phd thesis entitled

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Experiences of a London PhD student and beyond

Thesis Title: Examples and Suggestions from a PhD Grad

When you’re faced with writing up a thesis, choosing a title can often fall to the bottom of the priority list. After all, it’s only a few words. How hard can it be?!

In the grand scheme of things I agree that picking your thesis title shouldn’t warrant that much thought, however my own choice is one of the few regrets I have from my PhD . I therefore think there is value in spending some time considering the options available.

In this post I’ll guide you through how to write your own thesis title and share real-world examples. Although my focus is on the PhD thesis, I’ve also included plenty of thesis title examples for bachelor’s and master’s research projects too.

Hopefully by the end of the post you’ll feel ready to start crafting your own!

Why your thesis title is at least somewhat important

It sounds obvious but your thesis title is the first, and often only, interaction people will have with your thesis. For instance, hiring managers for jobs that you may wish to apply for in the future. Therefore you want to give a good sense of what your research involved from the title.

Many people will list the title of their thesis on their CV, at least for a while after graduating. All of the example titles I’ve shared below came from my repository of academic CVs . I’d say roughly 30% of all the academics on that page list their thesis title, which includes academics all the way up to full professor.

Your thesis title could therefore feature on your CV for your whole career, so it is probably worth a bit of thought!

My suggestions for choosing a good thesis title

• Make it descriptive of the research so it’s immediately obvious what it is about! Most universities will publish student theses online ( here’s mine! ) and they’re indexed so can be found via Google Scholar etc. Therefore give your thesis a descriptive title so that interested researchers can find it in the future.
• Don’t get lost in the detail . You want a descriptive title but avoid overly lengthy descriptions of experiments. Unless a certain analytical technique etc was central to your research, I’d suggest by default* to avoid having it in your title. Including certain techniques will make your title, and therefore research, look overly dated, which isn’t ideal for potential job applications after you graduate.
• The title should tie together the chapters of your thesis. A well-phrased title can do a good job of summarising the overall story of your thesis. Think about each of your research chapters and ensure that the title makes sense for each of them.
• Be strategic . Certain parts of your work you want to emphasise? Consider making them more prominent in your title. For instance, if you know you want to pivot to a slightly different research area or career path after your PhD, there may be alternative phrasings which describe your work just as well but could be better understood by those in the field you’re moving into. I utilised this a bit in my own title which we’ll come onto shortly.
• Do your own thing. Having just laid out some suggestions, do make sure you’re personally happy with the title. You get a lot of freedom to choose your title, so use it however you fancy. For example, I’ve known people to use puns in their title, so if that’s what you’re into don’t feel overly constrained.

*This doesn’t always hold true and certainly don’t take my advice if 1) listing something in your title could be a strategic move 2) you love the technique so much that you’re desperate to include it!

Thesis title examples

To help give you some ideas, here are some example thesis titles from Bachelors, Masters and PhD graduates. These all came from the academic CVs listed in my repository here .

Bachelor’s thesis title examples

Hysteresis and Avalanches Paul Jager , 2014 – Medical Imaging – DKFZ Head of ML Research Group –  direct link to Paul’s machine learning academic CV

The bioenergetics of a marine ciliate, Mesodinium rubrum Holly Moeller , 2008 – Ecology & Marine Biology – UC Santa Barbara Assistant Professor –  direct link to Holly’s marine biology academic CV

Functional syntactic analysis of prepositional and causal constructions for a grammatical parser of Russian Ekaterina Kochmar , 2008 – Computer Science – University of Bath Lecturer Assistant Prof –  direct link to Ekaterina’s computer science academic CV

Master’s thesis title examples

Creation of an autonomous impulse response measurement system for rooms and transducers with different methods Guy-Bart Stan , 2000 – Bioengineering – Imperial Professor –  direct link to Guy-Bart’s bioengineering academic CV

Segmentation of Nerve Bundles and Ganglia in Spine MRI using Particle Filters Adrian Vasile Dalca , 2012 – Machine Learning for healthcare – Harvard Assistant Professor & MIT Research Scientist –  direct link to Adrian’s machine learning academic CV

The detection of oil under ice by remote mode conversion of ultrasound Eric Yeatman , 1986 – Electronics – Imperial Professor and Head of Department –  direct link to Eric’s electronics academic CV

Ensemble-Based Learning for Morphological Analysis of German Ekaterina Kochmar , 2010 – Computer Science – University of Bath Lecturer Assistant Prof –  direct link to Ekaterina’s computer science academic CV

VARiD: A Variation Detection Framework for Color-Space and Letter-Space Platforms Adrian Vasile Dalca , 2010 – Machine Learning for healthcare – Harvard Assistant Professor & MIT Research Scientist –  direct link to Adrian’s machine learning academic CV

Identification of a Writer’s Native Language by Error Analysis Ekaterina Kochmar , 2011 – Computer Science – University of Bath Lecturer Assistant Prof –  direct link to Ekaterina’s computer science academic CV

On the economic optimality of marine reserves when fishing damages habitat Holly Moeller , 2010 – Ecology & Marine Biology – UC Santa Barbara Assistant Professor –  direct link to Holly’s marine biology academic CV

Sensitivity Studies for the Time-Dependent CP Violation Measurement in B 0 → K S K S K S at the Belle II-Experiment Paul Jager , 2016 – Medical Imaging – DKFZ Head of ML Research Group –  direct link to Paul’s machine learning academic CV

PhD thesis title examples

Spatio-temporal analysis of three-dimensional real-time ultrasound for quantification of ventricular function Esla Angelini  – Medicine – Imperial Senior Data Scientist –  direct link to Elsa’s medicine academic CV

The role and maintenance of diversity in a multi-partner mutualism: Trees and Ectomycorrhizal Fungi Holly Moeller , 2015 – Ecology & Marine Biology – UC Santa Barbara Assistant Professor –  direct link to Holly’s marine biology academic CV

Bayesian Gaussian processes for sequential prediction, optimisation and quadrature Michael Osborne , 2010 – Machine Learning – Oxford Full Professor –  direct link to Michael’s machine learning academic CV

Global analysis and synthesis of oscillations: a dissipativity approach Guy-Bart Stan , 2005 – Bioengineering – Imperial Professor –  direct link to Guy-Bart’s bioengineering academic CV

Coarse-grained modelling of DNA and DNA self-assembly Thomas Ouldridge , 2011– Bioengineering – Imperial College London Senior Lecturer / Associate Prof –  direct link to Thomas’ bioengineering academic CV

4D tomographic image reconstruction and parametric maps estimation: a model-based strategy for algorithm design using Bayesian inference in Probabilistic Graphical Models (PGM) Michele Scipioni , 2018– Biomedical Engineer – Harvard Postdoctoral Research Fellow –  direct link to Michele’s biomedical engineer academic CV

