essay about indian temples

Essay on Temple

India is a land of ancient temples, sacred places and shrines. Temples are a symbol of peace and belief for Hindus. The temple’s main deity is the sculpture of a God or Goddess. Indian temples are known for their intricate sculptures, carvings and ancient paintings. These temples are open to the public and visitors who come to worship and make offerings. BYJU’S essay on temple helps children learn about the holy Indian temples.

From Kanyakumari to Kashmir, we find temples in any corner of the country. Each temple has a history, and the walls have a story of brave warriors or kings to tell the world. The entrance, or dhwaja sthambha, is a gateway that marks the way to the sanctum sanctorum. People visit temples for different reasons, such as pursuing peace, organising family functions, seeking blessings, serving people, etc. Now, let us read about famous Indian temples that are globally recognised by referring to an essay on temple in English.

Table of Contents

Famous indian temples, virupaksha temple, brihadeshwara temple, golden temple, akshardham temple.

Puri Jagannath Temple

History of Indian Temples

Indian temples are one of the most beautiful creations of humankind. Here are a few famous temples in India.

Virupaksha temple is located in Hampi, Karnataka. The temple was constructed by one of the chieftains, Lakkana Dandesha, who worked in the reign of the ruler Deva Raya II of the Vijayanagara Empire. Hampi is one of the world heritage sites designated by UNESCO. Lord Shiva is the main deity who is worshipped in sanctum sanctorum. This temple is the primary centre of yatra at Hampi.

Brihadeshwara temple, also known as Rajarajeswaram, is located in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. This temple was constructed by Rajaraja I, a Chola emperor. Brihadeshwara temple is an example of Tamil architecture. Rajarajeswaram is dedicated to Lord Shiva. Like the Virupaksha temple, this temple is also a UNESCO world heritage site.

Golden temple is one of the most prominent shrines in the country, located in Amritsar, Punjab. Golden temple is also known as Sri Harmandir Sahib. Lakhs of Sikhs visit this temple every year. While visiting this temple, people must cover their heads for the lord.

Akshardham temple is one of the most visited temples across the country. Akshardham temple is situated in the national capital of India, Delhi, and the temple is famous for its architectural marvel. Moreover, this is one of India’s most beautiful shrines built in recent times.

To conclude, temples are of great importance to the Indians and the country’s culture. People visit temples to seek blessings from God or find peace from all the chaos around. In addition, Indian temples are excellent constructions, and each one of them is an architectural masterpiece. In this short essay on temple, we have explained the prominent Indian temples for children. For more essays, stories and poems , visit BYJU’S website.

Frequently Asked Questions

Which is the oldest temple in india.

The oldest temple in India is the Mundeshwari temple, located in Kaimur District, Bihar.

Which state is famous for temples in India?

Tamil Nadu is famous for its temples in India.

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Exploring the Historical Significance of Indian Temples: Beyond Religious Worship

The temples of India hold a significant place in its history, extending far beyond just religious sanctuaries. They serve as a reflection of the country’s rich and diverse cultural heritage. This article delves into the various dimensions of Indian temples, exploring their evolution, architectural marvels, spiritual and cultural significance, legends and history associated with them, as well as their impact on the economy and society.

Temples play a crucial role in Indian culture , serving as the focal points of community life, religious rituals, and social gatherings. They have evolved over time, adapting to changing architectural styles and incorporating symbolic elements of sacred geometry in their design.

The architectural marvels of Indian temples are renowned worldwide, displaying exquisite craftsmanship and intricate detailing. These structures showcase various styles of temple architecture, such as Nagara, Dravida, Vesara, and more, each with its own unique characteristics.

Beyond being places of worship, temples also act as centers of education, promoting cultural and spiritual learning. They offer a platform for teaching and disseminating knowledge through various activities and festivals throughout the year.

Indian temples are steeped in mythology and legends, with numerous mythical tales and folklore associated with them. They provide a tangible connection to the past through historical events and personalities linked to their existence.

Temples have a significant economic and social influence. They contribute to the economic development of the regions surrounding them, attracting pilgrims and tourists, thus creating employment opportunities. Temples also serve as social and community centers, fostering a sense of unity and collective identity among the people.

In recent times, there has been a growing focus on the preservation and restoration of ancient temples. Efforts are being made to protect these architectural gems, ensuring their longevity for future generations to appreciate. Temples have also become popular tourist attractions and cultural heritage sites, drawing visitors from around the world who are fascinated by their grandeur and historical significance .

This article will delve deeper into these aspects, shedding light on the legacy of temples in Indian history and their profound impact on religion, culture, architecture, and society as a whole.

Key takeaway:

• The significance of temples in Indian history : Temples play a vital role in Indian culture, serving as religious, social, and educational centers. They have evolved over time, reflecting changes in architectural styles and design.
• Architectural marvels of Indian temples: Indian temples showcase different styles of architecture, displaying intricate design elements and symbolism, often incorporating sacred geometry. They are a testament to the rich cultural heritage of India.
• The spiritual and cultural importance of temples: Temples serve as centers of worship and rituals, providing spiritual guidance to devotees. They also promote education and cultural activities, fostering community cohesion.
• The rich history and legends associated with Indian temples: Indian temples are steeped in mythical tales and folklore, capturing the imagination of believers. They are also linked to historical events and personalities, adding to their cultural significance.
• The economic and social influence of temples: Temples contribute to the economic development of surrounding areas through tourism and associated businesses. They are important social and community centers, fostering a sense of belonging and cultural identity. They attract tourists as cultural heritage sites.

The Significance of Temples in Indian History

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Temples have always played a significant role in shaping Indian history . They are not just mere places of worship, but also centers of cultural, social, and architectural significance. The importance of temples can be seen in various aspects.

One of the key features of Indian temples is their architectural marvels . Renowned for their exquisite architecture and intricate designs, these temples showcase the artistic and engineering brilliance of ancient Indian civilizations . Each temple reflects the style of its time, whether it is the Dravidian style in the south or the Nagara style in the north.

Temples also hold immense cultural heritage , preserving India’s ancient scriptures , sacred rituals , and artistic traditions . They serve as centers of learning and nurture art forms like music , dance , and sculpture , thus playing a pivotal role in promoting India’s rich cultural legacy .

Temples are significant pilgrimage sites that are sacred to millions of devotees . They draw devotees from all corners of the country and even abroad. The pilgrimage to these temples is believed to cleanse sins and bring spiritual enlightenment .

Apart from their religious importance , temples also have a significant socio-economic impact . They act as economic hubs by attracting tourists and generating revenue for local businesses. Festivals and religious events associated with temples provide opportunities for local artisans, craftsmen, and small-scale industries to showcase and sell their products.

Temples serve as repositories of historical records , with inscriptions on their walls providing valuable insights into the history, politics, and socio-cultural practices of the time. They are primary sources for historians, archaeologists, and researchers studying the past.

Temples also play a crucial role in fostering community integration . They bring people from diverse backgrounds together, transcending caste, religion, and social barriers. Through community events, religious festivals, and philanthropic activities, temples promote unity and social welfare.

The significance of temples in Indian history cannot be undermined. From their architectural grandeur to their cultural and religious importance , temples have truly left an indelible mark in shaping the country’s past. They are not merely religious structures, but they also symbolize the rich heritage and diversity of India.

What is the Role of Temples in Indian Culture?

Temples have a vital role in Indian culture, encompassing spirituality, community, and tradition. They are places of worship where devotees offer prayers and seek blessings from deities. Temples serve as a sacred space , facilitating individuals’ connection with the divine and expression of devotion. They also function as centers of learning, hosting schools that teach theology , philosophy , music , and dance . Temples act as cultural hubs , organizing festivals, religious processions, and performances that showcase India’s rich cultural heritage. They promote social interactions and foster a sense of community among people. Temples engage in charitable activities, distributing food, offering shelter, and providing healthcare facilities for the welfare of the community. Temples play a critical role in preserving and passing on cultural traditions , rituals , customs , art forms , scriptures , and sacred texts from one generation to another. They are admired for their architectural beauty and craftsmanship , attracting tourists and contributing to the economy through cultural tourism.

From simple cave shrines to complex architectural wonders, Indian temples have evolved over time, embracing diverse styles and techniques to showcase the rich cultural and spiritual heritage of the country.

How Temples Evolved Over Time?

Temples in India have undergone significant changes throughout history, reflecting the evolving religious and cultural practices in the country. Various factors, including architectural styles , patronage of rulers, temple complexes, iconography , and foreign influences, have played a role in shaping their form and purpose.

During the early stages, Indian temples were modest structures built using materials such as wood, mud, or stone. Serving as places of worship, these temples housed sacred objects and idols. They were strategically located near natural elements considered spiritually significant.

Different regions in India developed their own distinctive architectural styles , which were influenced by the local cultures. For instance, the Nagara style temples found in northern India are characterized by tall spires and intricate carvings. In contrast, the Dravidian style temples in South India are known for their towering gateways and elaborate sculptural embellishments.

The construction and renovation of temples were often sponsored by rulers, contributing to the growth and expansion of these sacred structures. Many temples became important centers of art, culture, and learning.

Over time, temples evolved into complex architectural ensembles , consisting of multiple shrines, mandapas (assembly halls), gopurams (ornamental gateways), and ritual bathing tanks.

One of the distinguishing features of temple architecture is its iconography and symbolism. Through intricate carvings and sculptures, temples conveyed religious and mythological narratives, imparting a deeper meaning to the sacred spaces.

Foreign cultures, such as Islamic and European influences , left their mark on temple architecture in regions where these cultures had a significant presence. This cross-cultural exchange resulted in unique blends of architectural elements.

In the modern era, temples continue to incorporate traditional architectural elements while incorporating modern materials and construction techniques. This ensures that they remain relevant and functional in today’s society.

Studying the evolution of temples offers valuable insights into the cultural, artistic, and religious transformations that have taken place in India. These sacred spaces serve as significant markers of Indian heritage, attracting devotees, tourists, and scholars alike.

Understanding the Architectural Marvels of Indian Temples

Indian temples have left an indelible mark on history, transcending religious boundaries. In this section, we uncover the mesmerizing world of Indian temple architecture . From exploring the diverse styles of temple design to unraveling the symbolism and sacred geometry hidden within their structures, prepare to be captivated by the magnificent legacy of India’s architectural marvels . Get ready to discover the secrets behind these awe-inspiring creations that have stood the test of time.

The Different Styles of Temple Architecture in India

The temple architecture in India encompasses various styles, including Nagara , Dravida , Vesara , and Kalinga . These distinct styles reflect the cultural and historical influences of different regions in the country.

The Nagara style, predominantly found in Northern India, is known for its curvilinear spire or shikhara . These temples have a square sanctum sanctorum ( garbhagriha ) and feature intricate carvings of deities, mythical creatures, and celestial beings on their walls and pillars. A notable example of the Nagara style is the Kandariya Mahadeva temple in Khajuraho.

On the other hand, the Dravida style is prevalent in Southern India, specifically in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. These temples are characterized by towering gopurams (ornate entrance gateways) and expansive temple complexes. The main shrine, or vimana , has a pyramid-shaped structure often adorned with elaborate sculptural work. One of the prominent Dravida -style temples is the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur.

The Vesara style is a fusion of the Nagara and Dravida styles, primarily observed in Central India. These temples exhibit elements from both styles, featuring a curvilinear shikhara combined with a square base. The Sun Temple in Konark serves as an exemplary Vesara -style temple, renowned for its remarkable architectural details and intricate stone carvings.

The Kalinga style is unique to the coastal regions of Odisha. These temples typically have a square or rectangular sanctum sanctorum and are distinguished by their deul , a distinctive shape. The Jagannath Temple in Puri is an important Kalinga -style temple dedicated to Lord Jagannath, attracting millions of devotees annually.

Each style of temple architecture in India serves as a testament to the country’s rich cultural and architectural heritage. The intricate carvings, architectural elements, and spiritual significance of these temples not only make them religious landmarks but also architectural marvels showcasing the skilled craftsmanship of ancient India. These diverse styles highlight the country’s rich history and cultural diversity.

Symbolism and Sacred Geometry in Temple Design

In Indian temple design, symbolism and sacred geometry are significant. The architectural features and designs have deeper meanings and spiritual significance.

1. Symmetry: Temple design follows strict rules of symmetry. Geometric patterns and symmetrical layouts symbolize harmony and balance, reflecting the belief of cosmic order and equilibrium in the universe.

2. Mandala: Many temple designs are based on the mandala , a sacred geometric symbol representing the universe. The mandala’s concentric circles and geometric shapes represent the interconnectedness of all things.

3. Vastu Shastra: Vastu Shastra , the ancient Indian science of architecture, guides temple construction to align with natural and cosmic energies. Sacred geometry ensures a harmonious flow of energy within the temple, enhancing the spiritual experience.

4. Yantras: Yantras , sacred geometric diagrams, are engraved or painted in temples. These yantras possess specific energies and vibrations that enhance meditation, focus the mind, and connect with the divine.

5. Sculptures and Carvings: Sculptures and carvings in temples hold symbolic meanings. Gods, goddesses, and mythical creatures represent spirituality, divine attributes, and cosmic forces. Intricate carvings depict ancient stories, legends, and moral lessons.

Indian temple art and architecture convey profound philosophical teachings and spiritual concepts. Symbolism and sacred geometry create a sacred space that facilitates a deeper connection between worshippers and the divine.

Fact: The sacred geometry and symbolism in temple design are not limited to India. Similar principles can be found in ancient cultures worldwide, demonstrating the universality of these architectural concepts in connecting humans with the divine.

The Spiritual and Cultural Significance of Temples

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Discover the spiritual and cultural tapestry woven by temples in Indian history . Step beyond the confines of religious practices to explore the deeper significance they hold. Delve into the sub-sections where we unravel the multifaceted role of temples : from being revered centers of worship and rituals to serving as educational and cultural hubs . Brace yourself for a captivating journey as we uncover the untold stories and hidden gems of India’s temple heritage .

Temples as Centers of Worship and Rituals

Temples in India are important centers of worship and rituals. They are crucial in the religious and spiritual life of the people. Here are some key points to consider about temples:

1. Devotion and Prayer: Temples serve as dedicated spaces where individuals express their devotion and offer prayers to deities. It is through visiting temples that people seek blessings, guidance, and spiritual solace. The prayers offered within these sacred spaces have a profound spiritual impact.

2. Rituals and Ceremonies: Temples act as hubs for various religious rituals and ceremonies. These rituals, conducted by priests or devoted individuals, often involve chanting prayers, lighting lamps, offering flowers, and ringing bells. These practices are meant to invoke divine blessings and purify one’s inner self.

3. Festivals and Celebrations: Temples transform into bustling centers of activity during religious festivals. Elaborate celebrations, processions, and special rituals attract a large number of devotees. Temples bring together the community, fostering a shared sense of faith and encouraging celebration.

4. Spiritual Teachings: Temples go beyond being places of worship; they also serve as educational institutions. Many temples have schools where the younger generation is taught spiritual teachings, scriptures, and moral values. These institutions bridge the gap between religion and education, nurturing both spiritual and intellectual growth.

5. Social Cohesion: Temples promote social cohesion by providing a common spiritual space for people from diverse backgrounds. They offer a platform for individuals to interact, share experiences, and build a sense of community. Temples often organize social and charitable activities, fostering a spirit of service and compassion among devotees.

6. Symbolism and Divine Connection: Temples are intricately designed with architectural details and sacred symbols that represent the presence of the divine. The rituals and ceremonies performed within the temple strengthen the devotee’s connection with the divine, providing a sense of transcendence and spiritual elevation.

Pro-tip: When visiting a temple, it is essential to respect customs, traditions, and dress codes. Observing silence, removing footwear, and following instructions ensure a peaceful and meaningful worship experience.

Temples as Educational and Cultural Hubs

Temples in India serve as important educational and cultural hubs. They play a vital role in imparting knowledge, preserving traditions, and fostering a sense of community. Here are some key aspects that illustrate the significance of temples as educational and cultural centers:

1. Knowledge Dissemination: Temples have long been recognized as centers of learning, where priests and scholars teach valuable spiritual and philosophical lessons. They cover a wide range of subjects, including religious scriptures, music, dance, and literature. Temples also organize educational activities, seminars, and workshops to promote cultural and intellectual development.

2. Preservation of Cultural Heritage: Temples hold a treasure trove of ancient texts, sculptures, and artworks that beautifully showcase India’s rich cultural heritage. They serve as living museums, providing deep insights into history, mythology, and traditional practices. Through temple architecture, visitors can learn about customs, rituals, and artistic traditions.

3. Artistic Expression: Temples provide a platform for promoting classical music, dance, and theater. They host cultural festivals that celebrate local artists and their outstanding talents. These performances not only entertain but also educate the audience about the diverse cultural traditions and artistic heritage of the region.

