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Academic Paper: Bibliography and Citation Styles

5 min read • march 13, 2023

Dylan Black

Introduction

As you write your Research paper, you'll be reading a lot of outside research. By a lot, I mean a lot. Whether you're reading academic papers, lectures, media works, books, magazines, journal articles, or anything else, you will need to accurately attribute the authors of these works. You've most likely worked with citations and Works Cited pages in the past, specifically in AP Seminar where citations were required, but in AP Research it becomes a whole other ball game.

Including correct citations is an easy way to avoid losing what should be an easy 5 on the rubric, and it's also important to make sure that you don't plagiarize . If you use data or results from someone else's paper and, even mistakenly, forget to attribute them at all, you could risk getting a 0 on your academic paper.

Furthermore, which citation style you choose is no longer a matter of what you feel most comfortable with but is rather what is considered discipline appropriate . For example, if every paper in your discipline uses APA as their citation style , you are essentially forced to use APA , regardless of whether or not you've used it before. While most citation styles are relatively similar, you may need to learn a new one for AP Research.

Choosing a Citation Style

As I just mentioned, in AP Research, your citation style must be appropriate for your discipline. This is because different disciplines and different focuses require different information when attributing authors. The easiest way to figure out what citation style your discipline uses is to look at papers written in your discipline! However, if you're not sure, here are a few rules of thumb:

Odds are, despite being the most popular for AP Seminar and for high school papers in general, you will not end up using MLA in your research paper. MLA is typically used for educational purposes to teach citations and is used in very specific disciplines. MLA stands for "Modern Language Association" and is typically only used in papers about literature, film, and other artistic and literary works. Because the majority of students will be doing work outside of these fields, you probably won't use MLA .

For most of you, APA will be the citation style of choice. Despite standing for "American Psychological Association", APA is the most popular citation style for the social sciences, nursing, and business. Disciplines like economics, psychology, sociology, linguistics, etc. fall under social sciences, as do many others. APA is also a good default since, unless your discipline has an extremely clear citation style , APA is professional and contains most of the information other disciplines require. However, if you know that your discipline uses another citation style , use that one, instead.

The third major citation style is the Chicago Manual of Style, typically used in business, history, and the fine arts. Chicago is best known for the fact that it does not use parenthetical citations and, rather, uses footnotes. This is an easy way to recognize if your paper should be using Chicago. Chicago is typically the least used by high school students compared to MLA and APA , but it is a useful one to know, especially if you plan on doing research in the fields of business, history, or fine arts.

Other Citation Styles

While we've named the three most popular citation styles, there's a whole world of citation styles! Other notable styles are: AMA (American Medical Association), ACS (American Chemical Society), AMS (American Mathematical Society), and Turabian . These are all popular choices for students who are writing for very specific disciplines.

Image from GIPHY

Consistency Over Choice

While there typically is one choice that is easy to make for your citation style , it's more important to stay consistent with the citation style that you use. Even if the style isn't perfect for your discipline, you want to make sure that all citations use the same style. Make sure your works cited page is the same style as your parenthetical citations and that the style of your paper as a whole matches the style. With many citation styles, not only do you have to pay attention to how you cite sources and how you attribute quotes with parenthetical citation, you also have to compare it with the entire design of your paper!

For example, a typical MLA paper has a header at the top of the first page with your name, teacher, date (in a particular format), and class along with the title centered on the page. By contrast, an APA paper will have a dedicated title page and a running title along the top of every page.

Making sure that these little things are not overlooked can help you earn more points and make sure you're not losing points on little mistakes.

Resources for Citations

For learning how to write certain citation styles, online resources are an absolute godsend. The best resource, in our opinion, is Purdue OWL , which has resources for MLA , APA , and Chicago, along with general writing tips. Other great resources include any university library, which typically has research tips along with citation tips.

Many people also like using citation generators, like EasyBib, which, while helpful, should be checked for accuracy since they can definitely screw up. Using them can speed up your process, but it's always important to double-check.

At this point, you are well on your way to writing a 🔥 paper with perfect citations and style. This "section" of your paper is essentially the only one that follows you throughout your entire Research journey. It is an incredibly easy section to both do really well on, but it is also easy to make dumb mistakes with. However, with these tips, you are off to a great start. Good luck!

Key Terms to Review ( 11 )

ACS (American Chemical Society)

AMA (American Medical Association)

AMS (American Mathematical Society)

Chicago Style

Citation Style

Discipline Appropriate

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What is an annotated bibliography?

The process of creating an annotated bibliography, sample annotated bibliography entry for a journal article, critically appraising the book, article, or document, initial appraisal, content analysis.

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An annotated bibliography is a list of citations to books, articles, and documents. Each citation is followed by a brief, usually about 150 words, descriptive and evaluative paragraph; the annotation.

The purpose of the annotation is to inform the reader of the relevance, accuracy, and quality of the sources cited.

Creating an annotated bibliography calls for the application of a variety of intellectual skills; concise exposition, succinct analysis, and informed library research.

• First, locate and record citations to books, periodicals, and documents that may contain useful information and ideas on your topic.
• Briefly examine and review the actual items.
• Then choose those works that provide a variety of perspectives on your topic.
• Cite the book, article, or document using the appropriate APA style.

Write a concise annotation that summarizes the central theme and scope of the book or article. Include one or more sentences that:

• (a) evaluate the authority or background of the author,
• (b) comment on the intended audience,
• (c) compare or contrast this work with another you have cited, or
• (d) explain how this work illuminates your bibliography topic.

The following example uses the APA format for the journal citation.

NOTE: APA requires double spacing within citations.

Waite, L. J., Goldschneider, F. K., & Witsberger, C. (1986). Nonfamily living and

the erosion of traditional family orientations among young adults. American Sociological Review, 51, 541-554.