Error Detection in Content Word Combinations Ekaterina Kochmar , 2016 – Computer Science – University of Bath Lecturer Assistant Prof –  direct link to Ekaterina’s computer science academic CV

Genetic, Clinical and Population Priors for Brain Images Adrian Vasile Dalca , 2016 – Machine Learning for healthcare – Harvard Assistant Professor & MIT Research Scientist –  direct link to Adrian’s machine learning academic CV

Challenges and Opportunities of End-to-End Learning in Medical Image Classification Paul Jager , 2020 – Medical Imaging – DKFZ Head of ML Research Group –  direct link to Paul’s machine learning academic CV

K 2 NiF 4  materials as cathodes for intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells Ainara Aguadero , 2006 – Materials Science – Imperial Reader –  direct link to Ainara’s materials science academic CV

Applications of surface plasmons – microscopy and spatial light modulation Eric Yeatman , 1989 – Electronics – Imperial Professor and Head of Department –  direct link to Eric’s electronics academic CV

Geometric Algorithms for Objects in Motion Sorelle Friedler , 2010 – Computer science – Haverford College Associate Professor –  direct link to Sorelle’s computer science academic CV .

Geometrical models, constraints design, information extraction for pathological and healthy medical image Esla Angelini  – Medicine – Imperial Senior Data Scientist –  direct link to Elsa’s medicine academic CV

Why I regret my own choice of PhD thesis title

I should say from the outset that I assembled my thesis in quite a short space of time compared to most people. So I didn’t really spend particularly long on any one section, including the title.

However, my main supervisor even spelled out for me that once the title was submitted to the university it would be permanent. In other words: think wisely about your title.

What I started with

Initially I drafted the title as something like: Three dimensional correlative imaging for cartilage regeneration . Which I thought was nice, catchy and descriptive.

I decided to go for “correlative imaging” because, not only did it describe the experiments well, but it also sounded kind of technical and fitting of a potential pivot into AI. I’m pleased with that bit of the title.

What I ended up with

Before submitting the title to the university (required ahead of the viva), I asked my supervisors for their thoughts.

One of my well intentioned supervisors suggested that, given that my project didn’t involve verifying regenerative quality, I probably shouldn’t state cartilage regeneration . Instead, they suggested, I should state what I was experimenting on (the materials) rather than the overall goal of the research (aid cartilage regeneration efforts).

With this advice I dialled back my choice of wording and the thesis title I went with was:

Three dimensional correlative imaging for measurement of strain in cartilage and cartilage replacement materials

Reading it back now I’m reminder about how less I like it than my initial idea!

I put up basically no resistance to the supervisor’s choice, even though the title sounds so much more boring in my opinion. I just didn’t think much of it at the time. Furthermore, most of my PhD was actually in a technique which is four dimensional (looking at a series of 3D scans over time, hence 4D) which would have sounded way more sciency and fitting of a PhD.

What I wish I’d gone with

If I had the choice again, I’d have gone with:

Four-dimensional correlative imaging for cartilage regeneration

Which, would you believe it, is exactly what it states on my CV…

Does the thesis title really matter?

In all honesty, your choice of thesis title isn’t that important. If you come to regret it, as I do, it’s not the end of the world. There are much more important things in life to worry about.

If you decide at a later stage that you don’t like it you can always describe it in a way that you prefer. For instance, in my CV I describe my PhD as I’d have liked the title to be. I make no claim that it’s actually the title so consider it a bit of creative license.

Given that as your career progresses you may not even refer back to your thesis much, it’s really not worth stressing over. However, if you’re yet to finalise your thesis title I do still think it is worth a bit of thought and hopefully this article has provided some insights into how to choose a good thesis title.

My advice for developing a thesis title

• Draft the title early. Drafting it early can help give clarity for the overall message of your research. For instance, while you’re assembling the rest of your thesis you can check that the title encompasses the research chapters you’re included, and likewise that the research experiments you’re including fall within what the title describes. Drafting it early also gives more time you to think it over. As with everything: having a first draft is really important to iterate on.
• Look at some example titles . Such as those featured above!
• If you’re not sure about your title, ask a few other people what they think . But remember that you have the final say!

I hope this post has been useful for those of you are finalising your thesis and need to decide on a thesis title. If you’ve enjoyed this article and would like to hear about future content (and gain access to my free resource library!) you can subscribe for free here:

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MIT Earth Resources Laboratory

Congratulations dr. shujuan mao.

On August 16, 2021, Shujuan succesfully defended her PhD thesis entitled “Monitoring and Imaging Seismic Velocity Changes Across Temporal and Spatial Scales.” Her advisor was Prof. Robert van der Hilst of ERL and the MIT Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Studies.

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Know How to Structure Your PhD Thesis

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Table of Contents

In your academic career, few projects are more important than your PhD thesis. Unfortunately, many university professors and advisors assume that their students know how to structure a PhD. Books have literally been written on the subject, but there’s no need to read a book in order to know about PhD thesis paper format and structure. With that said, however, it’s important to understand that your PhD thesis format requirement may not be the same as another student’s. The bottom line is that how to structure a PhD thesis often depends on your university and department guidelines.

But, let’s take a look at a general PhD thesis format. We’ll look at the main sections, and how to connect them to each other. We’ll also examine different hints and tips for each of the sections. As you read through this toolkit, compare it to published PhD theses in your area of study to see how a real-life example looks.

Main Sections of a PhD Thesis

In almost every PhD thesis or dissertation, there are standard sections. Of course, some of these may differ, depending on your university or department requirements, as well as your topic of study, but this will give you a good idea of the basic components of a PhD thesis format.

• Abstract : The abstract is a brief summary that quickly outlines your research, touches on each of the main sections of your thesis, and clearly outlines your contribution to the field by way of your PhD thesis. Even though the abstract is very short, similar to what you’ve seen in published research articles, its impact shouldn’t be underestimated. The abstract is there to answer the most important question to the reviewer. “Why is this important?”
• Introduction : In this section, you help the reviewer understand your entire dissertation, including what your paper is about, why it’s important to the field, a brief description of your methodology, and how your research and the thesis are laid out. Think of your introduction as an expansion of your abstract.
• Literature Review : Within the literature review, you are making a case for your new research by telling the story of the work that’s already been done. You’ll cover a bit about the history of the topic at hand, and how your study fits into the present and future.
• Theory Framework : Here, you explain assumptions related to your study. Here you’re explaining to the review what theoretical concepts you might have used in your research, how it relates to existing knowledge and ideas.
• Methods : This section of a PhD thesis is typically the most detailed and descriptive, depending of course on your research design. Here you’ll discuss the specific techniques you used to get the information you were looking for, in addition to how those methods are relevant and appropriate, as well as how you specifically used each method described.
• Results : Here you present your empirical findings. This section is sometimes also called the “empiracles” chapter. This section is usually pretty straightforward and technical, and full of details. Don’t shortcut this chapter.
• Discussion : This can be a tricky chapter, because it’s where you want to show the reviewer that you know what you’re talking about. You need to speak as a PhD versus a student. The discussion chapter is similar to the empirical/results chapter, but you’re building on those results to push the new information that you learned, prior to making your conclusion.
• Conclusion : Here, you take a step back and reflect on what your original goals and intentions for the research were. You’ll outline them in context of your new findings and expertise.

