research topics in virtual reality

Articles on Virtual reality

Displaying 1 - 20 of 192 articles.

The metaverse could change our religious experiences, and create new ones

Marco Adria , University of Alberta

We created a VR tool to test brain function. It could one day help diagnose dementia

Joyce Siette , Western Sydney University and Paul Strutt , Western Sydney University

Our brains take rhythmic snapshots of the world as we walk – and we never knew

Matthew Davidson , University of Sydney

We gave palliative care patients VR therapy. More than 50% said it helped reduce pain and depression symptoms

Tobias Loetscher , University of South Australia and Gregory Crawford , University of Adelaide

Virtual reality grooming is an increasing danger. How can parents keep children safe?

Marika Guggisberg , CQUniversity Australia

Editing memories, spying on our bodies, normalising weird goggles: Apple’s new Vision Pro has big ambitions

Luke Heemsbergen , Deakin University

Four ways AI will impact music, from Elvis holograms to interactive soundscapes

Somdip Dey , University of Essex

A 360 camera, 1°C weather and an ambitious VR documentary: what I learnt as cinematographer on Sorella’s Story

Gilberto Roque , University of Southern Queensland

Virtual reality can help emergency services navigate the complexities of real-life  crises

Brandon May , University of Winchester and Selina Robinson , University of Winchester

Virtual reality has negative side effects – new research shows that can be a problem in the workplace

Alexis Souchet , University of Southern California

The Apple Vision Pro hasn’t really impressed consumers, but that isn’t the goal – for now

Martie-Louise Verreynne , The University of Queensland and Margarietha de Villiers Scheepers , University of the Sunshine Coast

Apple’s new Vision Pro mixed-reality headset could bring the metaverse back to life

Omar H. Fares , Toronto Metropolitan University

Apple Vision Pro headset: what does it do and will it deliver?

Panagiotis Ritsos , Bangor University and Peter Butcher , Bangor University

Technology is radically changing sleep as we know it

Catherine Coveney , Loughborough University and Eric L Hsu , University of South Australia

We’re using VR to help find the next generation of basketball stars

Pooya Soltani , Staffordshire University

The latest trends in video games from the 2023 global Game Developers Conference

Gavin Wade , University of Portsmouth

Billions have been sunk into virtual reality. To make it worth it, the industry needs to grow beyond its walled gardens

Bree McEwan , University of Toronto

Five emerging trends that could change our lives online

Theo Tzanidis , University of the West of Scotland

What is Mondiacult? 6 take-aways from the world’s biggest cultural policy gathering

Ribio Nzeza Bunketi Buse , University of Kinshasa

5 great immersive experiences you can have this summer

Gregory Ferris , University of Technology Sydney

Related Topics

• Artificial intelligence (AI)
• Augmented reality
• Oculus Rift

Top contributors

Researcher in Virtual Reality, Auckland University of Technology

Lecturer in Digital Cultures, University of Sydney

Senior Lecturer in Digital Cultures, SOAR Fellow., University of Sydney

Professor of Screen Media, King's College London

Senior Lecturer in Digital Marketing, University of the West of Scotland

Chair in Interactive Multimedia Systems, University of Birmingham

Professor of Creative and Cultural Industries, University of Nottingham

Senior Lecturer in Applied Ethics & CyberSecurity, Griffith University

Senior Lecturer in Media Studies, University of Portsmouth

Professor of Management, University of North Carolina – Greensboro

Enterprise Fellow, University of South Australia

Associate Professor – Information & Communication Technology (ICT), CQUniversity Australia

Associate Professor of Media and Information, Michigan State University

Digital media experience producer and researcher, CQUniversity Australia

Assistant Professor, Northumbria University, Newcastle

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109 Virtual Reality Topics & Essay Examples

When writing a virtual reality essay, it is hard to find just one area to focus on. Our experts have outlined 104 titles for you to choose from.

🏆 Best Virtual Reality Topics & Essay Examples

🕶️ good virtual reality research topics, 🤖 interesting virtual reality research paper topics, ❓ research questions about virtual reality.

Humanity has made amazing leaps in technology over the past several years. We have reached frontiers previously thought impossible, like the recreation of virtual environments using computers. These three-dimensional worlds can be accessed and explored by people. This is made possible with VR headsets, such as Oculus Rift or HTC Vive. If you’re eager to find out more, peek at our collection of VR research topics below!

• Virtual Reality Versus Augmented Reality In fact, this amounts to one of the merits of a virtual reality environment. A case example of this type of virtual reality is the Virtual Reality games.
• Virtual Reality Technology The third negative impact of virtual reality is that it causes human beings to start living in the world of fantasy.
• Virtual Reality Tourism Technology In the world of virtual tourism, we can be transported to any country and have the ability to interact and manipulate the elements within the world we are touring in a way that would not […]
• Virtual Reality’s Main Benefits The rapid development and the growing popularity of virtual reality raise a logical interest concerning the advantages and disadvantages that are related to the application of this new technology in various spheres of knowledge and […]
• Virtual Reality’s Benefits and Usages in Concurrent Engineering Figure 1: Phases of concurrent engineering Source As shown in the figure above, the initial stage of concurrent engineering is the identification of the components of the design system.
• Char Davies’ Osmose as Virtual Reality Environment On the following position, the installment suggests the invitees a chance to trail the discrete interactor’s voyage of imageries from end to end of this counterpart of natural surroundings.
• A Growth Trajectory of the Virtual Reality Drilling Rig Training During the final three months of development, the VR training program will be refined and tested for usability and effectiveness. Collecting feedback from users is essential for the success of the VR drilling rig training […]
• “The Role of Virtual Reality in Criminal Justice Pedagogy” by Smith The journal is titled “The role of virtual reality in criminal justice pedagogy: An examination of mental illness occurring in corrections”.
• Virtual Reality and Cybersecurity As a result, it is the mandate of the framework entities to establish solutions to the inherent barriers to the implementation of the business plan.
• A Stand-Up Comedy Virtual Reality Platform for Qatar Tourism Choosing the right number of avatars, customization of the product, and pricing the product were the three major challenges that were faced in this project. The second challenge that emerged in the development stage was […]
• Entrepreneurial Opportunities in Virtual Reality In terms of the practical context, the research will focus on the organizations and sectors which are the primary beneficiaries of virtual reality and remote work during the pandemic.
• Virtual Reality Space Product Project Challenges During the project, several challenges came up, which included providing leadership to the team, identifying the customer segment for the product, and understanding the “pains” of the customer segment.
• Reflection on Aspects of Virtual Reality Videos For instance, the video Wolves in the Walls has good graphics and gives the independence to look at every section of the set-up separately.
• Augmented and Virtual Reality for Modern Firms The business environment is not an exception, as firms seek to maximize their value through the implementation of high-tech solutions. AR is another major component of contemporary professional training, as it contributes to the better […]
• The Rules of the Virtual Reality Online environment has been providing the platform for casual interactions as well as economic activities for quite a while.
• How Virtual Reality Is Changing the World of Interior Design In order to become competitive in the sphere of luxury interior design, “More” must make its projects look modern and trendy.
• Rusnak’s “The Thirteenth Floor” and The Concept of Virtual Reality In such consideration, this paper conducts a comparative analysis of The Thirteenth Floor and how the concept of virtual reality was developed and is applied in today’s films.
• Top Companies in the Virtual Reality Industry Currently, Google is the leading search engine company, and there are signs that the company might emerge as one of the heavyweights in the virtual reality industry.
• Screen Culture: Immersion and Virtual Reality If paralleling with the world of video games, the protagonist in that projected art work is the most close to the vision that the user could be associated with.
• Virtual Reality: A Powerful New Technology for Filming The creation of VR highlights a new perception of space because, through technology, people can be transmitted to a different environment.
• Internet, Virtual Reality, and World Wide Web Defining the concept of the Internet is a challenging task, mostly because of the changes that it has undergone over the course of its development.
• Virtual Reality Technology and Soccer Training Moreover, the level of interactivity needs to be significant, and the most attention should be devoted to the modeling of situations that are viewed as the most problematic.
• Virtual Reality in Healthcare Training The objective data will be gathered to inform the exploration of the first question, and it will focus on such performance measures as time, volume, and efficiency of task completion; the number of errors pre- […]
• Scholar VR: Virtual Reality Planning Service Studio To ensure that the small and mid-sized companies in the United Kingdom understand the leverage they can get by using VR technology.
• IOS and Browser Applications and Virtual Reality From the consumer’s point of view, any mobile application is good if it is of interest to the public and covers a large target audience.
• Virtual Reality’ Sports Training System Working Steps The efficiency of the given technology is evidenced by the fact that it is used by various coaches and teams to provide training for their players. For this reason, it is possible to predict the […]
• Virtual Reality Technology in Soccer Training Therefore, it is imperative to invest in this area to protect the safety of our technology and ensure that we have a viable product.
• Virtual Reality Technology in Referee Training Referees need to experience the practical nature of the profession during the training process, and the VR technology will eliminate the underlying challenges to the development of experience in the profession.
• Virtual Reality Technology for Wide Target Audience Due to the numerous applications in both leisure and industry, as well as massive popularity with audiences of different ages, there is a chance that, in several years, evaluating the target audiences of Virtual Reality […]
• Surgeon Students’ Virtual Reality Learning Programs In order for the students to feel like they are operating on living patients instead of waving instruments in the air, it is necessary to provide the environment that would compensate for the shortcomings of […]
• Virtual Reality and Solitary Confinement Nowadays, the majority of the representatives of the general public all over the world are familiar with the concept of virtual reality, and many of them have already experienced it.
• Samsung Gear Virtual Reality Product Launch The paper at hand is devoted to the analysis of the launch of Samsung Gear VR from different perspectives: the product development model, the business analysis, its technical implementation, etc.
• Virtual Reality in Military Health Care The purpose of the research is to identify the capabilities of VR and its applications in military health care. This study will explore the current uses of VR, its different functionalities, applications in the field […]
• Virtual Reality Ride Experience at Disneyland Florida The basic concept of the proposed ride is to utilize the current advances in VR technology to create a simulated experience for park-goers that is safe, widely usable, and sufficiently immersive that there is a […]
• Imagineering Myths About Virtual Reality Walt Disney Imagineering team, which encompassed a wide range of professionals responsible for various entertainments offered by theme parks, resorts, and other venues, is currently devoting a lot of time and effort to unlock the […]
• Virtual Reality Industry Analysis While it is true that the production and sale of virtual reality headsets could be in the millions in the future as the technology develops and becomes more acceptable, it cannot be stated at the […]
• Virtual Reality in Construction Originally, the use of virtual reality in construction within the past decade has been limited to 3D object design wherein separate 3D representations of the exterior and interior of the buildings are designed utilizing 3D […]
• Virtual Reality in Soccer Training The following work will focus on the analysis of the use of Virtual Reality in the training of soccer players with the evaluation of the practices adopted by particular soccer teams.
• Abstract on Architecture and the Role of Virtual Reality
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Escapism and Virtual Reality
• Strategic Analysis of the Creation of a New Rating System in Virtual Reality Gaming
• Study on Real/Virtual Relationships Through a Mobile Augmented Reality Application
• Benefits and Dangers of Virtual Reality
• Can Virtual Reality Kill?
• Cognitive Psychology & Virtual Reality Systems
• Computer Science and Virtual Reality
• Development of Virtual Reality Technology in the Aspect of Educational Applications
• Difference Between Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality
• Role of Virtual Reality in Education
• Humanity Versus Virtual Reality
• Simulation and Virtual Reality in a Sport Management Curriculum Setting
• Smart VR: A Virtual Reality Environment for Mathematics
• Sports Management Curriculum, Virtual Reality, and Traditional Simulation
• SWOT Analysis: The Lego Product and the ‘Virtual Reality’
• The Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality Market Forecast and Opportunities in U.S.
• Tracking Strategy in Increased Reality and Virtual Reality
• Using the Virtual Reality to Develop Educational Games for Middle School Science Classrooms
• What Is Virtual Reality?
• What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Virtual Reality?
• What Do Consumers Prefer for the Attributes of Virtual Reality Head-Mount Displays?
• Virtual Reality and Its Potential to Become the Greatest Technological Advancement
• Lucid Dreams as the First Virtual Reality
• Development of Virtual Reality
• Introduction to Virtual Reality Technology and Society
• Issue “Virtual Reality in Marketing”: Definition, Theory and Practice
• Applying Virtual Reality in Tourism
• Application of Virtual Reality in Military
• Augmented Reality & Virtual Reality Industry Forecast and Analysis to 2013 – 2018
• Breakthrough Virtual Reality Sex Machine
• Components Driving Virtual Reality Today and Beyond
• Data Correlation-Aware Resource Management in Wireless Virtual Reality (VR): An Echo State Transfer Learning Approach
• Gaming to Health Care: Using Virtual Reality in Physical Rehabilitation
• Smart Phones and Virtual Reality in 10 Years
• Evolution of Art in Virtual Reality
• Use of Virtual Reality in Molecular Docking Science Experiments
• Use of Virtual Reality for Concussion Diagnosis
• Virtual Reality as Analgesia: An Alternative Approach for Managing Chronic Pain
• Virtual Reality: The Real Life Implications of Raising a Virtual Child
• When Virtual Reality Meets Realpolitik: Social Media Shaping the Arab Government-Citizen Relationship
• Can Virtual Reality Ever Be Implemented in Routine Clinical Settings?
• What Is More Attractive, Virtual Reality or Augmented Reality?
• What Is Virtual Reality and How It Works?
• What Are the Benefits of Virtual Reality?
• Is Virtual Reality Dangerous?
• How Is Virtual Reality Used in Everyday Life?
• What Are the Risks of Virtual Reality?
• What Is the Future of Virtual Reality in Education?
• How Do You Think Virtual Reality Devices Will Change Our World?
• What Are Three Disadvantages of Virtual Reality?
• What’s the Point of Virtual Reality?
• How Can Virtual Reality Optimize Education?
• How Did Virtual Reality Affect Our Lives?
• Will Virtual Reality Eventually Replace Our Real Reality?
• What Are Some Cool Virtual Reality Ideas?
• When Will We Have Full-Sensory Virtual Reality?
• What Do I Need to Develop Virtual Reality Games?
• Why Did Virtual Reality Never Take Off so Far?
• What Are Medical Applications of Virtual Reality?
• How Virtual Reality Can Help in Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder?
• What Are the Biggest Problems Virtual Reality Can Solve?
• What Unsolved Problems Could Virtual Reality Be a Solution For?
• How Would a Fully Immersive Virtual Reality Work?
• When Will Virtual Reality Become Popular?
• What’s the Best Way to Experience Virtual Reality Technology?
• How Will Virtual Reality Change Advertising?
• Which Are the Best Virtual Reality Companies in India?
• What Are the Pros and Cons of Virtual Reality?
• What Are the Coding Languages Required for Virtual Reality?
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How Virtual Reality Technology Has Changed Our Lives: An Overview of the Current and Potential Applications and Limitations

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Despite virtual reality (VR) being initially marketed toward gaming, there are many potential and existing VR applications in various sectors and fields, including education, training, simulations, and even in exercise and healthcare. Unfortunately, there is still a lack of general understanding of the strengths and limitations of VR as a technology in various application domains. Therefore, the aim of this literature review is to contribute to the library of literature concerning VR technology, its applications in everyday use, and some of its existing drawbacks. Key VR applications were discussed in terms of how they are currently utilized or can be utilized in the future, spanning fields such as medicine, engineering, education, and entertainment. The main benefits of VR are expressed through the text, followed by a discussion of some of the main limitations of current VR technologies and how they can be mitigated or improved. Overall, this literature review shows how virtual reality technology has the potential to be a greatly beneficial tool in a multitude of applications and a wide variety of fields. VR as a technology is still in its early stages, but more people are becoming interested in it and are optimistic about seeing what kind of changes VR can make in their everyday lives. With how rapidly modern society has adapted to personal computers and smartphones, VR has the opportunity to become the next big technological turning point that will eventually become commonplace in most households.

1. Introduction

This literature review aims to contribute to the library of literature on the applications of virtual reality (VR), how they are currently used and can be used in the future, and some of the strengths and difficulties that come with using VR.