The authors, researchers at the Rand Corporation and Brown University, use data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Young Women and Young Men to test their hypothesis that nonfamily living by young adults alters their attitudes, values, plans, and expectations, moving them away from their belief in traditional sex roles. They find their hypothesis strongly supported in young females, while the effects were fewer in studies of young males. Increasing the time away from parents before marrying increased individualism, self-sufficiency, and changes in attitudes about families. In contrast, an earlier study by Williams cited below shows no significant gender differences in sex role attitudes as a result of nonfamily living.

You can begin evaluating a physical information source; a book or an article for instance, even before you have the physical item in hand. Appraise a source by first examining the bibliographic citation. The bibliographic citation is the written description of a book, journal article, essay, or some other published material that appears in a catalog or index. Bibliographic citations characteristically have three main components: author, title, and publication information. These components can help you determine the usefulness of this source for your paper. (In the same way, you can appraise a Web site by examining the home page carefully.)

• What are the author's credentials--institutional affiliation? Where does he or she works? What are their educational background, past writings, or experience? Is the book or article written on a topic in the author's area of expertise? You can use the various Who's Who publications for the U.S. and other countries and for specific subjects and the biographical information located in the publication itself to help determine the author's affiliation and credentials.
• Has your instructor mentioned this author? Have you seen the author's name cited in other sources or bibliographies? Respected authors are cited frequently by other scholars. For this reason, always note those names that appear in many different sources.
• Is the author associated with a reputable institution or organization? What are the basic values or goals of the organization or institution?

Date of Publication

• When was the source published? This date is often located on the face of the title page below the name of the publisher. If it is not there, look for the copyright date on the reverse of the title page. On Web pages, the date of the last revision is usually at the bottom of the home page, sometimes every page.
• Is the source current or out-of-date for your topic? Topic areas of continuing and rapid development, such as the sciences, demand more current information. On the other hand, topics in the humanities often require material that was written many years ago. At the other extreme, some news sources on the Web now note the hour and minute that articles are posted on their site.

Edition or Revision

Is this a first edition of this publication or not? Further editions indicate a source has been revised and updated to reflect changes in knowledge, include omissions, and harmonize with its intended reader's needs. Also, many printings or editions may indicate that the work has become a standard source in the area and is reliable. If you are using a Web source, do the pages indicate revision dates?

Note the publisher. If the source is published by a university press, it is likely to be scholarly. Although the fact that the publisher is reputable does not necessarily guarantee quality, it does show that the publisher may have high regard for the source being published.

Title of Journal

Is this a scholarly or a popular journal? This distinction is important because it indicates different levels of complexity in conveying ideas.

Having made an initial appraisal, you should now examine the body of the source. Read the preface to determine the author's intentions for the book. Scan the table of contents and the index to get a broad overview of the material it covers. Note whether bibliographies are included. Read the chapters that specifically address your topic. Scanning the table of contents of a journal or magazine issue is also useful. As with books, the presence and quality of a bibliography at the end of the article may reflect the care with which the authors have prepared their work.

What type of audience is the author addressing? Is the publication aimed at a specialized or a general audience? Is this source too elementary, too technical, too advanced, or just right for your needs?

Objective Reasoning

• Is the information covered fact, opinion, or propaganda? It is not always easy to separate fact from opinion. Facts can usually be verified; opinions, though they may be based on factual information, evolve from the interpretation of facts. Skilled writers can make you think their interpretations are facts.
• Does the information appear to be valid and well-researched, or is it questionable and unsupported by evidence? Assumptions should be reasonable. Note errors or omissions.
• Are the ideas and arguments advanced more or less in line with other works you have read on the same topic? The more radically an author departs from the views of others in the same field, the more carefully and critically you should scrutinize his or her ideas.
• Is the author's point of view objective and impartial? Is the language free of emotion-arousing words and bias?
• Does the work update other sources, substantiate other materials you have read, or add new information? Does it extensively or marginally cover your topic? You should explore enough sources to obtain a variety of viewpoints.
• Is the material primary or secondary in nature? Primary sources are the raw material of the research process. Secondary sources are based on primary sources.

For example:

If you were researching Konrad Adenauer's role in rebuilding West Germany after World War II, Adenauer's own writings would be one of many primary sources available on this topic. Others might include relevant government documents and contemporary German newspaper articles. Scholars use this primary material to help generate historical interpretations--a secondary source. Books, encyclopedia articles, and scholarly journal articles about Adenauer's role are considered secondary sources. In the sciences, journal articles and conference proceedings written by experimenters reporting the results of their research are primary documents. Choose both primary and secondary sources when you have the opportunity.

Writing Style

Is the publication organized logically? Are the main points clearly presented? Do you find the text easy to read, or is it stilted or choppy? Is the author's argument repetitive?

Evaluative Reviews

• Locate critical reviews of books in a reviewing source, such as Book Review Index, Book Review Digest, OR Periodical Abstracts. Is the review positive? Is the book under review considered a valuable contribution to the field? Does the reviewer mention other books that might be better? If so, locate these sources for more information on your topic.
• Do the various reviewers agree on the value or attributes of the book or has it aroused controversy among the critics?
• For Web sites, consider consulting one of the evaluation and reviewing sources on the Internet.
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The Advanced Placement (AP) curriculum is administered by the College Board and serves as a standardized set of year-long high school classes that are roughly equivalent to one semester of college-level coursework. Although most students enroll in an actual course to prepare for their AP exams, many others will self-study for the exams without enrolling in the actual AP class.

AP classes are generally stand-alone subjects that easily translate to traditional college courses. Typically, they culminate in a standardized exam on which students are graded using a 5-point scale, which colleges and universities will use to determine credit or advanced standing. Starting in fall of 2014, though, this traditional AP course and exam format has begun to adapt in efforts by the College Board to reflect less stringent rote curriculum and a heavier emphasis on critical thinking skills.

The AP Capstone program is at the center of these changes, and its culmination course is AP Research. If you are interested in learning more about the AP Research Course and Assessment, and how they can prepare you for college-level work, read on for CollegeVine’s Ultimate Guide to the AP Research Course and Assessment.