4. Community Engagement: Temples bring people together as community centers, fostering social interactions and solidarity. They organize various events and festivals that encourage active community participation and strengthen social bonds. Temples actively support charitable activities, providing educational opportunities to underprivileged children and contributing to overall community development.

5. Spiritual Guidance: Temples serve as places where individuals can seek spiritual and moral guidance. They teach important values such as compassion, humility, and tolerance, acting as moral compasses in people’s lives. Temples promote spirituality and mindfulness, ultimately contributing to individuals’ overall well-being.

Pro-tip: While visiting temples as educational and cultural hubs, make the most of your experience by interacting with priests and local experts. Engage in discussions about the temple’s history, significance, and cultural practices. Participate in temple-related activities and attend cultural events to deepen your understanding of these sacred spaces.

With tales of gods, demons, and miracles, Indian temples weave a rich tapestry of history and legends that captivate both believers and skeptics alike.

The Rich History and Legends Associated with Indian Temples

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Did you know that Indian temples are not only places of worship but also repositories of rich history and fascinating legends? In this section, we’ll delve into the mystical allure of Indian temples by exploring famous mythical tales and folklore connected to these sacred sites. We’ll uncover the historical events and notable personalities that have left an indelible mark on these temples, weaving together a tapestry of cultural heritage and spiritual significance . Get ready to embark on a journey through the captivating stories and remarkable history encompassing Indian temples .

Famous Mythical Tales and Folklore Connected to Temples

Indian temples are architectural marvels and treasure troves of mythical tales. These famous mythical tales and folklore connected to temples are ingrained in the cultural fabric of the country. Here are some examples:

1. The Legend of Lord Vishnu and King Bali: King Bali, a powerful ruler loved by his people, was humbled when Lord Vishnu took the form of a dwarf and requested land equal to three steps. Although King Bali granted the request, he soon discovered that the dwarf was actually Lord Vishnu himself. As a result, Lord Vishnu banished King Bali to the underworld, symbolizing the triumph of good over evil.

2. The Story of Rama and Hanuman : The epic tale of Ramayana revolves around Lord Rama and his loyal devotee Hanuman . Many temples across India are associated with incidents from this mythological tale, serving as reminders of the bravery and dedication demonstrated by Lord Rama and Hanuman .

3. The Story of Krishna and Radha : Temples like the Banke Bihari Temple in Mathura celebrate the love story of Lord Krishna and Radha . Lord Krishna’s encounters with Radha symbolize the divine love between the soul and the divine. Paintings and sculptures found in these temples depict the tales of their love.

4. The Legend of Goddess Durga : Temples dedicated to Goddess Durga , such as the Kamakhya Temple in Assam, are associated with her battle against the buffalo demon, Mahishasura. In this fierce battle, Goddess Durga emerged victorious, representing the triumph of good over evil. These temples honoring Goddess Durga are revered as centers of power and protection.

These famous mythical tales and folklore connected to temples provide a glimpse into India’s cultural heritage and inspire devotion and faith. They remind us of the eternal values and moral lessons in our mythology. Exploring these stories and visiting the associated temples can be a fascinating journey through time and spirituality.

To delve deeper into these tales, it is recommended to visit temples with a knowledgeable guide who can provide insights into the symbolism and significance of the stories. By immersing yourself in the mystical world of Indian mythology and folklore, you can witness the grandeur of these temples and connect with the roots of Indian culture.

Historical Events and Personalities Linked to Temples

Temples in India have witnessed significant events and been associated with renowned personalities. Here are some notable examples:

• The Construction of the Khajuraho Temples: The Khajuraho Temples in Madhya Pradesh were built between the 10th and 12th centuries by the Chandela Dynasty. These temples showcase the architectural brilliance and artistic prowess of the Chandela rulers.
• Emperor Akbar’s Visit to the Jagannath Temple: Emperor Akbar visited the Jagannath Temple in Puri, Odisha, in the late 16th century. This event symbolizes the harmonious coexistence of Hindu and Islamic traditions during the Mughal era.
• Rani Ahilyabai Holkar’s Role in Temple Restoration: Rani Ahilyabai Holkar played a crucial role in the restoration and construction of temples across India during the 18th century. She revived and maintained Hindu temples, including the famous Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi.
• Mahatma Gandhi’s Connection with Sabarmati Ashram: The Sabarmati Ashram in Gujarat served as Mahatma Gandhi’s residence and headquarters during India’s freedom struggle. Gandhi’s presence and teachings influenced the direction of the Indian independence movement.
• The Babri Masjid-Ram Janmabhoomi Controversy: The Babri Masjid-Ram Janmabhoomi dispute revolves around a site in Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh. The dispute is intertwined with the historical and religious claims of both Hindus and Muslims and has been a subject of debate and controversy for decades.

These events and personalities demonstrate the deep historical, cultural, and religious connections associated with Indian temples. They provide insights into the diverse aspects of Indian history and the impact of temples on the socio-political , religious, and architectural landscape of the country. The legacy of these events and personalities continues to shape the significance and reverence given to temples in Indian history.

Temples in India: Where spirituality meets economic and social development, creating a divine impact on communities.

Exploring the Economic and Social Influence of Temples

Discover the hidden impact of temples in Indian history beyond their religious significance. In this section, we will unravel the profound economic and social influence that temples have had on society. Uncover how temples have played a pivotal role in economic development, served as social and community centers, and emerged as treasured tourist attractions and cultural heritage sites. Prepare to embark on a journey that goes beyond religion, where the true essence and legacy of temples are unveiled.

The Role of Temples in Economic Development

Temples in India have played a crucial and indispensable role in the economic development of the country. The economic impact of temples can be witnessed in various aspects such as employment generation and tourism revenue .

1. Employment Generation: Temples have a magnetizing effect on devotees, thereby creating abundant employment opportunities in managing temple operations, organizing events, providing accommodation and food services, and selling religious merchandise. These activities not only support local communities but also contribute significantly to individual livelihoods.

2. Donations and Offerings: Temples receive generous donations and offerings from devoted individuals, which constitute a substantial part of their income. These funds are utilized for maintenance, charitable activities, and educational initiatives that greatly benefit society as a whole.

3. Tourism Revenue: Indian temples are not solely revered as places of worship, but also serve as popular tourist attractions. Their remarkable architectural beauty, cultural significance, and historical heritage allure both domestic and international tourists. The revenue generated from temple visits, entrance fees, and tourist donations plays a pivotal role in contributing to the local economy and bolstering the tourism industry.

4. Local Businesses: Temples serve as catalysts for the growth and proliferation of businesses in their vicinity. The services required by devotees, including accommodation, transportation, food, and souvenirs, spur the establishment of hotels, restaurants, shops, and various other commercial enterprises. These local businesses reap the benefits of a constant flow of visitors, thereby creating a thriving and prosperous local economy.

5. Infrastructure Development: Temples, particularly those located in remote areas or pilgrimage sites, attract the attention of the government with regard to infrastructure development. Governments allocate resources towards enhancing transportation networks, constructing roads, bridges, and other necessary amenities to facilitate convenient access for devotees. This not only enhances the convenience for pilgrims but also stimulates regional development.

The role of temples in economic development must not be underestimated. They act as important drivers of employment opportunities , revenue generation , support for local businesses , and promotion of tourism . Consequently, temples make substantial contributions to the economic prosperity of religious institutions, surrounding communities, and the entire country.

Temples as social and community centers: Where worship meets social interaction, creating a divine hub for communities to come together and connect.

Temples as Social and Community Centers

Temples in India serve as more than just worship places but also as vital social and community centers. They are central to community life, bringing people together for religious festivals, cultural events, weddings, and social gatherings. With spacious courtyards, temples foster community and unity through interactions. These temples also function as education centers, housing schools that teach not only religious texts but also subjects like music, dance, and philosophy. These activities preserve culture and promote holistic development within the community. Temples involve themselves in charitable activities, serving as welfare centers. They provide facilities and support to the less fortunate, establishing schools, hospitals, and orphanages to meet basic needs. Temples organize food distribution programs and provide shelter for those in need. Along with that, temples play a significant role in preserving and promoting Indian art, music, and dance forms, making them cultural promoters. They host performances that showcase local talent and provide a platform for artists. These cultural activities enhance the social fabric and attract tourists, benefiting the local economy. Temples also act as catalysts for the local economy, stimulating economic growth in the surrounding areas. They attract pilgrims and tourists, leading to the establishment of businesses such as hotels, restaurants, and handicraft shops. The income generated from these activities creates employment opportunities and improves livelihoods within the local community. So, when visiting temples as social and community centers, it is advised to take part in the various cultural and educational activities they offer. Engage with the local community and learn about their traditions, art forms, and social initiatives. By doing so, you enrich your own experience and contribute to the preservation and promotion of India’s vibrant cultural heritage.

Temples as Tourist Attractions and Cultural Heritage Sites

Temples in India hold a significant place as tourist attractions and cultural heritage sites. These architectural marvels not only showcase the rich history of the country but also reflect its spirituality. Here are a few key points to consider about temples as tourist attractions and cultural heritage sites:

1. Architectural Marvels: The temples in India mesmerize visitors with their splendid architecture, incorporating various styles such as Dravidian, Nagara, and Vesara. Intricate carvings, towering gopurams, and sculptures leave visitors awestruck.

2. Spiritual and Cultural Exploration: Temples provide an excellent opportunity to explore India’s spiritual and cultural aspects. Visitors can witness religious rituals, traditional practices, and experience the peaceful ambiance of these sacred places.

3. Historical Significance: Many Indian temples hold great historical significance and have intriguing stories associated with them. For instance, the Konark Sun Temple in Odisha is known for its captivating tales and architectural grandeur.

4. Art and Craftsmanship: The temple architecture in India reflects impeccable craftsmanship. The techniques of stone carving, mural paintings, and sculpting have been passed down through generations, showcasing the artistic brilliance of Indian artisans.

5. Tourist Attractions: Temples in India draw tourists from all around the world. Despite not being a temple, the Taj Mahal in Agra is an architectural wonder that attracts millions of tourists annually.

6. Cultural Heritage Sites: Temples are an integral part of India’s cultural heritage, proudly showcasing the country’s diversity and religious harmony. UNESCO has recognized many Indian temples as World Heritage Sites, further highlighting their cultural importance.

An excellent example of the allure of temples is a traveler’s visit to the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur. The grandness, towering vimana, and intricate artwork of the temple mesmerized the traveler. The spiritual aura of the temple evoked tranquility and reverence. This visit was a true cultural immersion, showcasing the artistic brilliance and deep-rooted spirituality of Indian temples. It left a lasting impression and a desire to explore more of India’s architectural and cultural treasures.

Some Facts About The Legacy of Temples in Indian History: Beyond Religion:

• ✅ Indian temples are architectural marvels that showcase the rich heritage and artistic prowess of ancient India. (Source: Native Planet)
• ✅ Indian temple architecture spans centuries, with each period contributing unique styles. (Source: Native Planet)
• ✅ Indian temples exhibit diverse architectural styles, including Nagara, Dravidian, Vesara, and Hoysala. (Source: Native Planet)
• ✅ The architecture of Indian temples is infused with deep symbolism, with every element carrying a spiritual significance. (Source: Native Planet)
• ✅ The intricate sculptures adorning Indian temples narrate mythological stories and showcase the mastery of artisans. (Source: Native Planet)

Frequently Asked Questions

1. what are the distinct characteristics of indian temple architecture.

Indian temple architecture showcases the rich heritage and artistic prowess of ancient India. It exhibits diverse styles such as Nagara, Dravidian, Vesara, and Hoysala. The architecture incorporates deep symbolism with every element carrying a spiritual significance. The intricate sculptures adorning the temples narrate mythological stories and showcase the mastery of artisans.

2. How do Indian temples symbolize the journey from the mundane to the divine?

Indian temples adhere to a specific layout that symbolizes the journey from the mundane to the divine. They incorporate sacred geometry and precise proportions to create harmonious spaces. The construction materials, including stone, wood, and metal, highlight the skill and craftsmanship of artisans. The temple design elements can also be seen in other architectural structures like palaces, forts, and modern buildings across India.

3. What role does philanthropy play in the development of Indian townships?

Creating townships for employee welfare is a key aspect of corporate philanthropy in India. The Tata Group, Hindalco, the Modi group, and other companies have established thriving townships for their employees. Public sector units like the Steel Authority of India have also developed townships around their plants. Philanthropists like Jamsetji N. Tata, Ghanshyam Das Birla, and K.C. Mahindra have contributed significantly to education, healthcare, and social development through their trusts and foundations.

4. How have Indian temples evolved over time?

Indian temples reflect arts, materials, and designs that have evolved over two millennia. They have incorporated cultural influences and faced conflicts with Islam since the 12th century. The contemporary postcolonial studies in India have also influenced the construction of modern Hindu temples. Notable modern Hindu temples, like the Swaminarayanan Akshardham in Robbinsville, New Jersey, are architectural marvels built with structural ingenuity.

5. What is the historical significance of Hindu temples in the context of the new world system?

Hindu temples emerged as key institutions in the resettlement and reorientation of Indian Hindus during the late 16th century. The rise of the new world system and the role played by the classic bourgeoisie, including merchants in the East India Company, contributed to the reconfiguration of Hindu temples within new urban spaces. The temples displayed eclectic and duplicated styles, foreshadowing contemporary temple architecture.

6. How do Hindu temples serve as both sacred and secular spaces?

Hindu temples are not only sacred spaces for worship but also serve as secular spaces for social rituals, community celebrations, and daily life events. They have been venues for festivals, arts, marriages, and economic activities. Hindu temples reflect a synthesis of arts, beliefs, and values within Hinduism, creating a link between man, deities, and the Universal Puruṣa in a sacred space.

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Temple Architecture and Sculpture – Hindu, Buddhist and Jain (Indian Culture Series – NCERT)

Last updated on October 10, 2023 by ClearIAS Team

In the previous articles we have discussed about the Later Mural Traditions,   Post Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and Architecture , Arts of the Mauryan Period , Arts of Indus Valley Civilization , etc. In this post we deal with major topics like Nagara Temple Architectural Style, Dravida Temple Architectural Style, Vesara Temple Architectural Style, etc. and the sculptures associated with them. We will also see Buddhist and Jain architecture.

Also read: Jagannath Temple: History and Architecture

Table of Contents

The basic form of a Hindu temple

When you browse our earlier articles on Hindu Temple Architecture, you would realize one thing. It was a gradual evolution starting from the rock cut- cave temples to monolithic rathas which finally culminated in structural temples .The basic form of a Hindu structural temple consists of the following.

  1. Garbhagriha:

• It literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like sanctum.
• In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance.
• Later it grew into a larger complex.
• The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of much ritual attention.

  2. Mandapa:

• It is the entrance to the temple.
• It may be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns placed at regular intervals) hall that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers.
• Dances and such other entertainments are practiced here.
• Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes named as Ardhamandapa, Mandapa, and Mahamandapa.

  3. Shikhara or Vimana:

• They are mountain like the spire of a free-standing temple.
• Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples.
• Shikhara has a curving shape while vimana has a pyramidal-like structure.

 4. Amalaka:

• It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North Indian temples.

 5. Kalasha:

• It is the topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian temples.

 6. Antarala (vestibule):

• Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s main hall (mandapa).

 7. Jagati:

• It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.

  8. Vahana:

• It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or Dhvaj which is placed axially before the sanctum.

Classification of Indian Temples

Indian temples can be classified into two broad orders as

• Nagara (in North India)
• Dravida (in South India)
• At times, the Vesara style of temples as an independent style created through the mixing of Nagara and Dravida orders.

Also read: Famous Temples in India

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Sculptures, Iconography, and Ornamentation

• Iconography is a branch of art history which studies the images of deities .
• It consists of identification of image based on certain symbols and mythology associated with them.
• Even though the fundamental myth and meaning of the deity may remain the same for centuries, its specific usage at a spot can be a response to its local or immediate social, political or geographical context.
• Every region and period produce its own distinct style of images with its regional variations in iconography.
• The temple is covered with elaborate sculptures and ornament that form a fundamental part of its conception.
• The placement of an image in a temple is carefully planned: for instance, river goddesses (Ganga and Yamuna) are visually found at the entrances in a Nagara temple, Dwarapalas are usually found on the gateway or gopurams of Dravida temples , similarly mithunas (erotic images) , navagrahas ( the 9 auspicious planets) and Yakshas are also placed at the entrances to guard them.
• Various forms or aspects of the main divinity are to be found on the outer walls of the sanctum.
• The ashtadikpalas (deities of direction) face eight key directions on the outer walls of the sanctum and/or on the outer walls of the temple.
• Subsidiary shrines around the main temple are dedicated to the family or incarnations of the main deity.
• The various elements of ornamentation are gavaksha, vyala/ yali, kalpa-lata, amalaka, kalasha, etc.

