environment and sustainable development essay

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Essay on Sustainable Development: Samples in 250, 300 and 500 Words

Updated on
Nov 18, 2023

On 3rd August 2023, the Indian Government released its Net zero emissions target policy to reduce its carbon footprints. To achieve the sustainable development goals (SDG) , as specified by the UN, India is determined for its long-term low-carbon development strategy. Selfishly pursuing modernization, humans have frequently compromised with the requirements of a more sustainable environment.

As a result, the increased environmental depletion is evident with the prevalence of deforestation, pollution, greenhouse gases, climate change etc. To combat these challenges, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change launched the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) in 2019. The objective was to improve air quality in 131 cities in 24 States/UTs by engaging multiple stakeholders.

‘Development is not real until and unless it is sustainable development.’ – Ban Ki-Moon

The concept of Sustainable Development in India has even greater relevance due to the controversy surrounding the big dams and mega projects and related long-term growth. Since it is quite a frequently asked topic in school tests as well as competitive exams , we are here to help you understand what this concept means as well as the mantras to drafting a well-written essay on Sustainable Development with format and examples.

This Blog Includes:

What is sustainable development, 250-300 words essay on sustainable development, 300 words essay on sustainable development, 500 words essay on sustainable development, introduction, conclusion of sustainable development essay, importance of sustainable development, examples of sustainable development.

As the term simply explains, Sustainable Development aims to bring a balance between meeting the requirements of what the present demands while not overlooking the needs of future generations. It acknowledges nature’s requirements along with the human’s aim to work towards the development of different aspects of the world. It aims to efficiently utilise resources while also meticulously planning the accomplishment of immediate as well as long-term goals for human beings, the planet as well and future generations. In the present time, the need for Sustainable Development is not only for the survival of mankind but also for its future protection.

Looking for ideas to incorporate in your Essay on Sustainable Development? Read our blog on Energy Management – Find Your Sustainable Career Path and find out!

To give you an idea of the way to deliver a well-written essay, we have curated a sample on sustainable development below, with 250-300 words:

To give you an idea of the way to deliver a well-written essay, we have curated a sample on sustainable development below, with 300 + words:

Must Read: Article Writing

To give you an idea of the way to deliver a well-written essay, we have curated a sample on sustainable development below, with 500 + words:

Essay Format

Before drafting an essay on Sustainable Development, students need to get familiarised with the format of essay writing, to know how to structure the essay on a given topic. Take a look at the following pointers which elaborate upon the format of a 300-350 word essay.

Introduction (50-60 words) In the introduction, students must introduce or provide an overview of the given topic, i.e. highlighting and adding recent instances and questions related to sustainable development. Body of Content (100-150 words) The area of the content after the introduction can be explained in detail about why sustainable development is important, its objectives and highlighting the efforts made by the government and various institutions towards it. Conclusion (30-40 words) In the essay on Sustainable Development, you must add a conclusion wrapping up the content in about 2-3 lines, either with an optimistic touch to it or just summarizing what has been talked about above.

How to write the introduction of a sustainable development essay? To begin with your essay on sustainable development, you must mention the following points:

What is sustainable development?
What does sustainable development focus on?
Why is it useful for the environment?

How to write the conclusion of a sustainable development essay? To conclude your essay on sustainable development, mention why it has become the need of the hour. Wrap up all the key points you have mentioned in your essay and provide some important suggestions to implement sustainable development.

The importance of sustainable development is that it meets the needs of the present generations without compromising on the needs of the coming future generations. Sustainable development teaches us to use our resources in the correct manner. Listed below are some points which tell us the importance of sustainable development.

Focuses on Sustainable Agricultural Methods – Sustainable development is important because it takes care of the needs of future generations and makes sure that the increasing population does not put a burden on Mother Earth. It promotes agricultural techniques such as crop rotation and effective seeding techniques.
Manages Stabilizing the Climate – We are facing the problem of climate change due to the excessive use of fossil fuels and the killing of the natural habitat of animals. Sustainable development plays a major role in preventing climate change by developing practices that are sustainable. It promotes reducing the use of fossil fuels which release greenhouse gases that destroy the atmosphere.
Provides Important Human Needs – Sustainable development promotes the idea of saving for future generations and making sure that resources are allocated to everybody. It is based on the principle of developing an infrastructure that is can be sustained for a long period of time.
Sustain Biodiversity – If the process of sustainable development is followed, the home and habitat of all other living animals will not be depleted. As sustainable development focuses on preserving the ecosystem it automatically helps in sustaining and preserving biodiversity.
Financial Stability – As sustainable development promises steady development the economies of countries can become stronger by using renewable sources of energy as compared to using fossil fuels, of which there is only a particular amount on our planet.

Mentioned below are some important examples of sustainable development. Have a look:

Wind Energy – Wind energy is an easily available resource. It is also a free resource. It is a renewable source of energy and the energy which can be produced by harnessing the power of wind will be beneficial for everyone. Windmills can produce energy which can be used to our benefit. It can be a helpful source of reducing the cost of grid power and is a fine example of sustainable development.
Solar Energy – Solar energy is also a source of energy which is readily available and there is no limit to it. Solar energy is being used to replace and do many things which were first being done by using non-renewable sources of energy. Solar water heaters are a good example. It is cost-effective and sustainable at the same time.
Crop Rotation – To increase the potential of growth of gardening land, crop rotation is an ideal and sustainable way. It is rid of any chemicals and reduces the chances of disease in the soil. This form of sustainable development is beneficial to both commercial farmers and home gardeners.
Efficient Water Fixtures – The installation of hand and head showers in our toilets which are efficient and do not waste or leak water is a method of conserving water. Water is essential for us and conserving every drop is important. Spending less time under the shower is also a way of sustainable development and conserving water.
Sustainable Forestry – This is an amazing way of sustainable development where the timber trees that are cut by factories are replaced by another tree. A new tree is planted in place of the one which was cut down. This way, soil erosion is prevented and we have hope of having a better, greener future.

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of 17 global goals established by the United Nations in 2015. These include: No Poverty Zero Hunger Good Health and Well-being Quality Education Gender Equality Clean Water and Sanitation Affordable and Clean Energy Decent Work and Economic Growth Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure Reduced Inequality Sustainable Cities and Communities Responsible Consumption and Production Climate Action Life Below Water Life on Land Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions Partnerships for the Goals

The SDGs are designed to address a wide range of global challenges, such as eradicating extreme poverty globally, achieving food security, focusing on promoting good health and well-being, inclusive and equitable quality education, etc.

India is ranked #111 in the Sustainable Development Goal Index 2023 with a score of 63.45.

Hence, we hope that this blog helped you understand the key features of an essay on sustainable development. If you are interested in Environmental studies and planning to pursue sustainable tourism courses , take the assistance of Leverage Edu ’s AI-based tool to browse through a plethora of programs available in this specialised field across the globe and find the best course and university combination that fits your interests, preferences and aspirations. Call us immediately at 1800 57 2000 for a free 30-minute counselling session

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Essay On Sustainable Development

500 words essay on sustainable development.

Sustainable development is basically an action plan which helps us to achieve sustainability in any activity which makes use of the resource. Moreover, it also demands immediate and intergenerational replication. Through essay on sustainable development, we will help you understand the concept and its advantages.

Through sustainable development, we formulate organising principles which help to sustain the limited resources essential to provide for the needs of our future generations. As a result, they will be able to lead a content life on the planet .

What is Sustainable Development?

The World Commission on Environment and Development popularized this concept in 1987. Their report defines the idea as a “development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.”

In other words, they aimed to prevent the stripping the natural world of resources which the future generations will require. As we all know that usually, one particular need drives development. Consequently, the wider future impacts are not considered.

As a result, a lot of damage happens due to this type of approach. Thus, the longer we continue to pursue unsustainable development, the more severe will the consequences be. One of the most common is climate change which is being debated widely worldwide.

In fact, climate change is already wreaking havoc on our surroundings. So, the need of the hour is sustainable development. We must ask ourselves, must we leave a scorched planet with an ailing environment for our future generations?

In order to undo the mess created by us, we must follow sustainable development. This will help us promote a more social, environmental and economical thinking. Most importantly, it is not that difficult to attain this.

We must see that world as a system which connects space, and time. Basically, it helps you understand that water pollution in South Africa will ultimately impact water quality in India. Similarly, it is the case for other things as well.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Measures to Practice Sustainable Development

There are many measures to take up for practising sustainable development. To begin with, it is important to ensure clean and hygienic living and working conditions for the people.

Next, sponsoring research on environmental issues which pertains to regions. Further, ensuring safety against known and proven industrial hazards. It is also important to find economical methods to salvage dangerous industrial wastes.

Most importantly, we must encourage afforestation . Including environmental education as part of the school and college curriculum will also help. Similarly, it is essential to socialize and humanize all environmental issues.

Further, we must encourage uses of non-conventional sources of energy, especially solar energy. Looking for substitutes for proven dangerous materials on the basis of local resources and needs will help. Likewise, we must produce environment-friendly products.

It is also essential to popularize the use of organic fertilizers and other biotechniques. Finally, the key is environmental management which must be monitored and ensure accountability.

Conclusion of Essay on Sustainable Development

To sum it up, sustainable development continuously seeks to achieve social and economic progress in ways which will not exhaust the Earth’s finite natural resources. Thus, we must all develop ways to meet these needs so that our future generations can inherit a healthier and greener planet.

FAQ on Essay on Sustainable Development

Question 1: State two measures we can take for sustainable development.

Answer 1: The first measure we can take is by finding economical methods for salvaging hazardous industrial wastes. Next, we must encourage afforestation.

Question 2: What is the aim of sustainable development?

Answer 2 : The aim of sustainable development is to maximise human well-being or quality of life without having to risk the life support system.

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Sustainable Development Essay

500+ words essay on sustainable development.

Sustainable development is a central concept. It is a way of understanding the world and a method for solving global problems. The world population continues to rise rapidly. This increasing population needs basic essential things for their survival such as food, safe water, health care and shelter. This is where the concept of sustainable development comes into play. Sustainable development means meeting the needs of people without compromising the ability of future generations. In this essay on sustainable development, students will understand what sustainable development means and how we can practise sustainable development. Students can also access the list of CBSE essay topics to practise more essays.

What Does Sustainable Development Means?

The term “Sustainable Development” is defined as the development that meets the needs of the present generation without excessive use or abuse of natural resources so that they can be preserved for the next generation. There are three aims of sustainable development; first, the “Economic” which will help to attain balanced growth, second, the “Environment”, to preserve the ecosystem, and third, “Society” which will guarantee equal access to resources to all human beings. The key principle of sustainable development is the integration of environmental, social, and economic concerns into all aspects of decision-making.

Need for Sustainable Development?

There are several challenges that need attention in the arena of economic development and environmental depletion. Hence the idea of sustainable development is essential to address these issues. The need for sustainable development arises to curb or prevent environmental degradation. It will check the overexploitation and wastage of natural resources. It will help in finding alternative sources to regenerate renewable energy resources. It ensures a safer human life and a safer future for the next generation.

The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the need to keep sustainable development at the very core of any development strategy. The pandemic has challenged the health infrastructure, adversely impacted livelihoods and exacerbated the inequality in the food and nutritional availability in the country. The immediate impact of the COVID-19 pandemic enabled the country to focus on sustainable development. In these difficult times, several reform measures have been taken by the Government. The State Governments also responded with several measures to support those affected by the pandemic through various initiatives and reliefs to fight against this pandemic.

How to Practise Sustainable Development?

The concept of sustainable development was born to address the growing and changing environmental challenges that our planet is facing. In order to do this, awareness must be spread among the people with the help of many campaigns and social activities. People can adopt a sustainable lifestyle by taking care of a few things such as switching off the lights when not in use; thus, they save electricity. People must use public transport as it will reduce greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. They should save water and not waste food. They build a habit of using eco-friendly products. They should minimise waste generation by adapting to the principle of the 4 R’s which stands for refuse, reduce, reuse and recycle.

The concept of sustainable development must be included in the education system so that students get aware of it and start practising a sustainable lifestyle. With the help of empowered youth and local communities, many educational institutions should be opened to educate people about sustainable development. Thus, adapting to a sustainable lifestyle will help to save our Earth for future generations. Moreover, the Government of India has taken a number of initiatives on both mitigation and adaptation strategies with an emphasis on clean and efficient energy systems; resilient urban infrastructure; water conservation & preservation; safe, smart & sustainable green transportation networks; planned afforestation etc. The Government has also supported various sectors such as agriculture, forestry, coastal and low-lying systems and disaster management.

Students must have found this essay on sustainable development useful for practising their essay writing skills. They can get the study material and the latest updates on CBSE/ICSE/State Board/Competitive Exams, at BYJU’S.

Frequently Asked Questions on Sustainable development Essay

Why is sustainable development a hot topic for discussion.

Environment change and constant usage of renewable energy have become a concern for all of us around the globe. Sustainable development must be inculcated in young adults so that they make the Earth a better place.

What will happen if we do not practise sustainable development?

Landfills with waste products will increase and thereby there will be no space and land for humans and other species/organisms to thrive on.

What are the advantages of sustainable development?

Sustainable development helps secure a proper lifestyle for future generations. It reduces various kinds of pollution on Earth and ensures economic growth and development.

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Introduction of Sustainability, Sustainable Development, and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

What is sustainability.

Sustainability is a well-known and frequently used term of the 21st century. How often do you see or hear the word? Have you ever stopped to really think about what exactly does sustainability mean and where did the term originate from?

A quick Google search for ‘what is sustainability’ yields over 1.9 billion results. Sustainability is widely defined as ‘the ability to be maintained at a certain rate or level’. Embedded in most definitions of sustainability are concerns for the environment, social equity, and economic prosperity(1). Most definitions look to avoid the depletion of natural resources to maintain an ecological balance. Sustainability in the context of the environment looks at the activities required to balance social, economic, and environmental needs to maintain ecosystem services at a suitable level. It is generally accepted, the goals of sustainability are related to the need for the conservation of natural capital and ecosystem services, with a shift to a less resource-intensive future [1] .

While to most, the concept of sustainability is a relatively new idea, sustainability has a long history of use and meaning. The practice of sustainability has been utilized by various cultures for thousands of years, with the term sustainability first used in the 1700’s. Sustainability comes from the practice of nachhaltigkeit , translated to mean ‘sustained yield’ in English, a term coined in 1713 by German foresters [2] . Sustained yield refers to the practice of taking only enough trees to allow forests to naturally regenerate well into the future. The concept of sustained yield broadened to include the conservation of plants, animals, and other food necessities, eventually moving beyond the forestry discourse but still mainly confined to research and science.