About the Course and Assessment

The AP Research course is the second of two classes required for the AP Capstone™ Diploma . In order to enroll in this course you need to have completed the AP Seminar course during a previous year. Through that course, you will have learned to collect and analyze information with accuracy and precision, developed arguments based on facts, and effectively communicated your conclusions. During the AP Research course, you apply these skills on a larger platform. In the AP Research course, you can expect to learn and apply research methods and practices to address a real-world topic of your choosing, with the end result being the production and defense of a scholarly academic paper. Students who receive a score of 3 or higher on both the AP Seminar and AP Research courses earn an AP Seminar and Research Certificate™. Students who receive a score of 3 or higher on both courses and on four additional AP exams of their choosing receive the AP Capstone Diploma™.    

The AP Research course will guide you through the design, planning, and implementation of a year-long, research-based investigation to address a research question of interest to you. While working with an expert advisor, chosen by you with the help of your teacher, you will explore an academic topic, problem, or issue of your choosing and cultivate the skills and discipline necessary to conduct independent research and produce and defend a scholarly academic paper. Through explicit instruction in research methodology, ethical research practices, and documentation processes, you will develop a portfolio of scholarly work to frame your research paper and subsequent presentation of it.

Although the core content and skills remain standardized for every AP Research course, the implementation of this instruction may vary. Some AP Research courses may have a specific disciplinary focus wherein the course content is rooted in a specific subject, such as AP Research STEM Inquiries or AP Research Performing and Visual Arts. Similarly, other AP Research courses are offered in conjunction with a separate and specific AP class, such as AP Research and AP Biology wherein students are concurrently enrolled in both AP courses and content is presented in a cross-curricular approach. Alternatively, AP Research may be presented in the form of an internship wherein students who are already working with a discipline-specific expert adviser conduct independent studies and research of the student’s choosing while taking the AP Research class. Finally, some AP Research courses are delivered independently as a research methods class. In this style of class, students develop inquiry methods for the purpose of determining which method best fits their chosen topic of inquiry/research question, and each student then uses a selected method to complete his or her investigation.    

Only schools that currently offer the AP Capstone Diploma may offer the AP Research course. Because it is a part of a larger comprehensive, skills-based program, students may not self-study for the AP Research course or final paper. At this time, home-schooled students, home-school organizations, and online providers are not eligible to participate in AP Capstone.

Your performance in the AP Research course is assessed through two performance tasks. The first is the Academic Paper, which accounts for 75% of your total AP score. In this paper, you will present the findings of your yearlong research in 4,000-5,000 words. Although the official submission deadline for this task is April 30, the College Board strongly recommends that this portion of your assessment be completed by April 15 in order to allow enough time for the second of your performance tasks.

The second performance task is your Presentation and Oral Defense, which accounts for the remaining 25% of your total AP score. Using your research topic, your will prepare a 15-20 minute presentation in an appropriate format with appropriate accompanying media. Your defense will include fielding three to four questions from a panel consisting of your AP Research teacher and two additional panel members chosen at the discretion of your teacher.    

In 2016, fewer than 3,000 students submitted an AP Research project, but enrollment is projected to grow rapidly, since 12,000 students took the AP Seminar assessment in 2016 and most will presumably go on to submit an AP Research project in 2017. Scores from the 2016 AP Research projects reveal a high pass rate (score of three or higher) but a difficult rate of mastery. While 67.1% of students taking the assessments scored a three or higher, only 11.6% received the highest score of a five, while nearly 40% received a three. Only 2% of students submitting research projects received the lowest score of one.    

A full course description that can help to guide your planning and understanding of the knowledge required for the AP Research course and assessments can be found in the College Board course description .

Read on for tips for successfully completing the AP Research course.

How Should I Prepare for the AP Research Course?

As you undertake the AP Research course and performance tasks, you will be expected to conduct research, write a scholarly paper, and defend your work in a formal presentation.   Having already completed the AP Seminar course, these skills should be familiar to you. You should use your scores on the AP Seminar performance task to help guide your preparations for the AP Research performance tasks.

Carefully review your scores from AP Seminar. Make sure you understand where points were lost and why. It may be helpful to schedule a meeting with your AP Seminar teacher to review your work. Alternatively, your AP Research teacher may be willing to go over your AP Seminar projects with you. You might also ask a classmate to review your projects together to get a better idea of where points were earned and where points were lost. Use this review as a jumping point for your AP Research studies. You should go into the course with a good idea of where your strengths lie, and where you need to focus on improving.

A sample timeline for the AP Research course is available on page 36 of the course description . One detail worth noting is that the recommended timeline actually begins not in September with the start of the new school year, but instead begins in May with the completion of the AP Seminar course during the previous school year. It is then that you should begin to consider research topics, problems, or ideas. By September of the following school year, it is recommended that you have already finalized a research question and proposal, completed an annotated bibliography, and prepared to begin a preliminary inquiry proposal for peer review.    

What Content Will I Be Held Accountable For During the AP Research Course?

