• Special Exhibition: IDDRR 2023-For a Resilient Future , Muroro City, Japan

Related Websites

• UNDRR: World Tsunami Awareness Day
• UNESCO: World Tsunami Awareness Day  
• United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR)
• Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Tsunami Programme
• Indian Ocean Tsunami Information Center
• General Assembly:  World Tsunami Awareness Day
• Global status of multi-hazard early warning systems: Target G
• Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030)
• Hyogo Framework for Action (2005-2015)

Petra Nemcova, World Tsunami Awareness Advocate

Czech model and entrepreneur Petra Nemcova is the official UN Disaster Risk Reduction World Tsunami Awareness Advocate, which is commemorated on 5 November every year. Petra Nemcova not only survived the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami in Thailand but also found a way to continue living and sharing her experience at the service of people affected by disasters.

United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development

The marine realm is the largest component of the Earth’s system that stabilizes the climate and supports life on Earth and human well-being. That’s why the UN proclaimed the  Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021-2030)  to support efforts to reverse the cycle of decline in ocean health. 

Why do we mark International Days?

International days and weeks are occasions to educate the public on issues of concern, to mobilize political will and resources to address global problems, and to celebrate and reinforce achievements of humanity. The existence of international days predates the establishment of the United Nations, but the UN has embraced them as a powerful advocacy tool. We also mark other UN observances .

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Prepare Now

Survive During

Be Safe After

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If you are a disaster survivor, please visit FEMA.gov for up-to-date information on current disaster declarations. If you have questions about your disaster assistance application, you can call (800) 621-3362, visit disasterassistance.gov or use the FEMA mobile app .

A tsunami is a series of enormous ocean waves caused by earthquakes, underwater landslides, volcanic eruptions or asteroids. A tsunami can kill or injure people and damage or destroy buildings and infrastructure as waves come in and go out. Tsunamis can:

Travel 20-30 miles per hour with waves 10-100 feet high.

Cause flooding and disrupt transportation, power, communications and the water supply.

Happen anywhere along U.S. coasts. Coasts that border the Pacific Ocean or Caribbean have the greatest risk.

IF YOU ARE UNDER A TSUNAMI WARNING:

• If caused by an earthquake,  Drop, Cover, then Hold On to protect yourself from the earthquake first.
• Get to high ground as far inland as possible
• Be alert to signs of a tsunami, such as a sudden rise or draining of ocean waters.
• Listen to emergency information and alerts. Always follow the instructions from local emergency managers.
• Evacuate: DO NOT wait! Leave as soon as you see any natural signs of a tsunami or receive an official tsunami warning.
• If you are in a boat, go out to sea.

Prepare NOW

• Learn the signs of a potential tsunami, such as an earthquake, a loud roar from the ocean, or unusual ocean behavior, such as a sudden rise or wall of water or sudden draining of water showing the ocean floor.
• Know and practice community evacuation plans. Some at-risk communities have maps with evacuation zones and routes. Map out your routes from home, work and play. Pick shelters 100 feet or more above sea level, or at least one mile inland.
• Create a family emergency communication plan that has an out-of-state contact. Plan where to meet if you get separated.
• Sign up for your community’s warning system. The Emergency Alert System (EAS) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Weather Radio also provide emergency alerts.
• Consider earthquake insurance and a flood insurance policy through the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). Standard homeowner’s insurance does not cover flood or earthquake damage.

Survive DURING

• If there is an earthquake and you are in a tsunami area, protect yourself from the earthquake first. Drop, Cover, and Hold On. Drop to your hands and knees. Cover your head and neck with your arms. Hold on to any sturdy furniture until the shaking stops. Crawl only if you can reach a better cover, but do not go through an area with more debris.
• When the shaking stops, if there are natural signs or official warnings of a tsunami, move immediately to a safe place as high and as far inland as possible. Listen to the authorities, but do not wait for tsunami warnings and evacuation orders.
• If you are outside of the tsunami hazard zone and receive a warning, stay where you are unless officials tell you otherwise.
• Leave immediately if you are told to do so. Evacuation routes often are marked by a wave with an arrow in the direction of higher ground.
• If you are in the water, then grab onto something that floats, such as a raft or tree trunk.
• If you are in a boat, face the direction of the waves and head out to sea. If you are in a harbor, go inland.

Be Safe AFTER

• Listen to local alerts and authorities for information on areas to avoid and shelter locations.
• Save phone calls for emergencies. Phone systems often are down or busy after a disaster. Use text messages or social media to communicate with family and friends.
• Avoid wading in floodwater, which can contain dangerous debris. Water may be deeper than it appears.
• Be aware of the risk of electrocution. Underground or downed power lines can electrically charge water. Do not touch electrical equipment if it is wet or if you are standing in water.
• Stay away from damaged buildings, roads and bridges.
• If you become injured or sick and need medical attention, contact your healthcare provider and shelter in place, if possible. Call 9-1-1 if you are experiencing a medical emergency.
• Document property damage with photographs. Conduct an inventory and contact your insurance company for assistance.
• Tsunami Safety Graphics
• Tsunami Information Sheet  (PDF)
• Protective Actions Research for Tsunami
• NOAA Tsunami program
• American Red Cross Tsunami Preparedness
• Tsunami Safety (weather.gov)

Last Updated: 03/21/2024

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Lessons for life: Drills prepare students for tsunamis

TSUNAMIS ARE A TERRIFYING PHENOMENON.

They have claimed lives, demolished homes and destroyed communities across the world. In the past 100 years, 58 tsunamis have killed more than 260,000 people, higher than any other natural hazard.

Tsunamis are a series of enormous waves usually started by earthquakes below or near the ocean. They can be also caused by volcanic eruptions, submarine landslides, and coastal rock falls, or even a large asteroid.

Did you know that the word ‘tsunami’ combines the Japanese words ‘tsu’ (harbour) and ‘nami’ (wave)?

They can’t be predicted, and often come with very little warning.

The first sign is that the ocean begins to retreat. Then the waves come crashing back – up to 30 metres high and travelling more than 800 kilometres per hour.

More than 70 percent of all tsunamis ever recorded have been in the Pacific Ocean around the earthquake-prone “Pacific Ring of Fire”.

The Indian Ocean tsunami of December 2004 caused an estimated 227,000 deaths in 14 countries. Caused by an underwater quake that was equivalent in power to 23,000 atomic bombs, it was the deadliest tsunami in recent decades. Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India and Thailand were the hardest hit.