The Nagara or North Indian Temple Architecture

• Nagara is the style of temple architecture which became popular in Northern India.
• It is common here to build an entire temple on a stone platform with steps leading up to it.
• Unlike in south India, it doesn’t usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
• Earliest temples had only one shikhara (tower), but in the later periods, multiple shikharas came.
• The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.

Nagara temples can be subdivided mainly into three – based on the shikhara type.

  1. Latina/ Rekha-Prasada:

• It is square at the base and the walls curve or slopes inwards to a point on top .
• Latina types are mainly used for housing the garbhagriha.
• Later on, the Latina buildings grew complex, and instead of appearing like a single tower, the temple began to support many small towers, which were clustered together like rising mountain type with the tallest one being in the centre, and this was the one which was always above the garbhagriha.

  2. Phamsana type shikhara:

• Their roof is composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the centre of the building, unlike the Latina ones which look like sharply rising towers.
• Phamsana roofs do not curve inwards; instead, they slope upward on a straight incline.
• In many north Indian temples, the phamsana type is used for mandapas while the main garbhagriha is housed in a Latina building.

  3. Valabhi type shikhara:

• These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber .
• The edge of the vaulted chamber is round, like the bamboo or wooden wagons that would have been drawn by bullocks in ancient times.
• The form of this temple is influenced by ancient building forms that were already in existence.

We can also classify the Nagara Temples on the basis of region as follows:

Central India

• In the later periods, the temples grew from simple four pillared structures to a large complex.
• This means that similar developments were incorporated in the architecture of temples of both the religions.
• Two such temples that survive are; temple at Udaygiri which is on the outskirts of Vidisha (it is a part of a large Hindu temple complex) and a temple at Sanchi , which was a Buddhist site.
• The early temples were modest looking shrines each have four pillars that support a small mandapa before an equally small room that served as garbhagriha.
• Some of the oldest surviving structural temples of Gupta period are in Madhya Pradesh.
• The ancient temple sin UP, MP and Rajasthan share many traits and the most visible is that they are made of Sandstone .

  1. Dashavatara Vishnu Temple, Deogarh, UP:

• Even though the patrons and donors of the temple are unknown, it is believed that this temple was built in the early 6 th century CE.
• This is a classical example of the late Gupta period.
• This temple is in the Panchayatana style of architecture. [Panchayatana is an architectural style where the main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four smaller subsidiary shrines at the four corners and making it a total of five shrines – i.e., Pancha]
• There are 3 main reliefs of Vishnu on the temple walls.
• In fact, it is not actually known to whom the four subsidiary shrines were originally dedicated.
• The temple depicts Vishnu in various forms due to which it was assumed that the four subsidiary shrines must also house Vishnu’s avatars and the temple was mistaken for a dashavatara temple.
• The grand doorway of the west facing temple (west facing is less common) has the sculptures of Ganga on the left and Yamuna on the right side.
• The shikhara is in latina/ prasada style which makes it clear that this is an early example of a classical nagara style of the temple.
• Sheshayana – on the south (Vishnu reclining on the sheshanaga called Ananta)
• Nara-Narayana – on the east (discussion between human soul and the eternal divine)
• Gajendramoksha – on the west (story of achieving moksha , symbolically communicated by Vishnu’s suppression o an asura who had taken the form of an elephant)
• The temple is west facing, which is less common, as most of the temples are east or north facing.

  2. Temples at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh:

• The temples at Khajuraho were made in the 10 th century, about 400 years after the temple at Deogarh and the complex is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• The temples were patronized by Chandela kings.
• We can see how dramatically the shape and style of the nagara temple architecture had developed.
• The temples at Khajuraho are all made of Sandstone.
• The largest temple at Khajuraho is the Kandariya Mahadeva temple which is attributed to king Ganda.
• The Lakshmana temple dedicated to Vishnu was built in 954 by Chandela king, Dhanga.
• All the towers or shikhara of the temple rise high, upward in a curved pyramidal fashion, emphasizing the temple’s vertical thrust ending in a horizontal fluted disc called an Amalaka topped with a Kalasha or a vase.
• The crowning element Kalasha and Amalaka are to be found on all nagara temples of this period.
• The Khajuraho temples are also known for their extensive erotic sculptures (about 10% of total sculptures); the erotic expression gives equal importance in human experience as a spiritual pursuit, and it is seen as a part of the larger cosmic whole.
• Many Hindu temples, therefore feature Mithuns (embracing couples-erotic sculptures) sculptures, considered auspicious.
• Khajuraho sculptures are highly stylized with typical features.
• There are many temples at Khajuraho, most of them dedicated to Hindu gods.
• There are some Jain temples as well as a Chausanth Yogini temple.
• Chausanth Yogini is a temple of small square shrines dedicated to esoteric devis or goddesses associated with the rise of Tantric worship after the 7 th
• [Khajuraho dance festival is organized by MP Kalaparishad and is one week long (first week of February) festival of classical dances celebrated annually against the spectacular backdrop of Khajuraho]
• There are too numerous temples in the northwestern parts of India, including Gujarat and Rajasthan, and stylistically extendable, at times, to western Madhya Pradesh.
• The stones to build temples ranges in colour and type.
• While sandstone is the commonest, a grey to black basalt can be seen in some of the 10 th to 12th-century temple sculptures.
• The most exuberant and famed are the manipulatable soft white marble which is also seen in some of the 10 th to 12th-century Jain temples in Mount Abu and the 15th-century temple at Ranatpur.
• Among the most important art, historical sites in the region are Samlaji in Gujarat.
• It shows how earlier artistic traditions of the region mixed with a post-Gupta style and gave rise to a distinct style of sculpture.
• A large number of sculptures made of grey schist have been found in this region.

  1. Sun temple, Modhera, Gujarat:

• The temple dates back to the early 11 th century and was built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki dynasty.
• The Solanks were a branch off later Chalukyas.
• There is a massive rectangular stepped tank called Surya Kund in front of it.
• The hundred square metre rectangular pond is perhaps the grandest temple tank in India.
• A hundred and eight miniature shrines are carved in between the steps inside the tank.

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• A huge ornamental arch-torana leads one to the sabha mandapa (the assembly hall) which is open on all sides, as was the fashion of the times in western and central India temples.
• East Indian temples include those found in the North-East, Bengal, and Odisha and each of these three areas produces a distinct type of temple.
• The history of architecture in the northeast and Bengal is hard to study because a number of ancient buildings in those regions were renovated, and what survives now is later brick or concrete temples at those sites.
• It appears that terracotta was the main medium of construction.
• A large number of sculptures have been found in Assam and Bengal, which shows the development of important regional schools in those regions.
• An old 6 th century sculpted door frame from DaParvatia near Tezpur and another few stray sculptures from Rangagora Tea Estate near Tinsukia in Assam bear witness to the import of the Gupta idiom in that region.
• The post-Gupta style continued in the region well in the 10 th
• However, by the 12 th to 14 th centuries, a distinct regional style developed in Assam.
• The style that came with the migration of the Tais from upper Burma mixed with the dominant Pala style of Bengal and led to the creation of what was later known as the Ahom style in and around Guwahati .
• Kamakhya temple, a Shakti peeth, is dedicated to goddess Kamakhya and was built in the 17 th century.
• The style of sculptures during the period between the 9 th and 11 th centuries in Bengal (including Bangladesh) and Bihar is known as the Pala style , named after the ruling dynasty at that time.
• That style in the mid 11th and mid 13th centuries is named after the Sena kings.
• While the Palas are celebrated as patrons of Buddhist monastic sites, the temple of the region is known to express the Vanga style.
• The Siddheswara Mahadeva temple in Burdwan, W.B , built in the 9 th century, shows a tall curving shikhara crowned by a large amalaka , is an example of early Pala style.
• Many of the temples from 9 th to 12 th centuries were located at Telkupi in Puruta district, W.B.
• They were submerged when dams were constructed in the region.
• The architecture of these temples heavily influenced the earliest Bengal Sultanate buildings at Gaur and Pandya.
• Many local vernacular building traditions of Bengal also influenced the style of the temple in that region.
• The most prominent of these was the shape of the sloping or curving side of the bamboo roof of a Bengali hut.
• This feature was eventually even adopted in Mughal buildings and is known as across India as the Bangla Roof (word Bungalow derived from this).

Odisha (Kalingia Architecture):

The main architectural features of Odisha temples are classified in three orders:

a. Rekhapida/ Rekha deula/ rathaka deula:

Rekha means line and it is a tall straight building with a shape of a sugar loaf. It covers the garbhagriha.

b. Pidhadeula:

c. Khakradeula:

• Most of the ancient temples are located in ancient Kalinga – modern Puri district, including Bhuvaneswar or ancient Tribhuvaneswar, Puri, and Konark.
• The temples of Odisha constitute a distinct sub-style within nagara order.
• In general, here the Shikhara called Deu l in Odisha is vertical almost until the top when it suddenly curves sharply inwards.
• Mandapas in Odisha are called Jagamohanas .
• The ground plan of the main temple is almost always square, which, in the upper reaches of its superstructure becomes circular in the crowning
• The exterior of the temple is lavishly curved while their interiors are generally quite bare.
• Odisha temples usually have outer walls.

  1. Sun temple, Konark, Odisha:

• It is built around 1240 on the shores of the Bay of Bengal.
• The temple is set on a high base, its walls covered in extensive, detailed ornamental carving.
• These include 12 pairs of enormous wheel s sculpted with spokes and hubs, representing the chariot wheels of the sun God who, in mythology, rides a chariot driven by 8 horses, sculpted here at the entrance staircase.
• The whole temple thus comes to resemble a colossal processional chariot.
• On the southern wall is a massive sculpture of Surya carved out of green stones.
• It is said that there were 3 such images, carved out of a different stone placed on the three temple walls, each facing different directions.
• The fourth wall had the doorway into the temple from where the actual rays of the sun would enter the garbhagriha.

    2. Jagannatha temple, Puri, Odisha:

• It is also located on the eastern coast, at Puri, Odisha.
• The temple is a part of Char Dham (Badrinath, Dwaraka, Puri, Rameswaram) pilgrimages that a Hindu is expected to make in one’s lifetime.
• When most of the deities in the temples of India are made of stone or metal, the idol of Jagannatha is made of wood which is ceremoniously replaced in every twelve or nineteen years by using sacred trees.
• The temple is believed to be constructed in the 12 th century by King Anatavarman Chodaganga Deva of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty.
• The temple is famous for its annual Ratha Yatra or Chariot festival .
• A unique form of architecture developed in the hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and Kashmir.
• Kashmir’s proximity to Gandhara site (such as Taxila, Peshawar and northwest frontier) left the region a strong Gandhara influence by the 5 th century CE.
• This began to mix with the Gupta and post-Gupta traditions that brought to it from Sarnath, Mathura, and even centres in Gujarat and Bengal.
• Both Buddhist and Hindu traditions began to intermingle and spread in the hills.
• The hills also had their own tradition of wooden building with pitched roofs and as a result, while the main garbhagriha and shikhara are made in latina/rekha-prasada type, the mandapa is an older form of wooden architecture.
• Sometimes, the temple itself takes on a pagoda shape.
• The Karkota period of Kashmir is the most significant in terms of architecture.
• The most important temples of these regions are Pandrethan, Laksna-devi Mandir, Jageswar near Almora, Chambavat near Pithoragarh, etc.

The Dravida or South Indian Temple Architecture

• Unlike the nagara temple, the Dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall.
• The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as Gopura/ Gopuram .
• The shape of the main temple tower is known as Vimana (shikhara in nagara style).
• The vimana is like a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of north India.
• In south India, the word Shikhara is used only for the crowning element at the top of the temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola (this is equivalent to the amalaka or kalasha of north Indian temples).

• In north Indian temples, we can see images such as Mithunas (erotic) and the river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna guarding the temple. But in the Dravida style of temple architecture, instead of these sculptures, we can see the sculptures of fierce dvarapalas or door keepers guarding the temple.
• A large water reservoir or a temple tank enclosed in the complex is general in south Indian temples.
• Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower or located as a distinct, separate small shrine beside the main temple.
• The north Indian idea of multiple shikharas rising together as a cluster was not popular in Dravida style.
• At some of the most sacred temples in south India, the main temple in which the garbhagriha is situated has, in fact, one of the smallest towers.
• This is because it is usually the oldest part of the temple.
• When the population and the size of the town associated with the temple increased, it would have become necessary to make a new boundary wall around the temple (and also associated structures).
• An example for this is the Srirangam temple at Thiruchirapally, which has as many as seven concentric rectangular enclosure walls, each with gopurams.
• The outermost is the oldest while the tower right in the centre housing the garbhagriha is the oldest.
• Just as the nagara architecture has subdivisions, dravida temples also have subdivisions. These are basically of five different shapes:
• Kuta or caturasra – square
• Shala or ayatasra – rectangular
• Gaja-prishta or vrittayata (elephant backed) –elliptic
• Vritta – circular
• Ashtasra – octagonal
• The Pallavas were one of the ancient south Indian dynasties that were active in Andhra region from the 2 nd century onwards and moved south to settle in Tamil Nadu.
• Their history is better documented in the inscriptions in stone and several monuments.
• Although they were mostly Shaivites, several Vaishnava shrines also survived from the reign, and there is no doubt that they were influenced by the long Buddhist history of the Deccan.
• The early buildings of Pallavas were rock-cut; while the later ones were structural (structural buildings were well known to them when rock cut ones being excavated).
• The early buildings are generally attributed to Mahendravarman I , contemporary of Chalukya king, Pulikeshi II of Karnataka.
• Narasimhavarman I, who was also known as Mamalla, acceded the throne around 640 CE.
• He expanded the empire and also inaugurated most of the building work at Mahabalipuram which is known after him as Mamallapuram.

  The shore temple at Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu

• It is a structural temple and was built during the reign of Narasimhavarman II, also known as Rajasimha.
• The temple is facing east towards the sea and has three shrines – east and west to Shiva and the middle for Vishnu (Anantashayana).
• This is unusual because temples generally have a single main shrine and not three areas of worship. This shows that it was probably not originally conceived like this and different shrine may be added at different times.
• In the compound, there is an evidence of a water tank, an early example of a gopuram, and several other images.
• Sculpture of the bull, Nandi, Shiva’s mount, lines the temple walls.
• The temple has suffered severe disfiguration due to erosion by salt water laden air over the centuries.

The Pallava temple architecture can be classified into four groups according to the rulers and the features of temples they constructed.

a. Mahendravarman Group:

• Early temples of the Pallavas belong to King Mahendravarman I (7 th century).
• They were rock-cut temples (may be influenced by rock-cut architecture).
• g. Manndagapattu, Mahendravadi, Tircuchirapally, etc.

b. Narasimha/Mamalla Group:

• It is the second stage of Pallava architecture which started when Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla) came to the throne.
• The architecture is represented by Monolithic rocks.
• The monolithic rathas and mandapas of Mamallapuram are examples.
• The five rathas are popularly known as Panchapandava rathas .

c. Rajasimha Group:

• The group was under Narasimhavarman II who was also known as Rajasimha.
• He introduced the structural temples and Gopura style in Pallava architecture.
• The Kailasnath temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at Mahabalipuram are examples.

d. Nandivaram Group:

• Architecture mainly under the Pallava king, Nandivaram Pallava.
• They also represented structural temples.
• The temples were generally small compared to the other groups.
• The Vaikundaperumal temple, Tirunelveli and Mukteswara temple are examples.
• The best example of Chola temple architecture is the Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore.
• The temple is also known as Rajarajeswara temple.
• It was completed around 1009 by Rajaraja Chola and is the largest and tallest of all Indian temples.
• The temples pyramidal multi-storeyed Vimana rises a massive seventy metres, topped by a monolithic shikhara, and the kalasha on top by itself is about three metres and eight centimetres in height.
• The main deity of the temple is Shiva, who is shown as a huge lingam set in a two storeyed sanctum.
• Painted Murals and sculptures decorate the walls surrounding the sanctum.

The Vesara or the Deccan Temple Architecture

• The buildings in the Deccan region are hybridized style, which contains both elements from nagara and Dravida architectural styles and is known in some ancient texts as the Vesara style (not all temples of Deccan are the vesara type).
• The vesara style became popular after the mid 7 th century.

  1. Ravan Phadi cave, Aihole, Karnataka:

• The Ravan Phadi cave at Aihole is an example of the early Chalukya style which is known for its distinct sculptural style.
• One of the most important sculptures at the site is of Nataraja, surrounded by a large depiction of saptamatrikas : three to Shiva’s left and four to his right.

   2. Lad Khan Temple at Aihole, Karnataka:

• The temple is dedicated to Shiva and is one of the oldest Hindu temples.
• Built in the 5 th century by the Kings of the Chalukya Dynasty.
• It seems to be inspired by the wooden – roofed temples of the hills except that it is constructed out of stone.
• The temple is named after a person named Lad Khan, who turned this temple into his residence for a short period.