It was not until the 1970’s that the concept of sustainability became more widely used. In January 1972, the journal the Ecologist published the Blueprint for Survival , a series of science papers calling for better management of natural resources and modification of consumptive lifestyles of western civilizations. That same year, a global think-tank published the report Limits to Growth , where a definition was given to the term sustainable. For the first time in the literature, sustainable was defined to mean without sudden and uncontrolled collapse and capable of satisfying the basic material requirements of all its people (2). Then later that year the United Nations (UN) world conference on human environment was held Stockholm, Sweden to address the global the growing environmental crisis. The term sustainable development was introduced into the discourse. As evidenced at the UN Conference, the environment was being neglected and not in balance with economic development.

Through the 1980’s, the concept of sustainability became more mainstream. In 1987, former Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland, as chairwoman of what was then the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) released a Report, widely known as the Brundtland’s Commission, Our Common Future . The report emphasized the importance that development should consider social, environmental, and economic aspects to ensure the sustainability of all human societies. Her main concern was that development had to meet “the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” [3] . This concept went on to become the most widely used definition of sustainability although in the context of sustainable development.

Although sustainability and sustainable development both consider the environment, society, and economies with a future timeframe, the two terms have very different meanings and should not be used interchangeably. Sustainability looks at the activities required to protect the environment as our base for survival while balancing social, cultural, and economic needs. It is generally accepted that the goals of sustainability are related to the need to conserve our natural world with a shift away from the resource-intensive current way of living 1 .

What is Sustainable Development?

We learned that sustainability is the process of living within the limits of available physical, natural, and social resources in ways that allow all living things, not only humans to thrive well into the future.

Sustainable development is a process that creates growth and progress through the addition of physical, economic, environmental, and social components to improve quality of life without damaging the resources of the environment. Simply put, sustainable development is a way for people to use resources without the resources running out 3 .

As previously discussed, the concept of sustainable development arrived in 1987 by the Brundtland Commission “Our Common Future”, the document that defined sustainable development as an approach designed to meet the needs of the present [generation] without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs 3 . This definition incorporated the understanding that economic growth is required to provide societies with the necessities of life such as clean water and food, while acknowledging the dilemma of environmental degradation that often coincides with economic development.

In 1992 the UN conference on the environment and development, informally known as the Earth Summit, or the Rio Conference took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The conference promoted the idea of ecological sustainable development and in order to achieve it you had to consider social development (communities). From the mid 1990’s, different strategies were developed to try to work out what sustainability means in practice, how do we get that middle area where the environment, economics, and social development are achieved at the same time. Governments alone can not achieve sustainable development. Governments can set regulations and determine infrastructure needs but they don’t tend to have long-term goals in mind, they tend to focus on election cycles which are typically about 4 to 8 years. The market economies (goods and services) timeframe is usually only about 4 months to a year. Sustainability is about long-term solutions. The market economies and governments can not effectively do this. If the community is not driving the will for a better more sustainable future, sustainable development will be difficult to achieve. As we previously discussed, the Brundtland Commission’s definition has become a widely used definition for sustainable development and sustainability and has therefore come with many challenges, including confusion over meaning, interpretations, and misinformation.

Recognizing some of the key challenges with the implementation of sustainable development and the quest for achieving a balance between the environment and economies, the role of people and societies were formally added into the equation for sustainable development in 2005 at the UN World Summit on Social Development. The three pillars of sustainability became widely known and currently used today:

(Click on the “?” icons below for more information):

This updated model for sustainable development recognizes that in order to meet the needs of current and future generations you have to consider the three pillars or the 3P’s (people, planet, prosperity), and they all need to be working together at the same. The key being all at the same time, or simultaneously.

Integrating the short-term and long-term needs with a focus on future generations, will require social development, environmental protection, and economic prosperity working in unison. Being able to incorporate sustainability into your day to day activities, this is what will create change.

The United Nations and the Path to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

History of the un.

Direct Source

The United Nations is an international organization founded in 1945 after the Second World War by 51 countries committed to maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations, and promoting social progress, better living standards and human rights.

Due to its unique international character, and the powers vested in its founding Charter, the Organization can take action on a wide range of issues and provide a forum for its 193 Member States to express their views, through the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council and other bodies and committees.

The work of the United Nations reaches every corner of the globe. Although best known for peacekeeping, peace-building, conflict prevention and humanitarian assistance, there are many other ways the United Nations and its System (specialized agencies, funds, and programmes) affect our lives and make the world a better place. The Organization works on a broad range of fundamental issues, from sustainable development, environment and refugees protection, disaster relief, counter terrorism, disarmament and non-proliferation, to promoting democracy, human rights, gender equality and the advancement of women, governance, economic and social development and international health, clearing landmines, expanding food production, and more, in order to achieve its goals and coordinate efforts for a safer world for this and future generations.

The UN has 4 main purposes:

To keep peace throughout the world;
To develop friendly relations among nations;
To help nations work together to improve the lives of poor people, to conquer hunger, disease, and illiteracy, and to encourage respect for each other’s rights and freedoms;
To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations to achieve these goals

Pathway to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

In 2015, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was adopted by 193 United Nations (UN) Member States. The 2030 Agenda is centered on the 17 SDGs which are underpinned by the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The MDGs were developed in 2000 to end poverty and hunger, fight inequality and injustice, advance climate change action, create sustainable consumption and production, and promote peace and prosperity for all. One major change between the MDGs versus the SDGs is that for the SDGs, all countries are now involved. The MDGs only applied to developing countries. Another difference is that each country has set their own goals and priorities for achieving the SDGs. International collaboration to advance the SDG Agenda remains a critical component. The 17 SD goals, with their 169 targets, and over 230 indicators work together at the local and international level to help promote a shared global framework to achieve a fair, equitable, and sustainable future for all. Currently, all countries and international organizations are working on the achievement of the UN 2030 Agenda serving as the basis for better economic development that is environmentally low impact, socially just, and economically efficient and fair.

Pathway to the SDGs

Comprehension Questions

Additional Readings

Brundtland G, Khalid M. 1987. UN Brundtland commission report. Our Common Future . 41-59.
Kidd C. V. 1992. The evolution of sustainability . Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics , 5(1), 1-26.
Baker, J., Dupont, D., & Vasseur, L. (2021). Exploring Canadian Ramsar Sites Ecosystem Governance and Sustainability. Wetlands, 41(1), 1-11. ↵
Grober, U. (2007). Deep roots-a conceptual history of sustainable development (Nachhaltigkeit) . ↵
United Nations. (2021). 1987 Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future (page 41) . ↵

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Sustainable Development Goals

The Sustainable Development Goals were adopted by the United Nations in 2015 as a call-to-action for people worldwide to address five critical areas of importance by 2030: people, planet, prosperity, peace, and partnership.

Biology, Health, Conservation, Geography, Human Geography, Social Studies, Civics

Set forward by the United Nations (UN) in 2015, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) are a collection of 17 global goals aimed at improving the planet and the quality of human life around the world by the year 2030.

Image courtesy of the United Nations

In 2015, the 193 countries that make up the United Nations (UN) agreed to adopt the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The historic agenda lays out 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and targets for dignity, peace, and prosperity for the planet and humankind, to be completed by the year 2030. The agenda targets multiple areas for action, such as poverty and sanitation , and plans to build up local economies while addressing people's social needs.

In short, the 17 SDGs are:

Goal 1: No Poverty: End poverty in all its forms everywhere.

Goal 2: Zero Hunger: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.

Goal 3: Good Health and Well-being: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.

Goal 4: Quality Education: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.

Goal 5: Gender Equality : Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.

Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.

Goal 7: Affordable and Clean Energy: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.

Goal 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.

Goal 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure: Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and foster innovation.

Goal 10: Reduced Inequality : Reduce in equality within and among countries.

Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.

Goal 12: Responsible Consumption and Production: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.

Goal 13: Climate Action: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.

Goal 14: Life Below Water: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable development.

Goal 15: Life on Land: Protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.

Goal 16: Peace, Justice , and Strong Institutions: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable, and inclusive institutions at all levels.

Goal 17: Partnerships to Achieve the Goal: Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development.

The SDGs build on over a decade of work by participating countries. In essence, the SDGs are a continuation of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which began in the year 2000 and ended in 2015. The MDGs helped to lift nearly one billion people out of extreme poverty, combat hunger, and allow more girls to attend school. The MDGs, specifically goal seven, helped to protect the planet by practically eliminating global consumption of ozone-depleting substances; planting trees to offset the loss of forests; and increasing the percent of total land and coastal marine areas worldwide. The SDGs carry on the momentum generated by the MDGs with an ambitious post-2015 development agenda that may cost over $4 trillion each year. The SDGs were a result of the 2012 Rio+20 Earth Summit, which demanded the creation of an open working group to develop a draft agenda for 2015 and onward.

Unlike the MDGs, which relied exclusively on funding from governments and nonprofit organizations, the SDGs also rely on the private business sector to make contributions that change impractical and unsustainable consumption and production patterns. Novozymes, a purported world leader in biological solutions, is just one example of a business that has aligned its goals with the SDGs. Novozymes has prioritized development of technology that reduces the amount of water required for waste treatment. However, the UN must find more ways to meaningfully engage the private sector to reach the goals, and more businesses need to step up to the plate to address these goals.

Overall, limited progress has been made with the SDGs. According to the UN, many people are living healthier lives now compared to the start of the millennium, representing one area of progress made by the MDGs and SDGs. For example, the UN reported that between 2012 and 2017, 80 percent of live births worldwide had assistance from a skilled health professional—an improvement from 62 percent between 2000 and 2005.

While some progress has been made, representatives who attended sustainable development meetings claimed that the SDGs are not being accomplished at the speed, or with the appropriate momentum, needed to meet the 2030 deadline. On some measures of poverty, only slight improvements have been made: The 2018 SDGs Report states that 9.2 percent of the world's workers who live with family members made less than $1.90 per person per day in 2017, representing less than a 1 percent improvement from 2015. Another issue is the recent rise in world hunger. Rates had been steadily declining, but the 2018 SDGs Report stated that over 800 million people were undernourished worldwide in 2016, which is up from 777 million people in 2015.

Another area of the SDGs that lacks progress is gender equality. Multiple news outlets have recently reported that no country is on track to achieve gender equality by 2030 based on the SDG gender index. On a scale of zero to 100, where a score of 100 means equality has been achieved, Denmark was the top performing country out of 129 countries with score slightly under 90. A score of 90 or above means a country is making excellent progress in achieving the goals, and 59 or less is considered poor headway. Countries were scored against SDGs targets that particularly affect women, such as access to safe water or the Internet. The majority of the top 20 countries with a good ranking were European countries, while sub-Saharan Africa had some of the lowest-ranking countries. The overall average score of all countries is a poor score of 65.7.

In fall of 2019, heads of state and government will convene at the United Nations Headquarters in New York to assess the progress in the 17 SDGs. The following year—2020—marks the deadline for 21 of the 169 SDG targets. At this time, UN member states will meet to make a decision to update these targets.

In addition to global efforts to achieve the SDGs, according to the UN, there are ways that an individual can contribute to progress: save on electricity while home by unplugging appliances when not in use; go online and opt in for paperless statements instead of having bills mailed to the house; and report bullying online when seen in a chat room or on social media.

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Review Article
Open access
Published: 13 July 2023

Integration of Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) criteria: their impacts on corporate sustainability performance

Anrafel de Souza Barbosa ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3178-4149 1 ,
Maria Cristina Basilio Crispim da Silva 1 ,
Luiz Bueno da Silva 1 ,
Sandra Naomi Morioka 1 &
Vinícius Fernandes de Souza 2

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume 10 , Article number: 410 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Business and management
Development studies
Environmental studies

In a corporate sustainability context, scholars have been studying internal and external relations provided by Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) criteria, mostly from the organizational perspective. Therefore, the main objective of this paper is to map and analyze the literature on the impacts of integrating ESG criteria on corporate sustainability performance from different points of view. The methodology used followed the Preferred Report Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines, corroborated by a critical analysis. The results indicate that the integration of ESG criteria, observed from different perspectives, strengthens corporate sustainability performance. They also revealed narrowing gaps in the literature regarding methodological analysis. Most of the papers in the analyzed sample use company-level data and employ regression analysis in their analysis. The present study concludes that companies, regardless of nationality, follow the guidelines of ESG criteria integration and such procedure brings several benefits. It points to the lack of more confirmatory research approaches from a workers’ perspective, as the interest remains in the economic-environmental realm from the organizations’ point of view. The absence of such evidence points to a gap in the literature that suggests the need for new study initiatives.

Toward a new understanding of environmental and financial performance through corporate social responsibility, green innovation, and sustainable development

Muddassar Sarfraz, Ilhan Ozturk, … Heesup Han

Who’s in and who’s out? Reading stakeholders and priority issues from sustainability reports in Turkey

Sibel Hoştut, Seçil Deren van het Hof, … Gülten Adalı

Assessments of the environmental performance of global companies need to account for company size

Rossana Mastrandrea, Rob ter Burg, … Franco Ruzzenenti

Introduction

The discussion surrounding the Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) criteria and corporate sustainability has gained significant momentum in recent years, primarily driven by the evolving societal expectations regarding new models of production and consumption (Nishitani et al., 2021 ). Until the mid-1990s, according to Clarkson ( 1995 ), the focus of companies’ success was primarily centered on satisfying the needs of a single stakeholder, namely the shareholder. However, as time passed and the panorama shifted, particularly influenced by public policy changes, this perspective has undergone transformations. Gradually, other stakeholders have exerted pressure on companies, resulting in the integration of corporate sustainability into the strategic management of organizations, leading them to practice the ESG criteria (Wang et al., 2018 ).

Corporate sustainability performance refers to a company’s ability to operate in a manner that upholds ecological integrity, social well-being, and sound governance principles, while simultaneously generating value for its shareholders (Ahmad et al., 2023 ; Luque-Vílchez et al., 2023 ). It encompasses the effective management of environmental resources, fostering positive social relationships, and maintaining high standards of ethical conduct (Bellandi, 2023 ). The assessment of corporate sustainability performance requires the evaluation of both qualitative and quantitative indicators, examining various dimensions such as environmental stewardship, social responsibility, and corporate governance (Sandberg et al., 2022 ).

ESG criteria are used to assess corporate sustainability and ethical performance of companies and investments (Arora and Sharma, 2022 ). They are adopted by corporations to monitor and control the impacts of business activities on internal and external environments (Viranda et al., 2020 ). They mainly include: (i) collecting information; (ii) developing solutions; (iii) dealing with ESG issues in compliance with standards; (iv) conducting training; and (v) providing good communication (Boiral, 2002 ; Montabon et al., 2007 ; Merli and Preziosi, 2018 ). ESG criteria include prevention and preservation performance indicators (Gond et al., 2012 ). Besides, it requires coordination between the environmental department and other departments within companies, and balance between sustainable development goals and other corporate goals.

