what is psychology in speech writing

The Power of Words - Unveiling the Psychology of Speech for Effective Communication and Influence

Updated on 23rd May, 2023

The Fascinating Field of Psychology of Speech

The study of human communication and the intricate interplay between speech and psychology has given rise to a captivating field known as the psychology of speech. This multidisciplinary area of research delves into how speech influences our thoughts, behaviors, and interactions with others. By examining the psychological aspects of speech, we can unravel the complexities of language, communication, and cognition.

The psychology of speech encompasses a wide range of subfields, including speech perception, production, comprehension, and language development. Through rigorous scientific inquiry and investigation, researchers in this field aim to unravel the mysteries behind how we perceive, produce, and understand speech.

One of the fundamental aspects studied in the psychology of speech is speech perception. This involves understanding how we process and interpret speech sounds, tones, and linguistic cues. Researchers explore how our brains analyze phonetic information, recognize patterns, and extract meaning from the sounds and rhythms of speech.

Speech production is another crucial area of inquiry within the psychology of speech. It focuses on the cognitive and physiological processes involved in planning, coordinating, and executing speech movements. Understanding how our thoughts are transformed into spoken words sheds light on the complex motor skills and neural mechanisms that underlie our ability to communicate orally.

Comprehension is an essential component of speech psychology, investigating how we derive meaning from the words and sentences we hear. It explores the role of linguistic structures, context, and cognitive processes in understanding spoken language. By deciphering the intricate workings of comprehension, researchers strive to uncover the mechanisms that allow us to extract and interpret meaning from spoken communication.

Language development is a fascinating aspect of the psychology of speech, focusing on how children acquire language skills and how language evolves throughout our lifespan. Researchers examine the cognitive, social, and environmental factors that influence language acquisition, such as the role of caregiver interactions and exposure to linguistic stimuli.

The knowledge and insights gained from the psychology of speech have practical applications in various domains. Effective communication is crucial in fields such as education, healthcare, business, and interpersonal relationships. By understanding the psychological underpinnings of speech, professionals can enhance their communication skills, tailor their messages to different audiences, and foster stronger connections.

The Role of Psychology of Speech in Public Speaking

Public speaking is a skill that many individuals strive to master. It involves effectively delivering a message to an audience, capturing their attention, and persuading or informing them. The psychology of speech plays a crucial role in understanding the dynamics of public speaking and can provide valuable insights for speakers aiming to engage and connect with their audience.

The psychology of speech sheds light on various aspects that contribute to effective public speaking. One key area of focus is nonverbal communication. Researchers explore how body language, facial expressions, gestures, and vocal tone impact the audience's perception and engagement. Understanding how to align verbal and nonverbal cues can enhance a speaker's ability to convey their message persuasively.

Speech psychology also emphasizes the importance of vocal delivery. The tone, pitch, volume, and pace of speech significantly influence the audience's perception of a speaker's credibility, confidence, and overall message. By understanding the psychology of speech, speakers can learn to modulate their voice, use pauses strategically, and emphasize key points effectively.

Moreover, the psychology of speech highlights the significance of audience analysis and adaptation. Speakers must consider the demographics, preferences, and needs of their audience to tailor their content and delivery style accordingly. Adapting to the audience's communication style, language, and cultural background can foster rapport and engagement.

Another crucial aspect explored in the psychology of speech is the management of anxiety and nervousness. Public speaking often elicits anxiety, which can impact a speaker's delivery and confidence. Understanding the psychological factors underlying these feelings can help speakers employ strategies to manage anxiety effectively, such as deep breathing exercises, positive self-talk, and visualization techniques.

Additionally, the psychology of speech recognizes the power of storytelling in public speaking. By integrating storytelling techniques, speakers can tap into the emotional and narrative elements that resonate with the audience. Understanding the cognitive processes and emotional responses triggered by storytelling can make a speech more memorable and impactful.

The Influence of Psychology of Speech in Effective Communication Skills

Effective communication skills are vital in various aspects of life, including personal relationships, professional settings, and social interactions. The psychology of speech offers valuable insights into understanding and enhancing communication skills, enabling individuals to convey their messages clearly, connect with others, and build meaningful relationships.