   3. Durga Temple at Aihole, Karnataka:

• The temple is built in between 7 th and 8th century.
• The architecture of the temple is predominantly Dravida with Nagara style also in certain areas.
• The temple is considered as a unique and magnificent temple of the Chalukya period.
• The Lad Khan Temple of Aihole is located to its South.

   4. Temples at Pattadakkal, Karnataka:

• There are ten temples at Pattadakkal including a Jain temple and is a UNESCO world Heritage Site.
• A fusion of various architectural styles can be seen here.
• Out of ten temples, four are in Dravida style, four are in nagara style and one is a Jain temple, while the Papanatha Temple is built in a fusion of both nagara and Dravida styles.
• The Jain temple (Jain Narayana temple) was built by Rashtrakutas in the 9 th
• The Virupaksha temple at Pattadakkal is also known as Sri- Lokeswar -Maha-Sila-Prasad, was built by Loka Mahadevi, the Queen of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (733-44).
• It was probably built around 740 CE to commemorate her husband’s victory over the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
• It closely resembles the Kailasnath temple at Kanchipuram on plan and elevation.
• It represents a fully developed and perfect stage of the Dravida architecture.

Rashtrakutas

• By about 750 CE, the early western Chalukya control of the Deccan was taken by the Rashtrakutas.
• Their greatest achievement in architecture is the Kailasnath Temple at Ellora.
• The Jain temple at Pattadakkal was also built by Rashtrakutas.
• With the waning Chola and Pandya power, the Hoyasalas of Karnataka grew into prominence in south India and became the most important patrons centred at Mysore.
• The three main temples of Hoyasala are the temples at Belur, Halebid and Somanathpuram.
• The most characteristic feature of these temples is that they grow extremely complex with so many projecting angles emerging from the previously straightforward square temple so that the plan of these temples starts looking like a star .
• As the plan looks like a star, it is known as stellate plan .
• They are usually made out of soapstone .

   Temples at Halebid, Karnataka:

• The temple is also known as Hoyasaleswara temple.
• Built in dark schist stone by the Hoyasala king Vishnuvardhan in 1150.
• Dedicated to Shiva as Nataraja and contains a large hall for the mandapa to facilitate music and dance.
• In the bottom frieze of the temple featuring a continuous procession of hundreds of elephants with their mahouts, no two elephants are in the same position.

Vijayanagara

• The Vijayanagara Empire, which was founded in the 14 th century, attracted a number of international travelers such as the Italian, Nicoclo di Conti, the Portuguese Domingo Paes, Fernao Nuniz and Duarte Barbosa and the Afghan Abd, al- Razzaq, who have left vivid accounts of the city.
• Architecturally, Vijayanagara synthesizes the centuries old dravida temple architecture with Islamic styles demonstrated by the neighbouring Sultanates.
• Their sculptures too, which were consciously seeking to recreate Chola ideals, occasionally shows the presence of foreigners.

Buddhist and Jain Architectural Developments

The period of 5 th to 14 th centuries was not only the period of the development of Hindu temples but also were the equally vibrant period for the Buddhist and Jain architectures.

Buddhist Architecture

• When the Gupta empire crumbled in the 6 th century CE, the eastern region of Bihar and Bengal, historically known as Magadha, appears to have remained unified whilst numerous small Rajput principalities sprang up to the west.
• In the 8 th century, the Palas came to power in the region.
• The 2 nd Pala ruler, Dharmapala, became immensely powerful and established an empire by defeating the powerful Rajput Pratiharas.
• Dharmapala consolidated an empire whose wealth lay in a consolidation of agriculture along the fertile Ganges plain and international trade.

Bodhgaya, Bihar:

• Bodhgaya became a pilgrimage site since Siddhartha achieved enlightenment here and became Gautama Buddha.
• The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya is an important reminder of the brickwork of that time.
• The first shrine here, located at the base of the Bodhi Tree, is said to have been constructed by King Ashoka.
• The vedika (fence) around it is said to be Post-Mauryan, of about 100 BCE.
• Many sculptures in the temple are dated to the 8 th century Pala period.
• The actual Mahabodhi temple as it stands now is largely a colonial period reconstruction of the old 7 th
• The design of the temple is unusual and is neither Dravida nor nagara style.

Nalanda, Bihar:

• The monastic University of Nalanda is a Mahavihara as it is a complex of several monasteries of various sizes.
• Only a small portion of this ancient learning centre has been excavated till date, as most of it lies buried under contemporary civilization, making further excavations almost impossible.
• Most of the information about Nalanda is based on the records of Xuan Zang/Hsuan Tsang (Chinese traveller).
• It states that the foundation of the monastery was laid by Kumaragupta I in the 5 th century CE.
• All three Buddhist doctrines – Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana – were taught here.
• Monks came to here from the different regions of the world such as China, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, etc.
• Monks and pilgrims who came here take back small sculptures and illustrated manuscripts to their homeland, which resulted in a decisive impact on the arts of the Buddhist countries in Asia.
• The sculptural art of Nalanda was developed out of a heavy dependence on the Buddhist Gupta art of Sarnath.
• The Sculptures were mainly made in stucco, stone, and bronze.
• By the 9 th century, Nalanda school of sculpture was formed which was characterized by distinctive facial features, body forms, and treatment of clothing and jewellery.
• The Nalanda sculptures initially depict Buddhist deities of the Mahayana tradition, such as standing Buddhas, bodhisattvas, etc.
• During the 11 th and 12 th centuries, Nalanda emerged as an important tantric centre and the sculptures during that period dominated by deities of Vajrayana tradition, such as Vajrasharada (a form of Saraswati), Khasarpana, Avalokiteswara, etc.
• Various Brahmanical images have also been found at Nalanda.

Jain Architecture

• Jains were also prolific temple builders like Hindus and their sacred shrines and pilgrimage spots can be found across the country.
• The oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are to be found in Bihar .
• In the Deccan, some of the most architecturally important Jain sites can be found at Ellora and Aihole.
• Karnataka has a rich heritage of Jain shrines and the Sravana Belagola , the famous statue of the Gomateswara, the granite statue of Lord Bahubali which stands eighteen metre, is the world’s tallest monolithic free-standing structure.
• It was commissioned by Camundaraya, the General-in-Chief and Prime Minister of the Ganga Kings of Mysore.
• Gujarat and Rajasthan have been strongholds of Jainism since early times.
• The Jain temples at Mount Abu (Dilwara Temples) were constructed by Vimal Shah.
• One can see a complex of temples carved of white marble
• The temples are famous for its unique patterns on very ceilings, and graceful bracket figs along the domed ceiling.

Article compiled by: Jijo Sudarsan

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Reader Interactions

August 6, 2015 at 12:25 pm

Beautifully compiled

August 7, 2015 at 7:31 pm

Sorry for asking…. Sir,can i get PDF file for this ……?

May 2, 2016 at 9:36 pm

select print option and there u can find save as pdf option.

January 23, 2017 at 9:05 pm

medhan..press the “print’ button and then change the options to pdf….

August 16, 2015 at 4:35 pm

PDF files of all our articles can be generated using the ‘Print’ button given among the social share buttons. This can also be done using the Settings Tab -> Print option in your browser too. Downloading as PDF for personal use is permitted.

August 18, 2015 at 12:02 pm

Nice explanation

September 23, 2015 at 10:27 am

Thanks For Sharing

November 29, 2015 at 11:24 am

notes on merchant guilds and urban centres in ancient india

December 1, 2015 at 7:23 pm

I don’t think so upsc is asking questions on temples and architectures

March 16, 2016 at 5:20 pm

pl name a few Hindu temple sculptors(sthapatis)

March 26, 2016 at 5:59 am

thank you team…..

May 27, 2016 at 7:06 pm

very useful post

July 31, 2016 at 12:46 am

hello sir first of all great work I have a confusion regarding the Dravidian style of Temple making it’s been written that due to the increase in population additional boundary walls with Gopuram are being built around temple and the oldest is the outermost. If that is so then additional walls would have been made between the outermost wall and the temple building and hence the inner most would be the newest one. So plz make it clear whether walls are built one around another inward or outward because as per the text it seems they are built inward.

May 17, 2018 at 4:46 pm

The outermost is the NEWEST while the tower right in the centre housing the garbhagriha is the oldest.

February 17, 2017 at 2:24 am

Thankyou sir Grt work !!

May 3, 2017 at 6:21 pm

One of the best compilations on Indian culture available on the internet. Thanks a lot, Clear IAS team for the great work.

May 14, 2017 at 7:04 pm

Great, thank you very much sir

July 4, 2017 at 6:21 pm

This is very good blog about temple and I love your descriptions and this place look like great to visit. Thanks for sharing blog.

July 18, 2017 at 4:59 pm

The notes are very useful and briefly described ty for the notes

March 29, 2018 at 12:06 pm

Could you please tell me some authentic sources from where i can refer more about jain architecture of south India?

August 25, 2018 at 7:00 pm

Bahut hi achche tarike se samajhaya gaya hai.

November 27, 2018 at 5:28 pm

Wrong information about Siddhesvara mahadev Temple. It was not built by Pala Rulers, who were primarily buddhist supporters.

April 6, 2019 at 10:00 pm

Sun temple @konark{EAST NAGARA} rides chariot driven by 7 horses..and not 8:)

July 23, 2019 at 12:13 am

What is shrine in temple can anybody explain please ??

April 5, 2021 at 2:26 pm

Statue of god

April 5, 2021 at 7:54 pm

a place that is important to a particular person or group of people for religious reasons or because it is connected with a special person…… sorry its not statue of god

July 15, 2021 at 7:04 pm

A shrine is dedicated to to a holy person or Saint while a temple is dedicated to a religion

July 15, 2021 at 7:05 pm

August 16, 2019 at 10:16 pm

spelling mistakes have been found please have a look at it

March 25, 2020 at 11:46 am

Its such a good and reliable sources .. Thank you so.much . Keep of the good work

April 20, 2020 at 11:38 pm

July 11, 2020 at 9:04 am

Good work. Indian temple architecture is based on shilpshastra. Academicians known style of temple by period but originally there are 14 pure style as per Shilp Shastra and mostly constructed on this basis. In present era Sompuras (a community who build temples since centuries – their heritage business) build temple on basis of shilp shastra. for further reference https://sompura.in or https://shilpshastra.wordpress.com

May 1, 2021 at 2:31 pm

In NCERT, Brahadeeshwarar Temple is Highest & Tallest in India

But on Wikipedia, Srirangam Temple is Highest

Which one is Correct?

November 13, 2021 at 6:20 pm

Gajendramoksha , Gajendra an elephant was not a demon incarnation. You people should learn first.

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Hinduism and hindu art.

Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi

Standing Four-Armed Vishnu

Linga with Face of Shiva (Ekamukhalinga)

Standing Parvati

Shiva as Lord of Dance (Nataraja)

Standing Ganesha

Standing Female Deity, probably Durga

Ardhanarishvara (Composite of Shiva and Parvati)

Vaikuntha Vishnu

Krishna on Garuda

Durga as Slayer of the Buffalo Demon Mahishasura

Seated Ganesha

Kneeling Female Figure

Hanuman Conversing

The Goddess Durga Slaying the Demon Buffalo Mahisha

Loving Couple (Mithuna)

Karaikkal Ammaiyar, Shaiva Saint

Vidya Dehejia Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University

February 2007

According to the Hindu view, there are four goals of life on earth, and each human being should aspire to all four. Everyone should aim for dharma , or righteous living; artha , or wealth acquired through the pursuit of a profession; kama , or human and sexual love; and, finally, moksha , or spiritual salvation.

This holistic view is reflected as well as in the artistic production of India. Although a Hindu temple is dedicated to the glory of a deity and is aimed at helping the devotee toward moksha , its walls might justifiably contain sculptures that reflect the other three goals of life. It is in such a context that we may best understand the many sensuous and apparently secular themes that decorate the walls of Indian temples.

Hinduism is a religion that had no single founder, no single spokesman, no single prophet. Its origins are mixed and complex. One strand can be traced back to the sacred Sanskrit literature of the Aryans, the Vedas, which consist of hymns in praise of deities who were often personifications of the natural elements. Another strand drew on the beliefs prevalent among groups of indigenous peoples, especially the faith in the power of the mother goddess and in the efficacy of fertility symbols. Hinduism, in the form comparable to its present-day expression, emerged at about the start of the Christian era, with an emphasis on the supremacy of the god Vishnu, the god Shiva, and the goddess Shakti (literally, “Power”).

The pluralism evident in Hinduism, as well as its acceptance of the existence of several deities, is often puzzling to non-Hindus. Hindus suggest that one may view the Infinite as a diamond of innumerable facets. One or another facet—be it Rama, Krishna, or Ganesha—may beckon an individual believer with irresistible magnetism. By acknowledging the power of an individual facet and worshipping it, the believer does not thereby deny the existence of many aspects of the Infinite and of varied paths toward the ultimate goal.

Deities are frequently portrayed with multiple arms, especially when they are engaged in combative acts of cosmic consequence that involve destroying powerful forces of evil. The multiplicity of arms emphasizes the immense power of the deity and his or her ability to perform several feats at the same time. The Indian artist found this a simple and an effective means of expressing the omnipresence and omnipotence of a deity. Demons are frequently portrayed with multiple heads to indicate their superhuman power. The occasional depiction of a deity with more than one head is generally motivated by the desire to portray varying aspects of the character of that deity. Thus, when the god Shiva is portrayed with a triple head, the central face indicates his essential character and the flanking faces depict his fierce and blissful aspects.

The Hindu Temple Architecture and sculpture are inextricably linked in India . Thus, if one speaks of Indian architecture without taking note of the lavish sculptured decoration with which monuments are covered, a partial and distorted picture is presented. In the Hindu temple , large niches in the three exterior walls of the sanctum house sculpted images that portray various aspects of the deity enshrined within. The sanctum image expresses the essence of the deity. For instance, the niches of a temple dedicated to a Vishnu may portray his incarnations; those of a temple to Shiva , his various combative feats; and those of a temple to the Great Goddess, her battles with various demons. Regional variations exist, too; in the eastern state of Odisha, for example, the niches of a temple to Shiva customarily contain images of his family—his consort, Parvati, and their sons, Ganesha, the god of overcoming obstacles, and warlike Skanda.

The exterior of the halls and porch are also covered with figural sculpture. A series of niches highlight events from the mythology of the enshrined deity, and frequently a place is set aside for a variety of other gods. In addition, temple walls feature repeated banks of scroll-like foliage, images of women, and loving couples known as mithunas . Signifying growth, abundance, and prosperity, they were considered auspicious motifs.

Dehejia, Vidya. “Hinduism and Hindu Art.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/hind/hd_hind.htm (February 2007)

Further Reading

Dehejia, Vidya. Indian Art . London: Phaidon, 1997.

Eck, Diana L. Darsan: Seeing the Divine Image in India. 2d ed . Chamberburg, Pa.: Anima Books, 1985.

Michell, George. The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms. Reprint . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.

Mitter, Partha. Indian Art . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Additional Essays by Vidya Dehejia

• Dehejia, Vidya. “ Buddhism and Buddhist Art .” (February 2007)
• Dehejia, Vidya. “ Recognizing the Gods .” (February 2007)
• Dehejia, Vidya. “ South Asian Art and Culture .” (February 2007)

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Indian Culture: Important Significance of Temple Architecture

The word temple is derived from a Latin word that means templum , a sacred precinct. From the definition, the temple is the precinct for spiritual and religious activities. Apart from the religious precinct, it is also an integral part of social, cultural, and economic life. Religion has always been the defining feature of Indian culture, and temple worship is one of its main manifestations. Additionally, a significant aspect of Indian culture has been temple culture. 

Temples are often social organizations that are part of the public domain. They are maintained by shared interests and constructed via group effort. The labor and financial resources of the supporting community are correlated with their size, complexity, and opulence. Large and majestic, artistically designed and skillfully completed, adorned with sculptured panels, ornate carvings, and decorative motifs on walls and pillars, some temples are also lavishly furnished and intricately managed.

Table of Contents

Idea of Temples in Indian Culture

India is a country known for its temples and its spirituality. The conventional Hindu temple is designed symbolically. Its location, construction, and ceremonies are all important. They are all intended to point forth the road that man must pursue to progress and achieve Self-realization spiritually.

The majority of shrines in India are located on the hills. The pathways leading to these temples are tight and rocky. Everyone had to go in a single line up the hill. Before they could reach the shrine, they had to overcome the various challenges and hardships of the jungle trail.