Tips for your PhD Thesis Format

As you put together your PhD thesis, it’s easy to get a little overwhelmed. Here are some tips that might keep you on track.

• Don’t try to write your PhD as a first-draft. Every great masterwork has typically been edited, and edited, and…edited.
• Work with your thesis supervisor to plan the structure and format of your PhD thesis. Be prepared to rewrite each section, as you work out rough drafts. Don’t get discouraged by this process. It’s typical.
• Make your writing interesting. Academic writing has a reputation of being very dry.
• You don’t have to necessarily work on the chapters and sections outlined above in chronological order. Work on each section as things come up, and while your work on that section is relevant to what you’re doing.
• Don’t rush things. Write a first draft, and leave it for a few days, so you can come back to it with a more critical take. Look at it objectively and carefully grammatical errors, clarity, logic and flow.
• Know what style your references need to be in, and utilize tools out there to organize them in the required format.
• It’s easier to accidentally plagiarize than you think. Make sure you’re referencing appropriately, and check your document for inadvertent plagiarism throughout your writing process.

PhD Thesis Editing Plus

Want some support during your PhD writing process? Our PhD Thesis Editing Plus service includes extensive and detailed editing of your thesis to improve the flow and quality of your writing. Unlimited editing support for guaranteed results. Learn more here , and get started today!

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Writing Your Doctoral Thesis with Style

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How to Write a PhD Thesis: 13 Tips For PhD Thesis Writing 

Completing a successful PhD research thesis is extremely challenging, and how to write a PhD thesis is often a question in students’ minds. Fret not, there are many ways to make the process of PhD thesis writing less bumpy. This article will provide some PhD thesis writing tips to simplify the writing process and help you complete your thesis on time, while keeping your sanity mostly intact. 

Only about 50% of students enrolled in a PhD program ever complete it 1 . They drop out at many different points during the process for many different reasons. Some leave because the course work is too difficult or time consuming. Some leave for personal or financial reasons. One common cause of non-completion, or late completion, is the daunting spectre of PhD thesis writing. 

PhD thesis writing tips: How to overcome the challenge of writing your PhD thesis

First, remember that although writing a PhD thesis is difficult, this can be accomplished. Here are some things to consider that will increase your confidence and make the task of PhD thesis writing a bit less scary. 

• Create an outline before you start writing – The most effective way to keep your work organized is to first create an outline based on the PhD thesis structure required by your university. Using an outline for your PhD paper writing has tremendous benefits. It creates a handy space to keep and organize all the little snippets of information and questions you will have during your preparation. It allows you to effectively plan your work and manage your time and makes the actual writing much easier. A thesis is shaped more than written, and an outline provides it the required PhD thesis structure. 
• Follow all university guides – Be careful to ensure that you are meeting all the requirements of your university. This includes everything from topic selection to structure to writing style. It is extremely frustrating to spend a lot of time and effort on a section only to have to do it over because you didn’t follow the proper guidelines. Read all relevant material from your university over and over until you have it memorized. Then, check it again. 
• Section order – It is usually best not to do your PhD thesis writing in chronological order. For researchers, the easiest parts to write are usually the Method and Results. So, gain some confidence first and write the Introduction and Conclusion last to tie it all together. 
• Work extensively with your supervisor – Don’t forget that in the process of PhD thesis writing, help is right there when you ask for it. Do not hesitate to ask for guidance from your supervisor, advisors, or other committee members when you get stuck. Clear and regular communication with these important resources can save you untold heartache during the PhD research and thesis writing processes. This should not be a solo exercise; they have all been where you are now. 
• Plan carefully, create rough drafts, and refine 2 – This is so important and basic to all academic research that it bears repeating. You will not write the final PhD thesis on your first try. Do not become frustrated, trust the process. 
• Produce quality writing – Make sure your ideas flow easily and are clear and easy to read. This is not a strong skill for most beginning researchers, but it’s a skill that can be learned with a lot of practice. Therefore, edit, edit, and edit some more. If you need it, there are many places to get PhD thesis writing help and assistance. 
• Details matter – Pay attention to the small things, especially with the document formatting. If you start out using the proper format, you will be saving a tremendous amount of time and grief later. 
• Avoid plagiarism – Quote accurately, otherwise paraphrase. There is no excuse for being a lazy writer. Consider using a smart tool or service to check for plagiarism during your PhD thesis editing process to make sure you did not unintentionally copy any material. 
• Rein in the references – Use a database, such as EndNote or Mendeley, to keep them organized and under control; check and double check citations and references with the bibliography to ensure they all match. Don’t forget to use the PhD thesis style required by your university. 
• Keep it simple – Remember, this is only the start of your career, not your ultimate work 3 ; perfectionism can be a disaster. 
• Make consistent progress – Try to write at least a little every day; check quotations and references when writing seems too difficult. 3  
• Keep your reader in mind – As with all writing, your PhD thesis is meant to be read, so be considerate of those who read it; be concise, include all necessary data/information to support your argument but nothing extra. Strive to be understood and avoid unnecessary words. 
• Be persistent and eager – Writing a doctoral thesis becomes easier if you are consistent and dedicated. All other things being equal, your attitude will ultimately determine your success. Have patience and work hard. Create work you will be proud of for a lifetime. 
• Cassuto, L. Ph.D. attrition: How much is too much? The Chronicle of Higher Education.    https://www.chronicle.com/article/ph-d-attrition-how-much-is-too-much/?cid=gen_sign_in [Accessed 20 July 2022]
• Curl, I. 10 tips for writing a PhD thesis. Times Higher Education. https://www.timeshighereducation.com/blog/10-tips-writing-phd-thesis [Accessed 20 July 2022]
• Thomas, K. Finishing your PhD thesis: 15 top tips from those in the know. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/blog/2014/aug/27/finishing-phd-thesis-top-tips-experts-advice [Accessed 20 July 2022]

A PhD thesis includes several key components, that are essential for the work to be considered seriously. These may vary depending on the research field and specific requirements of the institution, but generally include: ·         an introduction that presents the research question and context, ·         a literature review that surveys existing knowledge and research, ·         a methodology section describing the research design and methods employed, ·         a presentation of findings or results, ·         a discussion section interpreting the results and their implications, and ·         a conclusion that summarizes the main findings and contributions. Additionally, appendices may contain supplementary materials such as data, charts, or technical details.  