Virtual reality (VR) refers to a computer-generated, three-dimensional virtual environment that users can interact with, typically accessed via a computer that is capable of projecting 3D information via a display, which can be isolated screens or a wearable display, e.g., a head-mounted display (HMD), along with user identification sensors [ 1 ]. VR can mainly be divided into two categories: non-immersive, and immersive [ 2 ]. Non-immersive VR utilizes a combination of screens surrounding the user to present virtual information [ 3 ]. A typical example of this is driving or flight simulations in which the user sits in a chair with multiple screens around them, giving them the feeling of being in the cockpit or driver’s seat without being fully immersed. Immersive VR refers to using a wearable display, e.g., HMD, to track a user’s movement and present the VR information based on the position of users [ 4 ], which allows them to experience 360 degrees of the virtual environment. This immersive experience is what most people think of when it comes to VR and is one of the most marketable aspects of VR technology. In between immersive and non-immersive VR, there is also augmented reality (AR). AR makes use of computer-generated imagery that is overlayed on physical elements in the real world, which can be found in many applications, such as stores providing a virtual fitting application for people to “try on” clothes. Mixed reality (XR) represents the spectrum between the physical and digital worlds, combining AR and VR to allow users to both immerse themselves in a virtual world while also being somewhat grounded in reality.

The concept of VR was first introduced in the 1960s, with Morton’s creation of the Telesphere Mask and the Sensorama [ 5 ]. The original technologies served the purpose of immersing the user in the video display around them, making them feel like they are a part of the video. The Ultimate display was an idea developed by Ivan Sutherland [ 6 ], operating on a similar concept of allowing the user to feel immersed in a computer-generated environment using multiple input and output devices [ 7 , 8 ]. Following the creation of the Sensorama and the idea of the Ultimate display in the 1960s, the next large boom in VR technology development occurred in the early 2010s. During this period of time, VR was still considered a gimmick—it was expensive and was not considered a technology that would ever become popular with the general public. This, however, started to shift in 2012, when Palmer Luckey debuted his prototype for the first Oculus [ 9 ]. In 2014, Facebook acquired Oculus after seeing the interest it garnered, leading to a significant increase in the popularity of VR devices for home use. Since then, VR has grown to become more popular and accessible to the everyday consumer, with more VR headsets available on the market, such as the HTC Vive, Samsung VR, Oculus, Google Cardboard, and more.

Despite VR being initially marketed toward gaming, there are many potential and existing VR applications in various sectors and fields, including education, training, simulations, and even in exercise and healthcare. Unfortunately, there is still a lack of general understanding of the strengths and limitations of VR as a technology in various application domains. Some of the largest issues with current VR technology are hard to overcome and can span from technical to financial and health issues. Technological limitations regarding users feeling uncomfortable or ill while using a VR headset, the inaccessibility of this technology to most people due to the high price of the associated hardware, and the lack of technical standardization are all current issues that the tech industry is hoping to overcome with research and future improvements.

Overall, this literature review serves the purpose of covering how different types of VR applications can be utilized, as well as providing information on the advantages and drawbacks of using VR technology in various application domains.

In order to present a reliable literature review, an extensive search was performed using common journal search engines/websites, e.g., Google Scholar, JSTOR, MDPI, ResearchGate, PubMed, and Science Direct, which includes peer-reviewed studies and articles. Keywords and phrases used in searching for sources include a combination of “VR” or “virtual reality” with “Education”, “Simulation,” “Games”, “Virtual”, “Immersive”, “Non-immersive”, “Training”, “Application”, “Manufacturing”, “Industrial”, “Medical”, “Healthcare”, and “Entertainment”. The variety in keywords helped yield different results for VR not only as a technology but also in major use cases where it has already been utilized for different industries and fields. The gathered papers and articles were then reviewed to further select representative and up-to-date evidence.

Papers were selected with the goal of providing sufficient coverage of the topic by presenting an overarching summary rather than an exhaustive review of every type of application within VR. Having a large variety of papers does not guarantee that every particular use case of VR is covered, but it does provide a wide breadth of use cases of VR that are currently applied, as well as opportunity spaces for VR applications in the future. As shown in Figure 1 , 145 papers were initially collected, but only 77 were thoroughly reviewed to provide enough coverage without unnecessary advanced technical details. Five additional papers and articles were added after review to accommodate additional information, resulting in a total of 82 sources used for the final literature review.

General structure of the paper selection and literature review.

Included papers were those that clearly presented a specific VR application, those that showed clear negative or positive outcomes of VR usage, or papers that provided relevant background information on a specific VR technology. Exclusion criteria included disregarding papers that had an overt focus on VR hardware components, excluding studies that may have mentioned VR without it being the focus, and rejecting papers that became repetitive after utilizing other papers on similar topics. The following sections provide detailed reviews based on various VR applications and domains.

3. Reviews of VR Technology Applications

The technological applications of VR have advanced to a point where they can be applied to an extensive range of fields and industries outside of just gaming or entertainment. Many have started to take advantage of VR in performing tasks that are hard to practice due to limited resources or the inherent risks and dangers associated with said tasks that can sometimes lead to catastrophic consequences. The greatest strength of VR is that it opens up opportunities for people to practice these tasks in a safe capacity while also being immersed enough for it to feel realistic and transferable to the real world and depict almost any situation accurately [ 10 ]. This section covers some of the main categories of VR applications and provides examples of how these applications are applied or can be applied to different use cases across various fields.

One of the most widely used and largely applicable applications of VR is the simulation aspect, which can be uniquely created and customized to suit users’ needs. There are two main types of simulations: immersive and non-immersive. As mentioned above, non-immersive VR simulations usually include multiple screens and some type of platform or apparatus that mimics the activities or tasks in reality [ 3 ]. Immersive VR simulations differ in terms of using HMDs in place of screens and can either utilize a control platform or apparatus such as the ones used in non-immersive simulations [ 11 ] or can instead be fully contained within a virtual setup and require no external setups or platforms. Whether users opt for immersive or non-immersive VR simulations, there is no significant difference in the performance, and the results appear to be very similar in fulfilling the simulation’s purpose [ 12 ]. There is, however, a slight advantage to using immersive VR simulations with HMDs, as they are capable of fully immersing the user in the simulated environment and giving them a more thorough experience [ 13 ].

3.1. Industrial Simulation Applications

VR simulations have many applications that can span from training simulation to prototyping, designing, and testing tools and objects. Some commonly used VR simulations in the industrial domain include driving simulators, flight simulators for pilots, and combat simulators for military personnel, all of which provide training to users in highly dangerous circumstances without putting them at risk during the training process [ 14 ]. Among the many use cases, two typical simulation applications are further discussed in the following sections.

3.1.1. Driving Simulations

One major use of VR simulations is driving simulations for both driving training and within the automotive industry; VR provides the ability to create driving simulations in which users can be placed in risky driving scenarios without real danger [ 15 ]. Driving simulators can be useful in multiple capacities, such as observing driving behavior to collect data or training inexperienced drivers in a low-stress environment.

VR driving simulations can be used to train young or novice drivers and help them understand their mistakes or point out some bad driving habits they need to adjust. Within a simulation, drivers can be placed in a virtual vehicle within an environment resembling a cityscape, with their behaviors and actions observed and recorded to later analyze for any issues or mistakes or to see if the drivers made the correct decisions in a given scenario [ 16 ]. After conducting the simulation, drivers can be informed of their mistakes and receive feedback about how to improve their behaviors in an actual driving situation. These driving simulations can also be beneficial in training young drivers with neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) [ 17 ], who may otherwise have difficulties learning in an uncontrolled environment.

Another application of VR driving simulations is the ability to collect real-time data on how users react to different scenarios as drivers on the road in a simulated environment. This data can be used in multiple capacities, such as designing better safety features in a vehicle, providing a better user experience for drivers, developing training modules for drivers, and for use in autonomous vehicle (AV) research and development. AVs have been an emerging field of technology that will continue to develop and advance, with VR simulations continuously providing opportunities for safe and efficient data collection and user testing [ 18 ]. One common issue in the field is developing trust between users and autonomous vehicles and understanding how to mitigate the distrust most people have in this technology [ 19 ]. It is important to ensure users have a certain level of trust in an AV so as to ensure drivers take over when appropriate. Accordingly, putting users in a VR driving simulation in which they interact with an autonomous vehicle virtually can yield substantial amounts of data on how users behave within that environment while also ensuring that users feel safe in the process and can become accustomed to being in an AV [ 20 ].

3.1.2. Product Design and Prototyping

One application of VR that can be useful is the ability to look at 3D models in a virtual space in a way that is difficult to visualize via a screen. Prototypes or preliminary designs for products can be modeled and shown in a virtual environment for test and evaluation purposes [ 21 ]. One significant advantage of showing these models in VR is presenting a virtual prototype or part without spending a lot of time, money, effort, or material on building the prototype in real life. Through simulations, VR can also show how the product would react under different conditions. Simulations can be run in VR to show the effect of different interactions between the prototype and surrounding subjects [ 22 ]. This can help the prototype designers determine if any areas of the prototype need to be improved based on the simulated interaction results. The ability to see the product in a virtual environment can also provide the ability to make changes to VR design for a quick turnaround and faster results, which could increase the speed of prototyping, reduce prototype production waste, and increase the understanding of the functions of the prototype.

3.2. Education

Educational applications of VR have not been utilized much yet, but there are many promising examples and studies of how beneficial VR can be in an educational environment. Using VR can help increase student attention by keeping them engaged with what is happening inside the VR environment [ 23 , 24 ]. Most teenage students find it challenging to pay attention in class, especially when they feel that the discussed topics are not relevant to them. When students use exciting technologies such as VR, they are more interested and engaged with what they are learning while immersed in a virtual environment [ 25 , 26 ]. VR headsets are also useful in blocking out visual and auditory distractions, creating an opportunity for the student to focus on teaching materials better. Such VR approaches open up more opportunities for teachers to interact one-on-one with students and have more useful and beneficial teacher–student interactions [ 27 ].

VR also provides the opportunity for students to construct and practice their own knowledge by being able to engage in meaningful experiences. Students are able to immersively engage in educational activities and gain a better understanding of the topic at hand [ 28 ]. VR also has the capability of transporting students to different environments, allowing them to learn and explore various concepts safely and efficiently. This can be especially useful to demonstrate environments that are impossible to visit in reality, such as underwater or space [ 29 , 30 ].

Mixed reality can be considered an extended VR application, which can be applied to real learning environments, such as exploring laboratory experiments [ 31 ]. Students can wear an HMD that shows information and instructions about the laboratory they will experience and can interact with items in reality to recreate what is simulated to them in VR. Essentially, students are still fully aware of their surroundings while also having a better visual understanding and representation of their task, which can help reduce mistakes, allow students to be more independent, and keep students interested and engaged.

With the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a sudden increase in virtual learning, with many classes being held via online meeting platforms and others being fully asynchronous. VR offers a new, unique approach to asynchronous learning; VR can create a learning environment in which a student can participate in lectures and ask questions to virtual instructors with pre-generated answers [ 32 ]. It is particularly important for students to feel immersed in the virtual environment in order to keep them engaged [ 33 ]. Virtual environments can be created to look just like real-life classrooms where students can walk around and work with other students on assignments [ 34 ]. The issue with asynchronous classroom experiences is that not all of a student’s questions will necessarily be answered; information will be limited to what is currently updated within the virtual experience. Thus, VR-based virtual education does provide a better experience to students than watching videos online, but it cannot replace the experience of being in a classroom with teachers who can directly engage with students.

With VR technology further advancing, VR could also be used for live, synchronous classes where students can engage with classmates and teachers from the comfort of their homes in real time. This would have been especially beneficial when schools were closed due to the pandemic, but it can also provide a way for students to attend classes while experiencing health difficulties, traveling, or living in other countries, etc. Even though live classes have not yet really been held using VR, such applications can be developed in the future, especially with some of the current development being made in both asynchronous learning and social interaction.

3.3. Public Health

Another domain in which VR has been utilized is within public health and wellness. Due to the immersive nature of VR, it can be used to simulate experiences that can directly impact people’s health. Some examples include providing immersive training simulations to medical personnel, offering a new method of exercise or meditation, and presenting therapists with opportunities to better help and understand their patients.

3.3.1. Medical Training

VR simulations provide the opportunity for medical professionals to practice procedures before operating on a patient, which has proven to help provide patients with better outcomes more consistently and reduce the incidence of mistakes. Preparation and practice in VR help improve patient outcomes because medical personnel are better prepared for each patient’s unique circumstances before operating [ 35 , 36 ].

In terms of learning how to perform procedures, medical students can train in an interactive virtual environment that can be programmed with different scenarios, which allows a student to experience real-life scenarios with virtual patients [ 37 ]. The virtual environment can be programmed in a multitude of diverse ways so the student can be prepared and better accustomed to different types of scenarios they may face with future patients. The simulation can be programmed so that a video can be played, showing how to effectively use a tool or object when the user looks at it [ 38 ]. The simulation can also provide hints or step-by-step instructions to students so they know how to perform the surgery properly. All these practices are much more hands-on than reading a textbook and more realistic than practicing on mannequins with minimal risks to a real patient, which makes VR a perfect tool to assist student learning.

Medical students are not the only ones who can benefit from VR simulations; seasoned medical professionals and surgeons can also benefit from this technology. Patient-specific virtual reality simulations (PSVR) are a technology that allows doctors to practice actual upcoming operations in VR [ 39 ]. This technology allows surgeons to practice customized procedures to match their patients’ specific needs and circumstances. A patient’s medical history and physical attributes can be created in the simulation and programmed with the most likely outcomes. When a surgeon performs a task or action in the simulation, the appropriate or most likely reaction can be programmed to simulate what would occur in real life under the same circumstance. This provides an opportunity for surgeons to plan out their surgery beforehand in a virtual environment, allowing them to be better prepared and more confident in their plan for the surgery ahead [ 40 ].

3.3.2. Exergaming, Fitness and Sports

With the initial focus of VR being on gaming, developers saw an opportunity for the emergence of a genre of games called exergames, in which users participate in physical activities to achieve the goals of the game. “The core concept of exergaming rests on the idea of using vigorous body activity as the input for interacting with engaging digital game content with the hope of supplanting the sedentary activity that typifies traditional game interaction that relies on keyboards, gamepads, and joysticks” [ 41 ]. VR games tend to fall under the category of exergames by requiring the user to stand up and move around in order to interact with the environment. Games such as Beat Saber (Beat Games, Prague, Czech Republic) make the user move around frequently to fulfill the game’s requirements.

Using VR as a workout tool helps gamify exercise, which can greatly assist users in staying motivated and engaged by providing them with goals to achieve during their workout. A study performed by Segura-Orti on dialysis patients shows that patients that used VR exercises instead of conventional physical activities had an increased level of physical activity compared to those who worked out using conventional methods [ 42 , 43 ]. This is probably due to the more enjoyable experience of getting exercise in game form that real life has failed to achieve with exercise apps and challenges. Some current examples include the implementation of treadmills and stationary bicycles with VR applications that allow users to physically run/cycle in place while virtually traveling through a virtual environment. These types of immersive experiences can make users’ workouts more enjoyable and can help encourage those new to fitness to start exercising from home in a new and exciting fashion.

VR technology is also being utilized in sports, where it is used to train athletes to improve their skills and can help provide them with physical therapy and rehabilitation. In terms of athletic training, VR presents a great method of perceptual-cognitive skills training [ 44 ], where users are able to experience and learn from video-based playback in an immersive environment rather than on a screen. This can be especially useful in customizing training for players in large team sports, such as football, basketball, or soccer [ 45 ]. VR allows individuals to repeatedly practice skills with lower risks of harm, which helps reduce injury. When injuries do occur in the real world, VR can be used in the rehabilitation process by allowing athletes to train from anywhere and at any time, even in the absence of a trainer or facility.

3.3.3. Therapy and Meditation

Another use of VR is in mental health therapy and meditation. The immersive nature of VR provides the flexibility to create various types of environments or experiences. Accordingly, VR can be used to experience situations that are hard to come by in real life, or that can be dangerous to go through in real life. For example, for those who suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), VR can be a way to experience situations that can trigger traumatic events within a safe, controlled capacity. Specific scenarios can be recreated in a virtual environment, and the patient can experience them in the presence of a therapist in order to receive help dealing with their trauma [ 46 ]. This type of therapy is similar to exposure therapy, in which patients confront what triggers them in order to slowly heal from their trauma [ 47 ].

For people who have certain disorders that may be hard to explain with words, VR can be a safe way to put people in scenarios that may trigger their disorders and observe their behaviors. Allowing a therapist to observe the situation can give them a better insight into why their patient is reacting in a certain way, which will allow them to better treat their patient [ 48 ].