The temples at a high altitude represent that all spirituality is above all achievements in the world. To be spiritual and to gain spirituality, an individual has to put in extra effort. The individual has to be sincere in his path with consistent efforts. The path to the temples suggests that the individual who is in search of knowledge is his spiritual quest. He is alone with no support. The individual can seek the help of experts, but he must alone to go on his own in his quest for truth. This was the base of the temple and the history behind it. Still, today, there are various transport available to be there, through which an individual lacks the experience of solitude when he enters the temples.

Philosophy of Temple Construction

Temples are constructed to establish communication between God and humans. The ceremonies and rituals have mostly influenced the forms of temple architecture carried out in the temples. It is also important that divinity be identified with the temple’s fabric and that the temple’s form reflects the form of the universe. Thus, consideration is given to all aspects of the temple’s construction, including the ground layout, vertical elevation, and site selection. By developing exact measurement methods and sacred mathematical treaties, cosmic conceptions are formalized symbolically.

Spirituality is considered to be the ultimate wisdom. Hence, the temple is a place of transit. Apart from the spiritual center, serving as a hub for culture, the temple saw the development of various schools of architecture, dance, music, painting, and sculpture throughout the nation. This led to the emergence of diverse systems in the performing and visual arts, even though they were all descended from the same spiritual stock.

Key Elements of Temples

A Hindu temple represents much more on a philosophical level. It depicts the terrestrial world (Prithvi), the heavenly world (akasa), the astral world (svarga), and the world below (patala). As a result, the walls are covered with exquisite detailed carvings and paintings showing not only main deities but also semi-divine deities, mythological creatures, flora, fauna, and aquatic life.

Temple architecture has evolved, and the style shifts with the shifting dynasties and regions. While the architecture of Hindu temples varies by place, the following major components have been constant,

Garbhagriha

The garbhagriha is normally part of the temple’s main horizontal axis, which runs east-west. In temples with a cross-axis, the garbhagriha is usually located at their crossing.

The garbhagriha’s position is ritually directed at the point of total equilibrium and harmony as a microcosm of the Universe.

The passage leads to Garbhagriha and the place which is meant for all to be there together. 

The main feature of a Hindu temple that is most noticeable from the outside is the shikhara that covers the garbhagriha chamber, which houses the presiding deity.

However, collectively, these components produce an atmosphere that is both spiritually meaningful and breathtaking, highlighting the cultural and religious significance of Indian temple building. They represent deities, as in India, sculptures, idols, and other works of art are used to symbolize the many deities that are worshipped and honored in the temples.

Temples are considered to be holy places where believers can engage in worship, meditation, and other practices to establish a spiritual connection with the almighty. They are intended to be locations of transcendence and tranquillity, where the spiritual and material realms converge.

In addition to being locations for communal gatherings, temples are also used by locals for social and cultural events like festivals and charitable endeavors.

Architectural Styles of Indian Temples

Hindu temples fall into two main categories: Nāgara and Drāvida, depending on their geographical location and architectural style.

Nagara Style

A temple designed in the Nāgara style has a four-sided plan. While the entire temple plan might be oblong, the garbhagriha is a perfect square. The primary deity’s image or idol is kept in the garbhagriha, also known as the sanctum sanctorum. The mandapa, where worshippers gather for darźana, is the pathway that leads to the garbhagriha. Roofs were flat when temples were first being built. The temple’s roof took on a pyramidal shape during the following phase of building. Here stood the tall spire known as the shikhara, tapering off at the top. The temple complex saw additional additions in later phases. The garbhagriha was encircled by a pradakshinapatha, and more mandapas were added. Gavaksa were occasionally added to promote cross-ventilation.

A Nāgara temple is usually situated on a jagati, a tall platform, over which a pitha, a smaller platform, is built. A smaller platform called adhisthana rises above this and serves as the foundation for the temple’s superstructure. A Nāgara temple also contains bhadra, sirsa, amalaka, bijapuraka, and rathika, among other elements.This temple style is often known for its cravings and decorations.

Dravida Style

The temple plan for this architectural style is known by its hexagonal or octagonal shape. These temples mark six angas, as adhisthana, pada, prastara, griva, shikara, and stupi.

The South temples are embellished with exquisite and intricate decorative details. The sculpture’s carvings are what initially draw your attention. The prastara’s decoration, which resembles hara (garland) around the entire structure, is made up of tiny shrines that resemble vimanas. The sculptures varied according to the god the temple was devoted to. 

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The Importance of Temples in Hinduism: A Gateway to the Divine

Someshwara Temple, an 11th century architectural marvel, showcases the significance of temples in Hinduism.

As one of the oldest religions in the world, Hinduism is steeped in tradition and rituals that date back thousands of years. At the heart of these traditions lies the temple, a sacred space where devotees come to worship and connect with the divine. In this article, we’ll explore the significance of temples in Hinduism, examining their role in shaping the religion and the lives of its followers.

The Importance of Temples in Hinduism

Temples are integral to the practice of Hinduism, providing a physical space for devotees to connect with their gods and goddesses . They are a place of worship, contemplation, and community, and serve as a gateway to the divine.

Understanding Hinduism

Before delving into the significance of temples in Hinduism, it’s important to have a basic understanding of the religion itself. Hinduism is a complex and diverse faith, with roots that stretch back to ancient India.Key elements of Hinduism include the belief in reincarnation, the concept of karma as a governing principle, and the recognition of numerous deities.

Unlike many other religions, Hinduism does not have a single founder or scripture. Instead, it is a collection of beliefs and practices that have evolved over time, influenced by the region, culture, and traditions of its followers.

The Role of Temples in Hinduism

In Hinduism, temples serve as the physical manifestation of the divine, a place where devotees can come to offer prayers and seek blessings. They are seen as a sacred space, a place where the boundary between the material and spiritual worlds is blurred.

Temples are often constructed in areas of natural beauty, such as mountains, rivers, and forests, emphasizing the connection between the divine and the natural world. They are also designed to reflect the beliefs and traditions of the region in which they are built.

Temples play a crucial role in the practice of Hinduism, serving as a focal point for religious and social activities. They provide a space for devotees to come together in worship and community, fostering a sense of belonging and connection.

Through their rituals and ceremonies, temples offer a means of connecting with the divine , helping devotees to deepen their spiritual practice and cultivate a sense of inner peace and harmony.

The Significance of Temple Architecture

The design and architecture of Hindu temples are deeply symbolic, reflecting the beliefs and traditions of the religion. They are often characterized by intricate carvings, elaborate decorations, and ornate sculptures, each with its own symbolic meaning.

For example, the towering gopuram, or gateway, that marks the entrance to many South Indian temples is believed to symbolize the gateway to the divine. The mandapam, or hall, where devotees gather for worship, is often designed to resemble a cosmic structure, representing the universe itself.

The Importance of Rituals and Offerings

Central to the practice of Hinduism are the rituals and offerings made at temples. These may include the lighting of incense, the offering of flowers and food, and the recitation of mantras and prayers.

Through these acts of devotion, devotees seek to connect with the divine and receive blessings in return. They also serve as a means of expressing gratitude and humility, reminding devotees of their place in the larger cosmic order.

Why are temples important in Hinduism?

Temples serve as a physical manifestation of the divine, offering a space for devotees to worship and connect with their gods and goddesses. They also play a crucial role in fostering community and social connection among followers of the religion.

How are Hindu temples different from other places of worship?

Hindu temples are characterized by their intricate architecture

and design, which are deeply symbolic and reflective of the beliefs and traditions of the religion. Unlike other places of worship, such as churches or mosques, temples are often located in areas of natural beauty and are designed to integrate with their surroundings, emphasizing the connection between the divine and the natural world.

What rituals and offerings are made at Hindu temples?

Rituals and offerings at Hindu temples can vary depending on the region and tradition. They may include the lighting of incense, the offering of flowers and food, the recitation of mantras and prayers, and the performance of puja, a ritual that involves offering prayers and performing worship.

Can non-Hindus visit Hindu temples?

Yes, many Hindu temples welcome visitors of all faiths. However, it’s important to respect the customs and traditions of the temple, including dress codes, removing shoes before entering the sanctum sanctorum, and refraining from taking photographs or videos during worship.

Why do Hindus go to temples?

Hindus go to temples to seek blessings from their gods and goddesses, to deepen their spiritual practice, and to connect with their community. Temples offer a space for worship, reflection, and contemplation, helping devotees to cultivate a sense of inner peace and harmony.

What is the significance of temple festivals in Hinduism?

Temple festivals are an important part of Hindu religious and cultural life. They typically involve elaborate rituals, processions, and offerings, and are often accompanied by music, dance, and other forms of celebration. Temple festivals provide a means of connecting with the divine and fostering a sense of community and belonging among followers of the religion.

How can one benefit from visiting a Hindu temple?

Visiting a Hindu temple can offer a range of benefits, including spiritual nourishment, community connection, and a sense of inner peace and harmony. Temples provide a space for worship, reflection, and contemplation, helping devotees to deepen their spiritual practice and cultivate a sense of connection with the divine.

In Hinduism, temples are much more than mere places of worship. They are a physical manifestation of the divine, a gateway to the spiritual realm, and a means of fostering community and connection among followers of the religion. Through their rituals and ceremonies, their architecture and design, and their role in social and cultural life, temples play a vital role in shaping the religious and spiritual lives of Hindus around the world.

If you’re interested in learning more about Hinduism and its traditions, visiting a temple can be a wonderful way to connect with the religion and its community. Whether you’re seeking spiritual nourishment, cultural enrichment, or simply a sense of peace and tranquility, a visit to a Hindu temple can offer a powerful and transformative experience.

So, next time you’re looking to connect with the divine, consider a trip to your local Hindu temple, and experience the power and beauty of this ancient and enduring faith.

Further reading

Why do we go to temples?: https://pujayagna.com/blogs/hindu-customs/why-do-hindus-go-to-temples

The Mystical Importance Of Preserving Hindu Temples: https://behindeverytemple.org/temple-science/importance-of-preserving-hindu-temples/

Philosophy And Culture Behind Hindu Temple Architecture In India: https://www.indica.today/research/conference/philosophy-and-culture-behind-hindu-temple-architecture-in-india-a/

The Importance of a Hindu Temple: https://cisindus.org/2020/11/28/the-importance-of-a-hindu-temple/

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100 Words Essay on Monuments of India

Introduction.

India is a country rich in history and culture. This is reflected in the numerous monuments found across the nation. These monuments are a testament to India’s glorious past.

The Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal, located in Agra, is one of India’s most famous monuments. It’s an ivory-white marble mausoleum built by Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife.

Qutub Minar

In Delhi, Qutub Minar stands tall. This UNESCO World Heritage Site is the world’s tallest brick minaret, showcasing the architectural brilliance of the Mughal era.

These monuments are not just structures, but symbols of India’s rich heritage and diverse culture. They remind us of the country’s historical journey.

250 Words Essay on Monuments of India

India, a country with a rich history and diverse culture, is adorned with numerous monuments that stand as proud reminders of its glorious past. These architectural marvels, each with a unique story, reflect the country’s artistic, cultural, and historical heritage.

Architectural Diversity

Indian monuments, ranging from the ancient Indus Valley Civilization sites to the majestic Mughal and British-era edifices, showcase the country’s architectural diversity. The intricate carvings of Ajanta and Ellora caves, the grandeur of the Taj Mahal, and the imposing forts of Rajasthan are testament to the exceptional craftsmanship of the bygone eras.

Symbol of Cultural Heritage

Monuments serve as symbols of India’s cultural heritage. They embody the traditions, beliefs, and values of the people who built them. For instance, the Konark Sun Temple in Odisha, with its exquisite stone carvings, is a testament to the Sun-worshipping culture prevalent during its construction.

Monuments and National Identity

Monuments also contribute to the formation of national identity. They remind us of historical events, instilling a sense of pride and unity. The India Gate, a war memorial in Delhi, is one such monument that evokes nationalistic sentiments.

Preservation Challenges

Despite their significance, many Indian monuments face preservation challenges due to factors like pollution, vandalism, and lack of maintenance. It’s crucial to address these issues to ensure that these symbols of our past continue to inspire future generations.

In conclusion, monuments of India are more than just architectural structures; they are tangible links to the country’s rich past, reflecting the diverse cultures, traditions, and historical events that have shaped the nation’s identity.

500 Words Essay on Monuments of India

India, an ancient civilization adorned with a rich historical and cultural heritage, is home to numerous monuments that stand as silent spectators to the country’s vibrant past. These edifices, epitomizing the architectural prowess and artistic sensibilities of the bygone eras, offer a fascinating glimpse into India’s chronicles of evolution, conquest, and resilience.

The Grandeur of Mughal Architecture

The Mughal era, known for its opulence and grandeur, has left an indelible mark on India’s architectural landscape. The Taj Mahal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the Seven Wonders of the World, is a testament to the Mughal’s architectural acumen. Built by Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal, this white marble mausoleum symbolizes the zenith of Mughal art and culture.

The Red Fort in Delhi, another iconic Mughal monument, stands as a symbol of India’s struggle for freedom. It was from this fort that the first Prime Minister of independent India, Jawaharlal Nehru, hoisted the national flag on August 15, 1947.

The Magnificence of Ancient Temples

India’s ancient temples, renowned for their intricate carvings and sculptural work, give us a glimpse into the spiritual and artistic inclinations of our ancestors. The Sun Temple at Konark in Odisha, designed in the shape of a colossal chariot, is an architectural marvel of the 13th century. The temple’s detailed stone carvings display an advanced understanding of astronomy and geometry.

The Brihadeshwara Temple in Tamil Nadu, built during the Chola dynasty, is another architectural wonder. The temple’s vimana (tower) stands at an astonishing height of 216 feet, and the shadow of the vimana never falls on the ground, a feat that continues to baffle architects and historians.

Monuments as a Reflection of Cultural Diversity

India’s monuments are not just architectural masterpieces but also mirrors reflecting the country’s cultural diversity. The Sanchi Stupa, a Buddhist monument, is an emblem of peace and harmony. The Ajanta and Ellora caves, with their intricate paintings and sculptures, showcase the coexistence of Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism, underlining India’s pluralistic cultural fabric.

India’s monuments are a testament to the country’s rich historical and cultural legacy. They embody the artistic genius, architectural prowess, and the cultural, religious, and social dynamics of different periods in Indian history. These architectural marvels, standing tall and proud, remind us of our roots and inspire us to value and preserve our heritage. As we move forward, it is crucial to respect and protect these monuments, for they are not just structures of brick and stone, but the soul of India, narrating tales of its glorious past.

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Essay on Golden Temple

500 words essay on golden temple.

Golden Temple is a beautiful holy shrine located in India. Furthermore, one of the most noteworthy features of this temple is its golden colour which just mesmerizes anyone. This essay on Golden Temple will explore the religious significance and beauty of this shrine.

                                                                                                                                  Essay On Golden Temple

Religious Significance of Golden Temple

Sri Harmandir Sahib, also known as the “Golden Temple”, is a beautiful holy shrine located in Amritsar, Punjab , India. Furthermore, it is the holiest shrine in Sikhism and as such many Sikhs visit it on daily basis.  It is a major destination for Sikhs besides being a popular tourist attraction.

The creation of the “Golden Temple” and the Sikh religion took place during a time when the presence of the caste system in India was very strong. Due to the caste system , the low caste people had to suffer a lot.

During this time, the Mughal Empire came into power. One of the reasons for the creation of Sikhism was to fight off the Mughal Empire and foreign invaders. Another important reason for the origin of this religion was to give people equality irrespective of wealth, gender, caste, etc.

The site of the shrine is where Sage Valmiki is believed to have written the epic, Ramayana. Moreover, many believe that Rama and Sita spent their fourteen-year exile in Amritsar, which is now the epicentre of Sikhism.

Visitors, male or female, must cover their heads before entering the temple premises. Moreover, the Guru Granth Sahib is in the Temple during the day, while at night, it is in the Akal Takht or Eternal Throne.

The beauty of the Golden Temple

The most famous and attractive aspect of the Golden temple is its glittering golden dome and appearance. Furthermore, the temple is built on marble that is 67-ft square. Moreover, the temple is a two-storey structure.

Maharaja Ranjit Singh is responsible for the building of the upper half of the building with a gold leaf that is approximately 400 kg. Moreover, there are a number of famous temples surround the Golden Temple. Also, the construction of the pool, whose name is Amritsar or Amrit Sarovar, here was by the fourth Guru of Sikhs, Guru Ram Das.

The brilliant architecture of the temple gives it a unique look. Furthermore, the surrounding Amritsarovar pool enhances the beauty of the shrine. During the night time, the golden reflection of the temple in the pool is really a sight to behold.

To the south of the temple is a beautiful garden where one can easily attain peace of mind. The Central Sikh Museum, which is atop the Clock Tower, adds to the charm of the temple’s surroundings.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Conclusion of the Essay on Golden Temple

Golden Temple is one of the holiest religious sites of the Sikh community. Furthermore, this beautiful shrine, besides being a symbol of the Sikh religion, is also the pride of India. This temple continues to amaze people with its spectacular golden colour.