The time required for writing a PhD thesis can vary significantly depending on factors such as the research topic, the individual’s research progress, the specific requirements of the institution, and the researcher’s writing process. On average, it can take several months to a few years to complete a PhD thesis. The research, data collection, and analysis stages can span several years, with the PhD thesis writing phase itself often lasting several months. Here, AI writing assistants like Paperpal, designed for academics, can help you write better. Explore Paperpal and see the difference for yourself!

To select a suitable topic for your PhD thesis, start by identifying your research interests and areas of expertise. Consider the gaps or unresolved questions in your field of study and explore potential research avenues and read extensively in your area of interest. Consult with your advisor or mentors, who can offer guidance and help narrow down your options. Once you have a tentative topic, conduct a literature review to ensure its novelty and feasibility. It’s important to choose a topic that aligns with your passion, has potential for meaningful contribution, and is feasible given available resources and time constraints.

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

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• What Is a PhD Thesis?
• Doing a PhD

This page will explain what a PhD thesis is and offer advice on how to write a good thesis, from outlining the typical structure to guiding you through the referencing. A summary of this page is as follows:

• A PhD thesis is a concentrated piece of original research which must be carried out by all PhD students in order to successfully earn their doctoral degree.
• The fundamental purpose of a thesis is to explain the conclusion that has been reached as a result of undertaking the research project.
• The typical PhD thesis structure will contain four chapters of original work sandwiched between a literature review chapter and a concluding chapter.
• There is no universal rule for the length of a thesis, but general guidelines set the word count between 70,000 to 100,000 words .

What Is a Thesis?

A thesis is the main output of a PhD as it explains your workflow in reaching the conclusions you have come to in undertaking the research project. As a result, much of the content of your thesis will be based around your chapters of original work.

For your thesis to be successful, it needs to adequately defend your argument and provide a unique or increased insight into your field that was not previously available. As such, you can’t rely on other ideas or results to produce your thesis; it needs to be an original piece of text that belongs to you and you alone.

What Should a Thesis Include?

Although each thesis will be unique, they will all follow the same general format. To demonstrate this, we’ve put together an example structure of a PhD thesis and explained what you should include in each section below.

Acknowledgements

This is a personal section which you may or may not choose to include. The vast majority of students include it, giving both gratitude and recognition to their supervisor, university, sponsor/funder and anyone else who has supported them along the way.

1. Introduction

Provide a brief overview of your reason for carrying out your research project and what you hope to achieve by undertaking it. Following this, explain the structure of your thesis to give the reader context for what he or she is about to read.

2. Literature Review

Set the context of your research by explaining the foundation of what is currently known within your field of research, what recent developments have occurred, and where the gaps in knowledge are. You should conclude the literature review by outlining the overarching aims and objectives of the research project.

3. Main Body

This section focuses on explaining all aspects of your original research and so will form the bulk of your thesis. Typically, this section will contain four chapters covering the below:

• your research/data collection methodologies,
• your results,
• a comprehensive analysis of your results,
• a detailed discussion of your findings.

Depending on your project, each of your chapters may independently contain the structure listed above or in some projects, each chapter could be focussed entirely on one aspect (e.g. a standalone results chapter). Ideally, each of these chapters should be formatted such that they could be translated into papers for submission to peer-reviewed journals. Therefore, following your PhD, you should be able to submit papers for peer-review by reusing content you have already produced.

4. Conclusion

The conclusion will be a summary of your key findings with emphasis placed on the new contributions you have made to your field.

When producing your conclusion, it’s imperative that you relate it back to your original research aims, objectives and hypotheses. Make sure you have answered your original question.

Finding a PhD has never been this easy – search for a PhD by keyword, location or academic area of interest.

How Many Words Is a PhD Thesis?

A common question we receive from students is – “how long should my thesis be?“.

Every university has different guidelines on this matter, therefore, consult with your university to get an understanding of their full requirements. Generally speaking, most supervisors will suggest somewhere between 70,000 and 100,000 words . This usually corresponds to somewhere between 250 – 350 pages .

We must stress that this is flexible, and it is important not to focus solely on the length of your thesis, but rather the quality.

How Do I Format My Thesis?

Although the exact formatting requirements will vary depending on the university, the typical formatting policies adopted by most universities are:

What Happens When I Finish My Thesis?

After you have submitted your thesis, you will attend a viva . A viva is an interview-style examination during which you are required to defend your thesis and answer questions on it. The aim of the viva is to convince your examiners that your work is of the level required for a doctoral degree. It is one of the last steps in the PhD process and arguably one of the most daunting!

For more information on the viva process and for tips on how to confidently pass it, please refer to our in-depth PhD Viva Guide .

How Do I Publish My Thesis?

Unfortunately, you can’t publish your thesis in its entirety in a journal. However, universities can make it available for others to read through their library system.

If you want to submit your work in a journal, you will need to develop it into one or more peer-reviewed papers. This will largely involve reformatting, condensing and tailoring it to meet the standards of the journal you are targeting.

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Graduate School of Health and Medical Sciences

• Thesis and defence

Thesis formalities

Before submitting your PhD thesis, please read the following requirements for a PhD thesis at the Graduate School of Health and Medical Sciences.

Thesis format: Synopsis or monograph

The PhD thesis should be written in English, and may either be written as a monograph or as a synopsis with manuscripts/papers included.  As a general rule, the PhD student may not copy text directly from own  manuscripts/papers. This is perceived as potential self-plagiarism and is not acceptable.

The synopsis-based thesis consists of a synopsis and published papers and/or unpublished manuscripts. There are no specific requirements concerning the number or type of first or co-authored papers/manuscripts.

The synopsis is typically 30-60 pages long (papers or manuscripts not included), but there are no specific requirements concerning the number of pages in the synopsis. The synopsis should clearly and concisely encapsulate and discuss the research findings presented in the manuscripts/papers included in the thesis. The synopsis should at least include:

• Summaries in Danish and English (a requirement according to the PhD Order section 12, subsection 3)
• Methods: this chapter should briefly summarize and reflect on the methods used
• Description of the research project placed in the context of international state-of-the-art research within the subject area
• Summary of the results of the papers and their relation to international state-of-the-art research within the subject area
• If required for the studies, information on ethical and legal permits and approvals
• Conclusions and perspectives for further research
• Chapters consisting of any papers or manuscripts included in the thesis. The chapters must appear in the end of the thesis.