Another application of VR is to use the immersive nature of the technology for meditation purposes. With the ability to experience a calm virtual environment that fully blocks distractions, VR presents a unique form of meditation that may be otherwise difficult to achieve at home. Studies on the use of VR in meditation have shown a slight increase in positive effects and a state of mindfulness in users after the meditation experience [ 49 ]. One study showed that VR meditation was more successful in reducing pre-exam anxiety in college students than watching a meditation video, where 71% of those using VR reported lower anxiety levels compared to 47% of the control group [ 50 ]. VR mediation has been shown to be useful in calming healthcare workers, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Virtual reality plus neurofeedback (VR + NF) meditation was shown to decrease the user’s anger, tension, depression, vigor, fatigue, and confusion [ 51 ]. Navarro-Haro et al. experienced an immersive VR mediation simulation and reported an increase in mindfulness and a reduction in negative emotional stress [ 52 ]. They were also less sad and less angry after the simulation. Mediation experts acknowledge that meditation with VR can be an immensely helpful and unique experience that is not yet fully utilized, and studies such as the one discussed here show promising results for this use of VR.

3.4. Social Interaction

VR provides the ability to transport users to a virtual environment in which they can interact with other users. This provides an opportunity to create social connections that may otherwise be hard to create or maintain. Social interaction via VR can be especially helpful for those with autism, as it provides a way for them to practice their communication skills. Users are able to participate in virtual cognition training to better improve their social skills, such as emotion recognition, social attribution, and analogical reasoning [ 53 ]. There are even programs in which young adults with high-functioning autism can participate that are designed with the purpose of increasing their social skills. These programs train users to better recognize facial expressions, body language, and emotions from a person’s voice [ 54 ]. These programs have lasting effects on the users, as they gain the ability to recognize other people’s emotions within the training that they can carry forward in their lives.

Social virtual reality also provides a new way for people to connect over long distances. Virtual spaces can be created in a VR environment and allow users to interact with each other in a realistic setting; users can have realistic avatars and talk to each other as if they were face-to-face [ 55 ]. This method of communication can be as effective as talking to another person in real life as long as the users feel immersed in the environment. When the users are immersed in the virtual environment, they have a better sense of presence, and their responses are more genuine [ 56 ]. This was especially popular during the COVID-19 pandemic when social distancing and travel restrictions made it much harder for people to see and speak with their loved ones [ 57 ]. Being able to attend events and experience activities with others via VR has provided a substitute for real-life interactions that is more realistic than merely speaking over the phone or via video chat [ 58 ].

3.5. Entertainment

The most prominent application of VR among the general public is within the sphere of entertainment, with VR offering new ways for users to experience several types of media in an immersive capacity.

One such form of media consumption within VR is watching movies, shows, or videos. VR offers new ways for users to experience visual media due to its ability to immerse users in a virtual world. VR displays are able to play 360° videos and allow the users to move around in the virtual environment, which provides the user with a more immersive experience and allows them to interact with the world as they see fit [ 59 ]. Users now have more control over what they want to pay attention to in a video and can experience videos in a whole new way.

Another application is virtual travel and tourism. Virtual tourism allows users to experience immersive tourism in simulated environments based on real landscapes or locations. This can make travel attainable to many people that would otherwise not be able to afford the time or money needed to physically visit faraway destinations. Examples of VR tourism include virtual museum visits, navigating areas using applications such as Google Street View, and virtual tours of popular destinations such as the Grand Canyon or the Great Wall of China. The concept of virtually visiting other countries or worlds has existed since the 90s [ 60 ], but there was a boost in interest recently due to travel constraints during the COVID-19 pandemic [ 61 ], with more people seeking travel experiences from the confines of their homes.

Live music is another form of entertainment that seems to be gaining traction as another large application of VR. Virtual reality has the ability to change the way people experience concerts, offering users the ability to attend and enjoy concerts from anywhere in the world. Prerecorded concerts are already available as a VR experience, with videos of the concerts filmed in 360 using omnidirectional cameras, allowing users to move their heads around and feel like they are physically present at the concert [ 62 ]. This can be an opportunity for users who do not have the ability to travel or could not get tickets to still enjoy the show. This will also allow users to see parts of the concert they could not see even if they were there due to cameras either being positioned on stage or close to the stage. The livestreaming of concerts in VR is still not technologically applicable, but it seems like the music industry is aiming to make it a reality at some point in the future with further VR development. As part of the most significant applications of VR, gaming has gained huge popularity recently, with headsets becoming more accessible and game developers investing more in the VR landscape. Many users have purchased VR headsets to play popular games such as Beat Saber , Super-Hot , and Job Simulator (Menlo Park, Prague, Czech Republic), some of the top-selling VR games. Besides designated VR games, many other games that were not initially made for VR are also being developed to include this capability and expand the options gamers have concerning their in-game experience. The rise of VR gaming popularity in recent years owes to the immersive capabilities of HMDs to immerse the users in the game environment, blocking out all external distractions [ 63 ] and giving the users a better sense of presence [ 64 ]. Players can experience the game from their point of view, which allows users to experience games in a whole new way [ 65 ].

4. Limitations and Side Effects of VR

Despite VR being a powerful and versatile tool, current VR technology has some evident limitations and drawbacks. These limitations include technological limits on what VR can do, how accessible VR is to the general public, and some of the side effects of using VR devices.

4.1. Technological Limitations

As a technology still in the earlier stages of development on a grand scale, VR has made significant leaps in evolution. Still, more substantial progress must occur before VR can be fully utilized in all possible applications and purposes.

Right now, the standardization of VR technology and presentation is still limited [ 66 ]; every developer may have their own interface specifications and functionality associated with their technology, and applications are not easily transferable between devices. The only standardization that can be observed as of now tends to be with popular games that are developed to be used across different VR platforms. It is also hard to troubleshoot bugs and receive proper support for any issues due to the lack of standardization. Hopefully, with time and progress in VR development, the technology can become more streamlined and provide better usability for users and transferability between devices. There are currently efforts to standardize VR, but these efforts are new, and the process is still in its infancy [ 67 ].

Other issues include hardware and software requirements for professional VR development, as most VR development software tends to take up a lot of data space on computers and have high-power consumption [ 68 ]. VR headsets also tend to be very heavy and can cause physical strain on users, causing headaches and pain, especially around the neck and shoulders [ 69 ]. As of now, it is not yet known what kind of detrimental effects VR use will have on users’ eyesight, but it is known that it can cause strain, especially with prolonged usage [ 70 ].

Another common issue is the lag between the user’s movements and the visual display within a VR headset [ 71 ]. A lot of the time, the headset’s tracking does not keep up properly with the user’s movements, which not only decreases their immersion but can also cause dizziness or “cybersickness,” which is explained in more detail below [ 71 , 72 ].

Cybersickness

One of the crucial issues with VR usage is VR-induced motion sickness, or “cybersickness” [ 73 , 74 ]. Cybersickness is a phenomenon where users will feel symptoms similar to motion sickness (i.e., nausea, dizziness, lightheadedness) as a result of using a VR device [ 71 ]. It is not yet known exactly why this occurs, but there are a few theories to explain this phenomenon. The most likely theory is known as the “sensory conflict theory,” which states that the excessive mismatch between the motion a user perceives visually and the lack of the corresponding movement in their body causes a conflict [ 71 , 72 , 75 ]. This happens when there is a disparity between the user’s visual system and vestibular system, which is the sensory system responsible for providing the brain with information about motion, head position, and spatial orientation [ 76 ]. Another explanation for cybersickness is the “ecological hypothesis”, which states that when people are not able to perceive or react to new dynamic situations, postural instability occurs [ 77 ].

Cybersickness does not always come with virtual experiences, but the issue can be exacerbated by several factors. Some individual factors include prolonged VR exposure; the user’s predisposition to motion sickness, fatigue, or nausea; and how adapted a user is to VR applications [ 71 , 78 ]. Cybersickness symptoms also seem to be less frequent when users are sitting instead of standing. Symptoms tend to worsen when a user is experiencing a high-speed simulation or game. Being a passive participant makes users more susceptible to symptoms than when they are in control of the simulation [ 71 , 79 , 80 ].

There are also some technical factors that can increase the likelihood of cybersickness occurring. These issues include noticeable lags (delays in the visual display can cause symptoms), position tracking errors (better head tracking reduces symptoms), and flicker in the visual display [ 71 , 72 ].

Cybersickness is one of the most uncomfortable issues that comes with VR usage, and if users continue to experience these uncomfortable symptoms, this can present a huge hindrance to the widespread development and utilization of VR applications [ 72 , 77 ].

4.2. Accessibility

As VR technology evolves, it is becoming more accessible, especially compared to its earlier stages. The cost of VR headsets on the market is still higher than most people can afford, but their current pricing is on par with most gaming consoles. Headsets such as Oculus Quest 2 cost about $300 for the base model and can be fully operated without the need for a computer, making it one of the more accessible headsets on the market. Most other headsets require using a computer that is “VR-ready”, meaning a high-end computer with a powerful graphics card that can manage VR applications. VR-ready computers tend to be more expensive than most computers, making this type of VR headset more expensive overall and out of reach for most people. This makes cost one of the larger barriers for people to get into VR as regular consumers, which is a hindrance to the growth of VR as a household technology.

VR as a field also includes augmented reality (AR) and mixed reality (XR), which are less immersive forms of virtual experiences where users still operate in the real world with a virtual overlay. AR and XR applications are more accessible to people due to their development for use on mobile devices, which are much more common with most people owning or having access to one. A common example of this type of application is AR games such as the popular Pokémon Go , which combines using a smartphone with a physical exploration of the real world [ 81 ] in search of “Pokémon” around them that can only be observed via their phones. Distances are tracked based on a user’s steps, and users can connect fitness apps to the game in order to increase rewards gained from crossing long distances. These types of games and applications can encourage people to be more physically active by gamifying the walking experience [ 82 ]. Similar smartphone games and applications can be a more accessible entry point for people interested in VR but who lack the funds to invest in an immersive headset and computer setup.

5. Conclusions

This literature review has shown how virtual reality technology has the potential to be a greatly beneficial tool in a multitude of applications and a wide variety of fields. Current applications span different domains such as engineering, education, medicine, and entertainment. With VR technology gaining popularity and traction, more VR applications can be further utilized in the future, both in improving current use cases as well as expanding to more domains. The hope is that with more VR technological breakthroughs and development, the current limitations and issues can be overcome, making long-term VR usage more realistic and accessible to more people.

Overall, VR as a technology is still in its early stages, but more people are becoming interested in it and are optimistic about seeing what kind of changes VR can make in their everyday lives. However, more and more application scenarios are under development by experts from different fields, which allows for more specific applications and development. With how rapidly modern society has adapted to personal computers and smartphones, VR has the opportunity to become the next big technological turning point that will eventually become commonplace in most households.

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.H. and B.J. methodology, A.H. and B.J. validation, B.J.; formal analysis, A.H.; investigation, A.H.; resources, A.H.; data curation, A.H.; writing—original draft preparation, A.H.; writing—review and editing, B.J.; visualization, A.H.; supervision, B.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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VR Research Topics

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Table of Contents

Introduction

Understanding virtual reality, key vr research topics, tips and tricks for vr research, common errors in vr research and how to avoid them.

• VR is a technology that creates a simulated environment. Unlike traditional user interfaces, VR places the user inside an experience, made possible by VR headsets that generate realistic images, sounds, and other sensations.
• Research in VR is extensive, involving studies on hardware developments, software innovations, psychological impact, and potential applications. It's a multidisciplinary field, blending aspects of computer science, psychology, and design.
• VR Hardware Development: This area focuses on improving VR headsets and controllers. The research aims to enhance user experience by making devices more comfortable, affordable, and capable of delivering high-quality visuals and audio.
• VR Software Development: The goal here is to create software that can generate increasingly immersive and interactive VR environments. This includes developing better game engines, graphics software, and VR programming languages.
• Psychological Impact of VR: As VR often involves intense and immersive experiences, it's crucial to understand its psychological effects. This research topic explores how VR affects cognition, behavior, and emotional responses.
• Applications of VR: This topic investigates novel uses of VR in various fields. For example, VR is being used for surgical training in medicine, virtual tours in real estate, and immersive learning experiences in education.
• Stay Updated: VR is a rapidly evolving field. Keep yourself updated with the latest advancements by following relevant journals, attending conferences, and participating in online forums.
• Focus on User Experience: Regardless of your research topic, always keep the user experience in mind. Whether you're developing hardware or software, or studying psychological impacts, the end goal should be to enhance the VR experience for the user.
• Collaborate: VR is an interdisciplinary field, so don't hesitate to collaborate with experts from other domains. This can lead to more comprehensive research and innovative solutions.
• Lack of Real-World Relevance: Sometimes, researchers get so caught up in the technical aspects of VR that they overlook its practical applications. To avoid this pitfall, always consider how your research could be applied in real-world scenarios.
• Ignoring User Comfort: Comfort is crucial in VR, as uncomfortable experiences can lead to side effects like motion sickness. When designing or testing VR environments, consider factors like the user's physical comfort and sense of spatial orientation.
• Overlooking Ethical Considerations: With its potential to create extremely realistic simulations, VR raises several ethical questions. For instance, is it ethical to expose users to potentially traumatic experiences in VR, even if it's for a worthy cause like PTSD treatment? Always consider the ethical implications of your research.

• Open access
• Published: 01 May 2024

The effectiveness of virtual reality training on knowledge, skills and attitudes of health care professionals and students in assessing and treating mental health disorders: a systematic review

• Cathrine W. Steen 1 , 2 ,
• Kerstin Söderström 1 , 2 ,
• Bjørn Stensrud 3 ,
• Inger Beate Nylund 2 &
• Johan Siqveland 4 , 5  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  480 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Virtual reality (VR) training can enhance health professionals’ learning. However, there are ambiguous findings on the effectiveness of VR as an educational tool in mental health. We therefore reviewed the existing literature on the effectiveness of VR training on health professionals’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes in assessing and treating patients with mental health disorders.

We searched MEDLINE, PsycINFO (via Ovid), the Cochrane Library, ERIC, CINAHL (on EBSCOhost), Web of Science Core Collection, and the Scopus database for studies published from January 1985 to July 2023. We included all studies evaluating the effect of VR training interventions on attitudes, knowledge, and skills pertinent to the assessment and treatment of mental health disorders and published in English or Scandinavian languages. The quality of the evidence in randomized controlled trials was assessed with the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool 2.0. For non-randomized studies, we assessed the quality of the studies with the ROBINS-I tool.

Of 4170 unique records identified, eight studies were eligible. The four randomized controlled trials were assessed as having some concern or a high risk of overall bias. The four non-randomized studies were assessed as having a moderate to serious overall risk of bias. Of the eight included studies, four used a virtual standardized patient design to simulate training situations, two studies used interactive patient scenario training designs, while two studies used a virtual patient game design. The results suggest that VR training interventions can promote knowledge and skills acquisition.

Conclusions

The findings indicate that VR interventions can effectively train health care personnel to acquire knowledge and skills in the assessment and treatment of mental health disorders. However, study heterogeneity, prevalence of small sample sizes, and many studies with a high or serious risk of bias suggest an uncertain evidence base. Future research on the effectiveness of VR training should include assessment of immersive VR training designs and a focus on more robust studies with larger sample sizes.

Trial registration

This review was pre-registered in the Open Science Framework register with the ID-number Z8EDK.

Peer Review reports

A robustly trained health care workforce is pivotal to forging a resilient health care system [ 1 ], and there is an urgent need to develop innovative methods and emerging technologies for health care workforce education [ 2 ]. Virtual reality technology designs for clinical training have emerged as a promising avenue for increasing the competence of health care professionals, reflecting their potential to provide effective training [ 3 ].

Virtual reality (VR) is a dynamic and diverse field, and can be described as a computer-generated environment that simulates sensory experiences, where user interactions play a role in shaping the course of events within that environment [ 4 ]. When optimally designed, VR gives users the feeling that they are physically within this simulated space, unlocking its potential as a dynamic and immersive learning tool [ 5 ]. The cornerstone of the allure of VR is its capacity for creating artificial settings via sensory deceptions, encapsulated by the term ‘immersion’. Immersion conveys the sensation of being deeply engrossed or enveloped in an alternate world, akin to absorption in a video game. Some VR systems will be more immersive than others, based on the technology used to influence the senses. However, the degree of immersion does not necessarily determine the user’s level of engagement with the application [ 6 ].