FAQs For Essay on Golden Temple

Question 1: What is so special about the Golden temple?

Answer 1: The Golden Temple is also called the “Darbar Sahib” or the “Harmandar Sahib”. Furthermore, this temple, whose location is in Amritsar, is one of the oldest worship places for the Indian Sikhs. Moreover, the temple’s entire top is made of pure gold, which significantly enhances the beauty of the temple.

Question 2:What is the worth of the Golden Temple?

Answe r 2: More than 25,000 devotees come to Golden Temple for the purpose of darshan every day. Furthermore, the asset worth of this temple isRs 320 crores. Moreover, the throne, where the Baba is seated, is made of gold of 94 kg.

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Kamakhya Temple of Assam: The Heart of India’s Tantric Traditions, and the Enigmatic Ambubachi Mela of the Temple

• Post author By Mala Chandrashekhar
• Post date January 24, 2024
• No Comments on Kamakhya Temple of Assam: The Heart of India’s Tantric Traditions, and the Enigmatic Ambubachi Mela of the Temple

Introduction

In the northeastern state of Assam, perched atop the Nilachal Hill in Guwahati, lies the Kamakhya Temple, a jewel in the crown of India’s spiritual heritage. Revered as one of the most prominent Shakti Peethas, the temple is not just a testament to divine worship but also a pivotal center for Tantric practices. The temple’s fame reaches its zenith during the Ambubachi Mela, a festival deeply rooted in the Tantric cult and the fertility aspect of Goddess Kamakhya.

The Sanctum of Shakti: Kamakhya Temple

The Kamakhya Temple’s origins are steeped in legend and mythology. It is said to be the spot where Goddess Sati’s yoni (womb) fell, making it a symbol of female strength and power. The temple’s architectural grandeur, combining elements of the Nagara style with local Assamese influences, captivates visitors. Intricate carvings adorn its walls, each telling a story from ancient scriptures.

The Tantric Traditions

Tantric practices, often misunderstood, are integral to Kamakhya. Here, Tantra is seen as a path to spiritual enlightenment, transcending the physical realm. The temple serves as a focal point for Sadhus and Tantric practitioners from across India, who come to delve into the mysteries of the universe through these ancient rituals.

The Ambubachi Mela: A Confluence of Faith and Fertility

The Ambubachi Mela, often termed as the ‘Mahakumbh of the East’, is an annual festival that draws thousands of devotees. This festival celebrates the menstruation cycle of Goddess Kamakhya, symbolizing the fertility of Mother Earth. It’s a unique blend of spirituality and socio-cultural practices, making it a spectacle of devotion and reverence.

The Rituals and Beliefs

During Ambubachi, the temple remains closed for three days, symbolizing the period of menstruation. It’s believed that the earth becomes impure during this time. On the fourth day, the temple doors reopen, and prasad in the form of Angodak (water from the spring) and Angabastra (red cloth covering the yoni) is distributed among the devotees.

The Cultural Mosaic

Beyond the spiritual, the Ambubachi Mela is a melting pot of culture. Sadhus smeared in ash, Aghoris in their mystical practices, and devotees in colorful attire create a vibrant atmosphere. The air resonates with the chants of mantras, the sound of dhak (drums), and the aroma of incense.

The Symbolism of Kamakhya

Kamakhya Temple, through the Ambubachi Mela, emphasizes the acceptance of the natural processes of the body as divine. It stands as a symbol against the taboos associated with menstruation, portraying it as a natural phenomenon that’s intrinsically connected to life and creation.

A Pilgrimage Beyond the Ordinary

Visiting Kamakhya, especially during the Ambubachi Mela, is not just a pilgrimage. It’s an immersion into an ancient world where spirituality and folklore converge. It’s a journey through India’s mystical Tantric traditions, offering a deeper understanding of the forces of nature and divinity.

The Kamakhya Temple, with its enigmatic aura and profound traditions, continues to be a beacon of spiritual enlightenment and cultural richness. It’s a testament to the enduring legacy of India’s diverse religious practices and an embodiment of the reverence for the feminine divine.

By Mala Chandrashekhar

Introducing Blogger Mala Chandrashekhar - a specialist academically trained in modern Western sciences, yet deeply enamored with India's timeless ethnic arts, crafts, and textiles. Her heart beats for the rich and glorious cultural and spiritual heritage of India, and she has dedicated her entire blog to spreading the immortal glories of ancient India worldwide. Through her simple yet impactful blog posts, Mala aims to reach every nook and corner of the globe, sharing India's beauty and wisdom with the world.

But Mala doesn't stop at just sharing her own thoughts and ideas. She welcomes constructive criticisms and suggestions to improve her blog and make it even more impactful. And if you share her passion for India's culture and heritage, she extends a warm invitation for high-quality guest blog posts.

Ready to dive into the world of India's ageless beauty? Follow Mala on LinkedIn and join her in spreading the magic of ancient India to the world.

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Essay on Top 10 famous temples in India | Article about Top 10 Temple in India

Essay on top 10 famous temples in india.

Famous Temples in India :  Mark twain have remarked rightly about India that, other countries are paupers when it comes to religion. But India is a millionaire. We Indians have a rich legacy left behind by our ancestors in every field. This history have given India so many places of temples and pilgrimage too. All ye rulers who ruled India have certainly given many monuments for which India is so famous today. Also, different dynasties showed different form of craftsmanship in the monuments constructed by them. This makes all of them unique.

I am listing down a few Famous Temples in India who attract a large number of both Indian and International tourists around the year or during certain months.

Top 10 Famous Temples in India

1. Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu is called the city of thousand temples. It is considered very sacred in India. Among all the temples, the trio of Kamakshi Ammen temple , Ekambareshwar temple and Vardaraj Perumal Temples are called Mumurtivasam. The Ekambareshwar temple contains a shrine of Lord Shiva built by Parvati with sand. Varadaraja Perumal is one of the 108 shrines of Lord Vishnu.

2. Tirupati Balaji  Temple is in Tirumala , Andhra Pradesh. It is a temple dedicated to an incarnation of Lord Vishnu. It is the second richest religious site in India as all the devotees offer money and gold to the temples.

3. Meenakshi Temple Madurai is dedicated to Parvati and Shiva. Madurai is the biggest city in India. The custom of taking a dip in the golden lotus tank which was originally a pond built by Lord Shiva is considered auspicious before entering the main shrine. The hall contains 985 pillars.

4. Brihadeshwara Temple is situated in Thanjavur city. It was built by the Chola kings in the 11th century. It is a Shiva temple made of granite on the principles of Vastushashtra. It’s speciality is that it casts no shadows on the ground at noon time.

5. Badrinath temple is situated close to The Alakananda River in the Chamoli District in Uttarakhand . It is one of the Divya desams which means temples dedicated to Lord Vishnu. The visiting months are between Aprils to November.

6. Kedarnath Temple is situated at the Garhwal Range of Himalayan region. It is situated in Uttarakhand. It is one of the most sacred temples dedicated to lord Shiva by the Pandavas. They built this temple to atone their sins committed in the battle of Kurukshetra. This temple was later on restored by Adi Sankaracharya . This temple is situated at the high altitude of 3583 metres. This temple is open only during a few months and the rest of the year is close because of severe cold.It’s  Famous Temple in India .

7. Rameshwaram is a small island town in Tamil Nadu and one of the four sacred pilgrimage called char dham in India. Rameshwaram temple was said to be constructed by Lord Rama after his victory in Sri Lanka. He did this to seek atonement of killing Ravana, who was a Brahmin. Lord Hanuman was sent by Rama to bring a shiva linga . In the meanwhile sita constructed one Shiva Linga too. The one built by Shiva is called Ramalingam and one brought by Hanuman is called Vishwalingam.

8. Vaishno Devi Mandir is situated 12 kms away from Katra after which a cave is reached. This cave temple is situated at 5200 ft in a mountain called Trikuta in Jammu and Kashmir . The idols are in the form of three rock heads called Pindies.

9. Golden Temple or Harmandir Sahib is open to any person built on the philosophy of universal brotherhood. It is made at an altitude lower than ground level as a sign of humility. It is a major attaction in Punjab and all devotees donate a lot of money to the temple every day.

10. Sanchi Stupa is a buddhist temple situated in Sanchi, a village in Raisen District of Madhya Pradesh. This village contains other buddhist temples too which were built in between 3rd century B.C to 12th century A.D. This is dome shaped with four gateways called Toranas and yhese four gateways symbolises love, peace, courage and trust.

The above list is the Famous Temples in India .

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NCERT Notes Class 11 – Chapter 6 Temple Architecture and Sculpture

Table of contents, early temples .

• While the construction of stupas continued, Brahmanical temples and images of gods also started getting constructed. Often temples were decorated with the images of gods. Myths mentioned in the Puranas became part of the narrative representation of the Brahmanical religion. 
• Each temple had a principal image of a god. The shrines of the temples were of three kinds—(i) sandhara type (without pradikshinapatha), (ii) nirandhara type (with pradakshinapatha), and (iii) sarvatobhadra (which can be accessed from all sides). 
• Some of the important temple sites of this period are Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh, Eran, Nachna-Kuthara, and Udaygiri near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh. These temples are simple structures consisting of a veranda, a hall, and a shrine at the rear.

THE BASIC FORM OF THE HINDU TEMPLE

• Garbhagriha:  Means womb-house. It is a cave-like sanctum which houses the main icon of the temple. In earlier times, it was a small cubicle with one entrance. In later periods, it grew into a larger chamber.
• Mandapa:  The entrance to the temple. It could be a portico or a colonnaded hall where worshippers stand.
• Shikhara/Vimana:  Started in the 5th century CE and is like a mountain-like spire on top called  Shikhara  (curving in shape) in North India. In the south, it is called  Vimana  (pyramidal tower).
• Amalaka:  Stone-like disc seen at the top of the temple. Mostly in north Indian temples.
• Kalasha:  Topmost part of the temple. Mainly seen in north Indian styles.
• Antarala: A  vestibule between Garbhagriha & Mandapa.
• Jagati:  Common in north Indian temples and is a raised platform where devotees can sit and pray.
• Vahana:  Vehicle of the main deity which, along with the standard pillar or Dhvaj, are placed axially
• Basically, there are 3 kinds of temple architecture:
• Nagara Style
• Dravida Style
• Vesara Style

SCULPTURE, ICONOGRAPHY, AND ORNAMENTATION 

• The study of images of deities falls within a branch of art history called  ‘iconography,’  which consists of identifying images based on certain symbols and mythologies associated with them. 
• For instance, river goddesses (Ganga and Yamuna) are usually found at the entrance of a garbhagriha in a Nagara temple, and dvarapalas (doorkeepers) are usually found on the gateways or gopurams of Dravida temples; similarly, mithunas (erotic images), navagrahas (the nine auspicious planets) and yakshas are also placed at entrances to guard them.

THE NAGARA OR THE NORTH INDIAN TEMPLE STYLE

• The Nagara became popular in northern India.
• The temple is generally built on a stone platform with steps leading to it, and no grand boundary walls or gateways (unlike the Dravida style) are made around the temple.
• The temples made in the earlier times had one shikhara, whereas the latter temples had many.
• Garbhagriha of the temple is directly beneath the tallest  shikhara .

Nagara Style can be subdivided into the following

• Rekha-prasada/Latina:
• This style has a simple shikhara with a square base, and its walls slope to a point on top. This, however, is the most common type.
• In the later periods, the Latina type became more complex, with several towers clustered together, and eventually, the tallest tower was made at the center, and the garbhagriha was directly beneath it.
• In this style, the roofs are composed of many slabs that gently rise to a single point over the building’s center.
• This differs from the Latina type because, in this style, the roofs do not curve inwards like the Latina but instead slope upwards in a straight incline.
• In many temples, the Latina type is used to house the garbhagriha, whereas the mandapa has a Phamsana style of architecture.
• Rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.
• They are also called  wagon-vaulted buildings .

NAGARA STYLES IN VARIOUS REGIONS

CENTRAL INDIA

• In the states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
• Sandstone is used in these areas.
• MP has the oldest surviving structural temples from the Gupta period.
• They are small shrines with four pillars to support a small mandapa. The mandapas are small porch-like structures before the garbhagriha, which are also rather small.
• Examples include the temple at Udaigiri, part of a larger Hindu complex of cave shrines (outskirts of Vidisha), and the temple at Sanchi (a Buddhist site).
• This shows how similar architectural developments were incorporated in both religions.
• It is an example of the late Gupta period temple architecture.
• The patrons of this temple are not known.
• Architecture and imagery help us to identify that the temple was built in the early 6th century CE.
• The main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four subsidiary shrines that are smaller and at the 4 corners.
• Hence, it consists of a total of five shrines & hence the name, Panchayatana.
• It is a west-facing temple. Most temples are north or east facing.
• This temple has a rekha-prasada type of shikhara and consists of a grand doorway with figures of Ganga and Yamuna on the left and right sides, respectively.
• There is a depiction of Vishnu in various forms.
• There are three main Vishnu reliefs on the temple walls –  Sheshashayana  on the south:  Nara-Narayan  on the east; &  Gajendramoksha  on the west.
• It was assumed that subsidiary shrines had avatars of Vishnu in them; the temple was mistaken to be Dashavatara temple.
• They were built in the 10th century CE and declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• These temples were patronized by Chandela Kings.
• All these temples are made of sandstone.
• From the temple at Deogarh (built about 400 years before Khajuraho temples), the development of the Nagara architectural style is visible here.
• These temples are known for their extensive erotic sculptures.
• The temples are mostly Hindu, but some Jain temples are also present.
• Some temples are also dedicated to Yoginis, which form part of Tantric worship, indicating the rise and spread of the Tantric cult after the 7th century. E.g. Chausanth Yogini temple.
• Important temples in Khajuraho: Kandariya Mahadeo (dedicated to Lord Shiva) and Lakshmana temple.
• It is the grandest of the Khajuraho temples and is dedicated to Vishnu.
• It was built by Chandela King Dhanga in 954 CE.
• Its structure is such that the temple is placed on a high platform accessed by stairs. And has small temples in four corners.
• The structure also consists of high shikhara, A malak , and  Kalash  with projecting balconies and verandas.
• The states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Western MP are discussed here.
• Sandstone is most commonly used in the scriptures of this area.
• However, grey-to-black basalt is also seen in some 10-12th century temples.
• Soft white marble in 10- 12th century Jain Temples at Mount Abu and a 15th-century temple at Ranakpur.
• Samlaji in Gujarat is an important art historical site. Many sculptures made of grey schist are found here.
• It was built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki dynasty in 1026 CE.
• The temple has a huge rectangular stepped tank called  ‘Surya Kund’  in the front.
• The proximity of a sacred water body is a noticeable feature of earlier times. By the early 11th century, this was a common feature of many temples.
• Surya Kund 100 sq.m pond and one of the grandest of its kind in the country.
• 108 miniature shrines are carved in between the steps inside the tank.
• The temple consists of lavish carving & sculpture work.
• The walls of the central shrine are plain.
• Temple is east-facing & every year at the time of equinoxes, the sun shines directly onto the central shrine.
• Includes the Northeast, Odisha, and Bengal.
• Each of these regions had a distinct type of architecture.
• The main medium in Bengal and the northeast until the 7th century was Terracotta.
• Evidence of Gupta influence from a sculpted door frame dating to the 6th century CE from DaParvatia near Tezpur; and sculptures from Rangagora Tea Estate near Tinsukia.
• The influence of the Guptas can be seen till the 10th century.
• In the 12th to 14th centuries, a distinct Ahom style developed around Guwahati.
• Ahom’s style evolved from mixing the style brought to the area by the Tais of Upper Burma with the Pala style of Bengal. Example: Kamakhya Temple, a Shakti Peeth dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya built in the 17th century.
• Regions: West Bengal, Bangladesh, Bihar
• Between the 9th & 11th centuries. Pala Style was prevalent.
• Palas were patrons of Buddhist monastic styles & temples in this region showcased the local Vanga style.
• Siddheswara Mahadeva temple in Barakar in Burdwan District. 9th century; tall curving Shikhara crowned by a large amalaka and example of early Pala style.
• Some temples survive.
• Made of black to grey basalt.
• Had chlorite stone pillars and arched niches.
• They influenced early Bengal Sultanate buildings at Gaur and Pandua.
• The temples were also influenced by the local vernacular building traditions. Most noticeable of these influences was the curving or sloping side of the bamboo roof of a Bengali hut.
• This feature was adopted in Mughal buildings and is known as the Bangla Roof. 
• From the Mughal period onwards, several terracotta brick temples were built, with elements from the earlier Pala style, the local bamboo hut styles, and arches and domes from Islamic architecture.
• E.g., Terracotta Temple, Vishnupur (17th century).
• Rekhapida (Rekha Deula):  Tall, straight building (looking like a shikhara) covering the garbhagriha.
• Pidhadeul : It is the mandapa, a square building where worshippers are present and dancing takes place.
• Khakra Khakra Deula):  Rectangular building with a truncated pyramid, shaped roof. Temples of Shakti are usually of this type.
• Location : Ancient Kalinga includes the modern Puri District, including Bhubaneswar (ancient Tribhuvanesvara, Puri, and Konark).
• Odisha temples are a distinct sub-style of the Nagara style called  the Kalinga Style .
• Shikhara is called  Deul  and is almost vertical and suddenly curves sharply inwards at the top. In front of the deal is the mandapa, called  jagamohana  in Odisha.
• Temples generally have boundary walls.
• Sun Temple was built around 1240.
• In the 19th century, shikhara, which was said to be 70m high, fell, but jagamohana (mandapa) survived. This is the largest enclosed space in Hindu architecture, although it is not accessible anymore.
• This temple is set on a high base & has detailed carvings.
• It has 12 pairs of gigantic wheels sculpted with spokes and hubs representing the chariot wheels of the sun god. The whole temple resembles a processional chariot.
• On the southern wall is a huge sculpture of Surya, or sun god, made of green stone. It is believed there were 3 more images in different directions made from different stones. The fourth wall had a doorway from which the sun rays would enter the  garbhagriha .