In the Asia Pacific region, thousands of people have lost their lives to tsunamis. A lack of knowledge, awareness and preparation played a significant role in increasing the numbers of dead and injured.

BETTER SAFE THAN SORRY

Partnering with the Government of Japan , UNDP began working with 90 schools to assess their tsunami risks, design emergency procedures and evacuation plans, and carry out tsunami awareness and safety drills in the 18 Asia and the Pacific countries in 2017. More than 100 schools and 60,000 people took part.

Teachers and students were trained so that they’re prepared when the next tsunami hits. As well as evacuation and safety drills, the project has identified at-risk schools and created a number of education materials, identified evacuation routes and shelters, and developed a mobile app, STEP-A, to assess preparedness, as well as a guide which shows school administrators how to prepare for, and respond to, a tsunami.

The project focused on the most vulnerable coastal communities of 18 countries: Bangladesh, Cambodia, Fiji, Indonesia, Malaysia, Maldives, Myanmar, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Timor Leste, Tonga, Vanuatu and Viet Nam.

HAND IN HAND

Local communities and governments have been enthusiastic, adding innovation and partnerships to the mix. In Fiji, the drills tested the mobile application GeoBing App, which gave real time information for early warning, paving the way for the first national tsunami drill. In Samoa, virtual reality headsets were used to prepare children for drills, so they could find out what their surroundings would look like under water. And in Bali, Indonesia, eight hotels signed up to be safe areas in tsunami emergencies, shifting from school preparedness to the whole community.

In Pakistan, the drills were combined with shoreline cleaning to highlight the importance of the environment in preparing for disasters. In Vietnam the government is including disaster education in its school curriculum. In Myanmar older students were taught to take care of younger ones during evacuation.

EVACUATION DRILLS IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

“Japan has experienced and recovered from countless natural disasters. This is vital, and our responsibility, to share these experiences and skills around the world, and save as many lives as possible,” says Ms. Satomi Okagaki, Senior Deputy Director, Global Issues Cooperation Division, of the Japan Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

In Japan every school child knows what to do when a tsunami hits.

“We hope this project serves as a good starting point from which tsunami awareness and preparedness, tsunami evacuation drills will take root,” Ms Okagaki says.

In preparing for a natural hazard, the more people who participate the better. After the tragic experience of Haiyan in 2013, the strongest typhoon in the history of the Philippines, parents and caregivers were willing to participate in the drills, showing the importance of partnering not only with the local Department of Education, but also with the community, and defining clear roles and communication channels. Twenty schools and 20,000 people took part.

READY TO ACT

There’s a powerful element of inequality in natural hazards and disasters, such as tsunamis. They disproportionately affect poorer nations, and women and children. Up to 80 percent of the fatalities from the Indian Ocean tsunami were women and children.

Disasters drive 26 million people into poverty every year and cost the global economy an estimated US$ 520 billion, according to UNDRR . Yet preparation not only saves lives it also saves money — for every dollar invested in disaster preparedness and prevention, many more are saved in recovery.

This regional project is part of UNDP’s efforts to implement the Sendai Framework of Disaster Risk Reduction , a global initiative to work with local governments to reduce deaths, injuries and economic damage from natural and human-made hazards, and prevent them from becoming disasters.

The project’s second phase, which started in December, is integrating the tsunami preparedness and drills into school curricula and expanding to five new countries.

PREPARING ASIA PACIFIC SCHOOLS

Between 1998 and 2017, climate and geophysical disasters--mostly earthquakes and tsunamis--killed 1.3 million people and left a further 4.4 billion injured, homeless, displaced or in need of emergency assistance. ( UNDRR )

Conducting a drill requires preparation, knowledge of surroundings and evacuation areas, and how to stay safe. Decisions made in the few minutes before that racing wave reaches you can mean the difference between life and death.

The evidence is clear: preparation saves lives. Thousands of school children who live in coastal areas across Asia and the Pacific Islands will learn the drill. And when you teach children, they teach everyone else.

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Earthquake, Thunderbolt, Fire, Father: Community and Catastrophe in the Wake of 3/11

Roshan sivaraman, instructor’s introduction.

Roshan Sivaraman has created a gorgeous and provocative essay in WR 152, American Environmental History. I particularly appreciate their extremely skillful introductory structure in this essay about the massively destructive 2011 Japanese earthquake that subsequently threatened the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant. Their assessment measured American and Japanese public and media reactions, offered clear background context, and dealt effectively with the numerous complexities of their topic. In proposing the topic, they wrote, “I am interested in researching cultural responses to both ‘natural’ and ‘man-made’ environmental disasters in order to understand the role of fear and sensationalism in our relationship with the environment.”  In class, I especially appreciated Roshan’s agile mind that could hold ambiguities and then present a thoughtful and articulate synthesis of those ideas.  And within their essay, they also provided engaging multimodal resources in support of their claim.  I invite you to enjoy their essay!

From the Writer

We are living in a time of natural disaster. As the planet warms, our relationship with nature is becoming increasingly adversarial, with rising temperatures and rising seas threatening to take away many of the things we take for granted about life on Earth. But some natural disasters seem inevitable: for example, it is very difficult to blame earthquakes and tsunamis on human actions. On March 11, 2011, Japan’s Tōhoku region experienced a trio of disasters—earthquake, tsunami, and nuclear meltdown—the likes of which no country has ever experienced. Japan has some of the most sophisticated tsunamis prediction and evacuation systems in the world, but the death toll was still catastrophic. In “Earthquake, Thunderbolt, Fire, Father,” I explore the narratives we tell ourselves about natural disasters—that sometimes, a disaster is an inescapable “act of God”—and examine what these narratives say about our relationships with our planet, our institutions, and each other.

The cover of a police briefing following the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and subsequent tsunami.

AT 2:46 PM on March 11, 2011, a 9.0 magnitude earthquake shook the Tōhoku region of northeastern Japan, triggering a tsunami with waves up to 40 meters tall. It was the fourth tsunami to hit the region in the past two centuries (the last one being in 1960) and the most violent one in the past millennium. Though Japan had, even at the time, some of the most advanced tsunami prediction and preparedness systems in the world, the casualties were high. Nearly sixteen thousand died; almost three thousand went missing (Bestor 764). In the aftermath of the disaster, the Japanese Meteorological Agency (JMA) expanded its seismic and tsunami monitoring capabilities with a network of broadband seismometers, and the central government circulated a set of guidelines for preventive infrastructure ranging from new building codes to new breakwaters and flood gates (Koshimura 10). But the most critical detail of the new tsunami preparedness strategies was the assumption that they would fail: that buildings could fall, that flood gates could topple. Japan resurfaced from the 3.11 disasters with the lesson that nothing was foolproof in the face of nature’s might.