ESG criteria incorporates environmental, social, and governance factors into investment and business decision-making processes, and involves conditions relevant to traditional financial metrics when analyzing investments or valuing companies (Madden, 2022 ). These conditions can include metrics such as carbon emissions, water usage, employee diversity, labor practices, board diversity, executive compensation, etc. Thus, ESG criteria provide quantitative and qualitative information about a company’s sustainability practices and their potential impact on various stakeholders (Khalil et al., 2022 ; Uyar et al., 2023 ).

ESG integration involves incorporating environmental, social and governance indicators into investment and business decision-making processes. Instead of considering ESG criteria as separate from financial analysis, integration recognizes their materiality and incorporates them alongside traditional financial analysis. This integration can happen at various stages of the investment process, including portfolio construction, risk assessment, due diligence, and ongoing monitoring. Integration aims to identify and manage risks and opportunities related to ESG criteria, ultimately seeking to enhance long-term investment performance and sustainability (Gebhardt et al., 2022 ; Harasheh and Provasi, 2023 ).

ESG criteria provide the data and metrics to assess a company’s sustainability and ethical performance, while the integration involves incorporating these criteria into investment and business decision-making processes to better understand and manage the potential impacts on financial performance and corporate sustainability (Alda, 2021 ; Sahoo and Kumar, 2022 ).

In this sense, the integration of the ESG criteria has become an instrument responsible for defining, planning, operationalizing and executing the actions of corporations directed at environmental prevention and preservation, in addition to social responsibility and the quality performance of their activities (Barbosa et al., 2021 ).

Both from the standpoint of Sustainable Development Goals and the company response to shifting consumer preferences, interest in corporate sustainability has been increasing importance (Boulhaga et al., 2022 ). When looking for the relationship between the implementation of the ESG criteria and the corporate sustainability, the literature presents a heterogeneous scenario. Some researchers advocate a positive relationship (Harymawan et al., 2022 ; Kim et al., 2022 ), and others have confirmed a negative relationship (Rajesh and Rajendran, 2020 ).

As is the case with research by Lee and Isa ( 2022 ), they find a positive relationship between the implementation of ESG criteria and financial performance, suggesting that ESG criteria can increase company value. In addition, the authors also find evidence that the disclosure of ESG criteria can improve the relationship with corporate sustainability performance. Already in the study by Xu et al. ( 2022 ), the heterogeneity analysis demonstrates that the negative relationship between ESG disclosure and the risk of falling stock prices is more significant in state-owned companies, companies with higher agency costs and in companies in the development phase.

Although the results are ambiguous, there are several positive examples of the relationship between the ESG criteria and the corporate sustainability, which influences the reasons why research on sustainable business models has been carried out and why organizations are changing their business model in the direction of sustainability. Additionally, there is a lot of pressure to consider ESG factors when making decisions, particularly from capital investors and financial institutions (Jonsdottir et al., 2022 ; Park and Oh, 2022 ).

Organizations responding to the pressure to implement ESG criteria must manage environmental, social, and economic risks (Triple Bottom Line) and understand their short, medium, and long-term impacts (Bravi et al., 2020 ). To this end, many companies adopt management systems related to ESG criteria to integrate elements of the Triple Bottom Line, address stakeholder needs, and mitigate risks (Esquer-Peralta et al., 2008 ).

Thus, the ESG criteria cannot be seen only as a cost, since they can bring benefits to the company and be a competitive advantage over competitors (Barbosa et al., 2023 ; Zhang et al., 2021 ).

That said, the need for an innovative and coherent research field focused on ESG issues increases as environmental, social, and governance problems intensifies (Vanderley, 2020 ).

The literature has already discussed the research situation, qualitatively and quantitatively, regarding ESG criteria through the prism of corporations, usually in the context of trying to improve the field’s problem-solving ability in relation to companies’ concerns and practices. Baumgartner and Rauter’s ( 2017 ) research addresses the strategic perspectives of corporate sustainability management to develop sustainable organizations and promote the integration of ESG criteria into business activities and techniques.

This narrow interpretation is criticized by several scholars as being insufficiently analytical, as well as lacking a rigorous appreciation of the historical basis of human-environment interaction, highlighting worker perception (Bryant and Wilson, 1998 ; Herghiligiu et al., 2019 ).

Existing research on ESG criteria primarily focuses on the corporate perspective (Bourcet, 2020 ; Khanchel et al., 2023 ; Tsang et al., 2023 ). However, this literature review did not identify any references that support the worker’s perspective or address their involvement in organizational management, as highlighted by Ouni et al. ( 2020 ).

Therefore, this study aims to map and analyze the literature on the impacts of integrating ESG criteria on corporate sustainability performance through different points of view. The research will employ both qualitative and quantitative analysis and consider the viewpoints of both employers and employees. This study aims to fill the existing gap in the literature, as no significant research has yet converged in this direction.

As is the case with the research of Huang ( 2021 ), who conducted a systematic literature review (SLR) to examine the link between ESG activities and organizational financial performance, focusing on the institutional aspect. Similarly, Taliento et al. ( 2019 ), who investigated the impact of ESG factors on economic performance, emphasizing the corporate sustainability advantage and business understanding.

This research holds significance due to the growing global efforts to establish ESG criteria and mitigate environmental, social, and economic risks (Triple Bottom Line) for sustainable development. It aims to comprehend how these risks can affect sustainable development in the short, medium, and long-term, considering both organizational and collaborative perspectives (workers) (Bravi et al., 2020 ).

In this sense, the main objective of this paper is to map and analyze the literature on the impacts of integrating ESG criteria on corporate sustainability performance through different points of view. To achieve the proposed objective, the investigation addressed the following research questions:

What are the main features of the literature on ESG criteria?

What are the main methodological approaches used to study ESG criteria impact on corporate sustainability?

What are the main impacts of integrating ESG criteria on corporate sustainability performance observed in the literature?

This paper is divided into six sections, including this introduction (section 1). Section “Theoretical backgrounds: Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) criteria” refers to the theoretical foundation on the ESG criteria and the construction of the research hypotheses. Subsequently, in section “Methodological procedures”, the methodological procedures of the research are discussed. In section “Results”, the results are developed. Then, in section “Discussion”, a discussion is carried out. And, finally, in section “Conclusion”, the research conclusions are highlighted.

Theoretical backgrounds: Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) criteria

The ESG criteria are about the set of organizational practices that considers in its context environmental, social, and governance factors, with a view to achieving long-term sustainability (Sultana et al., 2018 ). The proportionality of these three aspects in business management has the purpose of analyzing the operations in a holistic way, not limited merely to the economic and financial aspects (Cek and Eyupoglu, 2020 ). In this sense, the economic, transparency and ethical precepts are articulated, seeking to ensure the competitiveness and the perdurability of a company. (Oncioiu et al., 2020 ).

The environmental dimension involves assessing the corporation’s carbon footprint, natural resource usage (energy consumption and efficiency), recycling policies, waste management, and efforts to minimize environmental impacts (Rajesh, 2020 ). The social dimension encompasses the company’s relationships with employees, suppliers, partners, clients, and communities. It includes promoting diversity, non-discrimination, gender pay equality, equal opportunities, employee education, and community protection (Li and Wu, 2020 ). The governance dimension focuses on leadership, internal controls, executive compensation, audits, shareholder rights, anti-corruption policies, and transparency and accountability practices (Cek and Eyupoglu, 2020 ).

ESG criteria, also known as sustainable or socially responsible investments, assist investors in assessing companies’ initiatives and commitment to environmental, social, and governance issues. These criteria can be applied internally or externally in a company’s management (Du Rietz, 2018 ).

That said, compliance with ESG policies and practices is increasingly important to investors, employees, and customers, shaping company perception and performance evaluation beyond financial measures (Beretta et al., 2019 ).

While ESG indicators may vary by region, market, and industry, there are emerging best practices in the corporate world (Khalid et al., 2021 ). Thus, an example of ESG practices can be observed through the Principles for Responsible Investment (PRI), created by initiative of investors in partnership with the United Nations Environment Program Finance Initiative (UNEP FI) and the UN Global Compact, with the aim of guiding the market in the pursuit of responsible development (Bauckloh et al., 2021 ; Naffa and Fain, 2020 ).

Therefore, one way to find out whether a particular organization is sustainable is to evaluate its performance by ESG indexes. However, these indexes have limitations as they may not capture the multidimensional aspects of ESG criteria comprehensively. Consequently, a broader focus on ESG criteria is needed, considering corporate sustainability performance.

Methodological procedures

There are distinct alternatives that can be appreciated in the deployment of a SLR, comprising a bibliometric approach, meta-analysis (Hunter et al., 1986 ) and content analysis approaches. (White and McCain, 1998 ). These three techniques were applied in the present study. The scope of this study provides qualitative and quantitative analysis of publications, in the synthesis and assimilation of the most explored academic research and authors with the support of citation analysis, as well as in the critical analysis of the sample of articles collected.

To address the research aims, which is to map and analyze the literature on the impacts on corporate sustainability performance provided by the integration of ESG criteria, this study relied on two procedures. The first procedure was a consistent and robust SLR materialized according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) methodology, which blends reference analysis, network analysis, and content analysis. The second method was a critical in-depth analysis of a specific sample of articles collected through the PRISMA structured procedure, which integrated and supported the initial technique, as already used in the sustainability literature (Bolis et al., 2014 ).

Primary procedure: PRISMA methodology

The PRISMA methodology is a directive that aims to provide scholars to improve the peculiarity of the externalization of research information, as well as to guide in the critical conjecture of a review of articles already published (Page et al., 2021 ).

Eligibility and ineligibility criteria

The documents eligible for the sample of this research were those published in the last 5 years (period from 2017 to March 2022); belonging to the study domain of environmental, social and governance areas (research area); considered exclusively as research articles (document type); disseminated only in scientific journals (journals ); written only in English language (language); and intrinsic to the topic of this research. The ineligible studies were those without a well-defined scientific structure, those without relevant data implicated in the theme of this research, those without access to the text ( in press ), and those that did not propose quantitative analysis (as this is a relevant point for future research).

Selection of the scientific databases

As a basis for this SLR and starting to answer the questions listed to achieve the objective of this study, the initial sample of articles followed systematic strategies that were adopted to consult the bibliometric databases until March 2022. Three scientific knowledge bases, Scopus , Web of Science ( WoS ), and Science Direct ( SD ) were used in to identify studies related to the ESG criteria.

The level of quality, the number of publications, the area of knowledge, and the set of metadata essential for the analysis of the references (including titles, abstracts, keywords, year of publication, number of citations, list of authors, countries, among others) were the criteria of choice for these 3 scientific databases. Scopus is one of the largest scientific knowledge bases of peer-reviewed literature (Morioka and de Carvalho, 2016 ). WoS can cover all indexed journals with an impact factor calculated in JCR ( Journal Citation Report ) (Carvalho et al., 2013 ). And SD combines reliable full-text publications in the scientific, technical and health fields (Direct, 2020 ). Another factor also considered was that all 3 databases provide metadata compatible with Mendeley reference analysis software (Carvalho et al., 2013 ).

Sampling procedure

The sampling procedure used to screen the articles was search by search terms, which were adapted for each defined bibliographic database. This was performed in March 2022. The keyword terms for the investigation were applied as follows: ("Environmental, Social, and Governance") AND (Impact* OR Effect* OR Performanc* OR Integrat*) AND (Sustainab*).

The initial searches are shown in Table 1 .

The first triage was applied as " Article title, Abstract, Keywords " in Scopus , as " Topic " in WoS and as " Title, abstract or author-specified keywords " in SD resulting in 5,760 collected documents ("Initial Sample"). Then, the primary parameter for refining the references was run as " Publication Years ", reducing the number of records by 1,152 documents. The secondary elimination criterion was applied as " Topic Area ", synthesizing the sample into 580 searches.

Continuing with the exclusion process, the third suppression factor was submitted as " Document Type ", summarizing the records into 486 studies. Subsequently, "Source Type" was used as the fourth parameter of reference reduction, reducing the records by 3 documents. Subsequently, the penultimate refinement requirement was performed as " Language ", subtracting 9 more references. Finally, the reading of the titles and abstracts of the articles was used as the sixth ground for the refinement of the sample as " Off Topic ", restricting to 3,172 documents that did not directly address the topic of this study. Thus, the quantity of rejected documents was 5,402 references, resulting in a sample of 358 research articles selected from the 3 scientific databases.

The references were then entered into Mendeley software to verify the intersections of studies between the databases. The triage identified 229 duplicate documents, which were excluded, reducing the sample to 129 articles. Subsequently, an isolated analysis of each of the 129 selected publications was performed to assess compatibility with the eligibility and ineligibility criteria focusing on the adequacy to the research premises and quality parameters related to the methodological peculiarity of the publications. This analysis resulted in an exclusion of 82 studies. The "Remaining Sample" became 47 research articles.

After rejecting studies that did not satisfy the "Initial Sample" pre-selection process, that were in duplicate, and that did not have the eligibility criteria, the snowball method was applied (Yin et al., 2020 ). The references were expanded to incorporate other studies that were cited in the 47 articles in the "Remaining Sample". The total number of records selected through the snowball technique was 2 studies ("Additional Sample"). The inclusion of the additional articles followed the same eligibility (except for the year of publication) and ineligibility criteria cited in section “Eligibility and ineligibility criteria”. Thus, the "Final Sample" for the conduct of this SLR was 49 research articles.

Reference analysis

Data tabulation and grouping strategies directed the stratification of information and a narrative synopsis. A spreadsheet ( Microsoft Excel 2021) and Mendeley software were used to manage the selected articles to transcribe predominant methodological minutiae of each research study comprising the assessment instrument used, the setting, participants, and substantive findings in terms of validity and credibility. The number of publications summarized by year and journal was the initial parameter of the reference analysis process. This resource made it possible to see how the records succeeded over the years and to discriminate the journals that repeatedly dealt with the theme of this research.

Network analysis

In this step, with the assistance of the VOSviewer software , the network analysis was performed, considering the compatibility of keywords and authors were analyzed through clustering diagrams. The first citation network developed was that of most relevant keywords. The second network developed was that of co-citations, which shows the degree of equivalence between the references presenting the articles mentioned together. The analysis of this network can help assimilate the intellectual character of a field and map the thematic similarities of scholars and the aspect of how groups of researchers relate to each other (Pilkington and Liston-Heyes, 1999 ).