To be successful in the AP Research class, you will begin with learning to investigate relevant topics, compose insightful problem statements, and develop compelling research questions, with consideration of scope, to extend your thinking.   Your teacher will expect you to demonstrate perseverance through setting goals, managing time, and working independently on a long-term project. Specifically, you will prepare for your research project by:

• Identifying, applying, and implementing appropriate methods for research and data collection
• Accessing information using effective strategies
• Evaluating the relevance and credibility of information from sources and data
• Reading a bibliography for the purpose of understanding that it is a source for other research and for determining context, credibility, and scope
• Attributing knowledge and ideas accurately and ethically, using an appropriate citation style
• Evaluating strengths and weaknesses of others’ inquiries and studies

As in the AP Research course, you will continue to investigate real-world issues from multiple perspectives, gathering and analyzing information from various sources in order to develop credible and valid evidence- based arguments. You will accomplish this through instruction in the AP Research Big Ideas, also called the QUEST Framework. These include:

• Question and Explore: Questioning begins with an initial exploration of complex topics or issues. Perspectives and questions emerge that spark one’s curiosity, leading to an investigation that challenges and expands the boundaries of one’s current knowledge.
• Understand and Analyze Arguments: Understanding various perspectives requires contextualizing arguments and evaluating the authors’ claims and lines of reasoning.
• Evaluate Multiple Perspectives: Evaluating an issue involves considering and evaluating multiple perspectives, both individually and in comparison to one another.
• Synthesize Ideas: Synthesizing others’ ideas with one’s own may lead to new understandings and is the foundation of a well-reasoned argument that conveys one’s perspective.
• Team, Transform, and Transmit: Teaming allows one to combine personal strengths and talents with those of others to reach a common goal. Transformation and growth occur upon thoughtful reflection. Transmitting requires the adaptation of one’s message based on audience and context.

In addition, you will use four distinct reasoning processes as you approach your research. The reasoning processes are situating, choosing, defending , and connecting . When you situate ideas, you are aware of their context in your own perspective and the perspective of others, ensuring that biases do not lead to false assumptions. When you make choices about ideas and themes, you recognize that these choices will have both intended and unintentional consequences. As you defend your choices, you explain and justify them using a logical line of reasoning. Finally, when you connect ideas you see intersections within and/or across concepts, disciplines, and cultures.

For a glossary of research terms that you should become familiar with, see page 62 of the course description .

How Will I Know If I’m Doing Well in the AP Research Course?

Because your entire score for the AP Research course is determined by your research paper and presentation, which come at the very end of the course, it can be difficult to gauge your success until that point. Do yourself a favor and do not wait until your final scores come back to determine how successful you have been in the course.

As you undertake the AP Research course, there will be many opportunities for formative assessments throughout the semester. These assessments are used to give both you and your teacher an idea of the direction of instruction needed for you to master the skills required in the AP Research course. You should use these assessments to your advantage and capitalize on the feedback you receive through each. A list of possible activities used for these assessments can be found on page 41 of the course description .

Another way that you and your teacher will track your progress is through your Process and Reflection Portfolio (PREP). The PREP serves to document your development as you investigate your research questions, thereby providing evidence that you have demonstrated a sustained effort during the entire inquiry process. You will review your PREP periodically with your teacher, who will use it as a formative assessment to evaluate your progress.

Throughout the course, you will be assigned prompts and questions to respond to in your PREP. You will use this portfolio to document your research or artistic processes, communication with your expert adviser, and reflections on your thought processes. You should also write freely, journaling about your strengths and weaknesses with regard to implementing such processes and developing your arguments or aesthetic rationales. 

Your final PREP should include:

• Table of contents
• Completed and approved proposal form
• Specific pieces of work selected by the student to represent what he or she considers to be the best showcase for his or her work. (Examples might include: in-class (teacher-directed) free-writing about the inquiry process, resource list, annotated bibliography of any source important to the student’s work, photographs, charts, spreadsheets, and/or links to videos or other relevant visual research/project artifacts, draft versions of selected sections of the academic paper, or notes in preparation for presentation and oral defense.)
• Documentation of permission(s) received from primary sources, if required — for example, permission(s) from an IRB or other agreements with individuals, institutions, or organizations that provide primary and private data such as interviews, surveys, or investigations
• Documentation or log of the student’s interaction with expert adviser(s) and the role the expert adviser(s) played in the student’s learning and inquiry process (e.g., What areas of expertise did the expert adviser have that the student needed to draw from? Did the student get the help he or she needed — and if not, what did he or she do to ensure that the research process was successful? Which avenues of exploration did the expert adviser help the student to discover?)
• Questions asked to and feedback received from peer and adult reviewers both in the initial stages and at key points along the way
• Reflection on whether or not the feedback was accepted or rejected and why
• Attestation signed by the student which states, “I hereby affirm that the work contained in this Process and Reflection Portfolio is my own and that I have read and understand the AP Capstone TM Policy on Plagiarism and Falsification or Fabrication of Information”

It cannot be stressed enough how important it is to maintain strong communications with your teacher as you progress through the AP Research course. Not only is your teacher your best resource for learning new skills and knowledge, but also it is your teacher who will be responsible for grading your final performance tasks and as such, you should always have a strong understanding of how your work is being assessed and the ways in which you can improve it. Remember, your teacher wants you to succeed just as much as you do; work together as a team to optimize your chances.

How Should I Choose a Research Topic?

You will begin to consider research topics before the school year even starts. If your AP Research class is offered in conjunction with another course, such as those rooted in a specific subject or linked to another concurrent AP course, you will have some idea of the direction in which your research should head. Regardless of whether you know the precise subject matter of your topic, you should begin by asking yourself what you want to know, learn, or understand. The AP Research class provides a unique opportunity for you to guide your own learning in a direction that is genuinely interesting to you. You will find your work more engaging, exciting, and worthwhile if you choose a topic that you want to learn more about.

As you begin to consider research topics, you should:

• Develop a list of topics and high-level questions that spark your interest to engage in an individual research project
• Identify potential expert advisers to guide you in the planning and development of your research project (For tips on how to find a mentor, read CollegeVine’s “ How to Choose a Winning Science Fair Project Idea ”)
• Identify potential opportunities (if you are interested) to perform primary research with an expert adviser during the summer, via internships or summer research projects for high school students offered in the community and local higher education institutions
• Discuss research project planning skills and ideas with students who are currently taking or have already taken the AP Research course

You might also find inspiration from reading about past AP Research topics. One list of potential research questions can be found here and another can be found here . Keep in mind that these lists make great starting points and do a good job of getting you thinking about important subjects, but your research topic should ultimately be something that you develop independently as the result of careful introspection, discussions with your teacher and peers, and your own preliminary research.