The American media, however, neglected to report on this lesson. The Associated Press reported, for example, on the “resilient spirit” of the Japanese people, admiring their calmness, stoicism, and seemingly unquestioning trust in their government after the crisis. “There is little of the public anger and frustra- tion that so often bursts forth in other countries,” reported Fox News journalist Kelly Olsen. To American eyes, the seemingly successful Japanese responses to the triple crises on March 11, 2011 serve as evidence that peaceful, law-abiding communities are uniquely equipped to survive natural disasters. But such an assumption is not only dangerous for the future of disenfran- chised communities in the United States–it mischaracterizes and romanticizes Japanese culture as being much more naïve than it actually is. In neglecting to report on the less convenient sides of 3.11, the American media illuminated our own aspira- tions for our relationship with nature: one of unquestioning, docile compliance in the face of crisis, and one where the only thing we have to fear is human nature, rather than nature itself. In reality, Japanese responses to 3.11 reveal a conflict between nature, community, and authority. It was local communities, not the national government, that led the most successful efforts to both escape the tsunami and to promote recovery–largely due to mistrust in the government as well as a cultural heritage based around both revering and fearing nature.

Though tsunamis are by far the most common form of natural disaster in the Japanese archipelago, they are by no means com- mon. The most recent major tsunami had been on May 23, 1960, when a 9.4 magnitude earthquake (the strongest ever recorded) off the coast of Chile sent waves up to 6 meters tall crashing into the Sanriku coast of eastern Japan (Satake 355). Since the earth- quake itself was so distant, the tsunami took Sanriku residents by surprise, prompting the Japanese government to expand its already extensive tsunami countermeasures. These ten coun- termeasures, which had been established after the 1933 Showa Great Sanriku Tsunami, included: “Relocation of dwelling hous- es to high ground, coastal dykes, tsunami control forests, sea- walls, tsunami-resistant areas, buffer zones, evacuation routes, tsunami watch, tsunami evacuation, [and] memorial events” (Koshimura 3). In 1960, the Japanese economy was thriving: the postwar government had instituted the ‘Income-Doubling Plan’ the same year, spurring rapid economic growth and conve- niently covering the costs of constructing new coastal dykes and seawalls. In 1997, the central government reinforced these countermeasures with a comprehensive three-pronged strategy: first, to protect the coastline with floodwalls, breakwaters, and coastal dykes; second, to build resilient communities with sensible ur- ban planning and land use; and third, to educate the public on how to both prepare for tsunamis and how to evacuate.

Governed separately from physical tsunami countermeasures, yet no less important, was the Japanese seismological commu- nity. Before Japan’s entry into the field, seismology was mostly a “pure science,” dominated by Westerners like Charles E. Richter (remembered for his eponymous Richter scale), who described prediction as “the province of fools and charlatans” (Clancey 334). Japanese seismology, on the other hand, was explicitly focused on predicting earthquakes: unlike Europeans, Japanese seismologists had observed firsthand the massive destruction that earthquakes and tsunamis could cause, and held a vested interest in protecting its vulnerable coastal communities from harm. Japanese scientists created the seismograph, unlocking the possibility of predicting earthquakes for the first time (Clancey 336). By the 1970s, Japanese seismologists were able to determine with a fair degree of certainty that the next major earthquake would occur in the Tōkai region; in 1978, the central government passed the Large-Scale Earthquake Countermea- sures Act, diverting significant funding towards monitoring seismic activity and establishing a council of six seismologists who would advise the prime minister on whether to issue an evacuation order–only in the Tōkai region, but still the most extensive earthquake advisory board of its kind in the world. By most accounts, Japan had the best possible strategies for surviv- ing its next great earthquake. The 2011 Tōhoku tsunami tested these strategies; some were successful, and some were not.

Complicating the 3.11 disaster was the reactor meltdown at the Fukushima Daiichi power plant, located about 175 kilometers to the south-southwest of the earthquake’s epicenter. The earthquake tripped both the electrical generators that powered the reactor as well as the diesel-fueled backup generators, resulting in a total loss of power, disabling the reactor’s crucial cooling systems and–in turn–triggering a reactor meltdown. It is important to note that, though Japan has the most traumatic nuclear history of any country, the shadows of the 1945 bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki seem to barely affect Japan’s modern political relationship with nuclear power. Before 2011, Japan had planned to derive 30 percent of its energy from nuclear sources, and to scale that percentage to 50 percent by 2030 (Kan 16).

With six boiling water reactors (BWR) driving a series of electric generators that added up to 4.7 gigawatts in power, Fukushima Daiichi was one of the largest nuclear power plants in the world (Atomic Archive). It was also far from unprotected: at 35 feet (10 meters) above the ocean, with a 19 foot (5.79 meters) seawall, it was designed in excess of the tsunami countermea- sures proposed after the 1960 Sanriku tsunami. But the 3.11 tsunami overwhelmed these countermeasures for several reasons: first, the earthquake itself occurred just off the coast of Japan, rather than thousands of miles away; second, the tsunami itself was nowhere near the Tōkai region, where the Japanese seismological community had predicted the next tsunami to occur; and third, it moved faster than 100 miles per hour, making it impossible to evacuate in advance. Though Japan was theoretically prepared for disaster, the Tōhoku tsunami was a combination of everything it was unprepared for.

PART ONE: SOUTEIGAI

After the disaster, government spokespeople and the representatives of the Tokyo Electric Power Company (Tōkyō Denryoku, or TEPCO, who operated the Fukushima plant) adopted the word souteigai to describe the events of March 11, 2011. Soutei- gai is fairly analogous to the idea of the “black swan” event, meaning catastrophic events that, while seemingly preventable in hindsight, were startling and unexpected at the time (Bestor 767). The public scoffed at this notion. Though TEPCO initially vehemently denied any culpability in the reactor meltdown, they eventually admitted to “downplaying tsunami risk, resisting adopting international safety standards, and having an institutionalized inclination to cut corners to save money in ways that jeopardized safety” (Kingston 507). Interestingly, despite vast public outcry, TEPCO’s executives were found to be not guilty of criminal negligence, though TEPCO was eventually nationalized to save the corporation from bankruptcy (Wakatsuki).