Another analysis performed was on the methodological approaches applied among the studies. For this diagnosis, a deductive multivariate approach was applied based on the theoretical foundation and knowledge from the references. This analysis used insights extracted from the keywords and the analysis of important topics.

Content analysis

Each article included in the final sample was specifically cataloged using Mendeley software that comprised the metadata generated by scientific databases. For the content analysis, the articles were classified in order to consider the tools applied, the scope of application, the relevant industries, the research objectives, and the advantages and limitations of the process required to obtain the research results.

Secondary procedure: critical (interpretative) analysis

Critical analysis is a research skill outlined to contribute to the interpretation of complex issues to understand specific conjunctures (Gil-Guirado et al., 2021 ). Critical analysis involves multiple iterative cycles of interpreting and perceiving the content of parts of the phenomena of interest, and this assimilation of the parts entails a better understanding of the contexts as a whole (Valor et al., 2018 ).

To deepen the assimilation of the contexts, each researcher involved forms an understanding of their perspective in continuous cycles until a "cognitive fusion" is achieved resulting in a better conception of the phenomena. This approach does not aim to construct a theory, but rather to infer a better understanding of the contexts (Bolis et al., 2014 ). Thus, to complement the answers to the questions of this research, critical analysis was applied, which involved dialectical reasoning cycles to identify the understanding (systematization of applicable processes to determine the meaning and scope of methodologies) of researchers on the impacts of integrating ESG criteria on corporate sustainability performance with the aim of finding the "cognitive fusion".

The initial cycle demanded a series of reviews, syntheses, and interpretations of the sample of articles collected in the structured procedure (PRISMA). In the next cycle, the collaborative critical process was adhered to, resulting in the refinement of the main methodological characteristics fragmented by each ESG criterion. Later, in the final interpretive cycle, the procedures of the first two cycles were analyzed, which provided additional perspectives and insights that complemented the previous interpretations.

Risk of bias

To assess the methodological quality of the included articles, the Prediction Study Trend Risk Assessment Tool (PROBAST) was used. (Wolff et al., 2019 ). This tool includes 20 questions divided into four domains (participants, predictors, outcome, and analysis). The risk of bias for each domain was rated as low risk, high risk, or very unclear to judgment (Wolff et al., 2019 ). Two researchers of the present study independently assessed the risk of bias of the included articles and performed an evaluation by qualitative analysis. Disagreements were resolved by consensus with a third reviewer.

The document collection strategy yielded 129 records, and after screening titles and abstracts and applying eligibility and ineligibility criteria, 49 articles were selected for this systematic literature review (SLR). Please refer to Fig. 1 for the SLR flow diagram.

Source: Adapted from Page et al. ( 2021 ).

Consistent with Nishitani et al.’s ( 2021 ) assertion, Fig. 2 demonstrates the contemporary nature of discussions on ESG criteria and corporate sustainability, indicating their recent consolidation. In this specific context, the eligibility and ineligibility criteria of the articles were disregarded, and only a keyword search for "Environmental, Social, and Governance" was conducted across three databases. This was solely done to quantify the research related to the theme.

Source: Scopus , WoS , and SD .

It is evident that there has been an increasing number of studies focused on ESG criteria over the years, with a peak of 649 research articles in 2021 (an average of 54 articles per month). This trend aligns with the growing interest of organizations in implementing ESG criteria (Qureshi et al., 2021 ).

Literature overview

Starting to answer the first research question ( What are the main characteristics of the literature on ESG criteria? ), an overview of the literature was conducted based on descriptive statistics of the sample of 49 selected articles. Table 2 presents the most influential studies. It lists the publications with 20 or more citations in the Scopus database.

The study that stood out the most was that of Xie et al. ( 2019 ), which investigates whether environmental, social, and governance activities improve corporate financial performance, with 115 citations over 3 years, an average of 38 citations/year; followed by the respective research of Garcia et al. ( 2017 ), which highlights the sensitive emerging market sectors in relation to improved ESG performance, published in the year 2017 and has 104 citations; and by Qureshi et al. ( 2020 ), which analyzes the moderating role of the impact of sustainability disclosure and board diversity on firm value, with 41 citations in 2 year, both averaging approximately 21 citations per year.

The articles of the core sample were designated from the network analysis of keywords, a quantitative technique practiced to identify the repercussion and expressiveness of an author or an article (Garfield and Morman, 1981 ). Nevertheless, this methodology should also take into account the relevance of the journal, besides computing the average annual citation (Carvalho et al., 2013 ), as shown in Table 2 .

That said, Fig. 3 shows, through the network analysis of the VOSviewer software , the relationship between the keywords and the articles in the designated sample, with recurrences of at least 2 times (this implies that terms that appear only once were not displayed). Other points to be observed are that the more consistent (full-bodied) the meshes the stronger the connections and the larger the points (nodes) of connections the more relevance they have.

Source: Scopus, WoS , and SD .

Network analysis enables a better explanation of the consonance between the terms discovered, as well as simplifying the differentiation between the groupings literally associated with its operating principles.

There were 4 sets of keywords identified. Of the 4 sets of the keyword network analysis, 3 contain the term " ESG " and its variations. In the case of the terms " sustainability and performance ", all 4 clusters register their presence. This demonstrates that the search terms adopted were assertive, since it can be seen that they adhere to the proposed theme.

The research by Zhang et al. ( 2020 ), which discusses how ESG initiatives affect innovation performance for corporate sustainability; and the research of Xu et al. ( 2021 ), which examines the impacts of research and development (R&D) investment and ESG performance on green innovation performance; ratify the cited adherence.

Research topics: the main methodologies

The predominant impacts addressed in the sample of 49 scientific studies collected, classified by level of analysis and methodological interpellation, are evidenced in Table 3 , which already awakens the dissolution to the second research question ( What are the main methodological approaches used to study ESG criteria impact on corporate sustainability? ).

A content analysis of the full texts of the articles selected for this SLR was performed and it was found that approximately 87.75% of the studies (43 references) were conducted using information from companies through databases. Analyzes were quantitative, 46 studies, approximately 93.87%, applied regression analysis. Of these, 6 investigations, approximately 13.04%, implemented structural equation modeling. These results, corroborate the conjuncture that there is no evidence in the literature regarding research allusive to a mapping and quantitative analysis of the impacts of the integration of ESG criteria on corporate sustainability performance, from an employee’s perspective.

By Fig. 4 , it can be distinguished that the organizations’ commitment does not focus exclusively on financial performance (12 studies), but also prioritizes corporate sustainability (12 studies).

Financial performance and corporate sustainability were investigated in approximately 49% of the research (24 records), proving corporate concern for both sustainable development and economic performance. Landi et al. ( 2022 ), highlight this awareness in their investigation of the incorporation of sustainability into risk management and the impacts on financial performance. Taken together, these practices have the potential to minimize cost and risk, enhance the company’s reputation and legitimacy, intensify innovation, and solidify growth paths and trajectories, all of which are vitally important to stakeholder value creation. (Ting et al., 2020 ).

The corporate sustainability performance disclosed through the ESG criteria was investigated in an attempt to demonstrate the quality of an organization, because through environmental, social, and governance analysis, it is possible to determine how the company positions itself in relation to society and the planet, in addition to offering more transparency to the investor (Mohammad and Wasiuzzaman, 2021 ).

Figure 5 displays a broad view of the amount of research performed around the world according to the sample of articles selected for this SLR.

It can be seen that Europe stands out in the evolution of ESG criteria with approximately 32.65% of research, with the highest visibility for Italy and Spain. The research by Conca et al. ( 2021 ), on the impacts of ESG reports in European agri-food companies; and (Baraibar-Diez and Odriozola, 2019 ), related to the effects of ESG parameters on the social responsibility committees of European corporations, highlight the aforementioned evolutionary prominence.

Figure 6 displays the most often consulted databases to collect information about the ESG criteria of the listed companies for their corporate sustainability performance.

Source: Table 3 .

Thomson Reuters and Bloomberg databases stand out because they are providers of reliable answers that help organizations make confident decisions and better manage business (Alsayegh et al., 2020 ). This reinforces the fact that most studies use publicly available data to measure ESG, whether than collect the ESG criteria for the companies under investigation.

Critical analysis

Critical analysis is a method of study for understanding difficult and complex situations, especially when interpretations of the same articulation are possible and competing. It is a form of text analysis and has been handled to discover their original meanings and how they are interpreted (Shephard et al., 2019 ).

Thus, complementing the results of the primary approach (PRISMA method), a critical analysis was implemented based on the selection of 49 articles considered for discussion. The aim was to answer the third question of this research ( What are the main impacts of integrating ESG criteria on corporate sustainability performance observed in the literature? ). Table 4 shows the main perceptions of the fragmented research according to each of the ESG criteria.

The cycles of the critical analysis involved a series of reviews, syntheses, and interpretations of ESG criteria affecting corporate sustainability performance identified in the 49 selected articles corroborating the structured process of this SLR. The results are shown in Tables 3 and 4 , which summarize the focus of the research, the methodologies applied, and the main gaps, contributions, and limitations of the studies.

In this SLR, the need for future empirical studies was also identified. There are still several research questions that need to be answered in depth. Some propositions for future investigations and possible research questions are outlined in Table 5 .

Analyzing the risk of bias in scientific research is of paramount importance as it can significantly impact the validity and reliability of research findings. It helps ensure that research outcomes accurately reflect reality and can be trusted by other researchers, policymakers, and the public (McGuinness and Higgins, 2021 ). Reproducibility is a fundamental principle of scientific research and transparently analyzing bias allows researchers to identify potential pitfalls and enhance the reproducibility of their work. Ethical considerations are also important as biased research can lead to harm, perpetuate discrimination, or favor specific individuals or groups unjustly (Marshall et al., 2015 ). Analyzing bias helps to improve the quality of evidence available for decision-making processes and ensures that the scientific literature remains reliable, allowing researchers to build upon a solid foundation of unbiased evidence. By carefully evaluating and addressing bias, researchers can enhance the quality and impact of their work (Reveiz et al., 2015 ; Wang et al., 2022 ).

In accordance with Table 6 (PROBAST diagnostics), most (93.9%) of the included research evidenced a minimal risk of bias and a low concern for applicability. The participants were the companies selected in each study; the predictors were the variables measured; the results were verified by the mathematical models; and the analysis, encompass the techniques used. The quality of the studies included in this study was rated from satisfactory to excellent.

Drawing upon rigorous research, this paper elucidates the prominent features that have appeared from the examination of ESG criteria. Table 2 and Fig. 3 show the repercussion, expressiveness and relevance of studies, authors, and journals.

The content analysis highlighted in Table 3 found that the literature on ESG criteria were carried out with information from companies through databases and applied regression analysis. These findings support the idea that there is no evidence in the study literature that maps or quantifies the effects of incorporating ESG criteria on corporate sustainability performance from the viewpoint of employees.

Ouni et al. ( 2020 ), in their study on the mediating role of ESG strands in relation to executive board gender diversity and corporate financial performance, highlighted the need for future research that focuses not only on organizational understanding, but especially on the perception of women (workers) themselves, as board members, of their role and their contribution to financial performance, which strengthens the gap characterized in this SLR.

Researchers employ various methodologies to study ESG criteria, allowing for nuanced insights and robust analysis (see Table 3 ). Quantitative studies utilize large-scale data sets, statistical models, and financial indicators to explore the relationship between ESG criteria and financial performance, risk management, and firm valuation (Alkaraan et al., 2022 ; Mavlutova et al., 2022 ). Qualitative research methods employ interviews, case studies, and content analysis to investigate the organizational processes, stakeholder perceptions, and contextual factors that influence ESG practices and outcomes (Petavratzi et al., 2022 ). Some studies adopt an integrated approach by combining quantitative and qualitative methods to gain a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted nature of ESG criteria. These integrated approaches contribute to a holistic understanding of ESG-related phenomena (Aldowaish et al., 2022 ; Rehman et al., 2021 ).

Recognizing the strengths and limitations of methodologies, researchers have increasingly adopted mixed-methods approaches to investigate the impact of ESG criteria on corporate sustainability, integrating data collection and analysis processes to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research problem (Gebhardt et al., 2022 ). This approach allows researchers to triangulate findings, validate results, and gain a more nuanced perspective on the relationship between ESG criteria and corporate sustainability (Harasheh and Provasi, 2023 ). By leveraging the strengths of methodologies, research offers a more holistic and robust approach to studying complex phenomena.

The positive relationship of voluntary disclosure of corporate sustainability through the ESG criteria of organizations found in this study (see Table 4 ) provides evidence that the implementation of environmental and social strategies within an efficient system of corporate governance in the company strengthens the performance of corporate sustainability. The results also show that environmental performance and social performance are significantly positively related to sustainable economic performance, indicating that the corporation’s economic value and the creation of value for society are interdependent.

A similar fact was also found in the investigation of Zhang et al. ( 2020 ), on environmental, social and governance initiatives that affect innovative performance for corporate sustainability, which revealed that corporate governance initiatives play a moderating role in the relationship between environmental initiatives and performance innovation and the relationship between social initiatives and innovative performance.

Shaikh ( 2021 ), in his study on ESG practices and solid performance, explains the importance of voluntary reporting of non-financial indicators and a company’s responsibility towards stakeholders, reflected in the corporation’s accounting performance.

Integrating ESG criteria into business practices can have potential negative impacts, although specific effects may vary depending on context and implementation. As shown by the investigations of Wasiuzzaman et al. ( 2022 ), which verifies the extent to which culture can affect the relationship between ESG disclosure and company performance, evidencing the negative impact on the profitability of energy companies; and of Suttipun and Yordudom ( 2022 ), which analyzes the extent, level and trend of ESG disclosure in companies in Thailand, to test the different levels between high and low profile industries, which found a negative impact of governance disclosure on market reaction . Another example is the research of Yu et al. ( 2020 ), about Greenwashing in ESG disclosures, which identified organizations’ manipulations of ESG disclosures to increase market value.

While these concerns exist, effectively integrating ESG criteria can drive long-term value creation, risk management and stakeholder confidence. Implementing robust ESG practices requires careful consideration, transparency, and ongoing evaluation to mitigate potential negative impacts and ensure sustainable results.

The main objective of this article is to map and analyze the literature concerning the impacts of the integration of ESG criteria on corporate sustainability performance. To this end, an SLR was performed using the PRISMA methodology, with the intention of selecting the most relevant articles.

Figure 2 revealed an increase in the number of publications on ESG criteria. In 2017, there were only 97 published papers. Already in 2021, this number expanded to 649 manuscripts, an evolution of approximately 570%.