  THE HILLS

• Region:  Hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and Kashmir
• The style followed in these regions: Ancient Gandhara style (because of the proximity of Kashmir to that region) with Gupta and post-Gupta traditions from Sarnath, Mathura, Gujarat, and Bengal.
• Both Buddhist and Hindu traditions are found in the hills.
• Local tradition:  Wooden buildings with pitched roofs.
• Many temples in wooden architecture showcase the garbhagriha and shikhara of the Latina type and the mandapa.
• Karkota Period, Kashmir:  Most significant in terms of architecture.
• This temple was built in the 8th and 9th centuries on a plinth in the middle of a water tank.
• A Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva.
• The temple has a wooden building with a peaked roof that slants slowly outwards (due to the snowy conditions). The structure of the temple is moderately ornamented. A row of elephants at the base and a decorated doorway.
• Includes local traditions mixed with post-Gupta style.
• Like the images of Mahishasuramardini and Narasimha at Laksna-Devi Mandir.
• Post-Gupta and Kashmiri, metal sculpture traditions have been adopted.
• The yellow color of the images is likely due to the usage of an alloy of zinc and copper, which were popular in Kashmir.
• The inscription in the Laksna-Devi Mandir states that it was built during the reign of Meruvarman in the 7th century.
• Temples of Kumaon:  Classic examples of Nagara of this region are Jageshwar (near Almora) and Champavat (near Pithoragarh), both in temples at Uttarakhand.

THE DRAVIDA OR SOUTH INDIAN TEMPLE STYLE

• Gopuram:  The entrance gateway in the center of the front wall.
• Vimana:  Shape of the main temple tower & is a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically (unlike the Nagara style Shikhara that is curving).
•  In the Dravida style, shikhara is the word used for the crowning element at the temple’s top (shaped like a  stupika  or octagonal cupola).
• At the entrance to the garbhagriha, there would be sculptures of fierce dvarapalas guarding the temple.
• The temples are accompanied by a temple tank within the compound.
• In many temples, the garbhagriha is located in the smallest tower. It is also the oldest. With the passage of time and the rise of the population of the temple town, additional boundary walls were added.
• The newest structure would mostly have the tallest gopuram.
• Example: Srirangam Temple in Tiruchirappalli has 7 concentric rectangular enclosure walls, each with gopurams. The tower at the center has the garbhagriha.
• Famous temple towns of Tamil Nadu: Kanchipuram, Thanjavur (Tanjore), Madurai, and Kumbakonam.
• Between the 8th to 12th centuries, temples were not confined to religious centers but became administrative centers with large swathes of land.
• Subdivisions of Dravidian Style-
• Kuta or Caturasra:  Square-shaped.
• Shala or Ayatasra:  Rectangular-shaped.
• Gaja-prishta or vrittayata or elephant-backed:  Elliptical.
• Vritta:  Circular.
• Ashtasra:  Octagonal.
• Pallava dynasty:  Ruled in the Andhra region from the 2nd century AD onwards. They then moved southwards to Tamil Nadu.
• They built many monuments and temples during the 6th to the 8th centuries.
• Although they were mostly Shaivite, some Vaishnava monuments are also seen. Their architecture was also influenced by the Buddhist heritage of the Deccan.
• Early buildings were rock-cut, whereas the latter were structural.
• All the early buildings were built during the reign of Mahendravarman I, a contemporary of the Chalukya king, Pulakesin II of Karnataka.
• His son Narasimhavarman I, also known as Mamalla, was a great arts patron. Most buildings in Mahabalipuram (also called Mamallapuram in his honor) are attributed to him.
• In Mahabalipuram, there are exquisite monolithic rathas and mandapas. The five rathas are known as Panchapandava Rathas.

Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram

• Built during the reign of Pallava king Narasimhavarman II, also known as Rajasimha (700 – 728 AD).
• Three shrines : One Shiva shrine facing east, one Shiva shrine facing west, and a middle shrine to Vishnu in Anantashayana pose. The presence of three main shrines is unique.
• It is probable that the shrines were not all built simultaneously but were added later.
• Evidence of a water reservoir and a gopuram exist.
• Sculptures of Nandi the bull (Shiva’s mount) along the temple’s walls. There are several carvings as well.

   Brihadiswara Temple, Tanjore

• It is a Shiva temple and is also called  Rajarajeswara Temple.
• It was built by Rajaraja Chola & completed around 1009 AD.
• It is the largest and tallest of all Indian temples.
• This Chola temple is bigger than any of the previous Pallava, Chalukya, or Pandya structures
• Around 100 temples of the Chola Period are preserved. A lot of temples were constructed during the Chola period.
• The temple is a pyramidal multi-storied vimana almost 70 meters high with a monolithic shikhara atop the vimana.
• Shikhara has images of Nandi. Kalasha on top of the shikhara is 3m and 8cm tall.
• The vimana has hundreds of stucco figures. Many might have been added later on in the Maratha period.
• The main deity of Shiva is portrayed as a huge lingam set in a double-storied sanctum.
• The surrounding walls of the sanctum are adorned with painted murals and sculptures of mythological stories.

  ARCHITECTURE IN THE DECCAN

• It is a hybridized style mixing elements from Nagara and Dravida styles that emerged as a distinct style during the middle of the 7th century in regions like Karnataka.
• This is also called  Vesara  in some ancient texts.
• Not all temples in the Deccan are in Vesara style. Some of the temples are either completely Nagara or Dravida.

Kailashnath Temple, Ellora

• The main deity of this temple is Shiva and Nandi & it is in complete Dravida style. The vimana rises 30 m.
• This temple was carved out of a portion of a hill and hence is grand and imposing
• It was made during the Rashtrakuta phase at Ellora.

   Chalukya Architecture

• Western Chalukya kingdom was established by Pulakesin I when he took control of the land around Badami in 543 AD.
• Early western Chalukyas ruled the region till around the mid-8th century.
• Early activities were rock-cut caves, while structural temples were built later on.

Temples at Pattadakkal, Karnataka

• UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Has 10 temples are in Dravida style, four are in Nagara style, one (Papanatha Temple) is a fusion of both, and one is Jain temple.
• Jain Narayana temple:  Built by Rashtrakutas in the 9th century.
• Virupaksha Temple : Built by the chief queen of Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (733-44), Loka Mahadevi. The best example of the Dravida style.

  Durga Temple, Aihole

• Apsidal shrine resembling a Buddhist Chaitya hall. And is surrounded by a veranda. Shikhara is like a nagara one.

   HOYSALAS

• Hoysalas became prominent in South India after the Chola and the Pandya power declined. They were centered at Mysore.
• Chief temples:  Belur, Somnathapuram and Halebid.
• These temples have a plan called the stellate plan; because the plan, which emerged from being a straightforward square to a complex one with many projecting angles, began to resemble a star.
• The style is Vesara.
• Made of soapstone which is relatively soft. This enabled artists to carve intricate details like jewelry.

Hoysaleshvara Temple, Halebid

• Made of dark schist stone in 1150 and dedicated to Nataraja (Shiva).
• It is a double building with a large hall for the mandapa.
• Each building has a Nandi pavilion in front.
• The temple’s tower fell a long time back. The temple’s structure is evident from the detailed miniature ones at the temple’s entrance.
• Very intricate and detailed carvings.

  VIJAYANAGAR ARCHITECTURE

• The City of Vijayanagara (City of Victory) was founded in 1336.
• Visited by international travelers like Niccolo di Conti, Domingo Paes, Duarte Barbosa, Abd, al-Razzaq, etc., who have given vivid accounts of the place. Synthesizes the Dravida style with the Islamic styles of the neighboring sultanates.
• The sculpture tries to recreate the Chola tradition, but foreign influence is also seen.

BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENTS 

• Along with Hindu art and architecture, Buddhist temple buildings and artwork also went on along with other religions.
• Ellora has Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu monuments.

Bodh Gaya (or Bodhgava)

• Most important Buddhist site because Prince Siddhartha achieved enlightenment here to become Gautama Buddha.
• The Bodhi Tree is important.

The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya:

• The first shrine situated at the base of the Bodhi tree was probably built by Emperor Ashoka.
• The media around the shrine is post-Mauryan, built in 100 BC.
• Many sculptures in the niches in the temple belong to the Pala Period (8th century CE).
• It is a 7th-century design. It is neither Nagara nor Dravida in style.

Nalanda University

• It was a monastic university and is a  Mahavihara  since it is a complex of many monasteries.
• Most of it lies buried under the present civilization and is impossible to excavate.
• Records of the Chinese traveler Xuan Zang (Hsuan-Tsang) give much information about Nalanda.
• As per the records, the foundation of the learning center was laid down by Kumaragupta I, the Gupta king, in the 5th century CE. Later kings added to the original center.
• Evidence for all three Buddhist doctrines of Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana taught here.
• Monks came from China, Tibet, and Central Asia in the north; and from Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, and other countries in Southeast Asia.
• The Nalanda School of Sculpture was influenced by the Buddhist Gupta art of Sarnath, the local Bihar tradition, and Central India. This synthesis emerged during the 9th century.
• They are depicted in three-dimensional forms with delicate ornamentations.
• The back slabs of the sculptures are detailed.
• Nalanda bronzes: Dating from the 7th and 8th centuries to approximately the 12th century, they outnumber the metal images from eastern India.
• Initially depict Mahayana Buddhist deities like standing Buddhas, bodhisattvas like Manjusri Kumara, Naga-Nagarjuna, and Avalokiteshvara seated on a lotus.
• Nalanda became an important tantric center in the late 11th and 12th centuries. Then, Vajrayana deities, such as Vajrasharada (a form of Saraswati), Avalokiteshvara, Khasarpana, etc., dominated.
• Many Brahmanical images have also been found at Nalanda. Many such images are still worshipped in nearby villages.
•   Buddhist sites:  Sirpur in Chhattisgarh (550 – 800 CE); Lalitagiri, Vajragiri and Ratnagiri in Odisha.
• Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu was also a Buddhist center until the Chola Period. A reason could be that it was a port town, and there were trade activities with Sri Lanka, which was and continues to be predominantly Buddhist.

JAIN ARCHITECTURE

• Jain temples are found all over India except in the hills. 
• In the Deccan: Ellora and Aihole and in central India, Khajuraho, Deogarh, Chanderi, and Gwalior.
•  Oldest Jain pilgrimage sites  Bihar .
• Karnataka has many Jain shrines. Statue of Gomateshwara, Granite statue of Lord Bahubali commissioned by Camundaraya, the prime minister of the Ganga kings; located at Sravana Belagola; 18m or 57 feet high; world’s tallest monolithic free-standing structure.
• Jain bronze images found from Akola (near Baroda) belong to the late 5th – late 7th century CE, made using the lost-wax process; the images have been inlaid with silver and copper for embellishments.
• Jain bronze sculptures are also found in Chausa (Bihar), Hansi (Haryana), and many places in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
• Constructed by Vimal Shah.
• Also called  Dilwara temples.  Built between the 11th and 13th centuries.
• Every ceiling has unique patterns. Richly sculptured on white marble. The exteriors are simple, but the interiors are finely carved and exquisitely decorated.

MAHABALIPURAM

• Mahabalipuram is an important coastal town from the period of the Pallavas. It is dotted with important rock-cut and free-standing structural temples, mostly made in the seventh and eighth centuries. 
• This large sculptural panel, one of the largest and oldest known in the world, is nearly thirty meters long and fifteen meters high. There is a natural cleft in the rock, which its sculptors have cleverly used as a channel for water to flow down. This water collects in a massive tank in front of the sculpted wall.

LAKSHMANA TEMPLE IN KHAJURAHO

• The temples at Khajuraho are all made of sandstone. They were patronized by the Chandella dynasty. The Lakshmana temple represents the full-fledged, developed style of temple architecture during the time of the Chandellas. 
• Its construction was completed by 954, as per the inscription found at the temple’s base, by Yashovarman, the seventh ruler of the Chandella dynasty. The temple plan is of a panchayat type. 
• The temple is constructed on a heavy plinth. It consists of an ardhamandapa (porch), mandapa (porch), maha mandapa (greater hall), and garbhagriha with vimana. Each part has a separate roof rising backward. All the halls have projected porches on their walls but are not accessible to visitors. Their use is functional, mainly for light and ventilation. 
• The outer walls of the garbhagriha and the outer and inner walls around the circumambulatory path are decorated with sculptures. The shikhara on the garbhagriha is tall.

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Temple Economy in Ancient & Medieval India

2023, University of Delhi

Temples play a pre-eminent role in society, uniting people through various ritual activities and serving as the centre of social activities in Indian villages. They were not only places of worship but also repositories of tradition, centres of education, charitable institutions, hospitals, and centres for the preservation of fine arts and historical records. Temples also served as governing bodies for local selfgovernment, places of entertainment and justice, and meeting places. They were responsible for the origin, growth, and preservation of many traditional arts.

Related Papers

Rahul Kumar Mohanta (ed.), Redefining India

K Mavali Rajan

The temple of medieval south India played vital role in the social and economic life of the people. The present article discusses the multiple role of the temples of south India.

Rohan Pandhare

Post-doctoral Report

Temple emerged as a significant and influential institution in medieval India, patronised by almost all classes of the society. The temples were endowed with villages, plots of land, gardens, oil-mills, cash donations, various commodities such as vessels, bells, ornaments, animals, grains, spices and innumerable other items. Very often, the temples had complete judicial, administrative and economic control over a large number of villages that were donated to them, many times in far-flung areas. In this way, temple evolved into a land-owning rich organization that carried out the multiple functions of a religious place, educational institution and also occupation-generating economic institution. The evolution of temple into such an important institution pose many interesting queries such as socio-economic-religious background of the rise of temples, nature of patronage and general function of the temple in contemporary society. This work aims to address some of these problems in the case of temples from Maharashtra, primarily with the help of epigraphic material, which comprises of around 255 inscriptions recording construction of temples and/or grants to these temples. Understanding the socio-economic-religious background of the rise of temples, evolution of temple institution, nature of patronage as well as nature and terms of endowments, functioning of temples and religious trends of the contemporary society, are some of the primary aims of this study.

Vijayakumar Somasekharan Nair

This volume is a study of the beginning and evolution of temple architecture in India which covers sculptures and carvings as well. With over a hundred plates of temples and carvings on them including cave facades and pillar depictions it deals with temples constructed by the different ancient and medieval dynasties in Indian history particularly the early western Calukyan and later western Calukyans Pallava Pandya, Cola Hoyasala and Nayaka with illustrations that include maps plans of caves and even viharas and caityas it undertakes a study of the temples found in different states of India. The research discusses the variations in plans and elevations to examine development of temple architecture over time and new experiment actions in the building of temples by use of various materials. Reconstructing art and architectural styles from the remnants of the ruined temples in many places it explains terms and concepts in temple building and architecture and cites examples of various temple style and traditions including the best and earliest ones. The focus is on the Dravida and Nagara temple styles and a third hybrid form of sikhara that developed in the Deccan. Many Jaina temples are also covered.

Trouillet, Pierre-Yves, 2017, « Hindu Temples and Development of Localities in Tamil Nadu (South India) ». In Subaltern Urbanization in India: An Introduction to the Dynamics of Ordinary Towns, Denis É. & M.-H. Zérah (eds.), New Delhi, Springer, pp. 311-334.