Finally, keep in mind that if you pursue a research project that involves human subjects, your proposal will need to be reviewed and approved by an institutional review board (IRB) before experimentation begins. Talk with your teacher to decide if this is the right path for you before you get too involved in a project that may not be feasible.

Once you have decided on a research topic, complete an Inquiry Proposal Form. This will be distributed by your teacher and can also be found on page 55 of the course description .

How Do I Conduct My Research?

By the time you begin your AP Research course, you will have already learned many of the basics about research methods during your AP Seminar course. You should be comfortable collecting and analyzing information with accuracy and precision, developing arguments based on facts, and effectively communicating your point of view. These will be essential skills as you move forward in your AP Research project.

As you undertake your work, remember the skills you’ve already learned about research:

• Use strategies to aid your comprehension as you tackle difficult texts.
• Identify the author’s main idea and the methods that he or she uses to support it.
• Think about biases and whether other perspectives are acknowledged.
• Assess the strength of research, products, and arguments.
• Look for patterns and trends as you strive to make connections between multiple arguments.
• Think about what other issues, questions, or topics could be explored further.

You should be certain to keep track of all sources used in your research and cite them appropriately. The College Board has a strict policy against plagiarism. You can read more about its specifics on page 60 of the course description .

How Do I Write My Paper?

Before you begin writing your final paper, make sure to thoroughly read the Task Overview handout which will be distributed by your teacher. If you would like to see it beforehand, it can be found on page 56 of the course description . You should also review the outline of required paper sections on page 49 of the course description .

Your paper must contain the following sections:

› Introduction

› Method, Process, or Approach

› Results, Product, or Findings

› Discussion, Analysis, and/or Evaluation

› Conclusion and Future Directions

› Bibliography

Before you begin writing, organize your ideas and findings into an outline using the sections listed above. Be sure to consider how you can connect and analyze the evidence in order to develop an argument and support a conclusion. Also think about if there are any alternate conclusions that could be supported by your evidence and how you can acknowledge and account for your own biases and assumptions. 

Begin your paper by introducing and contextualizing your research question or problem. Make sure to include your initial assumptions and/or hypothesis. Next, include a literature review of previous work in the field and various perspectives on your topic. Use the literature review to highlight the gap in the current field of knowledge to be addressed by your research project. Then, explain and justify your methodology, present your findings, evidence, or data, and interpret the significance of these findings. Discuss implications for further research or limitations of your existing project. Finally, reflect on the project, how it could impact its field, and any possible next steps. Your paper should conclude with a comprehensive bibliography including all of the sources used in your process.

Make sure to proofread and edit your paper yourself, have it proofread and edited by a friend, and then proofread and edit it again before you complete your final draft.

How Do I Prepare For My Oral Defense?

Once your paper is finished, you may be tempted to sit back and rest on your laurels. Although you’ve no doubt expended a tremendous about of energy in producing a final product you can be proud of, don’t forget that the work is not over yet. Your oral defense accounts for 25% of your total score so it should be taken seriously.

Your oral defense is a 15-20 minute presentation that uses appropriate media to present your findings to an oral defense panel. You may choose any appropriate format for your presentation, as long as the presentation reflects the depth of your research. If your academic paper was accompanied by an additional piece of scholarly work (e.g., performance, exhibit, product), you should arrange with your teacher for him or her, along with the panelists, to view the scholarly work prior to your presentation.

As you plan your presentation, consider how you can best appeal to your audience. Consider different mediums for your presentation, and how those mediums might affect your credibility as a presenter. You want to be engaging to your audience while still being taken seriously.

Following your presentation, you will field three or four questions from your panelists. These will include one question pertaining to your research or inquiry process, one question focused on your depth of understanding, and one question about your reflection throughout the inquiry process as evidenced in your PREP. The fourth question and any follow-up questions are at the discretion of the panel. A list of sample oral defense questions begins on page 52 of the course description . For a complete outline of the oral defense, see page 49 of the course description . 

How Will My Work Be Assessed?

Because this assessment is only available to students enrolled in the AP Capstone program, your teacher will register you for the assessment when you enroll in the course. You should confirm with your teacher that you are registered for the assessment no later than March 1. 

You will submit your final paper and complete your oral presentation no later than April 30, at which point your teacher will submit your work and scores through an AP Digital Portfolio. Your presentation will be scored by your teacher alone. Your paper will be scored by your teacher and validated by the College Board.

You may find the scoring rubric from the 2016 performance tasks available here . You may find a collection authentic student research papers and scoring explanations available here .

Preparing for any AP assessment can be a stressful process. Having a specific plan of attack and a firm grasp of how your work is assessed will help you to feel prepared and score well. Use CollegeVine’s Ultimate Guide to the AP Research Course and Assessment to help shape your understanding of the course and how to complete your performance tasks effectively. When submission day arrives, you should feel better prepared and informed about the work you have produced.

For more about information about APs, check out these CollegeVine posts:

• Can AP Tests Actually Save You Thousands of Dollars?

• Should I Take AP/IB/Honors Classes?

• How to Choose Which AP Courses and Exams to Take

• What If My School Doesn’t Offer AP or IB Courses?

• Are All APs Created Equal in Admissions?

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AP Seminar: Annotated Bibliography

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2.  Choose SOURCES from the top menu.

3. Follow the video directions on the Annotated Bib page for info about importing citations. (A GREAT SHORTCUT!!)

4. After you import your citations, go to the Sources tab in Noodletools.  

5.  For each source, click Options and then Edit.

6. You are now in the citation info for the source. Scroll to the bottom and look for a box, Annotation.  Complete your paragraph and click SAVE.