There are several problems with the “black swan” narrative–the souteigai , the act of God. In many cases, this sort of narrative positions natural disasters as “primarily accidents–unexpected, unpredictable happenings that are the price of doing business on this planet,” and they are “positioned outside the moral compass of our culture” (Steinberg xxi). It’s clear that TEPCO had intended their souteigai defense to deflect any and all accountability during the worst natural disaster in Japan’s history.

But the reactor meltdown was only a small part of the disaster: while the evacuation and quarantine of Fukushima prefecture was costly and time-consuming, the tsunami itself killed far more people. It was one thing to blame a corporation for ne- glecting safety standards; was it fair to blame the Japanese seis- mological community for failing to predict it? Or to blame Japa- nese urban planners and civil engineers for making coastal cities resilient, but not resilient enough? It seems more actionable to, like Ted Steinberg, argue that there is really no such thing as a “natural” disaster, and that the responsibility falls entirely on human hands. But such an argument is ripe for creating civil unrest and social strife. Situational crisis communication theory (SCCT) identifies two types of crises: first, the intentional or preventable crisis, in which a human actor causes the crisis; and second, the victim crisis, in which natural forces cause the crisis. Social scientists at VU University Amsterdam conducted a framing experiment using the Fukushima crisis as a target. In the “intentional” crisis framing, respondents were more likely to react angrily, with 66% of 71 respondents holding TEPCO responsible for the incident. They were also more likely to be “motivated to do something about the incident because they believe that they can influence the situation” (Utz 42). In the “victim” crisis, on the other hand, 72% of 54 of respondents blamed the incident on circumstances (Utz 44). These respondents were also more likely to react with a sense of helplessness, an emotion that was felt across the Tōhoku region–and especially those who were not directly impacted by the radioactive fallout from Fukushima.

What does one do, when regional corporations cannot be trusted to safeguard hazardous materials, and even the best seismic experts in the world cannot be relied upon to predict the next town-destroying tsunami? If it were just the corpora- tions, it would be easy enough to seek legal action. But for much of Japan, the effects of 3.11 rippled out into a lack of trust in the government and in authority in general. This was in large part because many of the groups that survived the tsunami did so by ignoring the government-circulated hazard maps, assuming that the tsunami would travel much higher along the coastline than the government predicted. Similarly, Kamaishi East Junior High School had one of the highest survival rates of any school in the area because they had been taught three lessons of evacuation by Gumma University professor Toshitaka Katada: to “not trust hazard maps, to make their best efforts in any situation, and to take the initiative of evacuation in the community” (Koshimura 10). But this lack of trust in authority, though it had saved thou- sands of lives during the tsunami, only exacerbated an already widespread feeling of helplessness and social anguish. After the disasters, the then-incumbent Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) was ousted in a landslide victory by the Liberal Democratic Party and an assortment of small, idealistic local parties, such as the Tomorrow Party of Japan. It is especially notable that the regions with the most unexpected political turnover (such as the rural, conservative Miyagi and Iwate prefectures) were also those that were hit hardest by the disasters (see Figs. 6a and 6b).

PART TWO: KIZUNA

The antidote to social anguish is community. In a trust experiment that was coincidentally interrupted by 3.11, social scien- tists attempted to gauge to what extent Japanese citizens trusted their peers after the ment that was coincidentally interrupted by 3.11, social scientists attempted to gauge to what extent Japanese citizens trusted their peers after the disasters. In the experiment, participants consistently and significantly underestimated the trustworthiness of their peers, expecting 40% to return a certain small sum of money when 80% did so (before 3.11). The number of participants to return the money also increased after the earthquake, from 80% to 100% (Veszteg 126). Thus, though people generally distrusted authority, they could usually trust in their own communities; people were more likely to trust someone who had placed trust in them, and communities could weather recovery through mutual trust rather than through trusting authority. This is an example of the Japanese idea of kizuna , meaning “human psychological ties,” which went on to become Japan’s 2011 Kanji of the Year.

Both American and Japanese media have reported extensively on kizuna , mostly to admire the Japanese people’s stoicism and order following the disasters. American perceptions of Japanese culture generally fall under the assumption that the Japanese follow a “group model” of society, one based on the paternalism of authority figures, selfless loyalty to the prosperity of the group, and on conformity and cooperation rather than competition and conflict (Befu 170). While this idea of kizuna seems to reflect the values of the group model–especially that of mutual prosperity–it is especially characterized by a lack of trust in authority. Kizuna and the post-3.11 era are not reflections of “Japanese cultural DNA,” as much of the Western media argued. They are instead signs of communities coming together in the face of crisis, rejecting scientific and governmental authority in favor of community wisdom.

It is through community that the Japanese people find their relationship with nature and authority alike, and that relationship is one based mostly on fear. Japanese proverbial wisdom outlines four fears that present danger to the bonds of community: these fears are jishin, kaminari, kaji, oyaji , or earthquake, thunderbolt, fire, father. Three are natural and literal; the fourth, “father,” represents paternal rage (or government tyranny).

Jishin, kaminari, kaji, oyaji suggests that danger is everywhere, technology is untrustworthy, and the first thing to fear is earth- quakes. Thousands of tsunami stones (see Figs. 8a and 8b)–built hundreds of years ago in villages across the Japanese archipelago-warn residents not to build below certain elevations, in a piece of antique wisdom that saved numerous villages on 3.11. They are simple, yet effective: “Many carry simple warnings to drop everything and seek higher ground after a strong earthquake. Others provide grim reminders of the waves’ destructive force by listing past death tolls or marking mass graves” (Fackler). Also indicative of the Japanese fear of earthquakes is, again, that seismology was Japan’s first science. Just as many of the first American inventions were used for agriculture, the fear of earthquakes is ingrained deep into the Japanese subconscious.