The monograph is typically 100 pages long, but the number of pages can vary. The monograph should include the following elements:

• Summaries in Danish and English
• Description of the research project placed in the context of international state-of the-art research within the subject area
• Description of the research carried out (including materials, methods and results)
• If required for the studies, information on ethical and legal permits and approvals
• Discussion of results

Thesis front page layout

• The red UCPH logo must be included on the front page of the thesis. Please note that the official logo includes the red line that intersects with the lowest red circle. 
• The following must be stated on the front page of the thesis: “This thesis has been submitted to the Graduate School of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen [INSERT DATE].
• See also   UCPH design template - Please notice that the template only suggests the text “Submitted on:”, but The Graduate School requires the full text “This thesis has been submitted to the Graduate School of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen [INSERT DATE]”.
• Please remember to change the standard text in the upper left corner of the template. Insert the name of your own department or faculty.
• Font, image use, etc. are agreed between the PhD student and the supervisor
• The entire thesis – including published articles and/or unpublished manuscripts – has to be screened for plagiarism at The Royal Library. Therefore the entire thesis has to be OCR-readable. This means no articles and no text can be inserted as pictures. How to convert your thesis into an OCR-readable PDF
• Your thesis must not exceed 40MB. Minimize it by compressing any images. The co-authorship declarations must be submitted in a separate PDF.

Declaration of co-authorship

Any articles included in the thesis may be written in cooperation with others, provided that each of the co-authors submits a written declaration stating the PhD student's or the author's contribution to the work. It must appear from the co-authorship declaration if an article or manuscript is also included in a co-author’s thesis. If a manuscript or published paper has eleven or less authors, all authors must sign a declaration of co-authorship. If it has twelve or more authors, only the PhD student, the corresponding author(s), the senior author and the principal supervisor need to sign the declaration of co-authorship.

The contribution of the PhD student must be described in the co-authorship declaration if an article or manuscript is also included in a co-author’s thesis.

Download:   Declaration of  co-authorship

Use of material from published articles (including your own)

Use of your own material from published articles

As a general rule, you may not copy text directly from your own manuscripts/papers into the thesis. This is perceived as potential self-plagiarism and is not acceptable. However, generally it is accepted to copy methods descriptions, concrete results incl. figures and tables when appropriately marked and referenced. If you have transferred copyright of your own publication to a publisher, the Graduate School recommends that you obtain permission from the copyright owner before you publish.

Of note, the Faculty screens all PhD theses for duplicate text using iThenticate immediately after submission and prior to forwarding to the assessment committee. iThenticate screens PhD theses against published papers, not your unpublished manuscripts.

To read more please see these guidelines avoiding potential plagiarism and self-plagiarism  in your PhD thesis.

Use of material from published articles in general

If you copy/adapt figures, tables or other content from published articles (including your own) it is important that the source is always clearly stated in the thesis (e.g. in the figure text).

To avoid conflicts with the owner of the copied material, the Graduate School recommends that you obtain permission from the copyright owner(s) to publish material from already published articles in your thesis. This includes your own publications if you have transferred copyright to the publisher. The allocation of the copyright often depends on which contract the journal's publisher has signed with the article's author(s). If the copied material is published open access, it is typically allowed to copy the material by referring to the Creative Commons license .

If you plan to use this kind of material, we recommend that you contact the relevant publisher to ask for permission to use the material. It can typically be done at no cost via an online permission application link on the publications website. We also advice you to consult the information on KUnet and/or contact the library if you have questions regarding copyright.

Copyright of the PhD thesis

As a main rule the PhD thesis is not considered a publication, and PhD students are entitled to the copyright of their own unpublished manuscripts and the synopsis of the PhD thesis.

However, the copyright to any published articles in the PhD thesis or copied figures, tables and texts belongs to the publisher, depending on the agreement in each case.

To ensure compliance with copyright regulations, please adhere to the following guidelines:

• Publisher Permission: Ensure that the publisher permits the inclusion of the article(s) in the thesis, especially if you plan to distribute the thesis or if the articles are not Open Access.
• Clearing Copyrights: Obtain clearances for copyrights before submitting the thesis, and explicitly state in the thesis that necessary permissions have been obtained. If you ie. include figures/tables from already published papers in the synopsis, please specify permission under each figure/table. Permission for including an already published article in your thesis (typically inserted after the synopsis), should be stated in the introduction of the thesis or before each article.
• Accessibility Considerations: Be aware that even if a publisher allows articles in PhD theses, they may have policies on the accessibility of the thesis after defense, such as restrictions on digital availability.

For more information about copyright please contact the Department for Research Support, see link: Copyright – University of Copenhagen (ku.dk)

Thesis accessibility and distribution

Regarding thesis accessibility and distribution, please be aware of the following guidelines:

• Pre-Defence Distribution: The Graduate School allows interested parties to obtain a copy of the thesis from the PhD student before the defence, but otherwise the thesis is not freely available online. Requests for access to your thesis prior to the defence cannot be declined.
• Managing Requests: When receiving requests to access your thesis, inform recipients that it cannot be shared with others. This is particularly crucial if the thesis includes articles that are not Open Access.
• Additional Guidance: Familiarize yourself with university policies on thesis accessibility and consider seeking guidance from your advisors or the university's copyright office if needed.

Nominating an assessment committee

Screening for duplicate text, submission of thesis, illustration: the final stages of the phd.

Harvard University Theses, Dissertations, and Prize Papers

The Harvard University Archives ’ collection of theses, dissertations, and prize papers document the wide range of academic research undertaken by Harvard students over the course of the University’s history.

Beyond their value as pieces of original research, these collections document the history of American higher education, chronicling both the growth of Harvard as a major research institution as well as the development of numerous academic fields. They are also an important source of biographical information, offering insight into the academic careers of the authors.

Spanning from the ‘theses and quaestiones’ of the 17th and 18th centuries to the current yearly output of student research, they include both the first Harvard Ph.D. dissertation (by William Byerly, Ph.D . 1873) and the dissertation of the first woman to earn a doctorate from Harvard ( Lorna Myrtle Hodgkinson , Ed.D. 1922).

Other highlights include:

• The collection of Mathematical theses, 1782-1839
• The 1895 Ph.D. dissertation of W.E.B. Du Bois, The suppression of the African slave trade in the United States, 1638-1871
• Ph.D. dissertations of astronomer Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin (Ph.D. 1925) and physicist John Hasbrouck Van Vleck (Ph.D. 1922)
• Undergraduate honors theses of novelist John Updike (A.B. 1954), filmmaker Terrence Malick (A.B. 1966),  and U.S. poet laureate Tracy Smith (A.B. 1994)
• Undergraduate prize papers and dissertations of philosophers Ralph Waldo Emerson (A.B. 1821), George Santayana (Ph.D. 1889), and W.V. Quine (Ph.D. 1932)
• Undergraduate honors theses of U.S. President John F. Kennedy (A.B. 1940) and Chief Justice John Roberts (A.B. 1976)

What does a prize-winning thesis look like?