What is an Annotated Bibliography

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Annotated Bibliography

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Writing Evaluative Annotated Bibliographies

Dawn Atkinson

Chapter Overview

This chapter aims to help you understand what an annotated bibliography is and how this type of document can be used when planning assignments, conducting research, and evaluating sources. An annotated bibliography generally takes one of two forms: descriptive annotated bibliographies reference and briefly describe sources, while evaluative (or critical ) annotated bibliographies reference, succinctly summarize, and evaluate resources. Regardless of form, an annotated bibliography may be incorporated into a longer text, such as a formal report, or be produced as a stand-alone piece to document research work—for example, to accompany an in-depth assignment like a researched argument essay. Either way, the sources listed on an annotated bibliography should center on a topic or focus; if the annotated bibliography documents research efforts related to an associated assignment, the focus will reflect the author’s thesis, research questions (questions that a study seeks to answer), or research objectives.

The remainder of this chapter addresses evaluative annotated bibliographies.

What, specifically, is an evaluative annotated bibliography?

An evaluative annotated bibliography focuses on an overarching topic by listing pertinent references and by providing sentences that discuss and assess the resources identified in those references. Place the reference for a source at the beginning of an annotated bibliography entry, and then craft sentences and paragraphs about the source that do some or all of the following in accordance with the specifications for the assignment.

• Summarize the source’s main argument, main point, central themes, or key takeaways.
• Evaluate the source; in other words, assess the source based on criteria. For example, what is your view of the source’s usefulness or relevance (in terms of research about a topic), accuracy, trustworthiness, timeliness, level of objectivity, or quality, and why do you hold that view? What methods did the author(s) of the source use to collect data, are they sound, and how did you draw that conclusion? How does the source compare with other publications listed on the annotated bibliography that address the same topic? You will need to read all the sources on your annotated bibliography before you can answer this last question.
• Comment on how the source corresponds with your research aim. How does it fit with, support, or differ from your viewpoint? How has it expanded your thinking on a topic? How might you use the source when writing an associated assignment?

An annotation may also include information about an author’s credentials, the intended audience for a source, and the purpose of a text. Note that in technical and academic genres, authors oftentimes foreground the purposes of their works by indicating them early on, to help readers understand the overall direction of the writing. The purpose of a scholarly journal article, for instance, will typically be stated in its abstract , which is a summary of the article located after the publication’s title but before its introduction.

Why might you be asked to consider author credentials and date of publication when compiling sources for an annotated bibliography?

What does an evaluative annotated bibliography look like?

When constructing an annotated bibliography, follow your instructor’s directions about what information to include and how to format the document, and structure its references according to the style conventions specified. References in the following annotated bibliography entries adhere to APA style; the annotated bibliography as a whole also follows APA formatting conventions. The entries, which are adapted from McLaughlin (2020) as cited in Excelsior Online Writing Lab (2020, “Sample Annotated Bibliography”), feature combinations of the annotated bibliography information listed previously in this chapter and center on the topic of the transferability of writing skills , or applying knowledge and skills about writing gained in one context to another context—a practice that may advance a writer’s knowledge and skills. If you are asked to produce an annotated bibliography for a class, help readers navigate its contents by being consistent about the type of information you supply in each of its entries. In accordance with APA style, the references in the following sample are alphabetized by first author’s last name.

Boone, S., Biggs Chaney, S., Compton, J., Donahue, C., & Gocsik, K. (2012). Imagining a writing     and rhetoric program based on principles of knowledge “transfer”: Dartmouth’s Institute for Writing and Rhetoric. Composition Forum, 26 . http://compositionforum.com/issue/26/dartmouth.php

In this article, Boone et al. (2012) overview the writing program at Dartmouth College’s   Institute for Writing and Rhetoric to discuss an example of what a program based on      writing transfer research looks like. The authors trace the history of the program’s development, explain current curriculum and organization, and look at future directions for the program. Beginning with the idea that skills and knowledge do not all  transfer in the same way, program developers at Dartmouth set out to explore what kind of knowledge writing is and how this knowledge is transferred. By developing     curriculum and sequences of courses that foster reflection and connections to future courses and by encouraging faculty development, Dartmouth has established a thoughtfully constructed writing program that serves as a model for other such programs. The authors explore the state of research on the program and goals based on the results of their research.

This piece serves as a useful guide composed by writing program administrators and writing researchers who are interested in seeing how current studies of writing transfer can be applied to an operating program. The authors offer practical advice, include sample syllabi and curriculum, and honestly reflect on successes and struggles of the program. This article provides much-needed information for those interested in developing a writing program that aligns with transfer research.

Moore, J. (2012). Mapping the questions: The state of writing-related transfer research . Composition Forum, 26 . http://compositionforum.com/issue/26/map-questions-transfer-research.php

Moore (2012) reviews the literature on writing skill transfer in this article as a starting point for who those who are interested in the research area and are already conversant in the language of rhetoric and composition studies. The author begins by discussing the history of research on writing skill transfer, describing issues related to    common definitions and multi-institutional studies. She also explores the goals and methods of recent investigations and, ultimately, calls for explorations of new areas pertinent to writing transfer research. In doing the latter, she raises important   questions about how students’ involvement in non-writing courses and non-academic activities may influence what they do when writing.

Moore’s article provides a helpful overview of studies in the field of writing skill transfer and establishes a jumping-off point for new investigations in the area. I can use information from the article in my term paper introduction to establish context for the reader before exploring different dimensions of writing skill transfer in the body of the piece.

Wardle, E. (2007). Understanding ‘transfer’ from FYC: Preliminary results of a longitudinal study. Writing Program Administration, 31 (1-2), 65-85.  http://associationdatabase.co/archives/31n1-2/31n1-2wardle.pdf

In her report on a longitudinal study conducted at the University of Dayton, Wardle (2007) explores the transfer of writing skills from first-year college composition    courses. She begins by explaining that research is limited when it comes to transfer of   writing skills, even though transfer is seen as a key function of first-year writing     courses. The research that does exist indicates that the skills do not transfer well. With this in mind, Wardle established a curriculum designed to support writing transfer and followed students for two years after they had completed first-year composition. Her  research indicates that the skills from first-year writing did not transfer well, not because students were unable to make the transfer but because the writing assignments they encountered, along with a variety of other issues, made them feel there was no need to transfer the skills.