In reporting about the 3.11 disasters, American media outlets admired a few characteristics of the Japanese survivors. The As- sociated Press reported on the Japanese’s “resilient spirit,” noting the “polite demeanor, the lack of anger, the little if any looting or profiteering that seems to characterize disasters elsewhere” (Alabaster). This focus on looting and profiteering is characteristic of American coverage on natural disasters–during Hurricane Ida, for example, the New Orleans Police Department instituted “anti-looting” teams, disproportionately in Black communities. The reality was that many of the stories of looting were entirely fabricated. One activist in New Orleans told TIME Magazine,

“I have not seen any looting, any smashing, any aggression. I’ve seen people helping each other. I’ve seen people showing up for each other. I have not seen any [helpful] actions from the police” (Bates). At the same time, diverting police resources towards “anti-looting” prevented those same resources from providing shelter and aid to families in need. The Japanese’s supposedly “uncomplaining” response to the 3.11 disasters seems like an American policymaker’s dream, but that view obscures the very real distrust and uncertainty that was brewing at the same time. American media outlets also tended to ignore regions of Japan that were swept away by the tsunami in favor of covering the radioactive fallout from Fukushima. It is very American to ignore the natural side of a natural disaster; it is a black swan, an act of God, and therefore is irrelevant because there is no one to answer for it. In the American view, the real tragedies are man-made, from negligence at a nuclear power plant to looting during a hurricane, regardless of whether or not they even exist. After 3.11, the lesson the Japanese learned could not be any further from what the American media learned: authority, even scientific authority, is untrustworthy, and the only thing that can save people from the ravages of nature is not authority–it is community.

Community– kizuna –is one of the biggest threats to authority, and has the potential to completely overturn the American natural disaster response. A similar trust experiment to the one conducted in March 2011 had been conducted after Hurricane Katrina, and discovered that the respondents also significantly underestimated the trustworthiness of their peers, and especially their peers of other racial and socioeconomic backgrounds (Hawkins 1784). This is the limitation of using Japan as a model for natural disaster response: Japan is, unlike the United States, relatively racially homogenous. Its homogeneity is also a product of decades of nationalistic policies and ethnic supremacy; it is significantly easier to place trust in one’s community when they look like you and act like you. Ironically, the Japanese model for a relationship with nature is fairly libertarian: the government has little say in how people interact with nature, just as people have little say in how nature affects them. Japan’s response to 3.11 is a lesson in community-building and in fear: it is safer to fear nature than to fear nothing at all.

WORKS CITED

“Aichi Rescue Officer Remembers Information Black- out after 3/11.” The Japan Times , Chunichi Shimbun, 26 Feb. 2021, https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2021/02/26/ national/311-information-blackout/

Bates, Josiah. “New Orleans Wary as Police Aim at Looting amid Hurricane Ida.” Time , Time, 2 Sept. 2021, https://time. com/6094022/new-orleans-hurricane-ida-looting/.

Befu, Harumi. “The Group Model of Japanese Society and an Alternative.” Rice Institute Pamphlet – Rice University Studies, 1980, p. 169-187.

Bestor, Theodore C. “Disasters, Natural and Unnatural: Reflections on March 11, 2011, and Its Aftermath.” The Journal of Asian Studies , vol. 72, no. 4, 2013, pp. 763–82. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43553226 . Accessed 11 Mar. 2023.

Clancey, Gregory. “Japanese Seismicity and the Limits of Prediction.” The Journal of Asian Studies , vol. 71, no. 2, 2012, pp. 333–44. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23263423. Accessed 11 Mar. 2023.

“Ex-TEPCO Execs Plead Not Guilty over Fukushima Crisis in Appeal Trial.” Kyodo News+ , KYODO NEWS, 2 Nov. 2021, https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2021/11/3cd65ba68a5d-ex- tepco-execs-plead-not-guilty-over-fukushima-crisis-in-appeal- trial.html.

Fackler, Martin. “Tsunami Warnings, Written in Stone.” The New York Times , The New York Times, 20 Apr. 2011, https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/21/world/asia/21stones.html?pagewanted=al.

“Fukushima.” Atomic Archive , https://www.atomicarchive.com/science/power/fukushima.html .

Hawkins, Robert and Katherine Mauer. “Bonding, Bridging and Linking: How Social Capital Operated in New Orleans Follow- ing Hurricane Katrina.” British Journal of Social Work . 2010. pp. 1777-1793. 10.1093/bjsw/bcp087.

Hunchuck, Elise. “2015 – 2017: An Incomplete Atlas of Stones.” elisehunchuck , https://elisehunchuck.com/2015-2017-An-Incomplete-Atlas-of-Stones .

Kan, Naoto. “The Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant Disaster and the Future of Renewable Energy.” My Nuclear Nightmare: Lead- ing Japan Through the Fukushima Disaster to a Nuclear-Free Future , Cornell University Press, 2018, pp. 3–22. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt20d89f7.2 . Accessed 11 Mar. 2023.

Olsen, Kelly. “Quake Response Showcases Japan’s Resilient Spirit.” Fox News , The Associated Press, 27 Mar. 2015, https://www.foxnews.com/world/quake-response-showcases-japans-resilient-spirit .

Stokes, Bruce. “Japanese Divided on Democracy’s Success at Home, but Value Voice of the People.” Pew Research Center’s Global Attitudes Project , Pew Research Center, 31 May 2020, https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2017/10/17/japanese-divided-on-democracys-success-at-home-but-value-voice-of-the-people/ .

Utz, Sonja, et al. “Crisis Communication Online: How Medium, Crisis Type and Emotions Affected Public Reactions in the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster.” Public Relations Review , vol. 39, no. 1, Mar. 2013, pp. 40–46., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2012.09.010

Veszteg, Róbert Ferenc, et al. “The Impact of the Tohoku Earth- quake and Tsunami on Social Capital in Japan: Trust before and after the Disaster.” International Political Science Review / Re- vue Internationale de Science Politique , vol. 36, no. 2, 2015, pp. 119–38. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24573456. Accessed 11 Mar. 2023.

LIST OF FIGURES

1 (cover). “東日本大震災に伴う警察措置｜警察庁Webサ / Po- lice Measures Associated with the Great East Japan Earthquake.”警察庁 / National Police Agency of Japan, https://www.npa.go.jp/news/other/earthquake2011/keisatsusoti.html .

2. Made in QGIS using data from “Tsunami Data and Infor- mation.” Tsunami Data and Information | National Geophysi- cal Data Center. NCEI, U.S. Department of Commerce, 28 July 2006, htt ps://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard/tsu.shtml.

3. “Fukushima.” Atomic Archive, https://www.atomicarchive.com/science/power/fukushima.html .

4a, 4b. Koshimura, Shunichi, and Nobuo Shuto. “Response to the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami Disaster.” Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and En- gineering Sciences , vol. 373, no. 2053, 2015, pp. 1–15. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24506317. Accessed 11 Mar. 2023.