The references were systematically appraised using a hybrid approach that combined literature review methodologies, including structured and objective techniques such as bibliometric analysis, network analysis, and content analysis, to identify key highlights and gaps in the literature related to the theme of this investigation; as well as subjective text interpretation technique (critical analysis), to robust the structured analysis.

This study assisted in diagnosing the methodologies addressed and narrowing the gaps in the literature in four ways. Initially, the article presents a bibliometric analysis with a perspective on ESG criteria and sustainability performance based on the sampling of 49 research studies outlining the main papers and journals (according to Table 2 ). Subsequently, with the aid of network analysis the main keywords were highlighted (see Fig. 3 ).

Next, based on an in-depth content analysis, the article presents the main study highlights, the focus of the research, and the stratification of methods (Table 3 ). Finally, the critical analysis is juxtaposed to consolidate the initial structured analysis (Table 4 ).

Several authors have discussed the topic addressed by this SLR, such as Lokuwaduge and Heenetigala ( 2017 ), who made an interpellation of the integration of ESG precepts for an organizational sustainable development. Another reference is the paper by Bouslah et al. ( 2013 ), which analyzed the ESG dimensions and corporate risks.

But there is no evidence, to the knowledge of the authors of this paper, in the sample selected for this SLR, of research on a mapping and quantitative analysis of the impacts of integrating of ESG criteria on corporate sustainability performance as a result of workers’ perceptions. The study points out the lack of more confirmatory research approaches applying a multidimensional perspective of workers, as the interest remains in the economic-environmental perspective from the organizations’ point of view. It was also found that none of the studies listed made use of other types of diagnostic instruments diverging from the databases.

That said, the absence of such evidence highlights a gap in the literature that suggests the need for new study initiatives to fill it.

In addition to the opportunities for future studies proposed in Table 5 , future researches could explore the developing standardized metrics, common metrics that are relevant across different sectors and geographies; the relationship between ESG and financial performance, mechanisms behind this relationship, such as the impacts of ESG criteria on customer loyalty or employee satisfaction; the impacts of ESG criteria on non-financial stakeholders, such as employees, customers, and communities; the role of technology in ESG, such as artificial intelligence and blockchain in ESG reporting and decision-making; and on emerging ESG issues, such as the impact of climate change on supply chains or the ethical considerations of artificial intelligence.

Therefore, it would be important to establish standards and parameters that allow companies to understand and evaluate ESG criteria. In this sense, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) could develop a global standardization on ESG that defines parameters, guidelines, and criteria with quality indicators, in line with the ISO 9001 standard already recognized worldwide.

This exploratory work highlights as a contribution the aspect of guiding corporations in understanding how the integration of ESG criteria can positively impact corporate sustainability performance, providing investment optimization and better business planning.

Furthermore, some important conclusions related to the ESG criteria can be obtained. It was observed that companies, regardless of nationality, follow the guidelines of ESG criteria integration and such procedure brings many benefits, such as: improving the organization’s image with stakeholders; increasing the corporation’s competitiveness; promoting corporate sustainability; improving the conjuncture in relation to gender diversity; improving intellectual opportunities; among others.

This research has limitations related to the use of keyword search engines and the filters of the selected databases. The keyword groups are asked to be elaborated in diverse ways, so the combinatorial analysis of the groupings may bring different answers. The filters of the scientific databases have disparate search characteristics, which may cause divergences in the answers. Another limitation was the critical analysis that may have generated an interpretation bias. Nevertheless, the PROBAST method and the systematic multi-method approach applied (bibliometric, network analysis, and content analysis) helped to mitigate this limitation.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this research as no data were generated or analyzed.

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Contribution of Home Gardens to Sustainable Development: Perspectives from A Supported Opinion Essay

Mário santos.

1 Laboratory of Fluvial and Terrestrial Ecology, Innovation and Development Center, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-911 Vila Real, Portugal

2 Laboratory of Ecology and Conservation, Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Maranhão, Rua do Comercio, 100, Buriticupu 65393-000, MA, Brazil

3 CITAB—Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environment and Biological Sciences, Institute for Innovation, Capacity Building and Sustainability of Agri-Food Production (Inov4Agro) and Department of Biology and Environment, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal

Helena Moreira

4 Department of Sports, Exercise and Health Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-911 Vila Real, Portugal

5 CIDESD—Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal

João Alexandre Cabral

Ronaldo gabriel, andreia teixeira, rita bastos.

6 CIBIO/InBIO/BioPolis, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal

Alfredo Aires

7 Department of Agronomy, School of Agrarian and Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, UTAD, Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal

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Not applicable.

Home gardening has a long history that started when humans became sedentary, being traditionally considered an accessible source of food and medicinal plants to treat common illnesses. With trends towards urbanization and industrialization, particularly in the post-World War II period, the importance of home gardens as important spaces for growing food and medicinal plants reduced and they began to be increasingly seen as decorative and leisure spaces. However, the growing awareness of the negative impacts of agricultural intensification and urbanization for human health, food quality, ecosystem resilience, and biodiversity conservation motivated the emergence of new approaches concerning home gardens. Societies began to question the potential of nearby green infrastructures to human wellbeing, food provisioning, and the conservation of traditional varieties, as well as providers of important services, such as ecological corridors for wild species and carbon sinks. In this context. and to foster adaptive and resilient social–ecological systems, our supported viewpoint intends to be more than an exhaustive set of perceptions, but a reflection of ideas about the important contribution of home gardens to sustainable development. We envision these humble spaces strengthening social and ecological components, by providing a set of diversified and intermingled goods and services for an increasingly urban population.

1. Introduction

Sustainable development has emerged as a concept associated with the growing awareness of the need to balance social–economic development with a healthy environment [ 1 ]. Moreover, sustainable development goals (SDGs) have evolved to not only include the people, planet, and prosperity, but also peace and partnership, linking the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of sustainability [ 2 ]. Even though SDGs are not simple to be applied considering the possible incompatibilities and divergent points of view among social players, they have become a fundamental component of policy frameworks by diverse stakeholders “sitting at the same table”, such as governmental agencies, researchers, civil society, and the private sector (among others), to discuss their implementation [ 3 ]. This has contributed to the vision of a global human development approach, where diverse indicators have been considered as complementary and mutually reinforcing each other [ 4 ]. Moreover, global or regional SDG frameworks can only be effective when completed locally, considering the specificity of socio-ecological systems [ 5 ]. Additionally, this implementation is supported by resilience, a key feature of sustainable social–ecological systems [ 6 ], demonstrated by their capability of reorganization after disturbance [ 7 ] and by the amount of ecosystem services that translate into contributions of nature to human wellbeing and health [ 8 ].

Given the demographic shift towards urbanization, cities are likely to increase in importance and will be the main grounds for the SDGs’ implementation [ 9 ]. In fact, 54% of the world’s population lives in urban areas—a number that is expected to increase to approximately 59% by 2030. Thus, to meet SDGs, governments should tackle the direct and remote impacts of their growing cities [ 10 ]. Therefore, urban and suburban green spaces, encompassing public gardens, urban forests, and private backyards and home (family) gardens, but also rural home gardens in monocultural/industrial agricultural landscapes, should be considered as fundamental infrastructures in the road to sustainable societies [ 11 ]. These areas could provide several types of increasingly uncommon but essential ecosystem services [ 12 ]. For example, urban, suburban, and rural gardens, and especially the network of home gardens, are significant land uses, surpassing in many countries the area occupied by commercial crops and natural habitats [ 13 ]. On the other hand, rural home gardens are not well represented by traditional mapping approaches, but studies confirm the spatial importance of rural home gardens in several countries, from tropical to temperate regions [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ]. These rural home gardens are in relapse, jeopardized by abandonment and by the increasing area occupied by intensive large-scale agriculture [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. Even so, home gardens, generally defined as a non-built land portions close to the household (more information in Section 1.1.1 ), are usually considered of minor importance within socioecological systems, perhaps due to their average small size, non-commercial use, and “unregulated” management [ 22 , 23 ]. Additionally, several works demonstrate their importance in the provision of a range of social, economic, and environmental services (e.g., [ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 ]). Food production, income support, physical activity, wellbeing, and a connection with nature were all highlighted in diverse works (e.g., [ 28 , 29 , 30 ]). Additionally, the net of home gardens in a region might contribute to improve resilience within disruptive scenarios by reinforcing social equity and justice [ 31 , 32 ]. Some studies have also linked these small areas with biodiversity and nature conservation, even if complex multi-factorial factors with direct and indirect impacts on species diversity and abundance are yet to be fully understood [ 25 , 33 , 34 ]. In this way, the main objective of this work is to discuss what the authors have considered significant features of home gardens (and home gardening) associated with the SDGs, paying special attention to wellbeing and health, nutrition and carbon footprint reduction, and biodiversity and nature conservation ( Appendix A ). With this in mind, the authors suggest looking with eyes wide open at the vast possibilities of home gardens to tackle sustainable development goals and include in the discussion conceptual ideas that might help to enlighten their overall value.

1.1. Home Garden Definition and Methodological Framework

1.1.1. home garden definition.

A garden is a planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the cultivation, display, and enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature [ 13 ]. Within gardens, home gardens are small areas (usually much less 1 hectare) surrounding the residential parcel, usually associated with family use (most home gardens are family gardens), characterized by combinations of various perennial and annual plants, sometimes in association with domestic animals and might include additional infrastructures, such as ponds, greenhouses, and green roofs [ 13 ]. From purely aesthetic gardens to food production spaces, several gardens include mixed areas (e.g., agroforests) and have diverse uses. In fact, home garden “architecture” and organization, the species chosen, and the management options are linked with the local ecological conditions, but mostly with the options of the members of the household, providing a diverse and stable supply of services and benefits to families [ 35 , 36 ]. Even if they are associated with urban domestic/family gardens and/or self-consumption, home gardens are also an important land-use component in peri-urban and rural areas and in local food markets [ 37 ].

1.1.2. Supported Opinion Methodological Framework

A pre-opinion online and face-to-face forum occurred during the 2nd semester in 2021, involving three co-authors of the manuscript, in order to debate the personal views and importance of home gardens to tackle several of the sustainable development goals. For the purposes of the opinion manuscript, as each one of the co-authors’ expertise focused on different scientific domains, namely, healthy lifestyles and green exercise (Helena Moreira); food production and food quality (Alfredo Aires); and agroecosystems, biodiversity, and conservation ecology (Mário Santos), the idea of the preliminary discussions was to compare and define a common view concerning home gardens and to guide the workflow associated with this [ 38 ]. An expert draft was produced with his/her viewpoint, sharing and confronting with the other co-authors and justifying, whenever possible, their expert opinion using the relevant bibliographic information. Subsequently, during the 1st semester in 2022, the forum was enlarged to include additional researchers’ opinions (Andreia Teixeira, João Alexandre Cabral, Rita Bastos and Ronaldo Gabriel), comments, and discussion of ideas, obtaining a consensus regarding several issues [ 39 ]. This former step enabled the introduction of complementary remarks and risks that were integrated in the discussion. The final manuscript highlighted the key themes and perceptions that emerged during the discussions, based on the sound evidence and research, usually termed a supported opinion essay ( Figure 1 ).

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Object name is ijerph-19-13715-g001.jpg

The stepwise framework used to structure our supported opinion essay: step 1, forum between the core researchers, including the definition of home gardens and their significance for sustainable development goals; step 2, core researchers’ drafts concerning home gardens and sustainable development goals; step 3, support and confrontation of core researchers’ ideas and opinions of bibliography; step 4, discussion of different viewpoints and production of the first manuscript draft; step 5, enlarged discussion of additional experts’ opinions; step 6, production of the supported opinion essay.

1.2. An Appraisal of Health and Wellbeing Contributions from Home Gardens and Home Gardening Activities

Several of the issues below are linked to home gardens and gardening, even if they should also be considered with other types of “nature immersion” and outdoor activities. Direct visual contact with flowers, green plants, and wood has positive effects on brain activity, decreasing sympathetic stimulation and increasing parasympathetic activity [ 40 ]. Additionally, visual and olfactory stimulation generated by the presence of leafy plants or fresh flowers decreases oxyhemoglobin concentration (a form of hemoglobin that carries oxygen) in the right, prefrontal cortex, generating a physiological-relaxation effect [ 41 , 42 , 43 ]. In fact, the anterior part of the frontal lobe of the brain is specialized in affective processing, aggregating information from the sensory cortexes, brainstem, and amygdala, and regulating hyperactivity in depressed people [ 43 ]. Additionally, plant and animal diversity are associated with increased attention restoration, with implications in the reduction in stress levels [ 44 ]. According to [ 45 ], the practice of home gardening (and gardening in general) (i.e., at least 1 to 4 h per week) is reflected in greater human resilience, influencing factors, such as emotional regulation, interrelatedness, confidence, positive thinking, and spirituality. These relationships, particularly evident in older people, are mediated by restored attention, increased physical activity, and self-esteem, fascination (the gardener’s motivation to seek knowledge and exchange ideas with others), and identity with the home garden (a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment in planning, planting, and harvesting what he or she has sown), and the encouragement of socialization.

The individual’s greater ability to adapt to stressful situations and deal with adverse conditions and unexpected changes is particularly evident in home (and community) gardening [ 46 , 47 ], which promotes contact with nature in a sustainable way while reducing nutrition-based health inequalities, particularly relevant in the elderly, refugees [ 47 ], and ethnic and racial minorities [ 48 ]. Table 1 illustrates the intensity classification of various gardening tasks in metabolic equivalents (1 MET = 3.5 mL/kg/min), mirroring the energy expenditure associated with performing such tasks and classifying them into three intensity levels: light (<3 METs), moderate (3–5.9 METs), and vigorous (≥6 METs) [ 35 ]. An individual weighing 70 kg engaged in planting trees in his garden (4.0 METs), for example, will expend 157.5 kcal in about 1/2 an hour (4.0 METs * 70 kg * (30 min)/(60 min)), depending on factors, such as fitness level, gender, and environmental conditions [ 49 , 50 ].

Classification of the intensity of various gardening activities. Adapted from [ 50 ].

Carrying the wheelbarrow, pulling weeds, twisting, and bending while planting, among others, are some of the tasks that contribute to the improvement of strength, balance, and flexibility, leveraging their diversity for reducing the risk of injury and relieving the fatigue related with the repeated actions [ 50 ].

A study involving middle-aged (and older adults) gardeners revealed that those who were physically active (≥150 min of moderate-intensity physical activity per week) exhibited better physical health and handgrip strength, compared to those who gardened between 120 and 149 min/week, and especially to those who did so for less than 120 min/week [ 51 ]. According to a number of authors, people are more likely to document improvements to wellbeing and health when exposure to nature has a minimum duration of 120 min per week [ 52 ], with physical, psychological, and social benefits being magnified by spending more time on gardening activities [ 27 ].