Speech psychology emphasizes the role of active listening in effective communication. By understanding how people interpret and process verbal and nonverbal cues, individuals can become more attentive listeners. Active listening involves focusing on the speaker, providing verbal and nonverbal feedback, and demonstrating empathy. Developing active listening skills enhances mutual understanding and strengthens communication bonds.

The psychology of speech also explores the power of effective questioning in communication. Asking relevant and open-ended questions can encourage dialogue, promote deeper understanding, and elicit valuable insights. By mastering the art of asking insightful questions, individuals can foster meaningful conversations and demonstrate genuine interest in others.

Nonverbal communication is another essential aspect studied in the psychology of speech. Body language, facial expressions, eye contact, and gestures can convey emotions, attitudes, and intentions. By becoming aware of these nonverbal cues, individuals can align their verbal and nonverbal communication to enhance clarity and avoid potential misinterpretations.

Understanding the psychology of speech also sheds light on the impact of emotional intelligence in effective communication. Emotional intelligence involves recognizing and managing one's own emotions while empathizing with the emotions of others. By developing emotional intelligence, individuals can navigate conflicts, respond appropriately to others' emotions, and cultivate healthier and more productive communication dynamics.

The psychology of speech also acknowledges the role of assertiveness in effective communication. Being assertive means expressing thoughts, needs, and boundaries in a respectful and confident manner. By developing assertiveness skills, individuals can communicate their perspectives effectively, establish clear boundaries, and engage in constructive problem-solving.

Moreover, speech psychology highlights the importance of adapting communication styles to different contexts and individuals. By understanding the psychology of speech in relation to diverse cultural backgrounds, personality traits, and communication preferences, individuals can adjust their communication approach to foster understanding and establish stronger connections.

The Psychology of Speech in Interpersonal Relationships

Interpersonal relationships play a vital role in our lives, shaping our well-being, happiness, and overall satisfaction. The psychology of speech offers valuable insights into how communication patterns, language use, and speech behaviors influence the dynamics and quality of interpersonal relationships.

One crucial aspect explored in the psychology of speech is the role of effective communication in building and maintaining healthy relationships. Clear and open communication fosters trust, understanding, and emotional connection between individuals. By understanding the principles of effective communication, such as active listening, assertiveness, and empathy, individuals can establish stronger and more fulfilling relationships.

The psychology of speech also delves into the impact of communication styles on relationship dynamics. Different communication styles, such as passive, aggressive, or passive-aggressive, can significantly influence how individuals interact and respond to one another. By recognizing and adapting communication styles, individuals can promote positive communication patterns and resolve conflicts constructively.

Language use and speech behaviors are additional areas of focus in the psychology of speech in interpersonal relationships. The choice of words, tone of voice, and nonverbal cues can affect how messages are received and interpreted by others. Developing awareness of these factors enables individuals to express themselves more effectively and avoid misunderstandings or miscommunications.

Speech psychology also explores the influence of emotional expression and validation in interpersonal relationships. The ability to express and validate emotions promotes a sense of closeness, understanding, and emotional support. Understanding the psychological impact of emotional expression can enhance emotional connection and strengthen relationships.

Conflict resolution is another crucial aspect studied in the psychology of speech. Effective conflict resolution techniques, such as active listening, perspective-taking, and constructive problem-solving, contribute to healthier and more resilient relationships. By understanding the psychological underpinnings of conflict and applying effective communication strategies, individuals can navigate disagreements and maintain positive relationship dynamics.

Additionally, the psychology of speech acknowledges the significance of nonverbal communication in interpersonal relationships. Body language, facial expressions, touch, and eye contact can convey trust, affection, and intimacy. Developing awareness of nonverbal cues can enhance the overall quality of interpersonal relationships.

The Psychology of Speech in Persuasive Communication

Persuasive communication is a skill that plays a significant role in various domains, including marketing, advertising, politics, and everyday interactions. The psychology of speech provides valuable insights into the principles and techniques that contribute to effective persuasive communication, enabling individuals to influence attitudes, behaviors, and decision-making.