5. “Ex-TEPCO Execs Plead Not Guilty over Fukushima Crisis in Appeal Trial.” Kyodo News+ , KYODO NEWS, 2 Nov. 2021, https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2021/11/3cd65ba68a5d-ex-tepco-execs-plead-not-guilty-over-fukushima-crisis-in-appeal-trial.html .

6a. Made in QGIS using data from “東日本大震災に伴う警 察措置｜警察庁Webサ / Police Measures Associated with the Great East Japan Earthquake.” 警察庁 / National Police Agency of Japan, https://www.npa.go.jp/news/other/earthquake2011/keisatsusoti.html .

6b. Made in QGIS using data from “Results for the December 2012 General Election.” Nippon, Nippon News, 30 May 2020, https://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00020/ .

7. Bestor, Theodore C. “Disasters, Natural and Unnatural: Re- flections on March 11, 2011, and Its Aftermath.” The Journal of Asian Studies , vol. 72, no. 4, 2013, pp. 763–82. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43553226 . Accessed 11 Mar. 2023.

8a. Hunchuck, Elise. “2015 – 2017: An Incomplete At- las of Stones.” Elisehunchuck , https://elisehunchuck.com/2015-2017-An-Incomplete-Atlas-of-Stones .

8b. Fackler, Martin. “Tsunami Warnings, Written in Stone.” The New York Times , The New York Times, 20 Apr. 2011, https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/21/world/asia/21stones.html?pagewanted=al .

Roshan Sivaraman is a sophomore pursuing a Dual Degree in International Relations (BA) and Voice Performance (BM) at Boston University. While their diploma will say “international relations,” Roshan prefers to say that they are particularly interested in human-environment relations, especially in those of Asian cultures. As such, they are currently studying in Singapore, while also working on peatland restoration in Indonesia’s Riau Archipelago. Roshan credits this paper, and the wonderful, warm, and encouraging teachings of their WR120 professor, Professor Ted Fitts, for sparking what will be a lifelong interest in how people interact with nature.

Essay on Tsunami

Students are often asked to write an essay on Tsunami in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Tsunami

What is a tsunami.

A tsunami is a series of powerful waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of water. This usually happens due to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or underwater landslides.

How Does a Tsunami Form?

When the sea floor abruptly deforms, it displaces the overlying water, triggering a tsunami. The waves travel across the ocean at high speeds.

Effects of a Tsunami

Tsunamis can cause mass destruction when they hit land. They can flood cities, destroy buildings, and take lives. It’s important to have early warning systems to minimize damage.

Understanding tsunamis helps us prepare and mitigate their harmful effects.

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250 Words Essay on Tsunami

Introduction.

Tsunamis, deriving from the Japanese words ‘tsu’ meaning harbor and ‘nami’ meaning wave, are a series of powerful water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water. They are known for their destructive power and unpredictability, posing a significant threat to coastal communities.

Causes of Tsunamis

Tsunamis are typically triggered by seismic activities beneath the ocean floor. These include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides. The energy released during these events displaces the overlying water column, generating waves that can travel across oceans at high speeds.

Characteristics and Impact

Unlike regular waves, tsunami waves involve the movement of the entire water column from the sea surface to the seabed. This attribute contributes to their long wavelengths and high energy, enabling them to travel vast distances. Upon reaching shallow waters, their speed decreases, causing the wave height to increase dramatically, often resulting in widespread destruction when they hit land.

Prevention and Mitigation

While tsunamis cannot be prevented, their impact can be mitigated through early warning systems, coastal zone management, and community preparedness. Technological advancements have made it possible to detect seismic activities and issue timely alerts, thereby saving lives.

Tsunamis, while a fascinating natural phenomenon, are a stark reminder of nature’s power. Understanding their causes and characteristics is crucial in developing effective mitigation strategies, thereby reducing their devastating impacts on human lives and the environment.

500 Words Essay on Tsunami

Tsunamis, often referred to as seismic sea waves, are a series of ocean waves caused by any large-scale disturbance of the sea surface. These disturbances can include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides or even meteorite impacts in the ocean. Tsunamis are not regular sea waves but energy waves, often caused by seismic activities beneath the ocean floor. Their impact on human lives and the environment can be devastating, emphasizing the importance of understanding and predicting these natural disasters.

The Mechanics of a Tsunami

Tsunamis are initiated by a sudden displacement of the sea floor due to geological activities like earthquakes. This displacement results in a vertical shift of the overlying water column, creating a series of waves that radiate outwards from the point of origin. The speed of a tsunami is determined by the depth of water, with deeper waters facilitating faster wave speeds.

In the open ocean, these waves may be just a few centimeters high, but their wavelength, or the distance between successive crests, can span hundreds of kilometers. As these waves approach coastal areas, the shallowing sea floor compresses the wave energy, causing the wave to increase dramatically in height.

Impact and Consequences

The destructive power of a tsunami comes from the massive amount of water that it can move and the consequent flooding. When a tsunami reaches the shore, it can cause immense damage to structures, erode beaches and embankments, destroy vegetation, and severely impact both terrestrial and marine life.

The human toll can be equally devastating. Tsunamis can lead to loss of life, displacement of people, and economic damage. The aftermath of a tsunami often includes public health crises, with the spread of waterborne diseases and psychological trauma among survivors.

Unfortunately, tsunamis cannot be prevented as they are triggered by natural geological processes. However, their impact can be mitigated through early warning systems, community preparedness, and intelligent coastal management.

Tsunami early warning systems, comprising seismographs and sea level monitoring stations, can provide critical minutes to hours of warning. This allows people in the path of a tsunami to seek higher ground. Community preparedness involves education about tsunami risks, evacuation routes, and drills. Intelligent coastal management can include the construction of seawalls, planting of mangroves to absorb wave energy, and zoning laws to prevent construction in high-risk areas.

Tsunamis, while a fascinating demonstration of the power of nature, are a sobering reminder of our vulnerability to natural disasters. As our understanding of these phenomena grows, so too does our ability to protect ourselves and our communities. The implementation of early warning systems, public education, and intelligent coastal management are key components in reducing the devastating impact of these ocean giants. Through continued research and community resilience, we can mitigate the effects of tsunamis and safeguard our future against these powerful sea waves.

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Essay on Tsunami for Students and Children

500+ words essay on tsunami.