This longitudinal study is a foundational piece for writing program directors and   serves as a call for more research on writing skill transfer, particularly as it relates to first-year college writing courses. Consequently, lessons gleaned from this study continue to inform writing teachers, program directors, and researchers. In the article, Wardle cites her work with colleague Doug Downs. Together, Wardle and Downs are known as leaders in writing transfer research, which again speaks to the article’s  contribution as a trustworthy and influential piece of scholarship.

While the above sample focuses exclusively on the topic of writing skill transfer, an annotated bibliography that focuses on multiple topics related to a central theme may organize these under specific and informative headings to help readers distinguish one topic area from another. Additionally, if you are asked to produce an annotated bibliography as a stand-alone document, you may be required to provide an introduction to help set the context for the rest of the piece and to explain its purpose.

What are evaluative annotated bibliographies used for?

Because evaluative annotated bibliographies summarize, evaluate, and consider the relevance of sources, they can be used to narrow a research focus, to weigh up research in an area, and to document research findings. To illustrate, maybe you have been asked to compose an evaluative annotated bibliography on the way to producing a researched argument essay. Although you know which topic you want to write about in your essay, you are less clear about what the research says regarding this topic. After reading a book chapter and several journal, magazine, and newspaper articles on the topic, you begin drafting your annotated bibliography and notice that the sources discuss similar and opposing viewpoints and support these with various pieces of evidence. Although you were fairly certain of your perspective on the issue before you began the annotated bibliography assignment, you acknowledge that your view has expanded as a result of reading, writing about, and considering how the sources relate to your researched argument paper. Furthermore, by evaluating the sources for accuracy, quality, and relevance, you are also able to determine which ones best underpin your claims, as well as opposing claims. Thus, you are able to develop a focused thesis statement and supporting topic sentences for your essay that acknowledge the complexities of the topic. Furthermore, your annotated bibliography documents your research work for readers, communicating which sources you investigated for purposes of composing your researched argument and your evaluations of these sources.

Activity: Produce an Evaluative Annotated Bibliography Entry

Read Michael Bunn’s (2011) essay “How to Read Like a Writer,” which can be found at https://wac.colostate.edu/docs/books/writingspaces2/bunn–how-to-read.pdf . Bunn teaches in the University of Southern California’s Writing Program. After reading, reflect on the essay and its pertinence to your own reading and writing life by answering the four discussion questions on page 85 of the text. Be prepared to talk about your answers in class.

Once you have read, reflected on, and discussed the essay, produce an annotated bibliography entry for the source by following these steps.

Step 1: Write a complete, accurate APA reference list entry for the source.

Step 2 : Answer the following questions.

• What qualifications does the author have? Google him to discover additional information about his credentials beyond that already supplied.
• Who is the intended audience for the source?
• What the purpose of the source?
• How do the audience and purpose influence how information is presented in the source?
• What argument does the author make?
• Is the argument convincing? Why or why not?
• How does the source contribute to your own ideas about reading and writing or relate to other sources you have read about reading and writing?

Step 3: Use the notes you have made to draft an evaluative annotated bibliography entry for the Bunn (2011) text. Refer to the information and examples provided in this chapter for guidance.

Homework: Produce an Evaluative Annotated Bibliography

Identify a topic of inquiry you can explore via means of an annotated bibliography. Your instructor may assign you a topic or ask you to select one. Research the topic by locating and reading sources about it; a librarian can help you identify a focused list of sources. Afterwards, compose an evaluative annotated bibliography that references, summarizes, and evaluates the sources. Your instructor may also ask you to identify author credentials and the intended audience and purpose for each source. In addition, you may be asked to discuss how the sources relate to a larger research aim. Since the evaluative annotated bibliography is a stand-alone assignment, supply an introduction to help set the context for the rest of the piece and to explain its purpose.

After drafting your evaluative annotated bibliography, your instructor may ask you to assess it in relation to the rubric criteria outlined in Rinto (2013, p. 10) in order to refine its content. The rubric is provided here in adapted format for your reference.

When refining your annotated bibliography, use the following handout, produced by the Writing and Communication Centre, University of Waterloo (n.d.), to ensure you have used the words that and which correctly.

 Which vs That: Restrictive and Non-Restrictive Clauses

Restrictive and Non-Restrictive Clauses

Which and that both introduce clauses (groups of words) that provide more information but are not grammatically necessary to the sentence.

e.g., The daily special, which was poached salmon , cost a lot. e.g., The dish that the sous-chef prepared turned out to be better than the daily special.

Using Restrictive Clauses: That

Use that when the information in the clause is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. It’s called a restrictive clause because it limits or affects the purpose of the sentence.

e.g., Suitcases that weigh more than 23kg must be checked.

that weigh more than 23 kg is necessary to the purpose of the sentence. If you removed this restrictive clause, it would imply that all suitcases must be checked, which isn’t what the author intends.

e.g., Drinks that have caffeine make it hard to fall asleep.

that have caffeine is also restrictive. If you take this part out, it suggests that all drinks make it hard to fall asleep.

Some writers will use which for a restrictive clause instead of that . This is technically fine, but if you are having any confusion about the distinctions between restrictive and non-restrictive clauses, it is better to maintain a clear distinction between that and which , for clarity’s sake.

Using Non-Restrictive Clauses: Which

Use which when the information in the clause is not necessary to the meaning of the sentence. It might be helpful or interesting, but if you took it out, the sentence would still make sense.

e.g., The suitcase, which was stuffed with dirty clothes , didn’t fit in the overhead bin.

If which was removed: e.g., The suitcase didn’t fit in the overhead bin.

e.g., Coffee and tea, which both have caffeine , are Canada’s favourite morning drinks.

If which was removed: e.g., Coffee and tea are Canada’s favourite morning drinks.

Note that the non-restrictive which clause is set off by commas.