If you're a Harvard undergraduate writing your own thesis, it can be helpful to review recent prize-winning theses. The Harvard University Archives has made available for digital lending all of the Thomas Hoopes Prize winners from the 2019-2021 academic years.

Accessing These Materials

How to access materials at the Harvard University Archives

How to find and request dissertations, in person or virtually

How to find and request undergraduate honors theses

How to find and request Thomas Temple Hoopes Prize papers

How to find and request Bowdoin Prize papers

• email: Email
• Phone number 617-495-2461

Related Collections

Harvard faculty personal and professional archives, harvard student life collections: arts, sports, politics and social life, access materials at the harvard university archives.

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How To Use Commas in PhD Theses Correctly and Consistently

Posted by Rene Tetzner | Nov 3, 2021 | PhD Success | 0 |

5.6 Punctuating Correctly and Consistently: Errors and Preferences

Punctuation may seem a tiny matter, but even the tiniest mark of punctuation can have a striking effect on the meaning of a sentence, and the ultimate goal of punctuation should always be clarity of communication and ease of reading. There is no one single system of correct punctuation in the English language, however, so there is considerable room for author preferences and individual styles, yet the punctuation used in a sentence (or an entire thesis) must function effectively. I therefore deal here with situations in which punctuation tends to be problematic for many academic and scientific authors or in which punctuation can be treated in more than one way. In some cases, the focus is on correct usage and the patterns that are required in formal English prose, while in others the options are considered and the importance of adopting a particular approach or style throughout a thesis is emphasised. Please note that this section focuses on punctuation in the normal running text of a doctoral thesis, so for advice on punctuating references and quotations, see Chapters 7 and 8 below. It also focuses on general contexts, but certain disciplines, topics and material will require special punctuation procedures (an exclamation mark, for example, has specific meanings in mathematics, where it is a factorial sign, and computing, where it is a delimiter symbol). You are probably already aware of any specialised uses in your own discipline, but as a good starting place for further advice, see Chapters 13 and 14 of Butcher et al. (2006), Chapter 14 of the Chicago Manual of Style (2003) and Chapters 13 and 14 of Ritter (2005). For more information on the general rules of punctuation in English, see, for instance, the Penguin Guide to Punctuation (Trask, 1997).

5.6.1 Commas, Semicolons and Colons

Commas. Although commas indicate the shortest pause and smallest break possible in a sentence’s structure, their appropriate use also tends to present significant difficulties for authors, particularly, I suspect, because commas are used in so many different situations and are often governed by author and style preferences rather than by strict rules of correct usage. Some functions of the comma are more straightforward than others, but, generally speaking, variations are possible in many instances where a comma might be used depending on the precise meaning, context and sentence structure. A comma almost always appears after ‘yes’ or ‘no,’ for instance – ‘Yes, I agree’ or ‘No, I don’t think so’ – and a comma usually follows a name in a direct address (e.g., ‘Sarah, will you please pass the pepper’) or in a salutation in correspondence (Dear Sarah,). In formal business letters in American English, however, a colon is often used instead of the comma (Dear Sarah:), and there is a tendency in both British and American English for punctuation to be omitted from letters; if it is not, a comma should also precede the final signature (Yours sincerely,). A comma follows an exclamatory ‘oh’ or ‘ah’ as well, but only if a pause is intended – ‘Oh, what a lovely day!’ but ‘Oh no!’ – and a comma should not be included after either of them in a vocative construction (Oh cruel master!).

A comma is also used after other introductory parts of sentences, such as an initial adverb – ‘However, my findings did not confirm this’ or ‘Accordingly, I conducted the trial a second time’ – but a comma does not follow the adverb if it modifies an adjective or another adverb (e.g., ‘However hard she tries, she will not finish her thesis this month’), although in such cases a comma generally does follow the entire opening clause (after ‘tries’ here). Introductory adverbial clauses and indeed all initial dependent or subordinate clauses (clauses, that is, that are dependent upon the main clause that follows; see Section 5.4.5) are generally followed by a comma –‘After writing all night, I was exhausted’ or ‘If he had been digging all day, he would be exhausted.’ The comma is not necessary, however, if the introductory phrase is short, particularly if it indicates time or location (On Sunday she goes to church), or if the dependent clause immediately precedes the verb it modifies (Out of the forest walked the woman they were seeking). The comma is also not required if the dependent clause follows the main clause and is restrictive (or defining), which is to say that it cannot be removed without significantly altering the sentence’s meaning – ‘He was exhausted after digging all day’ – but if the dependent clause that follows is nonrestrictive (or nondefining), which means that it adds supplementary information that is not strictly essential to the sentence’s meaning, a comma should be used (He was exhausted, if you ask me).

This pattern of usage also applies to other restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses, such as relative or parenthetical clauses: if the clause is necessary to the meaning of a sentence (restrictive), no comma is needed before it and no comma is needed after it either if it appears in the middle of the sentence (The people who live there enjoy mild weather every day), but if the clause is supplementary, a comma should precede the relative or parenthetical clause and follow it as well if the clause appears in the middle of the sentence (The people, who speak the southern dialect, enjoy mild weather every day). In restrictive relative clauses, either ‘which’ or ‘that’ is acceptable – ‘She focussed on her topic with an intensity which I thought extraordinary’ or ‘She focussed on her topic with an intensity that I thought extraordinary’ – but in nonrestrictive clauses ‘that’ should not be used and ‘which’ is the correct choice (The thesis, which was very well written, was submitted to the committee). In American English there is a tendency to use ‘that’ instead of ‘which’ for restrictive relative clauses, so if you are following the conventions of American English, it is a good idea to use ‘that’ for all such clauses. Finally, if the meaning is clear, the word ‘that’ is not strictly necessary – ‘the book I wrote’ is as correct as ‘the book that I wrote’ – and sometimes such wording can be smoother and less cumbersome.

The same general principles of comma use apply to words, phrases, clauses or abbreviations in apposition: no commas are required around the appositive part of the sentence if it is restrictive and therefore essential to the sentence. In the case of a name, for example, this means that the appositive part specifies which one of more than one person or thing is intended: ‘The medieval poet Langland wrote Piers Plowman .’ If, however, the name and the ‘medieval poet’ are transposed in the sentence, the ‘medieval poet’ becomes nonrestrictive, providing supplementary information about the named poet, and should therefore be enclosed in commas: ‘Langland, the medieval poet, wrote Piers Plowman .’ In such constructions, a pair of en rules or em rules (see Section 5.6.4) or a pair of parentheses (see Section 5.6.5) can instead surround the nonrestrictive material, but they indicate a relationship between that material and the surrounding text that is not as close as that implied by commas: ‘Langland (the medieval poet) wrote Piers Plowman .’ Parenthetical adverbs or interjections that appear mid-sentence are similarly enclosed in commas – ‘The questionnaires, therefore, were recirculated,’ ‘It is uncertain, however, whether all the participants could be located’ and ‘That, indeed, was the last thing we expected’ – but if the adverb is essential to the meaning of the clause or sentence, no commas should be used: ‘The participants were found and the questionnaires were therefore recirculated’ and ‘The lecture was indeed too long.’ Commas should not be used for an appositive or parenthetical phrase that is part of a name, so ‘Bob, the carpenter from the shop, built the house’ is correct with commas, but ‘Bob the carpenter built the house’ is correct without them.