Tsunami is a phenomenon where a series of strong waves that are responsible for the surge in water sometimes reach the heights in many meters. This is a natural disaster that is caused due to the volcano eruption in the ocean beds. Also, a phenomenon like landslides and earthquakes contributes to reasons for a tsunami. Like other natural disasters, the impact of the tsunami is also huge. It has been seen throughout history how disastrous the tsunami is. The essay on tsunami talks about various factors that contribute to the tsunami and the damage it causes to mankind. 

Essay on Tsunami

The disaster that is caused due to waves generated in the ocean because of the earthquake and whose main point is under the water is known as ‘Tsunami’. Also, the term tsunami is associated with tidal waves. Thus, a tsunami is also called as the series of ocean waves that have a very long wavelength. Because of the tsunami, there are strong waves of water is formed and this moves landwards. So, this causes inland movement of water which is very high and lasts for a long time. Thus, the impact of these waves is also very high. 

Greeks were the first people on Earth to claim the effects of the tsunami. They claim that tsunami is just like land earthquakes. Also, the only difference between tsunami and earthquake is that tsunami is caused in oceans. Thus, the scale and ferocity of the tsunami are almost impossible to control. 

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

The History of Tsunami

The highest ever recorded tsunami was on 9th July 1958 in the record books. It took place in a bay which was located in the ligula bay along the coasts of Alaska. After the quake, a massive mass of rock fell into the bay waters from the cliff nearby. Thus, this created an impact and produced a wave that reached a height of 524 meters. Also, this is regarded as one of the highest recorded tsunami waves ever. 

The destructive waves responsible for the occurrence of tsunami is also produced in waters of bays or lakes. As this water approached the coast, it grows larger. However, the size of this wave is very low in deep-sea areas. Tsunami waves that are generated in the lakes or bays do not travel for a long distance. Thus, they are not as destructive as the ones produced in the ocean waters. There are various directions in which tsunami can travel from the main point. 

One similar devastating tsunami was experienced in India in 2004. However, the origin of this tsunami was located near Indonesia. Because of the tsunami, it was expected that a total of 2 lakh people lost their lives. The waves traveled extensively thousands of kilometers in countries like Thailand, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and the Maldives. 

Tsunamis occur mainly in the Pacific Ocean. There are very chances that they take place in the area where there are larger bodies. Coastlines and open bays next to very deep waters may help tsunami further into a step-like wave. 

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World Tsunami Awareness Day

Early Warning and Early Action Before Every Tsunami: Building partnerships and leveraging data to ensure no one is left behind

November 4, 2022

UN Assistant Secretary-General and Director, UNDP Crisis Bureau

Excellencies, ladies, and gentlemen,

It is a pleasure to be with you today to mark World Tsunami Awareness Day.

With COP 27 around the corner, we are reminded that we have no time to lose. This is the pinnacle of our global effort to chart humanity’s course beyond the climate crisis.

This is especially true for the coastal communities and island nations who are particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise. This is an existential threat to them.

The last seven years have been the hottest ever recorded ; disasters are projected to increase by 40 percent in this decade alone. We are rapidly approaching dangerous tipping points for human health and safety, ecosystems, property and infrastructure, and we urgently need solutions that will bring us back from the brink.

Some may argue that Tsunamis are caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, meteorite impacts and other underwater explosions, and not all causes are climate-related. But that’s exactly why robust and inclusive multi-hazard early warning systems and early action measures are vital.

We can’t entirely prevent disasters from occurring, but we can support countries to be better prepared from disasters of various causes.

It is shocking to hear that only half of the countries globally have reported being covered by multi-hazard early warning systems – underscoring that the call by the UN Secretary-General on Early Warning for All needs to be made a reality to further save lives, livelihoods and assets.

Early Warning Systems are a top adaptation priority in 88 percent of Nationally Determined Contributions to the Paris Agreement submitted by Least Developed Countries and Small Island Developing States.

Across Asia and the Pacific, including in countries such as the Cook Islands and Tuvalu, UNDP is supporting the establishment of early warning systems and modernising the capture, analysis, and distribution of climate and risk information – key pieces of the puzzle in building a more resilient, smart future for these small island developing states.

Through interconnected approaches that focus on forecasting and anticipation in planning and actions on prevention, response, and recovery, we’re doing more to help countries and communities understand the risks they face, and to better manage and reduce these risks.

And it is important to emphasize that more investments are needed throughout the early warning system value cycle, with emphasis on reaching the 'last mile.'

Since 2017, we have worked with the Government of Japan to implement a regional project to strengthen school preparedness for Tsunamis. Today, over 170,000 students, teachers, and school administrators from 380 schools in 24 Asia Pacific countries were trained in tsunami preparedness and participated in safe evacuation drills through this programme. During the Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction this year in Bali, Indonesia, I personally participated in the drill conducted under this Project, and witnessed how the Early Warning system is directly made use to urge the school students and communities to evacuate.

I’m sure many of you would have also seen our Tsunami Story Book series, designed raise awareness by capturing young readers’ attention through inspiring stories and actionable information.

Today, we are launching the 4th story book, this time from Tonga featuring the story of Li’Oa, a driver at the National Emergency Management Office, who successfully evacuated people from the tsunami in January this year.

Awareness is a key element of early warning and early action. It can save lives and livelihoods, especially when it is linked to the multi-hazard early warning systems.

Colleagues,

UNDP strongly believes that inclusive early warning systems, along with a complete understanding of risks, enables communities to anticipate better, take action earlier, and reduce the devastating impact of disasters. And for this, partnerships are key to the success. On this Tsunami World Tsunami Awareness Day, UNDP is proud to work with each of you to achieve that goal.

Superabundant

Fine dining in the end times: a unique cooking contest to raise awareness about disaster preparedness.

The “Superabundant” team follows a unique cooking contest to raise awareness about disaster preparedness

If a natural disaster cut your area off from the rest of the country for weeks, what would you eat? Do you have food stored for such a scenario, and just as importantly — a plan for how to prepare it so it’s worthy of eating?

Many of the residents of the small coastal town of Manzanita, Oregon, have given this scenario a fair bit of thought. The town sits squarely in a tsunami zone, prone to catastrophic flooding and landslides when the next Cascadia subduction zone earthquake strikes. Disaster preparedness is not far from the surface of daily life for many residents, but it’s not all doom and gloom.