Handgrip strength is stimulated by the variety of tasks associated with home gardening that require the release and flexion of the thumb and forefinger, and its improvement is associated with cognitive [ 53 ], oncological [ 54 ], metabolic [ 55 ], and bone [ 56 ] benefits, decreasing cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular diseases and mortality risks [ 57 ]. The effort developed when gardening and the exposure to natural light increases individuals’ alertness during the day, improving sleep duration and quality [ 58 ]. This might counteract socio-environmental and lifestyle factors, such as stress, temperature, humidity, and work-shift influence regarding the production of melatonin, i.e., sleep and wake cycles [ 59 ]. In fact, this hormone, produced by the pineal gland in the absence of light stimuli, regulates sleep and contributes to antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that protect the body from various diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome [ 60 ].

For older people (and particularly women), especially affected by insomnia (and overweight) that is related with anxiety, depression [ 61 ], and reduced levels of physical activity, home gardening may help to improve sleep disorders. Through the exposure of the skin to ultraviolet radiation, this outdoor activity also stimulates vitamin D synthesis, increasing levels that are usually reduced in middle-aged and elderly individuals [ 62 ], as well as waiving the use of supplements [ 63 ]. The health benefits of vitamin D have been recognized, including their role in regulating glucose metabolism, decreasing cardiovascular diseases [ 62 ], improving cognitive ability [ 64 ], preventing depression [ 65 ] and some types of cancer [ 63 , 66 ], osteoporosis, multiple sclerosis, and COVID-19 [ 63 ]. Observational studies have also identified an association of vitamin D levels with arthritis, chronic pain [ 67 ], and low-back pain [ 68 ].

Plant diversity associated with home gardens (and in general, plant diverse systems) increases the microbiome, with potential effects in mitigating the acute and chronic health effects of air pollution, including allergies, asthma, and chronic inflammatory diseases [ 69 ]. Planting, digging, weeding, or consuming home-garden-grown products, including fruits and vegetables, also increases the gut microbiome and induces a higher intake of fiber, iron, selenium, and vitamins C and K [ 70 ], due the presence of vitamin-synthetizing bacterium in the soil (e.g., Mycobacterium vaccae ) [ 71 ]. Studies using mice have revealed that the bacterium is active in a specific set of serotonin-producing neurons located in the subregion of the dorsal raphe nucleus (neuronal aggregates divided into pairs along the brainstem), and that it stabilizes the gut microbiome, improving the response to stimuli that triggers stress and anxiety. Their effects in protecting allergic bronchial asthma [ 72 ] and on the response to chemotherapy in some types of cancer were also documented in the literature [ 73 ]. Exposure to the environmental microbiome and other elements of nature, including phytocides (volatile, antimicrobial, organic compounds emitted as a defense mechanism by plants), negative air ions, sunlight, and sights and sounds also provide analgesia, and these benefits are enhanced with exposure to biodiverse spaces [ 74 ].

Additionally, light-to-moderate-intensity gardening activities that might occur near the household are associated with cognitive health benefits, namely, by an upsurge in the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BNDF) [ 75 , 76 ] and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) [ 75 ]. Both growth factors are related to memory and cognitive function; their levels decrease with age, implying a reduction in brain volume and weight (5% per decade after the 4th decade, especially relevant after the age of 70 years) [ 77 ]. The BNDF, associated with neurogenesis, synaptic transmission, and production of tryptophan, an amino acid precursor of serotonin, is linked with the hippocampus and cerebral cortex [ 76 ]; on the other hand, PDGF promotes cell proliferation/growth and neuronal functions [ 75 ]. Neurogenesis and the stimulation of new synapses are enhanced if gardening is practiced for at least 3 months at a moderate intensity and with sessions lasting no less than 20 min [ 78 ].

Regular gardening, promoted when the garden is near the residence (home gardens), might reduce the risk of dementia by 36% in people over 60 years of age [ 79 ], encouraging positive-mood enhancement in individuals with average-to-advanced levels of disease [ 80 ]. Sensory stimulation derived from light, smells, and touch allows people to recall meaningful memories and past skills [ 81 ], to be engaged in the accomplishment of meaningful and productive work, reinforcing the feeling of being at “home” [ 81 , 82 , 83 ]. Home gardens can also provide opportunities for people to interact with neighbors, empowering the community spirit and social connectedness, with positive reflections on mental health. Learning about the science of plants, finding innovative ways to grow them, and discovering fresh-food sources and ways to cook them are also important in preventing cognitive decline. They might also encourage the purchase of seasonal/local products and positively influence the adoption of other pro-environmental behaviors [ 84 ]. Home gardening is also an important intergenerational activity, by the sharing of skills and knowledge, stimulating recreative environments for different age groups.

1.3. The Contributions of Home Gardening (and Urban Agriculture) to Dietary Diversity and Carbon Footprint Reduction

Several questions could be raised when discussing the impacts of home gardening on human health and food supply. From a consumer’s point of view, home gardening is generally perceived as involving small areas surrounding houses and villages in which mixtures of flowers, potted plants, perianal bushes, and street trees, fruits, vegetables, and medicinal plants are cultivated [ 85 , 86 ]. Different studies have associated home gardening with a wide range of ecosystem services, such as supplying small markets with high-quality fruits and vegetables, and employment opportunities [ 87 , 88 ]. In fact, divergent economies (countries from North America, South America, Europe, Australia, and Asia) envision home gardens (domestic agriculture) contributing to a reduction in the world food crisis [ 89 ]. Consumers often perceive home agriculture as a supplementary strategy to assure food security, since it can be a source of income while providing direct access to a higher number of nutritionally rich foods (vegetables and fruits) [ 90 ]. An increased stability of household diets during seasonality or other temporary shortages was also pointed out [ 91 , 92 , 93 ]. These works seem to share a common observation: that home gardening can account for an important share of the local offer of perishable food items, such as vegetables or medicinal and aromatic plants, playing a vital role in the promotion of household-food self-sufficiency [ 91 ]. In addition, it seems that families involved in home agriculture have better and varied diets: several studies also reported that home gardens supplemented diets with a significant portion of proteins, vitamins, and minerals, leading to an enriched and balanced menu [ 29 , 94 ], while at same time sustaining crop diversity and improving a family’s resilience [ 95 ]. The production of food by families can supply up to 20–60% of their total food consumption in fresh vegetables, medicinal and aromatic plants or eggs, and even milk and meat from small animals [ 96 ], thus increasing the accessibility of affordable fresh foods and assuring a food supply during natural disasters and wars [ 93 ]. As an example, a single home garden of about 9 square meters with tomato, cucumber, musk melon, cabbage, potato, sweet potato, squash, peppers, bush peas, lettuce, spinach, kale, carrots, onions, and beets, can provide 9.2% of protein, 23% of vitamin K, 20% of vitamin C, and less amounts of other nutrients and vitamins to a household [ 96 ]. In low-income areas, the dietary deficiency of micronutrients, such as iron, zinc, iodine, and vitamin A, is more common [ 97 ], and horticultural commodities in home gardens, such as fruits and vegetables rich in minerals, fibers, and bioactive compounds (e.g., phenolics and antioxidants), partially overcome this problem, reducing malnutrition, improving food security, and increasing the availability of food [ 29 ]. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [ 98 ], a high percentage of the world’s population consumes large quantities of carbohydrate-dense staples, such as maize, rice, wheat, and potatoes, which have low concentrations of essential micronutrients necessary to maintain good health and wellbeing. Therefore, vegetables and fruits provided by home gardens can be an easy way to access those micronutrients [ 23 ], particularly in isolated places or for families with a low financial budget. Home gardening can contribute to a household’s nutrition and food security by providing rapid and direct access to a diversity of foods that can be harvested, prepared, and eaten by family members on a daily basis. This is considered beneficial for a human’s nutritional status, cardiovascular health, and for reducing the probability of catching many diseases [ 99 , 100 ]. Dietary diversity scores have been developed as an indicator of the micronutrient adequacy of diets [ 101 ], and many studies showed that home gardening might lead to an overall increase in nutrient intake [ 23 , 102 ]. Studies [ 103 , 104 , 105 ] have shown that even small home gardens can provide a substantial number of micronutrients and vitamins to a household. Complementary studies have provided specific positive and descriptive evidence of home gardening impacts (in both developed and developing countries) on families’ nutrition status and diets [ 102 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 ]. Thus, the areas surrounding houses, often neglected, can be utilized to grow vegetables and fruits, fulfilling the nutrient requirements [ 109 , 110 ]. Some examples of home gardening benefits to diet are presented in Table 2 .

Benefits, pursuits, and encouragement of home gardening related to human diet.

On the other hand, even if home garden products are mostly for auto-consumption, they can also grow multiple added-value crops, including traditional medicines and home remedies for certain illnesses [ 29 ]. In the literature, it is possible to find several studies in which home and community gardens are considered inefficient, costly, and without any offer regarding a complete solution to food insecurity [ 111 ]. We can however observe the problem from another perspective: instead of considering home and community gardens as a solution to address food insecurity, we may consider them as a part of a broad answer to address a much greater issue of offering a diversity of nutritious foods, as well as the opportunity for positive health outcomes. Moreover, home gardening can be more cost-effective than buying in the stores, as gardeners can grow what they eat most and just buying the less cost-effective prod-ucts. Contribution of home (and community) gardening to food security are presented in Figure 2 .

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Pathways of contribution of home (and community) gardening to food security.

Home gardening has also been pointed out as having a positive impact on the social conditions of local populations, trough-strengthening cohesion, and the local economy [ 112 , 113 ]; an increase in financial revenues, the reduction in poverty risk factors have been highlighted in the literature. Another important achievement of home gardening is related to its benefits for carbon sequestration: plant cover might buffer climate change variability [ 114 ] by creating more complex canopies than modern agriculture and/or urban areas, thus ultimately modulating microclimatic conditions [ 115 ] and sequestering atmospheric carbon into the soil [ 116 ]. In addition, green-house gas (GHG) footprints of consumers through conventional agribusiness systems is far higher than of home productions [ 117 ]. Conversely, other research suggests that the impact of home gardens on the environment may depend on the specific management and cultivation methods used [ 118 ], which in turn might have negative consequences in terms of the overuse and production of fertilizers and/or the GHG emissions. Home composting from gardening waste can also produce methane and nitrous oxide, which are strong GHGs [ 119 , 120 , 121 ]. Nonetheless, GHG reductions were observed in gardening communities, compared with conventional systems, particularly when vegetable production replaced lawns [ 116 ]. In developed countries, post-harvest processes, such as storing, refrigeration, and transportation over long distances produce high GHG emissions, comparable to the production processes [ 122 ]. These postproduction emissions are considerably reduced when vegetables are grown near the places where they are consumed, as in the case of home gardens. Plants considerably reduce CO 2 and heat stress by absorbing and reflecting solar irradiance, helping to reduce the global warming pollutants associated with waste disposal by turning leaves, grass, woody garden offcuts, and dead garden waste into mulch or compost. Additionally, recycling these “wastes” not only reduces methane emissions from landfills, but also improves a garden’s soil and helps it store more carbon. Furthermore, even if home agriculture is not able to substitute large-scale agricultural productions, its contribution to food production and healthy diets might be enhanced by the organization of small-scale producers within cooperatives that will reach food and grocery retail markets.

1.4. Home Gardens’ Structures and Management Impacts on Biodiversity

Biodiversity conservation is usually overlooked in home gardens (and most public gardens also), namely, because other attributes, such as landscape aesthetics, lifestyle, and usefulness, are the gardeners’ (and public managers) objectives [ 123 ]. Moreover, home gardens are characterized by being heterogeneous, reflecting their owners’ perceptions and interests, and provide a large variety of small-scale structures that may act as refuge for many species, as well as a valuable network of habitats for meta-populations [ 124 ]. On the other hand, the effect of home gardens on local and regional biodiversity patterns relies on the collective action of large numbers of gardeners [ 125 ]. Despite the growing awareness of the conservation potential of home gardens, information on “wildlife gardening” and/or “ecological gardening” has been subjected to limited research associated with presumptions of their low ecological value and limited access to researchers [ 126 ]. However, ecological and wildlife gardening is characterized by “organic” and/or more sustainable practices and by the creation of habitats for wild species [ 127 ]. Some works pinpoint the growing importance of home gardens for the conservation of species and varieties of crops extirpated from the countryside by intensive agricultural and forestry practices [ 28 , 128 , 129 ]. Additionally, the main features interlaced with animal diversity in gardens are plant-species richness, vegetation structure, plant-species origin, and type of management [ 130 ], but more effort should be made for clarifying what really holds true [ 131 ].