One essential aspect explored in the psychology of speech is the art of framing. Framing involves presenting information in a way that influences how it is perceived and interpreted. By understanding the cognitive biases and heuristics that individuals rely on when processing information, persuasive communicators can strategically frame their messages to increase their persuasive impact.

Speech psychology also emphasizes the power of storytelling in persuasive communication. Stories tap into emotions, engage the audience, and make information more relatable and memorable. By incorporating compelling narratives into their messages, persuasive communicators can capture attention, evoke empathy, and ultimately influence beliefs and behaviors.

The psychology of speech also explores the role of credibility and social proof in persuasive communication. People are more likely to be persuaded by individuals they perceive as credible and by evidence that demonstrates consensus among others. By establishing credibility, providing expert opinions, and leveraging social proof, persuasive communicators can enhance their persuasive impact.

Understanding the psychology of speech also sheds light on the importance of audience analysis in persuasive communication. Persuasive messages need to be tailored to the values, needs, and beliefs of the target audience. By conducting thorough audience research and segmentation, communicators can customize their messages to resonate with specific groups and increase their persuasive influence.

The psychology of speech also acknowledges the role of emotion in persuasive communication. Emotions can evoke strong responses and motivate individuals to take action. Persuasive communicators strategically evoke emotions, such as fear, joy, or empathy, to influence attitudes and behaviors. By understanding the emotional triggers of the target audience, communicators can effectively appeal to their emotions and enhance persuasive outcomes.

Additionally, the psychology of speech recognizes the impact of language and rhetoric in persuasive communication. The choice of words, persuasive techniques, and rhetorical devices can significantly influence how messages are received and interpreted. By mastering rhetorical strategies, such as repetition, rhetorical questions, and appeals to logic or emotions, communicators can increase the persuasive power of their messages.

The Psychology of Speech in Effective Leadership Communication

Effective leadership communication is essential for inspiring and guiding teams, fostering collaboration, and achieving organizational goals. The psychology of speech provides valuable insights into the principles and strategies that contribute to effective leadership communication, enabling leaders to influence, motivate, and engage their followers.

One key aspect explored in the psychology of speech is the importance of clarity and conciseness in leadership communication. Leaders must convey their messages in a clear and straightforward manner to ensure understanding and minimize misinterpretation. By using concise language, avoiding jargon, and providing specific instructions, leaders can enhance their communication effectiveness.

Speech psychology also emphasizes the significance of active listening in effective leadership communication. Listening attentively to team members fosters trust, promotes open dialogue, and demonstrates respect. By practicing active listening, leaders can gain valuable insights, address concerns, and make team members feel heard and valued.

The psychology of speech also recognizes the importance of nonverbal communication in leadership communication. Leaders' body language, facial expressions, and gestures can influence how their messages are received and interpreted. By being aware of their nonverbal cues, leaders can align their verbal and nonverbal communication to enhance credibility, engagement, and connection with their team.

Understanding the psychology of speech also sheds light on the power of inspirational and motivational communication in leadership. Leaders who can inspire and motivate their team members create a sense of purpose, commitment, and enthusiasm. By using persuasive techniques, storytelling, and appeals to shared values, leaders can ignite passion and drive performance.

The psychology of speech also explores the impact of emotional intelligence in leadership communication. Leaders who can understand and manage their own emotions while empathizing with others create an atmosphere of trust and psychological safety. By demonstrating empathy, emotional awareness, and effective emotional expression, leaders can foster positive relationships and enhance team dynamics.

Furthermore, the psychology of speech recognizes the significance of adaptability in leadership communication. Leaders must adapt their communication style and approach based on the needs, preferences, and cultural backgrounds of their team members. By being flexible and accommodating, leaders can establish rapport, build stronger connections, and promote a positive and inclusive work environment.

The Psychology of Speech in Public Speaking and Presentation Skills

Public speaking and presentation skills are essential in various professional and personal settings, ranging from business presentations to educational seminars and social events. The psychology of speech provides valuable insights into the principles and techniques that contribute to effective public speaking and presentation skills, enabling individuals to engage, inform, and persuade their audience.