A common approach to categorizing VR systems is based on the design of the technology used, allowing them to be classified into: 1) non-immersive desktop systems, where users experience virtual environments through a computer screen, 2) immersive CAVE systems with large projected images and motion trackers to adjust the image to the user, and 3) fully immersive head-mounted display systems that involve users wearing a headset that fully covers their eyes and ears, thus entirely immersing them in the virtual environment [ 7 ]. Advances in VR technology have enabled a wide range of VR experiences. The possibility for health care professionals to repeatedly practice clinical skills with virtual patients in a risk-free environment offers an invaluable learning platform for health care education.

The impact of VR training on health care professionals’ learning has predominantly been researched in terms of the enhancement of technical surgical abilities. This includes refining procedural planning, familiarizing oneself with medical instruments, and practicing psychomotor skills such as dexterity, accuracy, and speed [ 8 , 9 ]. In contrast, the exploration of VR training in fostering non-technical or ‘soft’ skills, such as communication and teamwork, appears to be less prevalent [ 10 ]. A recent systematic review evaluates the outcomes of VR training in non-technical skills across various medical specialties [ 11 ], focusing on vital cognitive abilities (e.g., situation awareness, decision-making) and interprofessional social competencies (e.g., teamwork, conflict resolution, leadership). These skills are pivotal in promoting collaboration among colleagues and ensuring a safe health care environment. At the same time, they are not sufficiently comprehensive for encounters with patients with mental health disorders.

For health care professionals providing care to patients with mental health disorders, acquiring specific skills, knowledge, and empathic attitudes is of utmost importance. Many individuals experiencing mental health challenges may find it difficult to communicate their thoughts and feelings, and it is therefore essential for health care providers to cultivate an environment where patients feel safe and encouraged to share feelings and thoughts. Beyond fostering trust, health care professionals must also possess in-depth knowledge about the nature and treatment of various mental health disorders. Moreover, they must actively practice and internalize the skills necessary to translate their knowledge into clinical practice. While the conventional approach to training mental health clinical skills has been through simulation or role-playing with peers under expert supervision and practicing with real patients, the emergence of VR applications presents a compelling alternative. This technology promises a potentially transformative way to train mental health professionals. Our review identifies specific outcomes in knowledge, skills, and attitudes, covering areas from theoretical understanding to practical application and patient interaction. By focusing on these measurable concepts, which are in line with current healthcare education guidelines [ 12 ], we aim to contribute to the knowledge base and provide a detailed analysis of the complexities in mental health care training. This approach is designed to highlight the VR training’s practical relevance alongside its contribution to academic discourse.

A recent systematic review evaluated the effects of virtual patient (VP) interventions on knowledge, skills, and attitudes in undergraduate psychiatry education [ 13 ]. This review’s scope is limited to assessing VP interventions and does not cover other types of VR training interventions. Furthermore, it adopts a classification of VP different from our review, rendering their findings and conclusions not directly comparable to ours.

To the best of our knowledge, no systematic review has assessed and summarized the effectiveness of VR training interventions for health professionals in the assessment and treatment of mental health disorders. This systematic review addresses the gap by exploring the effectiveness of virtual reality in the training of knowledge, skills, and attitudes health professionals need to master in the assessment and treatment of mental health disorders.

This systematic review follows the guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis [ 14 ]. The protocol of the systematic review was registered in the Open Science Framework register with the registration ID Z8EDK.

We included randomized controlled trials, cohort studies, and pretest–posttest studies, which met the following criteria: a) a population of health care professionals or health care professional students, b) assessed the effectiveness of a VR application in assessing and treating mental health disorders, and c) reported changes in knowledge, skills, or attitudes. We excluded studies evaluating VR interventions not designed for training in assessing and treating mental health disorders (e.g., training of surgical skills), studies evaluating VR training from the first-person perspective, studies that used VR interventions for non-educational purposes and studies where VR interventions trained patients with mental health problems (e.g., social skills training). We also excluded studies not published in English or Scandinavian languages.

Search strategy

The literature search reporting was guided by relevant items in PRISMA-S [ 15 ]. In collaboration with a senior academic librarian (IBN), we developed the search strategy for the systematic review. Inspired by the ‘pearl harvesting’ information retrieval approach [ 16 ], we anticipated a broad spectrum of terms related to our interdisciplinary query. Recognizing that various terminologies could encapsulate our central ideas, we harvested an array of terms for each of the four elements ‘health care professionals and health care students’, ‘VR’, ‘training’, and ‘mental health’. The pearl harvesting framework [ 16 ] consists of four steps which we followed with some minor adaptions. Step 1: We searched for and sampled a set of relevant research articles, a book chapter, and literature reviews. Step 2: The librarian scrutinized titles, abstracts, and author keywords, as well as subject headings used in databases, and collected relevant terms. Step 3: The librarian refined the lists of terms. Step 4: The review group, in collaboration with a VR consultant from KildeGruppen AS (a Norwegian media company), validated the refined lists of terms to ensure they included all relevant VR search terms. This process for the element VR resulted in the inclusion of search terms such as ‘3D simulated environment’, ‘second life simulation’, ‘virtual patient’, and ‘virtual world’. We were given a peer review of the search strategy by an academic librarian at Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences.

In June and July 2021, we performed comprehensive searches for publications dating from January 1985 to the present. This period for the inclusion of studies was chosen since VR systems designed for training in health care first emerged in the early 1990s. The searches were carried out in seven databases: MEDLINE and PsycInfo (on Ovid), ERIC and CINAHL (on EBSCOhost), the Cochrane Library, Web of Science Core Collection, and Scopus. Detailed search strategies from each database are available for public access at DataverseNO [ 17 ]. On July 2, 2021, a search in CINAHL yielded 993 hits. However, when attempting to transfer these records to EndNote using the ‘Folder View’—a feature designed for organizing and managing selected records before export—only 982 records were successfully transferred. This discrepancy indicates that 11 records could not be transferred through Folder View, for reasons not specified. The process was repeated twice, consistently yielding the same discrepancy. The missing 11 records pose a risk of failing to capture relevant studies in the initial search. In July 2023, to make sure that we included the latest publications, we updated our initial searches, focusing on entries since January 1, 2021. This ensured that we did not miss any new references recently added to these databases. Due to a lack of access to the Cochrane Library in July 2023, we used EBMR (Evidence Based Medicine Reviews) on the Ovid platform instead, including the databases Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and Cochrane Clinical Answers. All references were exported to Endnote and duplicates were removed. The number of records from each database can be observed in the PRISMA diagram [ 14 ], Fig.  1 .

PRISMA flow chart of the records and study selection process

Study selection and data collection

Two reviewers (JS, CWS) independently assessed the titles and abstracts of studies retrieved from the literature search based on the eligibility criteria. We employed the Rayyan website for the screening process [ 18 ]. The same reviewers (JS, CWS) assessed the full-text articles selected after the initial screening. Articles meeting the eligibility criteria were incorporated into the review. Any disagreements were resolved through discussion.

Data extracted from the studies by the first author (CWS) and cross-checked by another reviewer (JS) included: authors of the study, publication year, country, study design, participant details (education, setting), interventions (VR system, class label), comparison types, outcomes, and main findings. This data is summarized in Table  1 and Additional file 1 . In the process of reviewing the VR interventions utilized within the included studies, we sought expertise from advisers associated with VRINN, a Norwegian immersive learning cluster, and SIMInnlandet, a center dedicated to simulation in mental health care at Innlandet Hospital Trust. This collaboration ensured a thorough examination and accurate categorization of the VR technologies applied. Furthermore, the classification of the learning designs employed in the VP interventions was conducted under the guidance of an experienced VP scholar at Paracelcus Medical University in Salzburg.

Data analysis

We initially intended to perform a meta-analysis with knowledge, skills, and attitudes as primary outcomes, planning separate analyses for each. However, due to significant heterogeneity observed among the included studies, it was not feasible to carry out a meta-analysis. Consequently, we opted for a narrative synthesis based on these pre-determined outcomes of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. This approach allowed for an analysis of the relationships both within and between the studies. The effect sizes were calculated using a web-based effect size calculator [ 27 ]. We have interpreted effect sizes based on commonly used descriptions for Cohen’s d: small = 0.2, moderate = 0.5, and large = 0.8, and for Cramer’s V: small = 0.10, medium = 0.30, and large = 0.50.

Risk of bias assessment

JS and CWS independently evaluated the risk of bias for all studies using two distinct assessment tools. We used the Cochrane risk of bias tool RoB 2 [ 28 ] to assess the risk of bias in the RCTs. With the RoB 2 tool, the bias was assessed as high, some concerns or low for five domains: randomization process, deviations from the intended interventions, missing outcome data, measurement of the outcome, and selection of the reported result [ 28 ].

We used the Risk Of Bias In Non-randomized Studies of Interventions (ROBINS-I) tool [ 29 ] to assess the risk of bias in the cohort and single-group studies. By using ROBINS-I for the non-randomized trials, the risk of bias was assessed using the categories low, moderate, serious, critical or no information for seven domains: confounding, selection of participants, classification of interventions, deviations from intended interventions, missing data, measurement of outcomes, and selection of the reported result [ 29 ].

We included eight studies in the review (Fig.  1 ). An overview of the included studies is presented in detail in Table  1 .

Four studies were RCTs [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ], two were single group pretest–posttest studies [ 23 , 26 ], one was a controlled before and after study [ 25 ], and one was a cohort study [ 24 ]. The studies included health professionals from diverse educational backgrounds, including some from mental health and medical services, as well as students in medicine, social work, and nursing. All studies, published from 2009 to 2021, utilized non-immersive VR desktop system interventions featuring various forms of VP designs. Based on an updated classification of VP interventions by Kononowicz et al. [ 30 ] developed from a model proposed by Talbot et al. [ 31 ], we have described the characteristics of the interventions in Table  1 . Four of the studies utilized a virtual standardized patient (VSP) intervention [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ], a conversational agent that simulates clinical presentations for training purposes. Two studies employed an interactive patient scenario (IPS) design [ 25 , 26 ], an approach that primarily uses text-based multimedia, enhanced with images and case histories through text or voice narratives, to simulate clinical scenarios. Lastly, two studies used a virtual patient game (VP game) intervention [ 19 , 24 ]. These interventions feature training scenarios using 3D avatars, specifically designed to improve clinical reasoning and team training skills. It should be noted that the interventions classified as VSPs in this review, being a few years old, do not encompass artificial intelligence (AI) as we interpret it today. However, since the interventions include some kind of algorithm that provides answers to questions, we consider them as conversational agents, and therefore as VSPs. As the eight included studies varied significantly in terms of design, interventions, and outcome measures, we could not incorporate them into a meta-analysis.

The overall risk of bias for the four RCTs was high [ 19 , 20 , 22 ] or of some concern [ 21 ] (Fig.  2 ). They were all assessed as low or of some concern in the domains of randomization. Three studies were assessed with a high risk of bias in one [ 19 , 20 ] or two domains [ 22 ]; one study had a high risk of bias in the domain of selection of the reported result [ 19 ], one in the domain of measurement of outcome [ 20 ], and one in the domains of deviation from the intended interventions and missing outcome data [ 22 ]. One study was not assessed as having a high risk of bias in any domain [ 21 ].

Risk of bias summary: review authors assessments of each risk of bias item in the included RCT studies

For the four non-randomized studies, the overall risk of bias was judged to be moderate [ 26 ] or serious [ 23 , 24 , 25 ] (Fig.  3 ). One study had a serious risk of bias in two domains: confounding and measurement of outcomes [ 23 ]. Two studies had a serious risk of bias in one domain, namely confounding [ 24 , 25 ], while one study was judged not to have a serious risk of bias in any domain [ 26 ].

Risk of bias summary: review authors assessments of each risk of bias item in the included non-randomized studies

Three studies investigated the impact of virtual reality training on mental health knowledge [ 24 , 25 , 26 ]. One study with 32 resident psychiatrists in a single group pretest–posttest design assessed the effect of a VR training intervention on knowledge of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology, clinical management, and communication skills [ 26 ]. The intervention consisted of an IPS. The assessment of the outcome was conducted using a knowledge test with 11 multiple-choice questions and was administered before and after the intervention. This study reported a significant improvement on the knowledge test after the VR training intervention.

The second study examined the effect of a VR training intervention on knowledge of dementia [ 25 ], employing a controlled before and after design. Seventy-nine medical students in clinical training were divided into two groups, following a traditional learning program. The experimental group received an IPS intervention. The outcome was evaluated with a knowledge test administered before and after the intervention with significantly higher posttest scores in the experimental group than in the control group, with a moderate effects size observed between the groups.

A third study evaluated the effect of a VR training intervention on 299 undergraduate nursing students’ diagnostic recognition of depression and schizophrenia (classified as knowledge) [ 24 ]. In a prospective cohort design, the VR intervention was the only difference in the mental health related educational content provided to the two cohorts, and consisted of a VP game design, developed to simulate training situations with virtual patient case scenarios, including depression and schizophrenia. The outcome was assessed by determining the accuracy of diagnoses made after reviewing case vignettes of depression and schizophrenia. The study found no statistically significant effect of VR training on diagnostic accuracy between the simulation and the non-simulation cohort.

Summary: All three studies assessing the effect of a VR intervention on knowledge were non-randomized studies with different study designs using different outcome measures. Two studies used an IPS design, while one study used a VP game design. Two of the studies found a significant effect of VR training on knowledge. Of these, one study had a moderate overall risk of bias [ 26 ], while the other was assessed as having a serious overall risk of bias [ 25 ]. The third study, which did not find any effect of the virtual reality intervention on knowledge, was assessed to have a serious risk of bias [ 24 ].

Three RCTs assessed the effectiveness of VR training on skills [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. One of them evaluated the effect of VR training on clinical skills in alcohol screening and intervention [ 20 ]. In this study, 102 health care professionals were randomly allocated to either a group receiving no training or a group receiving a VSP intervention. To evaluate the outcome, three standardized patients rated each participant using a checklist based on clinical criteria. The VSP intervention group demonstrated significantly improved posttest skills in alcohol screening and brief intervention compared to the control group, with moderate and small effect sizes, respectively.

Another RCT, including 67 medical college students, evaluated the effect of VR training on clinical skills by comparing the frequency of questions asked about suicide in a VSP intervention group and a video module group [ 21 ]. The assessment of the outcome was a psychiatric interview with a standardized patient. The primary outcome was the frequency with which the students asked the standardized patient five questions about suicide risk. Minimal to small effect sizes were noted in favor of the VSP intervention, though they did not achieve statistical significance for any outcomes.

One posttest only RCT evaluated the effect of three training programs on skills in detecting and diagnosing major depressive disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) [ 22 ]. The study included 30 family physicians, and featured interventions that consisted of two different VSPs designed to simulate training situations, and one text-based program. A diagnostic form filled in by the participants after the intervention was used to assess the outcome. The results revealed a significant effect on diagnostic accuracy for major depressive disorder for both groups receiving VR training, compared to the text-based program, with large effect sizes observed. For PTSD, the intervention using a fixed avatar significantly improved diagnostic accuracy with a large effect size, whereas the intervention with a choice avatar demonstrated a moderate to large effect size compared to the text-based program.

Summary: Three RCTs assessed the effectiveness of VR training on clinical skills [ 20 , 21 , 22 ], all of which used a VSP design. To evaluate the effect of training, two of the studies utilized standardized patients with checklists. The third study measured the effect on skills using a diagnostic form completed by the participants. Two of the studies found a significant effect on skills [ 20 , 22 ], both were assessed to have a high risk of bias. The third study, which did not find any effect of VR training on skills, had some concern for risk of bias [ 21 ].

Knowledge and skills

One RCT study with 227 health care professionals assessed knowledge and skills as a combined outcome compared to a waitlist control group, using a self-report survey before and after the VR training [ 19 ]. The training intervention was a VP game designed to practice knowledge and skills related to mental health and substance abuse disorders. To assess effect of the training, participants completed a self-report scale measuring perceived knowledge and skills. Changes between presimulation and postsimulation scores were reported only for the within treatment group ( n  = 117), where the composite postsimulation score was significantly higher than the presimulation score, with a large effect size observed. The study was judged to have a high risk of bias in the domain of selection of the reported result.

One single group pretest–posttest study with 100 social work and nursing students assessed the effect of VSP training on attitudes towards individuals with substance abuse disorders [ 23 ]. To assess the effect of the training, participants completed an online pretest and posttest survey including questions from a substance abuse attitudes survey. This study found no significant effect of VR training on attitudes and was assessed as having a serious risk of bias.