Home gardens include different “spaces” that fulfil people’s needs and beliefs, which might be considered different “habitats” [ 132 ]. Additionally, and when compared with actual intensive and monocultural agricultural landscapes, a high heterogeneity in a rather small area can be observed [ 133 ]. This creates opportunities for several species that, along its life cycle, require different resources and habitats [ 134 ]. In this way, we have disentangled the several archetypal spaces when discussing the links between home gardens and biodiversity, namely, the vegetable garden; the flower garden; the lawn, trees, shrubs, and hedges; the pond; and paved and constructed areas ( Figure 3 ). The vegetable garden ( Figure 3 a) is an area usually separated from the rest of the home garden, a source of herbs, vegetables, and fruits; it is also often a structured garden space with a design based on a repetitive geometric pattern, usually incorporating permanent perennials or woody-shrub plantings and annuals [ 135 ]. In terms of crop biodiversity, vegetable home gardens are especially diverse, integrating several plant species and, in many cases, non-commercial and local vegetable varieties [ 28 ]. Additionally, as in most cases the production is for self-consumption (with exceptions), the use of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers is reduced when compared with intensive, commercial productions [ 136 ]. The various operations (ploughing, weeding) reduce the number of wild species able to use these areas, and most are generalist species (often plagues) that take advantage of specific plant’s abundance and the lack of predators [ 137 ]. However, some species facing serious decline are particularly dependent on vegetable gardens [ 138 ]. The flower garden ( Figure 3 b) is an area where flowers are grown and displayed for their colors and scents. Annual, biennial, and perennial flowers, traditionally associated with native medicinal and condimentary plants, are expanded, at present, to incorporate many others selected by taking into consideration a sequence of bloom and consistent color combinations through varying seasons [ 139 ]. At present, great plant “biodiversity”, linked with several thousands of species and varieties, can be found in flower gardens, most with an exotic provenance [ 140 ]. Additionally, the pressure for beauty has produced larger and more colorful flowers whose attractiveness to pollinators and many other organisms is, in general, far less their wild ancestors [ 141 ]. As an example, most modern rose variety ( Rosa sp.) selections are related to the conversion of stamens into “petals”, but also by expanding the flowering season through the hybridization and selection of species from several origins at the expense of pollen production and functional nectaries [ 142 ]. Nevertheless, flower-bed structures, particularly when associated with native “wildflower” annuals and perennials, could be an excellent contribution to halt the decline in wildflowers and pollinators (and insects in general and many other invertebrates and small vertebrates), but also attract auxiliary organisms that feed upon garden pests [ 141 , 143 , 144 ]. Most gardens include lawns ( Figure 3 c) dominated by grasses (monocots), subject to weed and pest control, maintained in a green stage (e.g., by watering), and regularly mowed to ensure an acceptable length for aesthetic and recreational purposes [ 145 ]. Even if they might appear a dull monoculture, most include several species of grasses, adapted to diverse environmental conditions and periods of the year. Additionally, many other plants (weeds) adapted to the periodic mowing grow, and a diversity of detritivores, such as springtails (Collembola) that attract predators, such as spiders and ground beetles (Carabidae), become particularly abundant [ 146 ]. Anyway, mown laws are very poor in terms of biodiversity, and their intensive management might pose significant risks to several invertebrates and vertebrates (e.g., arthropods’ mortality, vertebrates’ poisoning, and even vertebrates’ mortality) [ 147 , 148 ]. If left uncut for longer periods, the lawn rapidly turns into a (kind of) meadow, which is an incredible hotspot of biodiversity by attracting several species of invertebrates, birds, small mammals, and fungi (e.g., mushrooms) [ 149 , 150 ]. Meadows are a fast-declining habitat in the countryside that could be partially compensated by home garden “wild” lawns [ 131 ]. Nevertheless, in regions with water shortages, alternatives to grass lawns using cover plants (e.g., Hypericum sp., Hedera sp.) might contribute to decrease the impact on water resources and contribute to the conservation of wetlands in the surrounding areas [ 151 , 152 , 153 ]. Another option to reduce water and agrochemical use is the replacement of grass lawns with artificial lawns constructed from synthetic polymers (plastics), but with significant impacts on home garden biodiversity [ 154 ]. Trees, shrubs, and hedges ( Figure 3 d), both clipped and unclipped, are often used as ornaments in the layout of gardens to enhance a garden’s privacy (e.g., buffer to visual pollution), to create shade/windbreaks for modulating microclimatic conditions, and for producing diverse types of fruits [ 155 ]. Woody species, both deciduous and evergreen, are also recognized for their great value to the landscape and wildlife, mostly when the plants are native, older, and are less clipped, namely, by the enhancement of refuge spots (e.g., nesting locations), flower resources, and fruit production [ 128 , 156 ]. These are also among the best locations for the creation of micro-structures and micro-habitats for wild species, such as bird tables, bird and bat boxes, amphibian refuge spots, arthropod boxes, small mammal houses, and even dead hood piles [ 126 , 157 ]. Nevertheless, all woody species play a considerable role in providing shelter for fungi, shade plants, smaller animals, such as birds and mammals (including bats), and insects [ 158 ]. Their upscaling, when considering the net of woody species of different home gardens and other trees in the landscape, creates a network of green corridors for many uncommon species in urban and rural areas [ 126 , 159 ]. Additionally, ecosystem services include reducing soil loss and pollution, the regulation of water supplies, and organic carbon storage, critical to the environmental homeostasis of landscapes [ 160 , 161 ]. A garden pond ( Figure 3 e) is a water feature constructed in a garden or designed landscape, normally for aesthetic purposes, to provide a wildlife habitat, for fish production, or for swimming. The pond is considered the biodiversity “hotspot” of a home garden: nothing beats it in attracting the widest range of species [ 162 ]. The diversity of resident amphibians, insects (e.g., dragonflies and water beetles), mollusks, plants, and the usefulness to birds, bats, and small mammals is unquestionable [ 163 ]. Considering that amphibians are the vertebrates with the highest rate of extinction, garden ponds might actually be considered relevant for metapopulation conservation [ 163 ]. The size of the pond, but specially the non-occurrence of “aquarium” exotic fish (and sometimes invasive plants and turtles), might make the difference in the biodiversity present: fish are particularly aggressive by attacking most organisms and dysregulating food webs, and garden ponds can be pathways for the spread of invasive, non-native plants [ 164 , 165 ]. Ponds are also particularly relevant for environmental education, considering that several organisms are easily spotted along its complex life cycles (e.g., metamorphosis) [ 166 ]. Additionally, permanent and temporary ponds are extremely threatened in the countryside, namely, by the compound effects of agricultural intensification in the most productive areas (increase in water consumption and the depletion of water resources) or by agricultural abandonment in less productive ones (e.g., the lack of maintenance of traditional water reservoirs) [ 167 ]. Paved and constructed areas ( Figure 3 f) are impervious surfaces dominated by concrete, asphalt, brick, tile, bitumen, timber, or similar materials, encompassing the walls, courtyard, decking, footpath, driveway, or street access surrounding a house. Even if they seem to be a desert, by comparison with the other “green or blue” infrastructures previously discussed, they possess unique organisms and derive several advantages for many others [ 168 ]. Several mosses, hepatics, ferns, and some rock plants are especially diverse in this habitat [ 169 ]. Additionally, unique species of arthropods and mollusks are located here, while wild bees, bats, and birds (namely, Hirundinidae—swallows and martins—and Apodidae—swifts) might use them as breeding places [ 170 ]. Especially important are old stone walls, with their holes and crevices that mimic stone areas that might be relevant habitats for a diversity of species, including mammals, reptiles, and amphibians [ 171 ]. New techniques, such as green roofs and walls, have recently emerged as promising conservation tools, and they offer promising additional opportunities to several species [ 172 ].

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Home garden most usual “spaces”: ( a ) the vegetable garden; ( b ) the flower garden; ( c ) the lawn; ( d ) trees, shrubs, and hedges; ( e ) the garden pond; ( f ) paved and constructed surfaces.

1.5. Home Gardens’ Contribution to Sustainable Development Goals

The authors defined home gardens as gardens that might be characterized by their location, near or around a family house, for their (mostly) private use with a scope linked with the families’ conceptions and needs. We have considered that their contribution to health and wellbeing can be separated within two major influences, nature exposure and outdoor’ stimulation, renowned for their positive physiological and psychological benefits and the physical exercise associated with gardening, providing strength improvement, calorie burning, and, in general, better physical and mental health ( Table 3 ). Concerning diets, their role in boosting food diversity and nutrition should not be disregarded. We highlighted that for low-income and/or isolated regions, this is particularly relevant, including traditional medicine production ( Table 3 ). The authors considered that the possibility of home gardens acting as carbon sinks depended on several factors linked with management; more research is needed to understand this potential function ( Table 3 ). Biodiversity conservation is a complex issue, but with careful management, design, correct size, and habitat creations, the home gardens matrix might contribute to sustain “wild” species metapopulations, by the planting of native species (e.g., tree species) or by the resources associated with the “habitats” created by the gardener ( Table 3 ).

Contribution of home gardening to sustainable development goals.

2. Complementary Remarks on the Risks and Drawbacks of Home Gardens and Home Gardening in the Scope of Their Contribution to Sustainable Development Goals

2.1. risks to health and wellbeing of home gardens and home gardening.

Musculoskeletal injuries are very common in individuals who farm the land [ 44 ], although addressing this type of injury in gardening is still very limited in the literature [ 48 ]. Some authors indicated that the causes for their manifestation are related to the presence of inadequate work practices (repetitive and performed for a prolonged period), biomechanical factors (improper handling of gardening tools, lifting and carrying heavy loads, repetitive flexion movements of the spine, and excessive movement of the lumbar region or neck), use of poorly ergonomic tools, fatigue, and poor physical fitness [ 173 , 174 , 175 ]. Low-back pain is very common and is aggravated by age, crop type, stress levels, and the presence of previous occupational injuries [ 175 ]. The manual and repetitive activities associated with gardening, such as planting, spraying, sweeping, and using shears, can also lead to wrist and hand injuries. Short-rest breaks, the use of ergonomic tools, and elevated flowerbeds are some of the strategies that can help reduce the symptoms of fatigue and musculoskeletal discomfort associated with gardening. Other health risks associated with gardening involve exposure to chemical substances through skin contact, ingestion, or inhalation with dermatological, gastrointestinal, neurological, oncological, respiratory, and endocrine effects [ 176 ]. Elderly gardeners and immunosuppressed individuals are particularly sensitive to Legionellosis, an infectious disease caused by exposure to Legionella bacteria present in compost submitted to high temperatures [ 177 ]. Handling it might cause the release of microorganisms and bioaerosols, providing ideal conditions for the growth of fungi that lead to non-allergic, immuno-allergic (rhinitis, allergic asthma), and inflammatory reactions [ 178 ]. Cuts and wounds resulting from handling thorny plants and power tools and gardening equipment facilitate the entry into the body of spores of Clostridium tetani bacteria, resulting in the onset of muscle spasms, cramps, and even convulsions. Some plants and insects (bees, wasps, and red ants) can also cause allergic reactions in some individuals. Tick bites, very common in gardens [ 179 ], affects the joints and nervous system [ 180 ]. Moistening dry compost before turning or using it, wearing gloves, and keeping your arms covered when pruning plants likely to cause irritation may minimize the occurrence of some of these health risks. However, considering the state of the art to date, further research is needed on this issue, namely, by measuring exposure, understanding the underlying mechanisms, and demonstrating causality [ 181 ]. This is even more incomplete when it comes to home gardens and home gardening: research is needed to understand the real benefits of the spaces created and management practices on human health and wellbeing, something that ought to be performed by integrated teams linking ecologists and health and social scientists with gardeners. With strong (and hopefully) positive results, policies might be developed to promote home gardens and home gardening (and gardens and gardening in general) in the scope of the one-health approach [ 181 ]. In fact, home gardens might contribute to halt habitat degradation/destruction and biodiversity loss, mitigate locally ongoing climate change, and contribute to several human wellbeing and health benefits of experiencing nature.

2.2. Food Provision, and Nutritional and Carbon Footprint Risks

The positive effects of home gardens and home gardening on food provision, diet diversity, nutrient supply, and carbon footprint were highlighted in the previous section. For example, home gardens were presented as relevant to obtain a continuous supply of daily foods for households in remote locations [ 36 ], supplementing diets with proteins, vitamins, and minerals, and thus contributing to food security, food diversity, and nutrition. However, drawbacks were reported: gardens are often located near roads or intensive agricultural areas, which are more susceptible to be contaminated by heavy metals [ 182 , 183 , 184 ] and organic pollutants (for example: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)), antibiotics, and petroleum products and pesticides [ 183 ]. In this situation, gardeners may be exposed to these substances, which are an important set of constraints highlighted by several research studies [ 185 ]. In fact, growing foods within or near the main roads, factories, or intensive agricultural fields increases the chance of high concentrations in the soil of potentially toxic elements, such as As, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sn, and Zn, which can be obstacles to produce safe and healthy fresh products [ 186 , 187 , 188 ]. Nonetheless, several solutions can be implemented to minimize the potential risk of soil contamination, such as building raised beds for the crops, using amendments to stabilize contaminants in soil, adding thick layers of organic matter to the soil (i.e., providing a physical barrier to contamination), replacing contaminated soil with clean soil, or even using plant species that extract, degrade, contain, or immobilize the contaminants in soil [ 189 ]. Thus, despite the potential risks of contaminants in soils, several practices are available at present to (partially) overcome this problem. Moreover, whenever pesticides are used (insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides)—gardeners often lack the training for how to use them safely—harmful effects to human health could increase. Even if several “problematic” pesticides are banned from developed countries, in many others, they would still be commonly use. Moreover, a recent research revealed that in the UK, growers can easily purchase unauthorized pesticides online, including atrazine, a herbicide which has been banned for sale in the EU for more than a decade [ 190 ]. Another important criticism of home gardens and home gardening is linked with their food-provision role: several authors suggested that only small and modest contributions to overall food and nutritional needs are fulfilled [ 191 ]. Moreover, the majority of studies involving home gardening only address the potential of urban soil for food production and how much land or what types of soils would be required to feed the city’s population. In fact, comparisons are sometimes difficult to establish, since methods of crop production and types of crops differ among studies. The lack of data also complicates the comparisons between potential urban and rural home gardens and home gardening, but a question always raised is about the amount of food supplied by gardens to households. From our point of view, the objectives of domestic and home gardens should not be to provide the complete needs of nutrients to households, but to complement them, since extensive areas of farming already exist for this purpose. On the other hand, critics always refute the idea that gardens can effectively contribute to reducing the carbon footprint, suggesting that garden species need extra care with fertilization, watering, and sanitary treatments [ 191 ]. The excessive use of mineral fertilizers, especially nitrogen and potassium, might end up in groundwaters, but also the accumulation of pesticide residues in soils and foods, and groundwater depletion, are among the other issues and problems raised [ 191 ]. Nonetheless, the majority of criticism and drawbacks reported, even opportune as reflection points, can be minimized using correct “farming” practices. The use of organic fertilizers, green and organic amendments, natural substances, or natural products for crop sanitary treatments, the rational use of irrigation water (only when necessary) have already been proven to reduce the negative impacts on the environment [ 118 ]. The widespread use of mulching or compost, ground cover, vegetables and fruits in raised beds (filled with an uncontaminated soil), no tillage, and sowing annual plants away from busy roads are practices to be considered [ 117 ]. All these practices can also contribute to the recovery of degraded soils in gardens, but also capture different forms of atmospheric carbon, contributing in this way as a carbon sink [ 116 ].