Use that without commas for a restrictive (necessary) clause. That is required more often than which . Use which with commas for a non-restrictive (not necessary) clause.

Write in that (for restrictive clauses) or which (for non-restrictive clauses).

• The spoon __________ fell on the floor needed to be washed.
• The book __________ she wanted was on the top shelf.
• They used Post-It notes __________ come in various colours to organize the pages.
• For the hike I need shoes __________ are sturdy.
• For the hike I need sturdy shoes __________ are expensive.
• The first skyscraper we saw __________ was the biggest one on that street had 67 floors.
• The only elevator __________ went all the way to the top was out of service.
• The cord __________ charges this computer is missing.
• He provided us with a whole box of samples __________ we didn’t really need so we could make a decision.

Bunn, M. (2011). How to read like a writer. In C. Lowe, & P. Zemliansky (Eds.), Writing spaces: Readings on writing (Vol. 2, pp. 71-86). Parlor Press. License: CC-BY 4.0. https://wac.colostate.edu/docs/books/writingspaces2/bunn–how-to-read.pdf

Excelsior Online Writing Lab. (2020). Annotated bibliographies . License: CC-BY 4.0. https://owl.excelsior.edu/research/annotated-bibliographies/

Rinto, E.E. (2013). Developing and applying an information literacy rubric to student annotated bibliographies. Evidence Based Library and Information Practice, 8 (3), 5-18.  License: CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 .  https://doi.org/10.18438/B8559F

Writing Centre, University of Waterloo. (n.d.). Which vs that: Restrictive and non-restrictive clauses . License: CC-BY-SA 4.0 . https://uwaterloo.ca/writing-and-communication-centre/sites/ca.writing-and-communication-centre/files/uploads/files/which_vs_that.pdf

Mindful Technical Writing Copyright © 2020 by Dawn Atkinson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Annotated bibliography rubric

Rubric for evaluating an annotated bibliography.

Rubric suitable for annotated bibliography assignments in higher education, but may be adapted for high school. Use this rubric when asking students to cite valid evidence for a chosen topic, summarize and analyze sources, and present annotations in the format of an annotated bibliography.

The content of this rubric is also available as a flexible grading form .

This rubric is available and ready to use in your Feedback Studio account. However, if you would like to customize its criteria, you can "Duplicate this rubric" in your Feedback Studio account and then edit the rubric as needed. Or, you can download this .rbc file and then import to your account to begin editing the content.

ENGLISH 11H/AP Seminar (Shakespeare): Annotated Bibliography

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Why Do I Need an Annotated Bibliography?

“One of the reasons behind citing sources and compiling a general bibliography is so that you can prove you have done some valid research to back up your argument and claims. Readers can refer to a citation in your bibliography and then go look up the material themselves. When inspired by your text or your argument, interested researchers can access your resources. They may wish to double check a claim or interpretation you’ve made, or they may simply wish to continue researching according to their interests. But think about it: even though a bibliography provides a list of research sources of all types that includes publishing information, how much does that really tell a researcher or reader about the sources themselves?”

 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, The Writing Center. “Annotated Bibliographies.” https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/annotated-bibliographies/

What Should I Include in My Annotated Bibliography?

An annotated bibliography is a bibliography (so, a list of all of the sources you have used to do this project) with an “annotation” following each entry. The annotation is a brief summary of the source and an assessment of its value to your project. It should be no more than a short paragraph in length. The content of the annotation should include:

1 sentence description of the source type and what the source is about;

1 sentence about the author’s central argument;

1-2 sentences about the evidence the author uses, if relevant and possible;

1-2 sentence description of who the author is and his/her credentials; and

2 sentences about the value and limitations of the source for your project; how will it help you answer your research question?

List alphabetically by author or title

 University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, The Writing Center. “Annotated Bibliographies.” https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/annotated-bibliographies.

How Do I Structure My Annotated Bibliography?

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AP Research - Annotated Bibliography Rubric

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Use this rubric to evaluate the annotated bibliography entries for the first three sources students would like to possibly incorporate into their paper.

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What is an Annotated Bibliography?

An annotated bibliography is a summary and evaluation of a resource. According to Merriam-Webster, a bibliography is “the works or a list of the works referred to in a text or consulted by the author in its production.” Your references (APA) or Works Cited (MLA) can be considered a bibliography. A bibliography follows a documentation style and usually includes bibliographic information (i.e., the author(s), title, publication date, place of publication, publisher, etc.). An annotation refers to explanatory notes or comments on a source.

An annotated bibliography, therefore, typically consists of:

Documentation for each source you have used, following the required documentation style.

For each entry, one to three paragraphs that:

Begins  with a summary ,

Evaluates  the reliability of the information,

Demonstrates  how the information relates to previous and future research.

Entries in an annotated bibliography should be in alphabetical order.

** Please note: This may vary depending on your professor’s requirements.

Why Write an Annotated Bibliography?

Why Write an Annotated Bibliography

Writing an annotated bibliography will help you understand your topics in-depth.

An annotated bibliography is useful for organizing and cataloging resources when developing an argument.

Formatting an Annotated Bibliography

Formatting Annotated Bibliographies

• Use 1-inch margins all around
• Indent annotations ½ inch from the left margin.
• Use double spacing.
• Entries should be in alphabetical order.

Structure of an Annotated Bibliography

This table provides a high-level outline of the structure of a research article and how each section relates to important information for developing an annotated bibliography.

Annotated Bibliography Sample Outline

Author, S. A. (date of publication). Title of the article.  Title of Periodical, vol.  (issue), page-page.  https://doi.org/XXXXXX

Write one or two paragraphs that focus on the study and its findings.

• Two or more sentences that outline the thesis, hypothesis, and population of the study.
• Two or more sentences that discuss the methodology.
• Two or more sentences that discuss the study findings.  
• One or more sentences evaluating the study and its relationship to other studies.

Sample Annotated Bibliographies

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