Perceived competence

The same single group pretest–posttest study also assessed the effect of a VSP training intervention on perceived competence in screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment in encounters with patients with substance abuse disorders [ 23 ]. A commonly accepted definition of competence is that it comprises integrated components of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that enable the successful execution of a professional task [ 32 ]. To assess the effect of the training, participants completed an online pretest and posttest survey including questions on perceived competence. The study findings demonstrated a significant increase in perceived competence following the VSP intervention. The risk of bias in this study was judged as serious.

This systematic review aimed to investigate the effectiveness of VR training on knowledge, skills, and attitudes that health professionals need to master in the assessment and treatment of mental health disorders. A narrative synthesis of eight included studies identified VR training interventions that varied in design and educational content. Although mixed results emerged, most studies reported improvements in knowledge and skills after VR training.

We found that all interventions utilized some type of VP design, predominantly VSP interventions. Although our review includes a limited number of studies, it is noteworthy that the distribution of interventions contrasts with a literature review on the use of ‘virtual patient’ in health care education from 2015 [ 30 ], which identified IPS as the most frequent intervention. This variation may stem from our review’s focus on the mental health field, suggesting a different intervention need and distribution than that observed in general medical education. A fundamental aspect of mental health education involves training skills needed for interpersonal communication, clinical interviews, and symptom assessment, which makes VSPs particularly appropriate. While VP games may be suitable for clinical reasoning in medical fields, offering the opportunity to perform technical medical procedures in a virtual environment, these designs may present some limitations for skills training in mental health education. Notably, avatars in a VP game do not comprehend natural language and are incapable of engaging in conversations. Therefore, the continued advancement of conversational agents like VSPs is particularly compelling and considered by scholars to hold the greatest potential for clinical skills training in mental health education [ 3 ]. VSPs, equipped with AI dialogue capabilities, are particularly valuable for repetitive practice in key skills such as interviewing and counseling [ 31 ], which are crucial in the assessment and treatment of mental health disorders. VSPs could also be a valuable tool for the implementation of training methods in mental health education, such as deliberate practice, a method that has gained attention in psychotherapy training in recent years [ 33 ] for its effectiveness in refining specific performance areas through consistent repetition [ 34 ]. Within this evolving landscape, AI system-based large language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT stand out as a promising innovation. Developed from extensive datasets that include billions of words from a variety of sources, these models possess the ability to generate and understand text in a manner akin to human interaction [ 35 ]. The integration of LLMs into educational contexts shows promise, yet careful consideration and thorough evaluation of their limitations are essential [ 36 ]. One concern regarding LLMs is the possibility of generating inaccurate information, which represents a challenge in healthcare education where precision is crucial [ 37 ]. Furthermore, the use of generative AI raises ethical questions, notably because of potential biases in the training datasets, including content from books and the internet that may not have been verified, thereby risking the perpetuation of these biases [ 38 ]. Developing strategies to mitigate these challenges is imperative, ensuring LLMs are utilized safely in healthcare education.

All interventions in our review were based on non-immersive desktop VR systems, which is somewhat surprising considering the growing body of literature highlighting the impact of immersive VR technology in education, as exemplified by reviews such as that of Radianti et al. [ 39 ]. Furthermore, given the recent accessibility of affordable, high-quality head-mounted displays, this observation is noteworthy. Research has indicated that immersive learning based on head-mounted displays generally yields better learning outcomes than non-immersive approaches [ 40 ], making it an interesting research area in mental health care training and education. Studies using immersive interventions were excluded in the present review because of methodological concerns, paralleling findings described in a systematic review on immersive VR in education [ 41 ], suggesting the potential early stage of research within this field. Moreover, the integration of immersive VR technology into mental health care education may encounter challenges associated with complex ethical and regulatory frameworks, including data privacy concerns exemplified by the Oculus VR headset-Facebook integration, which could restrict the implementation of this technology in healthcare setting. Prioritizing specific training methodologies for enhancing skills may also affect the utilization of immersive VR in mental health education. For example, integrating interactive VSPs into a fully immersive VR environment remains a costly endeavor, potentially limiting the widespread adoption of immersive VR in mental health care. Meanwhile, the use of 360-degree videos in immersive VR environments for training purposes [ 42 ] can be realized with a significantly lower budget. Immersive VR offers promising opportunities for innovative training, but realizing its full potential in mental health care education requires broader research validation and the resolution of existing obstacles.

This review bears some resemblance to the systematic review by Jensen et al. on virtual patients in undergraduate psychiatry education [ 13 ] from 2024, which found that virtual patients improved learning outcomes compared to traditional methods. However, these authors’ expansion of the commonly used definition of virtual patient makes their results difficult to compare with the findings in the present review. A recognized challenge in understanding VR application in health care training arises from the literature on VR training for health care personnel, where ‘virtual patient’ is a term broadly used to describe a diverse range of VR interventions, which vary significantly in technology and educational design [ 3 , 30 ]. For instance, reviews might group different interventions using various VR systems and designs under a single label (virtual patient), or primary studies may use misleading or inadequately defined classifications for the virtual patient interventions evaluated. Clarifying the similarities and differences among these interventions is vital to inform development and enhance communication and understanding in educational contexts [ 43 ].

Strengths and limitations

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first systematic review to evaluate the effectiveness of VR training on knowledge, skills, and attitudes in health care professionals and students in assessing and treating mental health disorders. This review therefore provides valuable insights into the use of VR technology in training and education for mental health care. Another strength of this review is the comprehensive search strategy developed by a senior academic librarian at Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences (HINN) and the authors in collaboration with an adviser from KildeGruppen AS (a Norwegian media company). The search strategy was peer-reviewed by an academic librarian at HINN. Advisers from VRINN (an immersive learning cluster in Norway) and SIMInnlandet (a center for simulation in mental health care at Innlandet Hospital Trust) provided assistance in reviewing the VR systems of the studies, while the classification of the learning designs was conducted under the guidance of a VP scholar. This systematic review relies on an established and recognized classification of VR interventions for training health care personnel and may enhance understanding of the effectiveness of VR interventions designed for the training of mental health care personnel.

This review has some limitations. As we aimed to measure the effect of the VR intervention alone and not the effect of a blended training design, the selection of included studies was limited. Studies not covered in this review might have offered different insights. Given the understanding that blended learning designs, where technology is combined with other forms of learning, have significant positive effects on learning outcomes [ 44 ], we were unable to evaluate interventions that may be more effective in clinical settings. Further, by limiting the outcomes to knowledge, skills, and attitudes, we might have missed insights into other outcomes that are pivotal to competence acquisition.

Limitations in many of the included studies necessitate cautious interpretation of the review’s findings. Small sample sizes and weak designs in several studies, coupled with the use of non-validated outcome measures in some studies, diminish the robustness of the findings. Furthermore, the risk of bias assessment in this review indicates a predominantly high or serious risk of bias across most of the studies, regardless of their design. In addition, the heterogeneity of the studies in terms of study design, interventions, and outcome measures prevented us from conducting a meta-analysis.

Further research

Future research on the effectiveness of VR training for specific learning outcomes in assessing and treating mental health disorders should encompass more rigorous experimental studies with larger sample sizes. These studies should include verifiable descriptions of the VR interventions and employ validated tools to measure outcomes. Moreover, considering that much professional learning involves interactive and reflective practice, research on VR training would probably be enhanced by developing more in-depth study designs that evaluate not only the immediate learning outcomes of VR training but also the broader learning processes associated with it. Future research should also concentrate on utilizing immersive VR training applications, while additionally exploring the integration of large language models to augment interactive learning in mental health care. Finally, this review underscores the necessity in health education research involving VR to communicate research findings using agreed terms and classifications, with the aim of providing a clearer and more comprehensive understanding of the research.

This systematic review investigated the effect of VR training interventions on knowledge, skills, and attitudes in the assessment and treatment of mental health disorders. The results suggest that VR training interventions can promote knowledge and skills acquisition. Further studies are needed to evaluate VR training interventions as a learning tool for mental health care providers. This review emphasizes the necessity to improve future study designs. Additionally, intervention studies of immersive VR applications are lacking in current research and should be a future area of focus.

Availability of data and materials

Detailed search strategies from each database is available in the DataverseNO repository, https://doi.org/10.18710/TI1E0O .

Abbreviations

Virtual Reality

Cave Automatic Virtual Environment

Randomized Controlled Trial

Non-Randomized study

Virtual Standardized Patient

Interactive Patient Scenario

Virtual Patient

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

Standardized Patient

Artificial intelligence

Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences

Doctor of Philosophy

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank Mole Meyer, adviser at SIMInnlandet, Innlandet Hospital Trust, and Keith Mellingen, manager at VRINN, for their assistance with the categorization and classification of VR interventions, and Associate Professor Inga Hege at the Paracelcus Medical University in Salzburg for valuable contributions to the final classification of the interventions. The authors would also like to thank Håvard Røste from the media company KildeGruppen AS, for assistance with the search strategy; Academic Librarian Elin Opheim at the Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences for valuable peer review of the search strategy; and the Library at the Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences for their support. Additionally, we acknowledge the assistance provided by OpenAI’s ChatGPT for support with translations and language refinement.

Open access funding provided by Inland Norway University Of Applied Sciences The study forms a part of a collaborative PhD project funded by South-Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority through Innlandet Hospital Trust and the Inland University of Applied Sciences.

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Cathrine W. Steen & Kerstin Söderström

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Cathrine W. Steen, Kerstin Söderström & Inger Beate Nylund

Norwegian National Advisory Unit On Concurrent Substance Abuse and Mental Health Disorders, Innlandet Hospital Trust, P.B 104, Brumunddal, 2381, Norway

Bjørn Stensrud

Akershus University Hospital, P.B 1000, Lørenskog, 1478, Norway

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National Centre for Suicide Research and Prevention, Oslo, 0372, Norway

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Contributions

CWS, KS, BS, and JS collaboratively designed the study. CWS and JS collected and analysed the data and were primarily responsible for writing the manuscript text. All authors contributed to the development of the search strategy. IBN conducted the literature searches and authored the chapter on the search strategy in the manuscript. All authors reviewed, gave feedback, and granted their final approval of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Cathrine W. Steen .

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Supplementary Information

Additional file 1: table 2..

Effects of VR training in the included studies: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and non-randomized studies (NRSs).

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Virtual reality in psychological research

Virtual reality offers psychological researchers the opportunity to study human cognition and behaviour in a highly controllable environment. Three-dimensional visual scenes can be created that provide an immersive and much more naturalistic experience than more traditional psychological methods including vignettes or video clips, and likely evoke more genuine responses. As such, the use of virtual reality has gained popularity in various areas of psychological research - from social to cognitive and even clinical research.

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A virtual reality paradigm simulating blood donation serves as a platform to test interventions to promote donation

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Eye and head movements in visual search in the extended field of view

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Social inattentional blindness to idea stealing in meetings

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Comparing episodic memory outcomes from walking augmented reality and stationary virtual reality encoding experiences

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Shared attention in virtual immersive reality enhances electrophysiological correlates of implicit sensory learning

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Revisiting effects of teacher characteristics on physiological and psychological stress: a virtual reality study

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The effect of different depth planes during a manual tracking task in three-dimensional virtual reality space

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Customized virtual reality naturalistic scenarios promoting engagement and relaxation in patients with cognitive impairment: a proof-of-concept mixed-methods study

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Social virtual reality helps to reduce feelings of loneliness and social anxiety during the Covid-19 pandemic

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Exploring cross-cultural variations in visual attention patterns inside and outside national borders using immersive virtual reality

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Empathic embarrassment towards non-human agents in virtual environments

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Investigating social comparison behaviour in an immersive virtual reality classroom based on eye-movement data

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Public speaking training in front of a supportive audience in Virtual Reality improves performance in real-life

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Attention and impulsivity assessment using virtual reality games

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A randomised controlled test of emotional attributes of a virtual coach within a virtual reality (VR) mental health treatment

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A pilot study investigating affective forecasting biases with a novel virtual reality-based paradigm

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Metaverse: A real change or just another research area?

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The Metaverse, an evolving concept that fuses physical reality with digital virtuality, offers a dynamic environment for exploration. This paper reports the panel discussion on the Metaverse and its potential implications for individuals and research. This discussion was held at the Digitization of the Individual (DOTI) workshop at the International Conference on Information Systems in December 2022. Four scientists who have researched virtual reality, immersiveness, and corresponding user behavior were invited to the panel discussion. The panelists offered their perspectives on the unique characteristics of the Metaverse, how it differs from earlier digital worlds, and the implications that the Metaverse will bring for individuals. This paper provides an introduction to the emerging phenomenon of “Metaverse” and summarizes the discussion and expert perspectives on the topic. Furthermore, this paper links the discussion to the ongoing discourse in the literature, setting the stage for further investigations by providing explicit research avenues and questions.

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Introduction

Emerging as a pivotal driver of future digital interactions, the Metaverse represents a distinct convergence of virtual and augmented realities that is redefining the boundaries of individual experience and societal dynamics.

While the concept of the Metaverse remains dynamic, the prevailing understanding suggests its characterization as a post-reality world—a continuous and interconnected multi-user environment that blends the physical reality with the digital virtuality (Mystakidis, 2022 ). The Metaverse represents an extended reality (XR) that integrates the physical with the digital to different degrees, including virtual reality (VR), mixed reality (MR), and augmented reality (AR) (Lee et al., 2021 ). This integration is facilitated by technologies and devices that enable users to engage in multisensory interactions, thus allowing them to interface with objects and entities through personalized avatars. Moreover, the Metaverse consists of interconnected social networks of immersive environments linked by multi-user platforms. Consequently, the Metaverse presents many challenges and opportunities for practitioners aiming to harness its potential (Elnaj, 2022 ) as well as researchers delving into its nuances (Dwivedi et al., 2022 ).

While the Metaverse as such is still evolving, it is used as a buzz phrase to attract users, companies, and investors (Dolata & Schwabe, 2023 ). Nonetheless, not all characteristics of the Metaverse are new. For years, research has been looking at related phenomena in virtual spaces to explain avatar-self relationships (e.g., Zhang et al., 2020 ), collaboration practices (e.g., Pinkwart & Olivier, 2009 ), cooperation and competition in virtual worlds (e.g., Weiss & Schiele, 2013 ), and user innovation (e.g., Chandra & Leenders, 2012 ). Initial research that directly investigates the Metaverse studies entry-level challenges (Xi et al., 2022 ), the influence of emotions on user interactions (Mandolfo et al., 2022 ), and affordance actualization in Metaverse gaming (Shin, 2022 ). The topic is also picked up in research perspectives which focus on emerging challenges, opportunities, and agendas for research, practice, and policy in marketing (Kim, 2021 ), information systems (Peukert et al., 2022 ), and multidisciplinary perspectives (Dwivedi et al., 2022 ). However, research is still in its infancy, terminology is disagreed upon, and understanding of the technology is controversial.

To explore and address these important contemporary issues, we convened a panel of four experts. Our goal was to discuss whether the Metaverse has the potential to significantly change the lives of individuals and what the information systems (IS) discipline and community can contribute. This discussion was part of the Digitization of the Individual (DOTI) workshop held in conjunction with the International Conference on Information Systems in December 2022 in Copenhagen. The Metaverse theme of this DOTI workshop was triggered by controversial discussions at previous workshops such as the panel discussion on Artificial Intelligence and Robots (Liang et al., 2021 ) as well as on the Dark Side of IS (Turel et al., 2019 ). The paper presentations during the workshop centered around a broad set of Metaverse issues including technological challenges, privacy, and user behavior and set the stage for a discussion among the experts on the panel facilitated by impulses from the experts in the audience.

The four panelists, in alphabetical order, were Christian Peukert, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology; Hamed Qahri-Saremi, Colorado State University; Ulrike Schultze, University of Groningen; and Jason B. Thatcher, Temple University. The panel was moderated by Adeline Frenzel-Piasentin, University of Augsburg.

During the workshop, the four panelists shared how their research experiences relate to the Metaverse, virtual reality, and user behavior and explained their motivations for focusing on these topics. They discussed the uniqueness, and implications of the Metaverse, before delving into the potential for IS research to contribute to the theoretical understanding and practical application of the Metaverse. Finally, the panelists outlined potential areas for future research, which we see as essential for stimulating the current discussions and providing guidance for researchers who wish to study the Metaverse.

Understanding the Metaverse

The status quo of research on the metaverse.