2.3. Biodiversity and Nature Conservation: The Downside of Home Gardens

Most gardens are not suited for the conservation of species with special requirements of area, soil, climate, or habitat [ 192 ]. In fact, urban sprawl is one of the most threatening factors, by reducing natural habitats area and their ecological status, i.e., natural-habitat conservation should be the priority [ 25 ]. Nevertheless, in the advent of an increasing urbanized and agriculture-intensive world, wildlife gardening could create, within a small area, a diversity of microhabitats suited for several species [ 192 ]. Conversely, several of the species selected by gardeners or attracted to live in our home gardens (e.g., cats, naturalized and/or invasive species) may pose huge threats to our wild neighbors by spreading infectious diseases, predating several vertebrates and invertebrates, but also competing for space, nutrients, and light [ 193 , 194 , 195 ]. In fact, a relevant drawback related to home gardens and home gardening is linked to the chosen species, namely, the potential of exotic species becoming invasive [ 196 ]. In fact, several plants and animals (and their associated parasites) brought to the garden in order to increase its beauty (e.g., colorful flowers) escape and become invasive in the wild habitats, creating considerable challenges for conservationists by competing with native species, changing web links and fire regimes, and spreading new diseases [ 144 ]. Additionally, downfalls created by our longing for beauty, “cleanness”, and pest control within our home garden havens, by over-adding fertilizers and pesticides, might create traps and mortality events for several non-target species [ 137 , 197 , 198 ]. A gardener’s education and garden-center consultations should be a priority to tackle this problem [ 199 ]. Another relevant aspect, namely, in regions with water scarcity (e.g., Mediterranean region), is the preconception of “green” gardens (e.g., lawn) that need high quantities of water (and chemicals) to maintain their features [ 200 ]. Apart from the costs associated with water consumption, this water is, many times, deviated from subterranean waters, wetlands, or associated with the construction of reservoirs that impact natural habitats further [ 201 ]. Education could again pave the way for more sustainable gardens, by including novel irrigation techniques using gray waters, xeriscape concepts, and mimicking regional natural habitats by choosing native species adapted to the local climate and soils [ 196 ].

2.4. Risks and Drawbacks of Home Gardens and Home Gardening to the Implementation of Sustainable Development Goals

Recognizing the potential interest of home gardens and home gardening for health and wellbeing, namely, for elderly people, the authors also would like to stress that musculoskeletal injuries are a common problem that could be reduced by specific gardening education directed to postural techniques and tool use ( Table 4 ). On the other hand, the correct handling of chemicals (e.g., limiting the access to accredited gardeners) might prevent the occurrence of toxicological effects, while proper clothing and hygiene can also minimize skin lesions from plants and arthropods and reduce infection by microorganisms. The authors recognized the risks of contamination of home gardens located near urban/industrial or intensive agriculture areas with metals and/or pesticides (but also in some cases by the excessive use of agrochemicals by the gardener) that might end up in the legumes, fruits, and groundwater ( Table 4 ). Several techniques are available, ranging from mulching to organic farming and cover crops, to help in tackling the previous problems, but further studies are needed to prove efficacy. In our opinion, these techniques might also reduce water consumption and contribute to capturing carbon from the atmosphere. The biodiversity of home gardens might be enhanced by choosing the right species and correct management techniques, and is by no means comparable to the biodiversity found in natural habitats ( Table 4 ). Additionally, home gardens might significantly impact natural ecosystems’ functioning and biodiversity: the introduction of alien, invasive species and water consumption in arid and semi-arid regions, but again, the environmental education of gardeners might make a difference ( Table 4 ).

Risks and drawbacks of home gardens and home gardening.

3. Discussion

Even if the maintenance of a small home garden is mostly associated with low- and moderate-intensity activities, it can serve as a gateway within a plexus of outdoor activities, contributing to reduce the seasonality of physical-activity levels that usually tend to occur under good weather conditions [ 202 ]. Moreover, for the elderly population with reduced mobility, significant improvements to their health condition and mental wellbeing were noticed with gardening practices [ 203 ]. In this way, the backyard becomes a potential outdoors gymnasium, upscaling physical activity and nature integration for individuals that face barriers to the practice of physical activity, but whose participation is a priority [ 203 ]. Since different management activities are performed during specific seasons and linked with diverse garden structures and species, gardening encourages physical activity throughout the year [ 51 ] by motivating the adoption of recommended levels for healthy lifestyles, viz., 150 min of moderate-intensity physical activity per week [ 47 , 51 , 185 , 203 ]. This recommendation can produce considerably positive effects in reducing the risk of several diseases, such as obesity, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and even some types of cancer [ 204 ].

In fact, growing ornamental plants for aesthetic purposes and/or fruits/vegetables for home consumption is one unpretentious way of interacting with flora and fauna, while promoting a greater interest and knowledge of nature-related issues [ 24 ]. Green spaces in balconies, terraces, backyards, or other areas increase an individual’s exposure to natural elements and biota while promoting physical activity, regardless of socioeconomic status [ 205 ]. Home gardens and gardening also have the potential for changing behaviors, including the preference for healthy diets and de-tress activities, thus contributing to the prevention and control of chronic diseases [ 206 ]. Additionally, gardens are able to reduce air, noise, and thermal pollution, while providing important ecosystem services, such as oxygen production and water percolation, in urban areas [ 207 ].

Nonetheless, it is still not clear what the mains aspects of home gardens and home gardening are that promote human welfare. In recent decades, the efforts of researchers have been dedicated to explore the attitudes of communities to domestic gardening, and how gardening is seen as a health-intervention strategy. Home gardening and small gardens are a complex multi-factorial activity, having direct and indirect impacts on the health and wellbeing of those taking part in it [ 208 ]. Moreover, consumers see the garden (and gardening) as a way to preserve plants and green spaces, as well as an activity that has considerable contributions to wellbeing [ 209 ]. The authors reported that consumers perceived gardens and gardening as spaces and an activity to relax, to find restoration from daily stress, engaging in physical activities with spiritual meaning [ 210 , 211 ]. The improvement to wellbeing in older people was also pointed out as a benefit of home gardens and home gardening [ 44 , 212 ].

Even if home gardens are often overlooked within biodiversity conservation, their cumulative impact should not be underestimated [ 28 ]. Being artificial, gardens encompass mostly generalist and adaptable habitats and species that used to be considered as “uninteresting” by researchers and, in this way, were understudied [ 153 ]. The trends in the last decade have shown that several of these generalist habitats and species are rapidly retreating and listed as habitats and/or species of conservation concern [ 213 ]. In fact, for many species associated with agroecosystems that are more and more intensified and monocultural, gardens could work as conservation islands [ 214 ]. This is discussed in several forum sites and wildlife-gardening publications, namely, highlighting that gardens should be considered in the mainstream of conservation thinking [ 215 ].

To finish our viewpoint, we suggest looking at home gardens by considering a concept similar to high-nature-value farming (e.g., [ 216 ]), which recognizes the importance and special status of traditional agricultural systems and practices for nature conservation within the rural landscape at present. Furthermore, we would like to extend the “nature” focus of the previous concept by also including food provision and the active use of the outdoor environment, translated into social (reduced isolation, improved social networks), mental (reduced stress and depression, improved cognitive function), physical (increased physical activity and weight control), nutritional (quality and diversity of food items), ecological (conservation of habitats and species), and carbon footprint (sink habitats) improvements within landscapes. In fact, home gardens provide opportunities for leisure and self-expression, encourage creativity, skill development, and the adoption of pro-environmental behaviors, all with valuable contributions to increasingly homogeneous ecosystems (both rural and urban) and their inhabitants [ 24 ]. Through home gardening, urban and rural populations could develop extra proficiency related to plants and nature in general, which could increase environmental consciousness through their involvement. Public authorities could produce rules and policies to stimulate the contribution of residential home gardens to citizen’s health through eco-therapy, urban agriculture, pedagogical farms, or green/social programs, gauging their contribution to the SDG’s zero hunger, good health and wellbeing, clean water and sanitation, sustainable cities and communities, responsible consumption and production, and climate action and life on Earth. For accomplishing the SDGs, home-garden-management practices may need to be redesigned and accommodated in order to conduct the required research that will foster the transition to a low carbon, climate resilient, and sustainable use of resources [ 217 ]. In this scope, the sustainable management of home gardens could be supported by simple indicators that might enlighten their resilience status due to their ability to bridge production, environment, biodiversity, and the associated ecosystem services (e.g., [ 218 , 219 , 220 ]). Additionally, and based on the cause–effect relationships being conceived to solve focal environmental problems, socio-ecological models might be used to predict the outcome of alternative scenarios in order to support gardeners and local authorities’ decision making (e.g., [ 221 ]). In fact, when properly developed and tested, socio-ecological models might enlighten what drives biodiversity and ecosystem functioning at the home garden scale, including the re-use of agriculture wastes, the storage of carbon in soils, the protection of other soil functions and ecosystem services, as well as the link between soils, food quality, and enhanced shelf-life. Since there are important gaps in our understanding of ecosystem services (provisioning, regulating, and cultural services) valuations, the main challenge for predictive research lies in the key interactions between relevant landscape characteristics, management strategies, and SDGs. A special focus on the economic valuation of the ecosystem services is crucial, not only for the methodological challenges involved (e.g., addressing the value of biodiversity, ecosystem resilience, or cultural heritage), but also because the final outputs can be of major interest for managers and policy-makers. From this perspective, we highlighted the interplay between model-based research and the SDGs’ achievements. This evaluation might be a first step to increase society’s recognition of the multifactorial importance of front and backyard home gardens, but is also a possibility to increase our present and future sustainability practices within an increasingly urbanized and monocultural farming world.

4. Conclusions

Our supported opinion aimed to describe and discuss the evidence of the effects of home gardens and home gardening on wellbeing and health, nutrition, carbon footprint reduction, biodiversity and nature conservation, fundamental issues for achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs). The objectives were to understand their benefits (and drawbacks), and provide an opinion reinforced by the literature, in order to guide scientists, managers, and policymakers in envisioning home gardens and home gardening as humble but significant strategies in this scope. The strength of our supported opinion was its approach to understanding the breadth of the authors’ opinions on the effects of selected SDGs.

Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge all publications referenced (and associated researchers) that supported the opinions stated in this work.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is ijerph-19-13715-g0A1.jpg

The three features associated with gardening activities discussed in this viewpoint: ( A ) Wellbeing and health; ( B ) Nutrition and carbon footprint reduction; ( C ) Biodiversity and nature conservation.

Funding Statement

This work is supported by National Funds by the FCT—Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, under the projects UIDB/04033/2020 and UID04045/2020.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.S., H.M. and A.A.; investigation, M.S., H.M. and A.A.; writing—original draft preparation, M.S., H.M. and A.A.; writing—review and editing, M.S., H.M., J.A.C., R.G., A.T., R.B. and A.A.; visualization, M.S., H.M., A.T. and A.A.; supervision, M.S., H.M. and A.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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There are three aims of sustainable development; first, the "Economic" which will help to attain balanced growth, second, the "Environment", to preserve the ecosystem, and third, "Society" which will guarantee equal access to resources to all human beings. The key principle of sustainable development is the integration of ...
PDF The Concept of Sustainable Development: Definition and Defining Principles
A Pocket guide to sustainable development governance. Stakeholder Forum. United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. (1992). Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. Rio de Janiero, Brazil: United Nations . United Nations General Assembly. (1987). Report of the world commission on environment and development: Our common future.
Introduction of Sustainability, Sustainable Development, and the
Sustainable development is a process that creates growth and progress through the addition of physical, economic, environmental, and social components to improve quality of life without damaging the resources of the environment. Simply put, sustainable development is a way for people to use resources without the resources running out 3.
Sustainable Development Goals
Goal 13: Climate Action: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. Goal 14: Life Below Water: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable development. Goal 15: Life on Land: Protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat ...
Sustainable development
Sustainable development requires six central capacities. Sustainable development is an organizing principle that aims to meet human development goals while also enabling natural systems to provide necessary natural resources and ecosystem services to humans. The desired result is a society where living conditions and resources meet human needs without undermining the planetary integrity and ...
The importance of the Sustainable Development Goals to ...
The importance of the Sustainable Development Goals to students of environmental and sustainability studies—a global survey in 41 countries. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 9 , 218 (2022). https://doi ...
Sustainable Development: Goals, Importance, and Career Guide
The term "sustainable development" is often used in business, government, and non-profit spaces to refer to the processes and pathways required to balance economic growth, environmental stewardship, and social inclusion. Sustainability is considered a paradigm for thinking about balancing environmental, economic, and social needs for the ...
An Essay on Sustainable Development,
environment and development may constitute soft legal principles. (Lowe 1999: 6) To this extent they are relevant when courts or international bodies have to apply or develop the law. At least there is consensus that sustainable development represents a goal that can influence the outcome of litigation and the practice of states and that, by means
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Environmental Sustainability
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of 17 global goals established by the United Nations in 2015 as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. These goals provide a comprehensive framework for addressing social, economic, and environmental challenges to achieve a sustainable future for all.
PDF Globalization and Environment
Keywords: Environment, Globalization, International Trade JEL Classification Codes: F18, O13 _____ Theodore Panayotou is the Director of the Program on Environment and Sustainable Development at the Center for International Development. His recent research has focused on the intersection between economic growth and environmental sustainability.
The Environment And Sustainable Development Essay
Education for Sustainable Development Essay. Sustainability development has three components: environment, society, and economy. If you consider the three to be overlapping circles of the same size, the area of overlap in the center is human well-being. As the environment, society, and economy become more aligned, the area of overlap increases ...
PDF The importance of the Sustainable Development Goals to ...
ARTICLE The importance of the Sustainable Development Goals to students of environmental and sustainability studies—a global survey in 41 countries
[PDF] Ecological Economics and Sustainable Development, Selected Essays
Contents: Introduction Part I: Basic Concepts and Ideas Part II: Issues with the World Bank Part III: Issues in Ecological Economics and Sustainable Development Part IV: Testimony and Opinion Part V: Reviews and Critiques Part VI: Globalization Part VII: Philosophy and Policy Index
Integration of Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG ...
Lokuwaduge CSDS, Heenetigala K (2017) Integrating environmental, social and governance (ESG) disclosure for a sustainable development: an Australian study. Bus Strateg Environ 26:438-450. https ...
PDF Sustainable Development: Balancing Economic Prosperity and
generations. This essay explores the challenges and opportunities associated with achieving a balance between economic development and environmental sustainability. It analyzes the importance of sustainable development in mitigating climate change, promoting resource efficiency, and fostering social equity.
Economics and Environment: Essays on Ecological Economics and
Part I: Ethics, ecological economics and the environment. Part II: Sustainable development. Part III: Applied Environmental economics. Skip to search form Skip to main content ... Corpus ID: 128834778; Economics and Environment: Essays on Ecological Economics and Sustainable Development @inproceedings{Pearce1999EconomicsAE, title={Economics and ...
Role of economics in analyzing the environment and sustainable development
The challenge of sustainable development is one of developing "economic, social, and governance systems capable of ending poverty and achieving sustainable levels of population and consumption while securing the life-support systems underpinning current and future human well-being". The environmental sciences have documented large and worrisome changes in earth systems, from climate change ...
Contribution of Home Gardens to Sustainable Development: Perspectives
1. Introduction. Sustainable development has emerged as a concept associated with the growing awareness of the need to balance social-economic development with a healthy environment [].Moreover, sustainable development goals (SDGs) have evolved to not only include the people, planet, and prosperity, but also peace and partnership, linking the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of ...

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Contribution of Home Gardens to Sustainable Development: Perspectives from A Supported Opinion Essay

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