Pierre-Yves Trouillet

Based on six case studies taken into the regional context of Tamil Nadu (the “Tamil country” in South India), the article demonstrates that Hindu temples take part actively to the development of their settlements in many ways, and that they locally produce some centrality which is able to trigger phenomena of local development. The case of the old temples shows that these places of worship can structure urban morphologies and that economic activities are often set up on temple lands. The study of new temples confirms these observations and sheds light on several strategies of actors associated with local development processes, such as commercial or real estate development around temples, or the purchase of lands and the creation of medical and educational establishments by the trusts managing the places of worship.

Proceedings of the Indian History Congress

Temple played a vital role in socio-economic and cultural life of the people. More than a religious centre and residence of deity, it performed multiple roles as administrative centre of the state and local chiefs, trade centre, settlement area of the Brahmins, artisans, centre of learning, a repository of fine arts and architecture, a large employer, etc. Most importantly the local administration of villages and urban centres were carried out through temple. On the other hand the political control of the state was possible only through the temple institutions. The state interfered in the affairs of temple as well as local administrations. The state intervention is often found as an administrative direction of local rulers to levy certain taxes and pay it to the temple. Thus the temple was a symbolic representative of the state. Even at local level, the temple remained as an effective means for the landlords and wealthy traders to exercise their power and legitimize their authority.

Kashshaf Ghani

Harinarayana T

BYU Studies Quarterly

Brent Schmidt

Routledge Handbook of Hindu Temples

Himanshu Prabha Ray

This handbook is a comprehensive study of the archaeology, social history and the cultural landscape of the Hindu temple. Perhaps the most recognizable of the material forms of Hinduism, temples are lived, dynamic spaces. They are significant sites for the creation of cultural heritage, both in the past and in the present. Drawing on historiographical surveys and in-depth case studies, the volume centres the material form of the Hindu temple as an entry point to study its many adaptations and transformations from the early centuries ce to the 20th century. It highlights the vibrancy and dynamism of the shrine in different locales and studies the active participation of the community for its establishment, maintenance and survival. The illustrated handbook takes a unique approach by focusing on the social base of the temple rather than its aesthetics or chronological linear development. It fills a significant gap in the study of Hinduism and will be an indispensable resource for scholars of archaeology, Hinduism, Indian history, religious studies, museum studies, South Asian history and Southeast Asian history.

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Indian Culture, Food, Temples, and Clothing Annotated Bibliography

Sawe, Benjamin Elisha. “What Are Examples of Traditional Indian Clothing?” WorldAtlas , 2017.

• Key Terms: Traditional dresses, Indian fashion, saree, headgear
• Claim : Despite the inevitable impact of globalization and westernization, India is a country that could preserve its culture by wearing traditional clothes.
• Summary: India is known for its unique fashion and traditions developed through the ages. After the 1980s, Indian designers addressed the drivers of global fashion and economic boom but never stopped neglecting old elements. Indian citizens prefer to differentiate clothing for regular use and special occasions. The Indian saree, Lehenga Choli, Salwar Kameez, Churidar, Panche, and Angarkha are common female garments, while the dhoti, Bandhgala, Achkan, and turbans (one of the famous headgears) are worn by men. Indians use traditional clothes for informal events, while traditional style is frequently borrowed from the West. It is normal to see a woman wearing a traditional saree or a skirt and jeans on the same street. Men also choose suits for professional purposes and jeans and t-shirts for personal use. However, when a wedding or another significant event occurs, most participants demonstrate the richness of their wardrobes.
• Response : Although the author gives clear descriptions and explanations, I would like to know more about how Indians are able to combine their traditional garments and the western impact. It seems impossible to admire the true beauty of Indian traditions through the prism of external factors. I learned that there are many old clothes like saree or Angarkha, consisting of several layers and special material. Indians need to share their knowledge and skills through generations not to forget their cultural basics.
• “Emerging Indian designers merged both old and western elements and perfected the art of embroidery to make statement garments.”
• “The Angarkha was an old Indian court outfit, famous for its flexibility and ease.”
• “Globalization and westernization are influencing contemporary dressing in India.”

Srinivas, Tulasi. “Exploring Indian Culture through Food.” Education About ASIA, vol. 16, no. 3, 2011, pp. 38-41.

• Key Terms: Food, Indian culture, cooking, globalization
• Claim : Indian cuisine is not just an ordinary type of food that represents a nation but the way how different families, classes, and castes identify themselves in a long history of colonization and globalization.
• Summary: Food should be interpreted as an identity marker among various castes and tribes. Indians address their religious beliefs, financial resources, and personal preferences to choose meals properly. Another argument is related to the history of the country and the impact of other nations on Indian development. Many gastronomic choices were defined during colonization, and it is necessary to understand that some Indian tastes and preferences are similar to those of Turkey, Britain, China, and other Central Asian and Western regions. In addition to such evident diversity, regional differences in Indian food cannot be ignored. Food culture is predetermined by land and climate because not all citizens have access to the same resources. Local meals usually contain rice or wheat, vegetables, and meat curries. Indians like to organize regional festivals to share their culinary cycles and achievements in the industry. Globalization affects Indian food, promoting variety, world recognition, and consumption changes.
• Response : For a long time, I have enjoyed the specifics of Indian cuisine and the options citizens apply to create their flavors and tastes. After reading the article, I discovered that many Indian meals were determined by globalization and colonization in different periods. On the one hand, it is difficult to accept that there is no particular root in Indian cuisine. On the other hand, this article is another reason for fascinating the nation that could explore its culture and identify through properly integrated resources and food.
• “Food as something to be enjoyed and as part of Indian culture is a popular topic.”
• “India is now a society where food appears plentiful, and the aesthetic possibilities are staggering.”
• “Most Indians appreciate a wide array of flavors and textures and are traditionally discerning consumers who eat seasonally, locally, and, to a large extent, sustainably.”

Sunhadra. “16 Magnificent Shiva Temples in India That Are a Must-Visit for Every Shiva Devotee.” Treebo , 2020.

• Key Terms: Maha Shivratri, Shiva, temple, Hindu religion
• Claim : The celebration of Maha Shivratri is one of the reasons for learning about the most interesting temples in India for religious devotees to visit and demonstrate their respect for Shiva, a famous deity.
• Summary: Shiva is one of the most recognizable supreme powers in the Hindu religion, and Maha Shivratri is a festival where people honor their god. During this event, participants are free to visit several places and enjoy the beauty of the existing temples, their history, and their purposes. The author mentions 16 temples located in different Indian regions. Amarnath Temple is one of the most commonly visited temples in Kashmir. It is located in a cave that is at the height of 3888 meters. The location of another temple, Kedarnath, is also extreme, and only true devotees are ready to visit it for their religious purposes. Other places of interest can be found in different states, including Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Odisha, and Jharkhand. Tourists’ choices may depend on their preferences, finances, health, and even weather conditions that might allow or prevent enjoying the architectural beauty.
• Response : In my opinion, this article is very informative and clear in terms of its organization and language. There is no need to surf the web or read long stories about Indian temples to choose the place to visit. The author identifies the best temples and gives specific descriptions that may affect decision-making. Indian temples are closely related to local religions and traditions, and it was interesting to learn about the rituals during the Maha Shivaratri festival.
• “On the occasion of Maha Shivratri Shiva statues and Lingas in all the Shiva temples in India are offered milk, fruits and bael leaves and decorated with multicoloured flowers.”
• “Kedarnath is famous for being an abode to one among the 12 Jyotirlingas and also a very famous Shiva temple in India.”
• Kailasnath Temple is “a part of the 34 temples that are present in Ellora”

Works Cited

Srinivas, Tulasi. “Exploring Indian Culture through Food.” Education About ASIA , vol. 16, no. 3, 2011, pp. 38-41.

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IvyPanda. (2023, October 27). Indian Culture, Food, Temples, and Clothing. https://ivypanda.com/essays/indian-culture-food-temples-and-clothing/

"Indian Culture, Food, Temples, and Clothing." IvyPanda , 27 Oct. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/indian-culture-food-temples-and-clothing/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'Indian Culture, Food, Temples, and Clothing'. 27 October.

IvyPanda . 2023. "Indian Culture, Food, Temples, and Clothing." October 27, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/indian-culture-food-temples-and-clothing/.

1. IvyPanda . "Indian Culture, Food, Temples, and Clothing." October 27, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/indian-culture-food-temples-and-clothing/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Indian Culture, Food, Temples, and Clothing." October 27, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/indian-culture-food-temples-and-clothing/.

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While the Char Dham temples hold immense significance in Hindu pilgrimage, there are several other remarkable temples worth exploring. Here, we take you on a virtual spiritual tour of some temple across India that you should plan … Read more

While the Char Dham temples hold immense significance in Hindu pilgrimage, there are several other remarkable temples worth exploring. Here, we take you on a virtual spiritual tour of some temple across India that you should plan to visit at least once. Read less

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While the Char Dham temples hold immense significance in Hindu pilgrimage, there are several other remarkable temples worth exploring. Here, we take you on a virtual spiritual tour of some temple acro...

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Guest Essay

Modi’s Temple of Lies

By Siddhartha Deb

Mr. Deb is the author of the novel “The Light at the End of the World.”

The sleepy pilgrimage city of Ayodhya in northern India was once home to a grand 16th-century mosque, until it was illegally demolished by a howling mob of Hindu militants in 1992. The site has since been reinvented as the centerpiece of the Hindu-chauvinist “ new India ” promised by Prime Minister Narendra Modi.

In 2020, as Covid-19 raged unchecked across the country, Mr. Modi, the leader of the Hindu right, went to Ayodhya to inaugurate construction of a three-story sandstone temple to the Hindu god Ram on the site of the former mosque. Dressed in shiny, flowing clothes and wearing a white N95 mask, he offered prayers to the Ram idol and the 88-pound silver brick being inserted as the foundation stone.

I traveled to Ayodhya a year later and watched as the temple was hurriedly being built. But it seemed to me to offer not the promise of a new India so much as the seeds of its downfall.

Mr. Modi’s Hindu nationalism has fed distrust and hostility toward anything foreign, and the receptionists at my hotel were sullenly suspicious of outsiders. There was no hotel bar — a sign of Hindu virtue — and the food served was pure vegetarian, a phrase implying both Hindu caste purity and anti-Muslim prejudice.

Outside, devotional music blared on loudspeakers while bony, manure-smeared cows, protected by Hindu law, wandered waterlogged streets in the rain. The souvenir shops at the temple displayed a toxic Hindu masculinity, highlighted by garish shirts featuring images of a steroid-fed Ram, all bulging muscles and chiseled six-packs. Even Hanuman, Ram’s wise but slightly mischievous monkey companion, appeared largely in the snarling Modi-era version known as Angry Hanuman , which went viral in 2018 after Mr. Modi praised the design.

After a decade of rule by Mr. Modi and his Bharatiya Janata Party, Hindu-majority India maintains the facade of a democracy and has so far avoided the overt features of a theocracy. Yet, as Ayodhya revealed, it has, for all practical purposes, become a Hindu state. Adherence to this idea is demanded from everyone, whether Hindu or not.

This is not sustainable, even if it seems likely that Mr. Modi will ride to a third victory in national parliamentary elections that begin Friday and conclude June 1. Mr. Modi’s India is marked by rampant inequality, lack of job prospects, abysmal public health and the increasing ravages of climate change. These crises cannot be addressed by turning one of the world’s most diverse countries into a claustrophobic Hindu nation.

Perhaps even the prime minister and his party can sense this. Their crackdowns on opposition political leaders, manipulation of electoral rolls and voting machines and freezing of campaign funds for opposition parties are not the actions of a confident group.

In January of this year, a wave of Hindu euphoria swept the nation as the temple I had watched being put together with cement and lies (there is no conclusive evidence supporting Hindu claims that Ram was a historical figure or that a temple to him previously stood there) was about to be inaugurated .

Newspapers devoted rapturous front pages to the coming occasion, and when I flew to my former home Kolkata on the eve of the big day, my neighbors there declared their anticipation by setting off firecrackers late into the night. The next morning, on Jan. 22, loudspeakers and television screens tracked me through the city with Sanskrit chants and images of the ceremony taking place at the temple. Mr. Modi, as usual, was at the center of every visual. Friends in Delhi and Bangalore complained about insistent neighbors and strangers knocking on their doors to share celebratory sweets. Courts, banks, schools, stock markets and other establishments in much of the country took a holiday.

The inauguration date seems to have been chosen carefully to overshadow Republic Day, on Jan. 26, which commemorates India’s adoption of its Constitution, amended in 1976 to affirm the country as a “socialist, secular, democratic” republic. Those values are fiercely in opposition to what Hindu nationalism has ushered in. The temple inauguration date, which will be celebrated annually, reduces the republic to secondary status next to Mr. Modi’s Hindu utopia.

A similar effort has been underway to diminish the importance of Aug. 15, marking Indian independence in 1947. In 2021, Mr. Modi announced that Aug. 14 would henceforth be Partition Horrors Remembrance Day, referring to the bloody division of the country into Hindu-majority India and an independent Muslim Pakistan in 1947, a murderous affair for Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs alike.

This was sold to the Indian public as underlining the need for unity, but it was also a reminder from Hindu nationalists that a section of Muslims broke off to form their own nation and that the loyalties of India’s remaining 200 million Muslims were suspect. Given that Hindu rightists participated in massacres, rapes and forced displacement during the partition, Mr. Modi’s weaponization of the suffering seems particularly reprehensible. I was born to a Hindu family, and my father, a refugee from the partition, never blamed Muslims his entire life.

There have been countless other such stratagems with the Hindu right in power. The old Parliament building, whose design features refer to India’s syncretic history — Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim and Christian — was replaced last year by a new structure that explicitly reduces India’s past to a monochromatic Hindu one.

In the new Parliament, the lotus flower, common in Hindu iconography and the symbol of the Bharatiya Janata Party, runs amok as a motif. A statue atop the building of four back-to-back lions — India’s national symbol and a look back at its Buddhist past — has been altered so that the lions are no longer serene and meditative, as in the original, but snarling, hypermuscular Hindu beasts . Everywhere in India, roads and cities have been renamed to sever connections to centuries of Muslim history in favor of a manufactured Hindu one. On new highways through the state of Uttar Pradesh, where I traveled last summer, gleaming signboards pointed toward concocted Hindu sites but almost never toward the state’s rich repository of Muslim mosques, forts and shrines.

Knowledge and culture are being attacked along similar lines. Bollywood , Indian television and the publishing industry have become willing accomplices of Hindu chauvinists, churning out content based on Hindu mythology and revisionist history. In the news media, the few journalists and institutions unwilling to shill for the Hindu cause face legal threats and police raids .

In education, government institutions are run by ignorant functionaries of the ruling party , and from school textbooks to scientific research papers , the Hindu nationalist version of India is pushed forward, myth morphing into history. In the private universities that have begun to crop up in India, Mr. Modi’s government keeps a close eye on classes, panels or research that might be construed as criticizing his government or its idea of a Hindu India.

This cultural shift and the accompanying reduction of Muslims to alien intruders has been made possible by Mr. Modi delivering on his party’s three main promises to Hindu nationalists .

In 2019 he repealed the notional autonomy enjoyed for decades by the disputed Muslim-majority state of Jammu and Kashmir, which the Hindu right had assailed as favoritism toward Muslims and victimization of Hindus. Later that year, Mr. Modi delivered on a second promise by introducing a law that ostensibly opened a pathway to Indian citizenship for persecuted minorities from neighboring countries but whose true motive lay in that it pointedly excluded Muslims. In the northeastern state of Assam , a registration process had already been underway to disenfranchise Muslims if they could not provide elaborate documentation of their Indian citizenship. The Bharatiya Janata Party’s declared intention to establish a similar registration system nationwide hangs the threat of disenfranchisement over all of India’s Muslims.

The inauguration of the Ram temple delivered on the third and most important electoral promise. It announced, triumphantly, the climax of the battle to turn India into a Hindu nation. And yet after 10 years under Mr. Modi’s government, India is more unequal than it was under colonial British rule. In 2020 and 2021, it surpassed China as the largest source of international migrants to O.E.C.D. countries. Many of the undocumented migrants to be found pleading for entry on the U.S.-Mexico border are from India , and they include Hindus for whom India should be a utopia.

The Hindu right’s near-complete control of India may indeed deliver a third term for Mr. Modi, maybe even the absolute parliamentary majority his party wants in order to expand on the transformation it has begun.

But the truth is harder to hide than ever. Mr. Modi and his party are giving India the Hindu utopia they promised, and in the clear light of day, it amounts to little more than a shiny, garish temple that is a monument to majoritarian violence, surrounded by waterlogged streets, emaciated cattle and a people impoverished in every way.

Siddhartha Deb ( @debhartha ) is an Indian writer who lives in New York. His most recent novel is “The Light at the End of the World.” His new nonfiction book is “Twilight Prisoners: The Rise of the Hindu Right and the Fall of India.”

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An earlier version of this article misstated a detail about India’s Constitution. It described the country as a “socialist, secular, democratic” republic when it was amended in 1976, not when it was adopted in 1950.

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