When presenting a series or list of three or more items (words, phrases or clauses) in which the final item is preceded by a conjunction (‘and’ or ‘or), commas are used after the items that are not followed by a conjunction, but whether or not a comma (known as a ‘serial comma’) should appear before the conjunction is in most cases a matter of choice (on lists, see also Section 5.5.2). No comma is required for correct English usage – ‘She bought milk, juice and coffee’ and ‘Dave cooked the steaks, Samantha prepared the vegetables and Adam poured the wine’ – even if the last item is a compound joined by a conjunction: ‘She bought milk, juice and tea and coffee.’ It is equally correct, however, to use a serial comma: ‘She bought milk, juice, and coffee,’ ‘Dave cooked the steaks, Samantha prepared the vegetables, and Adam poured the wine’ and ‘She bought milk, juice, and tea and coffee.’ The serial comma is used particularly in American English and by US publishers, but it is also used by Oxford University Press (hence its alternative name ‘Oxford comma’) and some other UK publishers, so the use of British or American English does not necessarily decide the issue, though you may want to use this distinction if your department or university guidelines call for a particular form of English, but give no advice on the use of the serial comma. On the other hand, if you want to keep punctuation to a minimum, you may choose not to use serial commas, but if you tend to use a lot of compounds joined by conjunctions in series, using serial commas may well be the best choice to ensure clarity of communication. Whether you choose to use the serial comma or not, your usage should remain consistent throughout your thesis, although if the serial comma is not normally used, it can still be used occasionally to avoid ambiguity and confusion. When a compound item joined by a conjunction appears before the main conjunction in a list, for example, using a comma before that main conjunction can help clarify the author’s meaning: in ‘They brought root beer, vanilla and chocolate ice cream, and cookies,’ for instance, the serial comma is necessary before the final ‘and’ to avoid the implication that the ‘cookies,’ too, were ‘vanilla and chocolate.’

When one (or more) of the items in a series or list is long and complex or uses additional punctuation, semicolons instead of commas should be used between the items (see below), in which case a final semicolon should appear where the serial comma normally would even if serial commas are not generally used in the thesis. If, on the other hand, conjunctions are used between all items in a list or series – ‘the options are juice or wine or beer’ – no commas are needed, but they can be used if the items are particularly long or complex and the commas will help clarify the meaning. As I mentioned in my discussion of lists in Section 5.5.2, it is important to ensure that only items that share a valid syntactical relationship with the introductory part of the sentence be linked with commas and a final conjunction: for example, ‘The thesis must be well written, thoroughly proofread and use a serial comma consistently’ is poorer style than ‘The thesis must be well written and thoroughly proofread, and use a serial comma consistently’ because the third item (use a serial comma consistently) does not work grammatically with the introductory ‘The thesis must be.’ When an ampersand (&) is used instead of ‘and’ in a series (a usage that is generally only acceptable in parenthetical and supplementary materials), the use of a serial comma before it can be determined by usage elsewhere in the thesis (‘She bought milk, juice, & coffee’ or ‘She bought milk, juice & coffee’). Finally, although the abbreviation ‘etc.’ should also be avoided in the running text of formal prose, when it is used to end a series in parenthetical material or tables, it should be preceded by a comma if a serial comma is used elsewhere in the thesis (She bought milk, juice, coffee, etc.), but not if a serial comma is not usually used in the thesis (She bought milk, juice, coffee etc.). If the sentence continues after the series, ‘etc.’ is often but not necessarily followed by a comma (She bought milk, juice, coffee etc., although she didn’t need to buy anything). When an English equivalent of ‘etc.’ (‘and so forth,’ ‘and so on’ or ‘and the like’) is used in the main text instead of ‘etc.,’ it, too, should be preceded by a comma or not according to the use of serial commas elsewhere in the thesis: ‘She bought milk, juice, coffee, and the like’ or ‘She bought milk, juice, coffee and so on.’ (For more information on using the ampersand and ‘etc.,’ see Section 6.3.)

Unlike the serial comma, the use of which is dependent on preferences and meaning, a comma splice is an error and must be avoided. A comma splice occurs when two main clauses (whether they share a subject or have different subjects) are joined together into one sentence via a comma alone, as in ‘I love buying old books, I go to the used bookshop almost every weekend’ or ‘We were delighted, one of the younger members even shouted out with glee.’ A semicolon can be used instead of the comma (e.g., ‘I love buying old books; I go to the used bookshop almost every weekend’) to fix the problem, or a full stop and capital can be added to divide the incorrect sentence into two: ‘We were delighted. One of the younger members even shouted out with glee.’ Alternatively, the comma can be retained and a conjunction (‘and,’ ‘or,’ ‘but’ etc.) added between the two clauses – ‘We were delighted, and one of the younger members even shouted out with glee’ – but if a conjunction is used and the independent clauses are short and closely connected, the comma may not be necessary (He bought coffee and she brought cream). Similarly, the comma may not be necessary if the sentence’s clauses form a compound predicate (two or more verbs with the same subject) instead of independent clauses, but the conjunction is required in such cases: ‘I love buying old books and I go to the used bookshop almost every weekend.’ If there is any potential for confusion, however, a comma should be used: for example, if the comma were not included in ‘Spike did not recognise the woman who walked through the door, and barked,’ the sentence would imply that the woman walking through the door (rather than the dog named Spike) was doing the barking. A comma splice also occurs when two main clauses are linked only by an adverb or adverbial phrase (‘She was afraid, nevertheless she stood her ground’ or ‘The instructor intimidated him, as a result he dropped the course’). The best solution to this problem is to use a semicolon instead of the comma, and often a comma after the adverb or adverbial phrase is appropriate as well (‘She was afraid; nevertheless she stood her ground’ or ‘The instructor intimidated him; as a result, he dropped the course’).