While the Metaverse is most prominently driven by practitioners and organizations such as Facebook, the buzz phrase finds increasing attention in research among various disciplines. Focusing on the IS discipline reveals that the Metaverse builds upon long-standing research interests in virtual worlds, laying a substantial foundation for new scholarly inquiry into this domain. For instance, platforms like Second Life, popular in the early 2000s, were the subject of extensive research (Chandra & Leenders, 2012 ; Schultze, 2014 ; Schultze & Orlikowski, 2010 ). Although technical advancements have significantly transformed contemporary virtual worlds (Peukert et al., 2022 ), certain research themes persist, such as exploring user identity through avatars (Schultze, 2010 ; Zhang et al., 2020 ), investigating user experience and design (Kohler et al., 2011 ; Nickerson et al., 2022 ; Seidel et al., 2022 ), and analyzing the digital ecosystem and platform dynamics (Mueller et al., 2011 ; Pohsner & Hanelt, 2023 ; Schöbel & Leimeister, 2023 ).

Recent literature reviews, commentaries, and conceptual papers on the Metaverse (e.g., Chen et al., 2023 ; Dwivedi et al., 2022 ; Lee et al., 2021 ; Peukert et al., 2022 ) provide comprehensive overviews of current and potential research directions and highlight the field’s nascent stage. For example, Dincelli and Yayla ( 2022 ) review the literature on immersive VR, as they claim that the main change is the degree of immersion, compared to previous research on digital virtual worlds. They identify two main research streams: (a) studies that focused on industry-specific applications and (b) the effect of immersive VR on individuals and groups. These papers further indicate the lack of consensus in its definition. This issue is exemplified by the works of Park and Kim ( 2022 ), who compare more than 54 different Metaverse definitions used in scholarly articles, and Zhou et al. ( 2023 ), who trace the evolution of its definition from a simple virtual world concept, via a specification of dimension involving AR, VR, life logging, and mirror worlds, to today’s current state with a remaining need for a common definition of the metaverse.

Overall, extant literature underscores the evolution of virtual worlds and the ongoing challenges in defining and understanding their scope. This evolving academic discourse sets the stage for further exploration through the lens of expert insights. To delve deeper into these themes and gain a contemporary perspective, the panel discussion was convened, featuring experts whose research intersects various facets of the Metaverse. The discussion began by inviting panelists to share how their research connects to the Metaverse concept. In this context, Jason and Hamed mentioned that they feel that the term “Metaverse,” even after reviewing its definitions in recent publications, is very fuzzy and poorly defined. This admission aligns with the previously discussed definitional ambiguity evident in the existing literature, highlighting the ongoing challenge of establishing a clear understanding of the Metaverse in academic circles.

Christian investigates foundational phenomena of the Metaverse by focusing on its “building blocks” by, for example, studying human behavior in VR. He explores how different degrees of immersion impact user behavior and the integration of various devices and modalities (e.g., Gnewuch et al., 2022 ). He investigates this in different domains, including the shopping context (e.g., Peukert et al., 2019 ), platform economy, or most recently also in the learning context.

In contrast, Hamed’s research centers on user behavior on digital platforms (e.g., Qahri-Saremi & Turel, 2020 ), social media platforms (e.g., Turel & Qahri-Saremi, 2016 ), and review platforms (e.g., Qahri-Saremi & Montazemi, 2023 ). Therefore, he sees the Metaverse as a new platform where he is still interested in researching how features and affordances impact user behavior. Like Christian, he particularly emphasizes that the concept of immersion and XR features differentiate the Metaverse from other platforms. Hamed aims to understand how the features that are unique to the Metaverse context influence user behavior.

Ulrike sets her focus on the role of technology within the context of the Metaverse. She draws comparisons between her previous studies of platforms like Second Life (Schultze, 2014 ) and the current landscape of the Metaverse. Her interest lies in understanding how technology shapes the Metaverse and its implications for user experiences, particularly in contrast to earlier platforms.

Lastly, Jason is interested in the concept of immediate feedback within the Metaverse. He discusses how the immersive nature of the Metaverse can change the way feedback is received. He emphasizes the need to redefine metrics and performance evaluation due to the real-time nature of interaction and feedback in the Metaverse.

The discussion of the panelists indicated that achieving a common and widely accepted definition of the Metaverse is challenged by its multidisciplinary nature, rapid technological advancements, and diverse applications, which contribute to conceptual ambiguity and evolution. The subjective nature of user experience, along with the broad economic and social implications, adds complexity. Moreover, global and cultural differences affect its interpretation, further complicating efforts to define it succinctly. The term “Metaverse” remains fuzzy due to these factors, reflecting the difficulty of crafting a definition that is both inclusive of its current and potential dimensions and specific enough to guide research and development effectively. This situation calls for a dynamic, collaborative approach to continuously refine and adapt the definition as the Metaverse evolves.

In summary, there is a consensus that the Metaverse, as Jason put it, “provides new ways of studying phenomena that we already study, but in a different context,” which is shaped by the immersive experience and the immediate feedback for users. This notion is also depicted in the academic discourse. For example, Dolata and Schwabe ( 2023 ) outline emerging research questions on the metaverse in the context of established IS research areas. Adding to this, the experts collectively underscore the significance of user behavior research, technological influence, and foundational features in shaping the emerging landscape of the Metaverse.

The uniqueness of the Metaverse

The consensus that the Metaverse represents a significant evolution from prior virtual environments, that emerges as a profoundly immersive and interconnected digital frontier, the experts discussed insights to delineate the unique characteristics that distinguish the Metaverse from its predecessors (e.g., other platforms or virtual worlds such as Second Life).

Unlike earlier isolated platforms, the Metaverse is envisioned as a network of virtual worlds that are deeply intertwined. As Christian highlighted, this new realm promises the ability for “seamless movement from one virtual world to another,” where users can transfer their experiences and assets with unprecedented fluidity due to interoperability. Moreover, this interconnected space heralds a new era of fusion between virtual and physical realities. In the Metaverse, digital presence blends with tangible existence, resulting in a richer, more immersive experience. Ulrike drew attention to the pivotal relationship between users and their avatars in this context, noting the need to explore “How can I relate to the avatar? Who am I as an avatar in this virtual setting?” This suggests a deeper psychological and existential engagement with virtual spaces, challenging the traditional concept of technology as a separate tool and making it a more integral part of an individual’s identity and experience.

The Metaverse is not only a revolution in terms of user experience but also stands to transform economic interactions. As Hamed pointed out, it introduces a novel economic dimension, characterized by transactions through cryptocurrencies and Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs), giving rise to what could be considered a “shadow economy.” This new form of economy within the Metaverse, powered by decentralized digital assets, represents a significant departure from previous virtual platforms and has the potential to influence global economic structures. However, the arrival of the Metaverse also comes with significant challenges, most notably regarding accessibility and societal impact. As Jason articulated, the Metaverse prompts urgent questions about inclusivity and equity—whether this burgeoning digital universe will be a space “for the privileged or for everyone” due to its high entry costs. The Metaverse thus challenges societies to address the digital divide and consider how this new space might either exacerbate existing inequalities or offer new pathways for more equitable global participation.

The discussion of the panelists on the uniqueness of the Metaverse indicated their diverse perspectives on the phenomenon. Christian holds a technical perspective, focusing on interoperability and the seamless transition between virtual environments within the Metaverse. In contrast, Ulrike and Jason offer social perspectives. Ulrike explores the integration of identity and the psychological relationship between users and their avatars, indicating a social and existential inquiry into how individuals relate to themselves and others in virtual spaces. Jason discusses inclusivity and the societal impact of the Metaverse, addressing concerns about equity and accessibility, which are inherently social issues. Further, Hamed’s perspective, while focusing on the economic aspects of the Metaverse, bridges both technical and social domains, highlighting the transformation of economic interactions through digital assets. However, his emphasis on cryptocurrencies and NFTs leans more toward the technical implications of these changes on societal structures.

In summary, the Metaverse uniquely allows for seamless, interconnected experiences across various virtual worlds, enabling users to maintain their assets and identities as they move between environments. The Metaverse may also introduce a new economic system potentially driven by cryptocurrencies and NFTs, blur the line between digital and physical reality, and challenge traditional concepts of self-perception and the human relationship with technology. However, high entry costs limit accessibility and raise the issue of inclusion. Table 1 summarizes the mentioned characteristics that have changed from “predecessor” virtual worlds to today’s Metaverse.

The impact of the Metaverse on the individual

While the discussion on the uniqueness of the Metaverse already slightly touched upon the impact on the individual, this is further discussed by the experts regarding its impact on individuals’ personal and professional lives. As an opener for this aspect, Jason noted that there is a significant gap between public perception and the actual concept of the Metaverse. He emphasized that the starting point is to “understand what people think the Metaverse is and how that meaning is being constructed.” He believed that the meaning of the Metaverse will shape the path dependencies of what we see as implications and opportunities for study. Contrasting this perspective, Ulrike argued that the focus should not be on defining the Metaverse but rather on its practical applications, suggesting that we need to “decompose the Metaverse into its applications and see how people enact it.” She called for a socio-material perspective (e.g., Orlikowski & Scott, 2008 ) depicting the Metaverse as a moving concept that consists of a confluence of experiential computing practices. Therefore, in her opinion, it will probably never have a stable meaning on which people will agree. Their arguments tangle back to the discourse in the literature on the misalignment in definition and understanding, which trigger various approaches to research the topic, such as multi- perspectives approach (Dwivedi et al., 2022 ), expert interviews (Lacity et al., 2023 ), and patent analysis (Pohsner & Hanelt, 2023 ) through various theoretical lenses (e.g., affordances (Dincelli & Yayla, 2022 ) or the sociotechnical perspective (Zhou et al., 2023 )).

The Metaverse holds transformative potential for individuals, as outlined by Hamed. He highlighted its capacity to significantly change work environments, create a new large-scale economy, and offer deeper social interactions. However, he also pointed to the darker sides of this technological frontier. One significant issue is the problem of misinformation in a world where reality can be constructed and reconstructed at will. Hamed raised the critical question, “What is the true information and what is the misinformation?” alongside expressing deep concerns over potential security and privacy issues, especially with the vast biometric data collection that the Metaverse could involve.

Once more, the issue of interoperability was highlighted by Christian. It is the capability of moving data, identity, and other aspects seamlessly from one platform to another, which Christian pointed out as a “key difference between what we have now and what the Metaverse will be.” Ulrike also returned to her previous point on the relationship between the user and the avatar. She added that identity is another intricate component in this new landscape. She delved into questions of identity within the Metaverse, pondering how individuals might choose to represent themselves in this expansive virtual space. She questioned, “How closely do people want to link their virtual identities to their real identities?” and boldly challenged the clear separation between virtual and real, positing that “the real is what you are doing right now, whether on- or offline. That is what is real.”

Jason introduced the concept of a “social portmanteau”—the baggage of social connections and relationships that a user develops on one platform. He raised the question regarding the implications of this social portmanteau as users move between different platforms in the Metaverse: “What happens to my social portmanteau and how does that portmanteau make it stickier not to move?”.

This conversation underscored the multifaceted impacts that the Metaverse may have on individuals, intertwining technology with our sense of self, our work, our connections with others, and our very understanding of reality itself, which will manifest itself in a spectrum of physical and virtual artifacts. As these consequences for the individual are based on the characteristics of the Metaverse, Table  1 indicates how the characteristics result in consequences for the individual.

Future research directions for IS scholars in the context of the Metaverse

Future directions for is research on the metaverse.

The panelists discussed whether and how traditional IS theories may apply to the Metaverse as a new, socially constructed, technology-enabled environment. The assumption of the rational actor maximizing utility, which is the underlying logic of many research studies, may not be applicable in this environment because there are many non-economic user motivations. The experts suggested that native IS theories need to be created to theorize this technology-infused environment. This can be done by combining social theories such as the structuration theory (Giddens, 1984 ), the practice theory (Bourdieu & Bourdieu, 1977 ), and Goffman’s interaction theories (Goffman, 1956 ). According to Ulrike, the holy grail of IS research is to develop mid-range theories that apply specifically to IT contexts. She emphasized the urgency for IS research to develop native theories that are more suited to the digital and experiential nature of the Metaverse. “Combining existing social theories with theories related to Metaverse-specific phenomena might be a fruitful way forward,” she advised. This would allow the IS discipline to make more insightful and context-relevant statements about technology-infused environments like the Metaverse.

The panelists also mentioned that social presence theory (Short et al., 1976 ) and the trust literature (Gefen et al., 2003 ; Luhmann, 1997 ) may need to be re-evaluated to see if the current research discourse provides enough understanding of highly immersive environments. Christian introduced the importance of reimagining how immersion and trust function in these new digital spaces by stating: “The ability to port avatars, digital inventory, etc. from A to B implies that we need people, companies, or operators to trust that what is ported from one platform to the other will really work well.”

Furthermore, Hamed and Ulrike delved into the philosophical implications of the Metaverse, particularly concerning the concepts of truth and reality. Hamed posed the question, “What is the truth in the Metaverse?” and highlighted the complexity of defining truth in such an expansive and mutable space. The coherence approach in the philosophy of truth may become dominant in the Metaverse, which could lead to polarization and different versions of truth. Ulrike proposed that “data creates reality,” rather than merely representing it, which suggests a performative view of reality that challenges existing philosophical constructs and that the Metaverse changes our assumptions about correspondence and representation of reality.

The panel also engaged in discussions about governance within the Metaverse, with Hamed raising questions about the responsibility and role of Metaverse platform owners, asking, “How are they able to govern and control the Metaverse given the plethora of behaviors that can emerge?” This conversation naturally put an emphasis on the importance of proactive design, as Jason urged the IS community to engage with the Metaverse in its formative stages, asking “Do we want to engage with the technology after it has been created, or do we want to help create the technology?” He encouraged a focus on the normative implications of design decisions.

The panel’s insights collectively call for a deeply philosophical reevaluation of how IS research approaches the complex, immersive, and socially constructed worlds of the Metaverse.

Emergent approaches to IS research in the Metaverse

While the previous discussion focuses on the Metaverse as the phenomenon of research, the panelists further discussed the opportunities and threats of conducting experimental studies within the Metaverse.

Christian opened the discourse by highlighting the unique opportunity “to use the Metaverse as an environment for experimental studies which may solve the trade-off conflict between ecological validity and experimental control,” assuming future technology’s ability to induce a highly convincing telepresence experience. He envisioned that the Metaverse could act as a “virtual lab,” offering an unprecedented combination of realistic, immersive environments, and precise experimental conditions. This could facilitate more scalable and globally accessible experiments, with results potentially aligning with the “ground truth” observed in the real world. However, the transferability of results from the Metaverse to the physical world is a contentious point. Ulrike pushed back on this optimistic view, arguing, “The leap to say that what we study in the virtual is reflective of and the results are transferable to the real, goes too far; it will always be questioned.” She suggested that even though the Metaverse offers a rich environment to study phenomena, it is fundamentally different from physical reality due to its distinct material and social configurations. The Metaverse, in her view, should be studied for its own sake, especially if it becomes a significant part of our daily lives.

The convergence of online and offline identities and experiences, and the increasingly blurred line between these realms, is another significant aspect. Jason articulated this perspective, arguing, “Our offline and online is an artificial distinction today… The Metaverse, as a social vision, is a place, where this convergence becomes even closer.” He contended that the Metaverse raises a new set of intricate and context-specific research questions, including issues around cyberbullying in highly immersive environments and the mental and emotional effects of long-term exposure to these spaces. Adding to the discussion, Hamed raised the issue of the rapid technological development of the Metaverse and the risks this poses for research. He warned, “If you use the current Metaverse technology and run an experiment in that environment, once the technology develops in a year or two, you will have to do the experiment all over again because you may get different results.” This draws attention to the inherently transient and evolving nature of the technologies, which challenges the stable conditions typically sought in experimental design.

Lastly, Jason introduced a broader concern regarding the tension between fast-to-market and slow-to-market research. As technology evolves at a swift pace, he suggests the need for agility in research outputs: “We need to accelerate our publishing cycle times if we want to be relevant and have an impact on practice.” At the same time, Jason called for deeper, reflective, and philosophically informed research to address fundamental issues tied to the Metaverse and argued for a scholarly culture that values both approaches equally.

The panelists uncovered a spectrum of perspectives and challenges surrounding experimental research in the Metaverse. While acknowledging the significant opportunities presented, they are united in their call for careful, thoughtful, and adaptable approaches to studying this fast-evolving digital frontier.