Back in February, the first “Apocalypse Cookoff” put three creative local chefs to the test to see who could create the best meal using only storable food. No heat. No water. They could only use shelf-stable ingredients, 20 minutes and a lot of creativity.

The “Superabundant” crew filmed the action as each chef brought a different philosophy, from using home-harvest and preserved ingredients like canned bread, to making the most of lowly but ubiquitous ketchup packets. The takeaway? With a little planning you can still eat well — even in the end times.

Tags:   Superabundant , Food , Tsunami , Earthquake

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Wearing Masks During the Gaza Protests

More from our inbox:, money and politics: congressional salaries and campaign finance, cousteau’s granddaughter, on protecting oceans and marine life, exiles from trump.

To the Editor:

Re “ In an Age of Doxxing, Some Protesters Choose Anonymity ” (news article, May 3):

As a former activist with a proud résumé of progressive civil disobedience and protest from the 1970s through the 1990s, I sympathize with the energy and idealistic enthusiasm of the student protesters this year.

However, I find it inconceivable that so many have chosen to be masked. The anonymity of their anti-Israel expression seems to me far too close to the behavior of a mob. It is also anathema to the concept of a free exchange of ideas that the modern postsecondary educational experience is supposed to be all about.

If these students intend to accomplish anything while they are protesting, they need to put their real identities to the challenge and defend their ideas.

Or perhaps in being unmasked, these anonymous radicals will suddenly realize that what some of them are advocating, the elimination of the modern state of Israel, is entirely inconceivable.

Carl D. Birman Albany, N.Y.

This article addresses the issue of masking by pro-Palestine (and a few pro-Israel) demonstrators at college campuses, pointing out that students fear suspension, doxxing and other threats if their identities become known.

The article compares this generation of students to earlier generations of activists, of which I was a member, who “gained their moral force in part by putting their words on record and their futures in jeopardy for a larger cause.” Indeed we did, and we did it to protest the war in Vietnam and to support civil rights in the face of serious police violence.

Although some will draw parallels between Kent State and today’s actions on college campuses, the level of risk that students today face can’t begin to compare with that of students back then.

One very important difference between then and now is that the men of my generation risked being drafted. We were demonstrating not only for “moral force,” but also because an unjust war threatened to take our lives. The draft, not the doxxing, was an overwhelming concern.

Please, don’t compare the two eras. We didn’t wear masks; they do. We wanted to “stop the war!”; they are chanting “from the river to the sea,” which surely will require more fighting.

Linda Lögdberg Philadelphia

Akosua Barthwell Evans, a 1968 protester at Columbia, states: “Times have changed, but I have a lot of respect for the protesters who are using peaceful means to fight injustice and who have the courage to take personal risks to try to make a difference in the world” (“Witness: Portraits of the People Living the News,” Sunday Opinion, May 5).

There is no courage in hiding behind masks as many of the recent protesters have done. There is no bravery in demanding that there be no punishment for breaking the law or violating campus policies and causing many others to feel intimidated or uneasy, as so many of the recent protesters have asked for in their “demands.”

Civil disobedience means one is willing to accept the consequences for one’s actions and let the chips fall where they may.

Nathaniel Helfgot Teaneck, N.J.

12 Departing Lawmakers Tell Us What Congress Is Really Like

These are their exit interviews.

Re “ Quitting Congress: The Exit Interviews ” (Opinion, May 5):

Several departing members of Congress bemoaned their salaries not being tied to inflation and the cost of living. Perhaps the people they represent would be more likely to accept that grievance if Congress made the same concession on the minimum wage.

Jonathan L. Gleit Tarrytown, N.Y.

When asked about corruption in Congress, Representative Ken Buck addressed pervasive political spending and the “tsunami of money that comes in from special interest groups.” His revelation that members of Congress need to raise $250,000-plus for the party to secure coveted committee positions underscores the dire need for campaign finance reform in our political system.

This isn’t just a political challenge, but a constitutional one. Through decades of misguided precedent, the Supreme Court has effectively appointed itself as the legislative body for campaign finance reform. An amendment is the only path forward to address the toxic influence of money in politics.

Ratifying the For Our Freedom Amendment will empower states and Congress to set reasonable limits on political spending, ensuring that every American voice counts. Twenty-two states have called on Congress to propose the amendment, and voters list reducing the influence of money in politics as a top priority for 2024.

Candidates who care about addressing out-of-control spending should pledge support for the amendment and help us return to a government that focuses on addressing everyday issues, not on fund-raising for the next election cycle.

Jeffrey D. Clements Cambridge, Mass. The writer is C.E.O. of American Promise, which has proposed the amendment.

Re “ Fishing Zones Seen as Flaw in Plan to Protect Oceans ” (news article, May 1):

Our oceans have changed since my grandfather Jacques Cousteau explored and spotlighted underwater worlds, with marine ecosystems facing growing threats like climate change, plastics and destructive fishing.

Our oceans cover more than 70 percent of the planet and provide us with so many benefits — oxygen, food, livelihoods and recreation, to name just a few — yet only about 8 percent of them are under some type of protection.

How can our oceans truly be protected if they aren’t shielded from destructive activities? Bottom trawling indiscriminately bulldozes the seafloor, destroying habitats and killing marine life in its destructive path.

Global leaders have an opportunity to establish real, meaningful protections for our oceans with their efforts toward what is known as 30x30 , a commitment to safeguard 30 percent of the planet’s oceans by 2030. Such protections allow fish to grow, feed and breed to build more resilient oceans. But allowing destructive practices like bottom trawling in protected areas worldwide undermines this effort.

We know that our oceans thrive when they are well protected, and so do the people and communities that rely on them. Global leaders, including President Biden, must protect 30 percent of our oceans and then do more. Don’t limit protections to remote areas but expand them to cover geographically diverse waters.

By fully protecting our oceans, without exclusions or exceptions, we will restore our global waters and rebuild ocean abundance for generations.

Alexandra Cousteau Paris The writer is a senior adviser to the international advocacy group Oceana.

Re “ Trump Return? A Wary Capital Talks of Escape ” (Washington Memo, May 6):

It was disappointing to read your article reporting that many influential people in Washington talk of planning to leave the United States if Donald Trump is elected president.

Many of these people have ample resources, deep government experience and other political skills. So rather than ruminating about which country they would apply to for “asylum,” why aren’t they organizing, fighting back and actively doing all they can to re-elect Joe Biden?

Lloyd Trufelman Katonah, N.Y.