Commas can also be used between two or more adjectives preceding a noun, but rules and conventions for this usage vary considerably. The Chicago Manual of Style (2003), for instance, explains that if the adjectives ‘could, without affecting the meaning, be joined by and , the adjectives are normally separated by commas,’ but ‘if the noun and the adjective immediately preceding it are conceived as a unit . . . , no comma should be used’ (p.250). Following this method, ‘faithful, sincere friend’ bears a comma, but ‘many young friends’ does not. New Hart’s Rules (Ritter, 2005, Section 4.3.4), on the other hand, suggests an approach based on the type of adjective used, with adjectives such as ‘big,’ ‘tiny,’ ‘happy’ and ‘sad’ being gradable or qualitative adjectives, while adjectives such as ‘white,’ ‘black,’ ‘English’ and ‘treacherous’ are classifying adjectives. According to this system (Ritter, 2005, Section 4.3.4), ‘a comma is needed to separate two or more qualitative adjectives’ (such as ‘a short, thick tree’) but ‘no comma is needed to separate adjectives of different types’ (a big black cat) or to separate classifying adjectives that ‘relate to different classifying systems’ (‘annual environmental damage’ or ‘English Renaissance love poets’). Whichever system is used, when an adjective is repeated before a noun – ‘many, many tourists visit the Grand Canyon’ – a comma is usually inserted between the two instances. Exceptions can be made to these rules, however, so do check to see if your department or university has preferences with regard to the use of commas between adjectives (in technical writing, for example, commas are often kept to a bare minimum), and if there are no guidelines to follow, it is often better to use fewer commas than more (some authors will use none at all between adjectives), much as it is better to use one or two adjectives perfect for the context rather than a long string of them.

Commas are often used around interjected phrases beginning with ‘not’ or ‘not only’ (e.g., ‘The student himself, not his supervisor, led the meeting’), but they are not as necessary when the clauses are short, simple and closely related (The dog was not white but black). The principle is similar with ‘the more . . ., the more,’ ‘the more . . ., the less’ and similar statements. A comma should be used between longer clauses, but not between short phrases: for example, ‘the more I learn about the thesis process, the less intimidated I feel,’ but ‘the more the merrier.’ Commas are often used to introduce brief quoted material as well as direct speech (‘According to Taylor, “the results could be reproduced”’ and ‘Tiffany replied, “Not today”’), but if a conjunction such as ‘that’ or ‘whether’ is used before the quotation, no comma is required (Taylor argued that ‘the results could be reproduced’), and if the quotation is longer or the context more formal, a colon should be used instead of a comma (see the discussion of colons below, and for more information on punctuating quotations, see Chapter 8). Maxims and proverbs are usually treated much as quotations and appositives are, making use of commas when necessary to clarify the sense: ‘Samantha’s personal motto, “early to bed, early to rise,” is not mine,’ but ‘The motto “early to bed, early to rise” is one I should observe more often.’ A comma is also used to introduce a question in running text – ‘He asked her, how will the changes affect the thesis?’ – and although no initial capital is required to begin the question, if the question is long or contains internal punctuation, an initial capital can be helpful: ‘He asked her, If I follow these guidelines, how will the changes affect the thesis?’ Notice that quotation marks are not required around the question (though they can be used to indicate direct speech), and when the question is indirect, neither the comma nor the question mark is needed either: ‘He is wondering how the changes will affect the thesis.’

Commas are frequently used to indicate the omission of a word or words, but the missing element(s) must be obvious from the context and the words that are provided in the sentence: for example, ‘in the evergreens there are four nests of robins; in the deciduous trees, five of sparrows; in the marsh snags, six of chickadees,’ in which the words ‘there are . . . nests’ are represented by each of the commas. The commas may be omitted, however, if the meaning is clear without them: ‘the robins returned in March, the chickadees in April and the sparrows in May.’ This sort of elliptical structure can be difficult to perfect and tends to be either underused or overused by authors, so do check any usage of this kind in your thesis carefully to be sure that it is as concise as it can be without omitting essential information. You should also ensure that you have used commas properly in numerals (to mark the ‘thousands,’ for instance, in numbers such as ‘272,098,’ ‘11,354,209’ and ‘2,524,307,099’), dates (after the day in March 17, 2011 in American English, for example: for more information on punctuation in both numbers and dates, see Section 6.4 below), and addresses and place names (in running text, for instance, commas are used to separate addresses and place names: ‘750, Richmond Road, Victoria, British Columbia). References also make use of commas: commas appear between the dates of sources written by the same author in parenthetical author–date references – ‘(Pearsall, 1987, 1996, 2001, 2006)’ – and (usually without spaces) between the numerals used for numerical in-text references: ‘(8,9,12,16,18).’ They also appear in various places (depending on the referencing system and style used) in full bibliographical references, whether those references are provided in notes or in a list (see Chapter 7 for more information on punctuating references). Many of the instances in which commas are used may seem simple or obvious, but errors and inconsistencies associated with the use of commas arise with surprising frequency in scholarly writing, so it is important to remain alert to the small details of comma use as well as to the larger patterns as you draft, proofread and revise your thesis chapters.

Why PhD Success?

To Graduate Successfully

This article is part of a book called "PhD Success" which focuses on the writing process of a phd thesis, with its aim being to provide sound practices and principles for reporting and formatting in text the methods, results and discussion of even the most innovative and unique research in ways that are clear, correct, professional and persuasive.

The assumption of the book is that the doctoral candidate reading it is both eager to write and more than capable of doing so, but nonetheless requires information and guidance on exactly what he or she should be writing and how best to approach the task. The basic components of a doctoral thesis are outlined and described, as are the elements of complete and accurate scholarly references, and detailed descriptions of writing practices are clarified through the use of numerous examples.

The basic components of a doctoral thesis are outlined and described, as are the elements of complete and accurate scholarly references, and detailed descriptions of writing practices are clarified through the use of numerous examples. PhD Success provides guidance for students familiar with English and the procedures of English universities, but it also acknowledges that many theses in the English language are now written by candidates whose first language is not English, so it carefully explains the scholarly styles, conventions and standards expected of a successful doctoral thesis in the English language.

Individual chapters of this book address reflective and critical writing early in the thesis process; working successfully with thesis supervisors and benefiting from commentary and criticism; drafting and revising effective thesis chapters and developing an academic or scientific argument; writing and formatting a thesis in clear and correct scholarly English; citing, quoting and documenting sources thoroughly and accurately; and preparing for and excelling in thesis meetings and examinations. 

Completing a doctoral thesis successfully requires long and penetrating thought, intellectual rigour and creativity, original research and sound methods (whether established or innovative), precision in recording detail and a wide-ranging thoroughness, as much perseverance and mental toughness as insight and brilliance, and, no matter how many helpful writing guides are consulted, a great deal of hard work over a significant period of time. Writing a thesis can be an enjoyable as well as a challenging experience, however, and even if it is not always so, the personal and professional rewards of achieving such an enormous goal are considerable, as all doctoral candidates no doubt realise, and will last a great deal longer than any problems that may be encountered during the process.

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Rene Tetzner

Rene Tetzner's blog posts dedicated to academic writing. Although the focus is on How To Write a Doctoral Thesis, many other important aspects of research-based writing, editing and publishing are addressed in helpful detail.

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