Challenges to address

This section revisits the panel discussion on the metaverse and highly immersive environments to connect the experts’ insights to the existing academic discourse on the metaverse. The focus is on the extent to which the current literature adequately captures the uniqueness of the metaverse and what future research can do beyond this. The panelists shed light on their own areas of focus in the discussion of the Metaverse and highly immersive environments. They provided their viewpoints on avenues for future research in this area and highlighted opportunities and challenges regarding research topics, methodologies, and philosophy. Building on the viewpoints of the experts, we distinguish six distinct research perspectives to explore the challenges around the Metaverse: the impact of the metaverse, technological considerations, theory-focused questions, philosophical perspectives, emerging concepts and constructs of interest, and methodological opportunities. The expert’s viewpoints, interwoven with the analysis of existing literature and the discussion around the panel, guided the formulation of research questions that aim to advance the scholarly discourse on the Metaverse.

The impact of the metaverse

The economic implications of the Metaverse, as discussed by Hamed, foreground the role of cryptocurrencies and NFTs, which are also concerns and observations in existing literature (Dowling, 2022 ; Urquhart, 2016 ). The shadow economy within the Metaverse, alongside the mainstream adoption of digital currencies, presents new challenges and opportunities for economic models. Hamed’s insights prompt an investigation into how these economic activities influence traditional financial systems and the broader socio-economic landscape. Complementing this, Jason’s focus on social implications, including the transformative potential of the Metaverse on communication, interaction, and societal norms, aligns with Schultze’s ( 2010 ) exploration of virtual worlds’ impact on social behaviors. Research questions emerging from this perspective address the balance between technological advancements and their social ramifications, probing the dual potential of the Metaverse to innovate and disrupt.

Technological considerations

Christian’s emphasis on interoperability and the seamless integration of virtual experiences with real-world applications highlights a critical area of technological inquiry within the Metaverse. This perspective resonates with Chen et al.’s ( 2023 ) discussion on the technical challenges of creating a unified Metaverse, including standardization and security challenges. The exploration of augmented and virtual reality technologies, as foundational elements of the Metaverse, necessitates a deeper understanding of their implications for user experience, privacy, and digital sovereignty.

Theory-focused questions

Ulrike’s advocacy for the development of mid-range, native IS theories that reflect the socio-material complexities of virtual identities and environments is crucial. Her viewpoint aligns with the theoretical exploration of how sociality is constructed in the Metaverse, the adaptation of theories from social psychology, and the reevaluation of traditional IS theories in light of immersive experiences. The questions around governance structures and the dynamic conception of identity within the Metaverse highlight the pressing need for theoretical frameworks that can navigate the nuanced realities of technology-infused environments. Also the fuzziness around the definition of the concept “Metaverse” is among the potential challenges that need to be addressed by research.

Philosophical perspectives

The Metaverse, as Hamed points out, challenges conventional notions of truth and reality, invoking a philosophical inquiry into how these concepts are constructed and perceived in digital contexts. This discussion intersects with the exploration of digital twins and their implications for our understanding of authenticity and replication in virtual spaces. The philosophical dimension of Metaverse research probes the ethical, existential, and epistemological questions raised by the creation and inhabitation of these comprehensive digital worlds.

Emerging concepts and constructs of interest

The emergence of new concepts and constructs, particularly those related to identity, community, and immersion, is central to understanding the Metaverse’s societal impact. Christian and Jason’s discussions highlight the importance of these constructs in shaping user experiences and expectations within virtual environments. This perspective encourages an examination of how digital identities are formed, managed, and perceived, drawing on (Schultze, 2010 , 2014 ) virtual identity and community.

Methodological opportunities

Finally, the Metaverse offers unique methodological opportunities for research, as noted by Christian and Jason. The potential to utilize the Metaverse as a “virtual lab” for experimental research opens new avenues for studying behavior, interaction, and technology adoption in controlled yet complex virtual settings. This approach aligns with the exploration of virtual environments for empirical research, suggesting the Metaverse can significantly contribute to our methodological repertoire, especially in fields that intersect with human–computer interaction, sociology, and economics.

Table 2 synthesizes these research perspectives and outlines specific future research questions that were identified during the discussions in and surrounding the workshop. They are not intended to be exhaustive but rather serve as inspiration for future research.

Concluding remarks

In conclusion, the evolving Metaverse landscape converges digital and physical realities, generating novel prospects and complexities for individuals, societies, and researchers. The insights shared by our expert panel underscore that the Metaverse transcends a mere technological concept, fundamentally altering how we perceive, engage with, and interpret the world. The panel’s discourse has thoroughly traversed the Metaverse’s facets, unveiling its distinct attributes, potential individual impacts, and burgeoning research avenues within the IS discipline.

Clearly, the panelists agree that the Metaverse holds significant importance, which beckons IS researchers to comprehend the synergy between humans and technology, potentially fostering substantial disruptions across personal, organizational, and societal spheres. Amidst this socio-technical evolution, the toolkit and methodologies of IS scholars bear the potential to both understand and shape the Metaverse’s course. Simultaneously, the discussions shed light on the need to critically discern between novel aspects and recurring themes in the Metaverse research.

The ideas shared by the panelists also point to different approaches to understanding the challenges and possibilities of the Metaverse. In particular, the panelists advocate for the inclusion of diverse philosophical underpinnings, multifaceted approaches to theory construction and validation, and a broad spectrum of methodological avenues in the study of immersive environments like the Metaverse. In conclusion, this synthesis of expert insights acts as a guide, directing researchers toward the multifaceted exploration of the ever-evolving Metaverse.

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• 1. A sampling of overarching views
• 2. Building better spaces
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A considerable number of these experts focused their answers on the transformative potential of artificial intelligence (AI), virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR). They say these digital enhancements or alternatives will have growing impact on everything online and in the physical world. This, they believe, is the real “metaverse” that indisputably lies ahead. They salute the possibilities inherent in the advancement of these assistive and immersive technologies, but also worry they can be abused – often in ways yet to be discovered. A number of respondents also predict that yet-to-be envisioned realms will arise.

Andrew Tutt, an expert in law expert and author of “ An FDA for Algorithms ,” predicted, “Digital spaces in the future will be so widely varied that there will not be any canonical digital space, just as there is no canonical physical space. A multitude of new digital spaces using augmented reality and virtual reality to create new ways for people to interact online in ways that feel more personal, intimate and like the physical world will likely arise. These spaces will provide opportunities to experience the world and society in new and exciting ways. One imagines, for example, that in the future, digital classrooms could involve students sitting at virtual desks with a virtual teacher giving a lesson at the front of the room.

“There will be future digital concerts with virtually limitless capacity that allow people to watch their favorite bands in venues. And through AR and VR, people will take future ‘trips’ to museums that can only be visited today by buying plane tickets to fly half a world away. Unlike the experiences of today, which are tightly constrained by limitations of physical distance and space, these offer an opportunity to create a more engaged and interactive civil, political and artistic discourse. People are no longer prevented from meaningfully taking advantage of opportunities for education, entertainment and civic and political discourse. These opportunities will not eliminate the problems that digital spaces today confront.

A fundamental reorientation around these new types of [digital] spaces … will be necessary, but the multiplication of opportunities to interact with friends, neighbors and strangers across the world may have the salutary effect of helping us to be better citizens of these digital spaces and thereby improve them without necessarily changing the fundamental technologies and structures on which they rely. Andrew Tutt, an expert in law expert and author of “ An FDA for Algorithms”

“A fundamental reorientation around these new types of spaces – one in which we impose shared values for these types of shared spaces – will be necessary, but the multiplication of opportunities to interact with friends, neighbors and strangers across the world may have the salutary effect of helping us to be better citizens of these digital spaces and thereby improve them without necessarily changing the fundamental technologies and structures on which they rely.”

Mark Lemley, professor of law and director of the Stanford University program in Law, Science and Technology, said, “We will live more of our lives in more – and more realistic – virtual spaces.”

Mark Deuze, professor of media studies at the University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands, wrote, “The foundation of digital life in 2035 will be lived in a mixed or cross-reality in which the ‘real’ is intersected with and interdependent with multiple forms of augmented and virtual realities. This will make our experience of the world and ourselves in it much more malleable than it already is, with one significant difference: By that time, almost all users will have grown up with this experience of plasticity, and we will be much more likely to commit to making it work together.”

Shel Israel, author of seven books on disruptive technologies and communications strategist to tech CEOs, responded, “By 2035 AR and VR are likely to fit into fashionable headsets that look like everyday eyeglasses and will be the center of our digital lives. Nearly all digital activities will occur through them rather than desktop computers or mobile devices. We will use them for shopping and to virtually visit destinations before we book travel. They will scan our eyes for warnings of biologic anomalies and health concerns. We will see the news and attend classes and communicate through them. By 2045, these glasses will be contact lenses and by 2050, they will be nanotech implants. This will be mostly good, but there will be considerable problems and social issues caused by them. They will likely destroy our privacy, they will be vulnerable to hacking and, by then, they could possibly be used for mind control attempts.

“Positives for 2035:

• Medical technology will prolong and improve human life.
• Immersive technology will allow us to communicate with each other through holograms that we can touch and feel, beyond simple Zoom chatting or phoning.
• Most transportation will be emissions-free.
• Robots will do most of our unpleasant work, including the fighting of wars.
• Tech will improve the experience of learning.

“On the dark side of 2035:

• Personal privacy will be eradicated.
• The cost of cybercrime will be many times worse than it is today.
• Global warming will be worse.
• The computing experience will bombard us with an increasing barrage of unwanted messages.”

Jamais Cascio, distinguished fellow at the Institute for the Future, shared this first-person 2035 scenario: “Today, I felt like a frog so I became one. Well, virtually, of course. I adjusted my presentation avatar (my ‘toon’) to give me recognizably ranidaean features. Anyone who saw me through mixed-reality lenses – that is, pretty much everybody at this point – would see this froggy version of me. I got a few laughs at the taqueria I went to for lunch. It felt good, man. My partner, conversely, had a meeting in which she had to deal with a major problem and (worse) she had to attend physically. To fit her mood, she pulled on the flaming ballgown I had purchased for her a few years ago. The designer went all-out for that one, adding in ray-tracing and color sampling to make sure the flames that composed the dress properly illuminated the world around her from both her point of view and the perspective of observers. She said that she felt as terrifying as she looked. When mixed reality glasses took off late in the 2020s, most pundits paid attention to the opportunity they would give people to remix and recreate the world around them. Would people block out things they didn’t want to see? Would they create imaginary environments and ignore the climate chaos around them? Turned out that what people really wanted to do was wear elaborate only-possible-in-the-virtual-world fashion. Think about it: what was the big draw for real money transactions in online games? Skins – that is, alternative looks for your characters. It’s not hard to see how that could translate into the non-game world. You want to be a frog? Here are five dozen different designs under Creative Commons and another several hundred for prices ranging from a dollar to a thousand dollars. You want to look serious and professional? This outfit includes a new virtual hairstyle, too. We sometimes get so busy trying to deal with the chaos of reality that we sometimes forget that the best way to handle chaos is to play.”

The founder and director of a digital consultancy predicted, “AR and VR technologies will do more to bring us together, teach us about distant places, cultures and experiences and help us become healthier through virtual diagnostics and digital wellness tools. I suppose what I’m really envisioning is a future where the entities that provide digital social services are reoriented to serve users rather than shareholders; a new class of not-for-profit digital utilities regulated by an international network of civic-minded experts. I would like to envision a digital future where we assemble around communities – geographical or interest-based – that provide real support and a plethora of viewpoints. This is really more of a return to the days before Facebook took over the social web and development from there.”

A leading professor of legal studies and business ethics responded, “The expectation that persistent metaverse experiences will be more widespread by 2035 isn’t a prediction, it is a certainty given current development and investment trends. I have wonderful experiences in the digital space of World of Warcraft, which started in 2004. With the huge investment in metaverse platforms, I expect that more people will have that kind of social experience, extending beyond it simply being used for gaming. But that doesn’t mean that digital life will be better or worse on average for 8 billion people in the world.”

A distinguished scientist and data management expert who works at Microsoft said, “In 2035 there will be more ‘face-to-face’ (‘virtual,’ but with a real feel) discussion in digital spaces that opens people’s minds to alternative viewpoints.”

Sam Punnett, retired owner of FAD Research, said, “A better world online would involve authenticated participants. It isn’t too far-fetched to imagine that 15 years from now we will have seen a broad adoption of VR interfaces with a combination of gesture and voice control. After many years of two-dimensional video representation and its interfaces, technology and bandwidth will advance to a point where the VR gesture/voice interface will represent ‘new and improved.’ Watch the gaming environments for more such advances in interface and interaction, as gaming most always leads invention and adoption.”

Seth Finkelstein, principal at Finkelstein Consulting and Electronic Frontier Foundation Pioneer Award winner, commented, “If virtual reality improves akin to the way that video conferencing has improved, VR gaming will be awesome. We have the ‘Star Trek’ communicator now (with mobile phones). If better sensing of body movement was combined with additional advances in head-mounted display and audio, we’d have something like a primitive ‘Star Trek’ holodeck.”

A professor of computer science and entrepreneur wrote a hopeful, homey vignette: “Wearing augmented-reality hardware, a child is learning by doing while moving – launching a rocket, planting a tree, solving an animal-enclosure puzzle in a virtual zoo. In the next room, a sitting parent is teaming with colleagues across the globe to design the next version of a flying car. Grandpa downstairs is baking cookies from the porch Adirondack chair by controlling – via a tablet and instrumented gloves – a couple of chef-robots in the kitchen. While Grandma, from an adjacent chair, is interacting with a granddaughter who lives across the country via virtual-reality goggles.”

Victor Dupuis, managing partner at the UFinancial Group, shared a shopping scenario, writing, “You are buying a new car. You browse cars by using a personal Zoom-type video tech, then switch into a VR mode to take a test drive. After testing several EV cars from different manufacturers, you simultaneously negotiate the best possible price from many of them. You settle on a choice, handle a much more briefly-structured financial transaction, your car is delivered to your front door by drone truck and your trade-in vehicle leaves in the same way.

“Between now and 2035, digital spaces will continue to improve the methods and efficiencies of how we transact life. Financial decision making, information interpretation, major personal and home purchases, all will be handled more efficiently, resulting in reduced unit costs for consumers and the need for companies to plan on higher sales volume to thrive. On the negative side, we are eroding relationally because of an increased dependence on digital space for building relationships and fostering long-term connections. This will continue to erode the relationship aspect of human nature, resulting in more divorces and fractured relationships, and fewer deep and abiding relationships among us.”

Advances in AI can be crucial to achieving human goals

Alexa Raad , chief purpose and policy officer at Human Security and host of the TechSequences podcast, said, “In 2035 AI will increase access to a basic level of medical diagnostic care, mental health counseling, training and education for the average user. Advances in augmented and virtual reality will make access to anything from entertainment to ‘hands-on’ medical training on innovative procedures possible without restrictions imposed by our physical environment (i.e., geography). Advances in the Internet of Things and robotics will enable the average user to control many aspects of their physical lives online by directing robots (routine living tasks like cleaning, shopping, cooking, etc.). Advances in biometrics will help us manage and secure our digital identities.”

A foresight strategist based in Washington, D.C., predicted, “Probably the most significant change in ‘digital life’ in the next 14 years will be the geometric expansion of the power and ubiquity of artificial intelligence. I consider it likely that bots (writ large) will be responsible for generating an increasing portion of our cultural and social information, from entertainment media to news media to autonomous agents that attend our medical and psychosocial needs. Obviously, a lot can go right or wrong in this scenario, and it’s incumbent upon those of us who work in and with digital tech to anticipate these challenges and to help center human dignity and agency as AI becomes more pervasive and powerful.”

Peter B. Reiner, professor and co-founder of the National Core for Neuroethics at the University of British Columbia, proposed the creation of “Loyal AI,” writing, “As artificial intelligence comes to encroach upon more and more aspects of our lives, we need to ensure that our interests as humans are being well-served. The best way for this to happen would be the advent of ‘Loyal AI’ – artificially intelligent agents that put the interests of users first rather than those of the corporations that are developing the technology. This will require wholesale reinvention of the current rapacious business model of surveillance capitalism that pervades our digital lives, whether through innovation or government regulation or both. Such trustworthy AI might foster increased trust in institutions, paving the way for a society in which we can all flourish.”

Digital spaces will live in us. Direct connectivity with the digital world and thus with each other will drive us to new dimensions of discovery of ourselves, our species and life in general (thus not only digital life). Paul Epping, chairman and co-founder of XponentialEQ

Paul Epping, chairman and co-founder of XponentialEQ, predicted, “The way we think and communicate will change. Politics, as we know it today, will disappear because we will all be hyperconnected in a hybrid fashion: physically and virtually. Governments and politics have, in essence, been all about control. That will be different. Things will most likely be ‘governed’ by AI. Therefore, our focus should be on developing ‘good’ AI. The way we solve things today will not be possible in that new society. It has been said that first we create technology and then technology creates us. At that point, tech will operate on a direct cognitive level. Radical ‘neuroconnectivity’ has exponentially more possibilities than we can imagine today; our old brains will not be able to solve new problems anymore. Technology will create the science that we need to evolve.

“Digital spaces will live in us. Direct connectivity with the digital world and thus with each other will drive us to new dimensions of discovery of ourselves, our species and life in general (thus not only digital life). And it will be needed to survive as a species. Since I think that the technologies being used for that purpose are cheaper, faster, smaller and safer, everyone can benefit from it. A lot of the problems along the way will be solved and will have been solved, although new unknowns will brace us for unexpected challenges. E.g.: how will we filter information and what defines the ownership of data/information in that new digital space? Such things must be solved with the future capabilities of thinking in the framework of that time; we can’t solve them with our current way of thinking.”

Heather D. Benoit, a senior managing director of strategic foresight, wrote, “I imagine a world in which information is more useful, more accessible and more relevant. By 2035, AIs should be able to vet information against other sources to verify its accuracy. They should also be able to provide this information to consumers at the times that make the most sense based on time of day, activity and location. Furthermore, some information would be restricted and presented to each individual based on their preferences and communication style. I imagine we’ll all have our own personal AIs that carry out these functions for us, that we trust and that we consider companions of a sort.”

Sam Lehman-Wilzig, professor and former chair of communications at Bar-Ilan University, Israel, said, “I envision greater use of artificial intelligence by social media in ‘censoring’ out particularly egregious speech. Another possibility: Social media that divides itself into ‘modules’ in which some disallow patently political speech or other types of subject matter, i.e., social media modules that are subject-specific.”

An expert on the future of software engineering presented the following scenario: “A political operative writes a misleading story and attempts to circulate it via social media. By means of a carefully engineered network topology, it reaches trusted community members representing diverse views, and – with the assistance of sophisticated AI that helps to find and evaluate the provenance of the story and related information – the network determines that the story is likely a fabrication and damps its tendency to spread. The process and technology are very reliable and trusted across the political spectrum.”

Jerome Glenn, co-founder and CEO of The Millennium Project, predicted, “Personal AI/avatars will search the internet while we are asleep and later wake us up in the morning with all kinds of interesting things to do. They will have filtered out information pollution, distilling just the best for our own unique self-actualization by using blockchain and smart contracts.”

Dweep Chand Singh , professor and director/head of clinical psychology at Aibhas Amity University in India, said, “Communication via digital mode is here to stay, with an eventual addition of brain-to-brain transmission and exchange of information. Biological chips will be prepared and inserted in brains of human beings to facilitate communication without external devices. In addition, artificial neurotransmitters will be developed in neuroscience labs for an alternative mode of brain-to-brain communication.”

An ICANN and IEEE leader based in India proposed a potential future in which everything is connected to everything, writing, “Our lives, the lives of other humans linked to us and the lives of non-human entities (pets, garden plants, homes, devices and household appliances) will all be connected in ways that enhance the sharing of information in order for people to have more meaningful lives. We will be able to upload our thoughts directly to the internet and others will be able to download and experience them. The ‘thoughts’ (experiences, sensory information, states of mind) of other non-human entities will also be uploaded. Among these online thought-objects, there will also be ‘bots’ (AI thought entities), and the internet will become a bus for thoughts and awareness. This will lead to stunning emergent properties that could transform the human experience.”

A futures strategist and consultant warned, “Within the next 15 years, the AI singularity could happen. Humanity can only hope that the optimistic beliefs of Isaac Asimov will hold true. Even in the present day, some AI platforms that were developed in research settings have evolved into somewhat psychopathic personalities, for lack of a better description. We might, in the future, see AI forecasting events based on accumulated information and making decisions that could limit humanity in some facets of life. Many more jobs than present will be run and controlled by this AI, and major companies will literally jump at the nearly free workforce that AI will provide, but at what cost for humanity? We can only hope as we wait and see how this technology will play out. AI lacks the human element that makes us who we are: the ability to dream, to be illogical, to make decisions based on a ‘gut feeling.’ Society could become logic-based, as this is the perception that AI will base its decisions on. Humanity could lose its ability for compassion and, with that, for understanding.”

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Ask students in Stanford University’s Virtual People course what they did in class that day and you’ll get some surprising answers. The students might have floated in space, gaping down at planet Earth below. They might’ve swum amid a beautiful coral reef watching – with each passing second representing years – as climate change caused the reef’s ruin. The students might’ve gone for a walk, but as a person with a skin color different than their own and subjected to prejudice.

Class photo of Virtual People instructor Jeremy Bailenson and students as they are immersed entirely in virtual reality while taking the inaugural summer quarter class. (Image credit: Tobin Asher/VHIL)

The Virtual People course is among the first and largest courses to be taught almost entirely in virtual reality, or VR, with several hundred students in the summer and fall courses. These students participate in the all-remote class via a VR headset, worn over their eyes like an opaque scuba mask, plus two handheld controllers to move about the virtual environments.

Jeremy Bailenson , the Thomas More Storke Professor in the School of Humanities and Sciences and professor of communication, has taught the Virtual People course since 2003, but it’s only recently that advances in VR technology have enabled the class to be taught entirely in VR. Course instructors and students spent more than 60,000 shared minutes together in VR environments during the summer quarter, and are projected to spend about 140,000 shared minutes together during the fall.

“In Virtual People , the students don’t just get to try VR a handful of times. VR becomes the medium they rely on,” said Bailenson, the founding director of Stanford’s Virtual Human Interaction Lab (VHIL). “To the best of my knowledge, nobody has networked hundreds of students via VR headsets for months at a time in the history of virtual reality, or even in the history of teaching. It’s VR at an incredible scale.”

The class examines VR’s expanding and evolving role in areas including popular culture, engineering, behavioral science and communication. Roughly 10 million VR systems are in use in the United States alone, yet many people are unaware of how far the technology has come and its applications beyond entertainment.

“I had previously understood VR as something just for video games,” said Allison Lettiere, who graduated in 2021 with undergraduate and graduate degrees in computer science. Lettiere said she found the technology’s ability to instill empathy-inducing experiences of walking in someone else’s shoes compelling and potentially useful in her line of work, which is focused on technological accessibility.

Sophie Marie Wallace, ’23, who is majoring in science, technology and society, also had her views of VR transformed in the class. “I was able to discover a passion I want to pursue in the future, which is using VR to improve sports performance in both land and aquatic sports,” Wallace said.

“The course is built around learning by doing, allowing students to experience and build applications that previous students could only read about, from therapeutic medicine to sports training to teaching empathy,” said Bailenson.

The class has drawn students majoring in diverse disciplines, including economics, political science, communication, anthropology, biology, computer science, film and media studies, comparative literature, art practice, psychology and sociology.

“There’s no better way to learn about something other than to experience it yourself, and that’s what this class did,” said Hana Tadesse, who plans to graduate next year with a major in computer science and a minor in communication.

Connecting and learning virtually

Virtual reality hardware has been part of Bailenson’s Virtual People course since it began, though usually as in-class demonstrations by graduate student assistants and student volunteers. Then, in March 2020, the coronavirus pandemic struck and all classes had to be taught remotely.

Bailenson realized virtual reality could reunite classmates as they learn about the technology and experience it first-hand. “After teaching remotely for over a year, there was a hunger to break out of the Zoom grid and try something different and exciting,” said Bailenson.

The university mailed VR headsets to students taking the course. Thus equipped, the students created virtual characters for themselves, called avatars, and virtually met up for class sessions.

Students learn the ropes of VR through a range of activities and explorations, including VR “field trips,” by guest lecturers such as Courtney Cogburn. Cogburn, associate professor of social work at Columbia University, is the lead creator of 1000 Cut Journey , an immersive VR experience developed in collaboration with VHIL that teaches racial empathy by having the viewer experience life as a black man who encounters racial prejudice. Another guest lecturer is former Stanford and National Football League quarterback Trent Edwards, who shows students how to learn about football plays in VR.

One of the most popular class exercises involves students mixing menu-driven commands and programming to create interactive virtual reality scenes such as Earth-like environments and whimsical tea parties with fairies in fantasy-scapes.

Students in Stanford’s Virtual People course meet in a virtual environment and learn how to navigate the virtual reality space with their headsets and handheld controllers by having a “teleport” race from one side of a simulated room to the other. (Credit: Tobin Asher/VHIL)

Interacting anew in the metaverse

To further foster an engaging classroom experience, teaching assistants moderate discussions with small student groups. The student avatars stand in a circle, introducing a spatial dimension that’s lost when video conferencing as talking heads on flat computer screens.

Students noticed and appreciated this subtle but powerful change to their discussion format, which helps highlight how design choices have an impact on people using technology.

Teaching Virtual People entirely in VR has proven timely given the intense interest by companies, such as Facebook, in the “metaverse” – shared virtual world environments where, for instance, users immerse themselves into a multi-dimensional digital version of the internet.

“Our class is the metaverse,” said Bailenson. “It is the perfect example of how to build the infrastructure – hardware, software, content and people – and to build a persistent virtual world of avatars and scenes that people actually use.”

Looking ahead, Bailenson plans to continue teaching Virtual People in its natural medium of VR, with the aim of familiarizing his students with a valuable technological tool.

“It is gratifying to see how far virtual reality has come in the early 21st century,” said Bailenson. “I’m sure it will go even farther in the capable hands and minds of Stanford students.”

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SBIR Phase II: Virtual reality platform that accurately and rapidly assesses meaningful brain function outside the lab

Project Number 1950948 Agency/Funding Organization NSF Funding Year 2020 View Full Project Details for SBIR Phase II: Virtual reality platform that accurately and rapidly assesses meaningful brain function outside the lab

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Seeing Red —

Virtual boy: the bizarre rise and quick fall of nintendo’s enigmatic red console, how nintendo took a gamble on a new kind of gaming experience in the '90s..

Benj Edwards and Jose Zagal - May 15, 2024 11:00 am UTC

Nearly 30 years after the launch of the Virtual Boy, not much is publicly known about how, exactly, Nintendo came to be interested in developing what would ultimately become its ill-fated console. Was Nintendo committed to VR as a future for video games and looking for technological solutions that made business sense? Or was the Virtual Boy primarily the result of Nintendo going “off script” and seizing a unique, and possibly risky, opportunity that presented itself? The answer is probably a little bit of both.

As it turns out, the Virtual Boy was not an anomaly in Nintendo’s history with video game platforms. Rather, it was the result of a deliberate strategy that was consistent with Nintendo’s way of doing things and informed by its lead creator Gunpei Yokoi’s design philosophy.

Dabbling in virtual reality?

The late 1980s and 1990s were a heady time for virtual reality, and, when it came to generating public interest, Japan was arguably leading the charge. In May 1991, Hattori Katsura’s Jinkō genjitsukan no sekai ( The world of the feeling of artificial reality ) was published. It was the first best-selling general audience book on VR, beating Howard Rheingold’s watershed Virtual Reality by a few months. Japan is also “where VR was first repackaged as a consumer technology” and, by 1991, it had more VR systems than anywhere else in the world.

However, VR was neither presented nor perceived in the same way in Japan as it was in the United States. First, while VR research in the United States was largely developed and driven by military interests, in Japan, it came out of a telecommunications context. Second, in the mid-1990s at least, Japanese VR research had an engineering emphasis rather than computer science like in the United States. Thus, the Japanese public’s perception of VR was shaped by the additional availability, via public demonstrations for example, of VR devices and experiences different from those shown elsewhere. These devices and experiences were characterized in the United States as “cool gadgets” and “strange experiments” but would, perhaps taken together, provide alternative highlights of VR’s potential as a medium.

Prior to the release of the Virtual Boy, Nintendo designers and engineers expressed at least some interest in virtual reality. For example, when interviewed by Satoru Iwata about the development of the Nintendo’s autostereoscopic handheld Nintendo 3DS, Shigeru Miyamoto commented, “To start at the beginning, at the time [just before the creation of the Virtual Boy], I was interested in virtual reality, and was one of the staff that went on and on about how we should do something with 3D goggles. I didn’t exactly twist his arm, but I would talk with Yokoi-san about how [3D] goggles would be interesting.”

However, not much is known outside of Nintendo if this interest led to in-house experiments or the development of prototype virtual reality systems. Some reports, mostly secondhand, do exist that there was some research taking place. For example, while researching an article about the Virtual Boy for FastCompany, Benj Edwards interviewed Takefumi Makino, the biographer of Gunpei Yokoi and a friend of Yokoi’s for a period near Yokoi’s death in 1997. According to Makino, Nintendo experimented with virtual reality prior to creating the Virtual Boy, but it found the experience unsatisfactory.

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Everyday Virtual and Augmented Reality: Methods and Applications

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Improvements in quality, affordability, and ease of setup are bringing Virtual Reality/Augmented Reality out of the lab and into everyday spaces like homes, schools, museums, entertainment venues, and health care settings. Users in these contexts can vary more widely and they typically do not have the insight ...

Keywords : Everyday Virtual Reality, Everyday Augmented Reality, Social Virtual Reality, Educational Virtual Reality, Consumer Virtual Reality, Casual Virtual Reality, Ergonomics, Virtual Reality Games

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At yale he dipped into the arts — and discovered he’s a poet at heart.

John Nguyen (Photo by Daniel Havlat)

John Nguyen entered Yale with plans to become a neurosurgeon. Instead, he found his calling as a writer.

As a student at Harding Senior High School in St. Paul, Minnesota, Nguyen had been laser-focused on STEM subjects. But after taking some English classes at Yale he discovered a new love for reading and writing. Despite his relatively meager exposure to literary studies previously, “there were so many professors that were supportive of me,” Nguyen said.

“ I’d never encountered such community in any other space.”

He decided to major in English and developed such a fondness for poetry that he started writing poems on his own.

“ I remember feeling really self-conscious because I hadn’t done much with the arts in high school,” he said. But he immersed himself in studying the genre and,  in 2022, was selected as one of six students to study with the Nobel Prize-winning poet Louise Glück , a member of the Yale faculty, a year before her death in 2023.

“ She was the toughest instructor I had at Yale,” Nguyen said “Her vision of poetry was so rigorous. She wasn’t afraid to tell you that your poem was not doing justice to its content. I learned to separate myself from my work so that I can make the work as best as possible.”

Last year Nguyen was selected to represent Yale in the annual Connecticut Poetry Circuit, a statewide competition of college student poets. A panel of esteemed poets judges entrants from each school and selects four or five honorees, who then tour the state in the spring.

Nguyen, a first-generation college student from a Vietnamese American family, said many of his poems center  his mother, who works at a medical device factory and who was seriously ill with long COVID in his sophomore year at Yale. One of his poems touches upon the guilt he felt at being away studying at an elite university while his mother was home in Minnesota suffering with her illness.

He has also tried his hand at non-fiction writing, publishing pieces in the Yale Daily News and working as an editor at The New Journal, a student magazine. Nguyen said he was guided throughout by three other key mentors in the English Department, in Yale’s Faculty of Arts and Sciences: Sarah Stillman, a lecturer and staff writer for the New Yorker; Anne Fadiman, an essayist and reporter who is the Francis Writer in Residence and Professor in the Practice, Creative Writing; and Natalie Diaz, a poet and the Rosenkranz Writer-in-Residence Visiting Professor.

“ I’d say those three women and Louise have shaped me,” Nguyen said.

After graduation, he has a summer internship lined up as a feature writer at the Star Tribune, Minnesota’s largest daily newspaper. Beyond that, he had nothing lined up– until last month, when he was recognized by the Frederick Mortimer Clapp Fellowship, the premier writing award bestowed upon one or two Yale seniors annually, and when he was selected as  a Fulbright Scholar. Now, come August, he’s heading to Can Tho, Vietnam, to teach English.

“ It feels surreal to me,” he said. “My parents haven’t been back to their homeland, and now I have the chance to step on the ground where they grew up.”

He eventually wants to write a memoir about his family’s displacement from Vietnam and their journeys to the U.S., connecting the past with the present. He’s conducted oral history interviews with his two sets of grandparents — one in Seattle and the other in the Twin Cities. Those interviews formed the basis for the beginning of that memoir, which he turned in as his 15,000-word senior thesis.

He figures another 80,000 words lie ahead. Realistically, he knows it could be years before he finishes the project.

“ Writing has shown me that you definitely can’t rush in,” Nguyen said. “The humanities and the arts have taught me to be patient. The sentences you need will arrive on their own.”

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