One crucial aspect explored in the psychology of speech is the significance of audience analysis in public speaking and presentations. Understanding the demographics, knowledge levels, and interests of the audience allows speakers to tailor their message to meet the audience's needs and capture their attention. By conducting thorough audience research and adapting their content and delivery style accordingly, speakers can enhance their impact.

Speech psychology also emphasizes the power of storytelling in public speaking and presentations. Stories have the ability to captivate audiences, evoke emotions, and make information more memorable. By incorporating relevant and engaging narratives into their speeches and presentations, speakers can create a deeper connection with their audience and increase their overall impact.

The psychology of speech also recognizes the importance of vocal delivery in public speaking. Tone, pitch, volume, and pace of speech can significantly influence how the audience perceives and engages with the message. By varying vocal delivery, using appropriate pauses, and emphasizing key points, speakers can effectively convey their ideas and maintain the audience's interest throughout the presentation.

Furthermore, the psychology of speech recognizes the importance of visual aids in supporting public speaking and presentations. Effective use of visual aids, such as slides, charts, and videos, can enhance audience understanding and retention of information. By using visually appealing and relevant visuals, speakers can reinforce their key points and engage the audience visually.

The psychology of speech also acknowledges the role of confidence and self-belief in public speaking. Confidence is contagious and can positively impact audience engagement and perception of the speaker. By practicing and preparing thoroughly, managing nervousness, and projecting self-assurance, speakers can deliver their message with conviction and authority.

The psychology of speech is a fascinating field that provides valuable insights into the intricacies of communication and its impact on various aspects of our lives. From understanding the psychology of speech in interpersonal relationships to persuasive communication, effective leadership, and public speaking, this discipline sheds light on the principles, strategies, and techniques that contribute to successful communication outcomes.

In the realm of interpersonal relationships, the psychology of speech reveals how effective communication, communication styles, language use, emotional expression, conflict resolution, and nonverbal communication influence relationship dynamics. By applying these principles, individuals can cultivate healthier, more satisfying relationships, fostering trust, understanding, and emotional connection.

When it comes to persuasive communication, the psychology of speech unravels the art of framing, storytelling, credibility, social proof, audience analysis, emotion, and rhetoric. By understanding these factors, communicators can tailor their messages to influence attitudes, behaviors, and decision-making, ultimately achieving their persuasive goals.

In the context of effective leadership, the psychology of speech highlights the importance of clarity, active listening, nonverbal communication, inspirational and motivational communication, emotional intelligence, and adaptability. Leaders who embody these qualities can effectively communicate, inspire, and engage their followers, driving organizational success.

Regarding public speaking and presentation skills, the psychology of speech emphasizes the significance of audience analysis, storytelling, vocal delivery, nonverbal communication, visual aids, and confidence. By mastering these elements, speakers can captivate audiences, convey their message with clarity, and leave a lasting impact.

In all these areas, the psychology of speech reveals that effective communication is not simply about the words spoken but also encompasses understanding the psychological nuances, considering the needs and preferences of the audience, and utilizing various techniques to engage, influence, and connect with others.

By studying the psychology of speech and applying its principles, individuals can enhance their communication skills, build stronger relationships, persuade effectively, lead with influence, and deliver impactful presentations. These insights enable us to navigate the complexities of human interaction, connect on a deeper level, and achieve our communication objectives.

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Public Speaking Tips & Speech Topics

41 Psychology Speech Topic Ideas

Jim Peterson has over 20 years experience on speech writing. He wrote over 300 free speech topic ideas and how-to guides for any kind of public speaking and speech writing assignments at My Speech Class.

• Hierarchy of human needs theory of Abraham Maslow. The series of levels in that process are good main points: the physiological, safety, belonging, esteem and self-actualisation needs.
• Why do so many people find adolescence so difficult? Life circumstances perhaps make you feel like you are riding in a roller coaster due to the speedily physical and emotional changes. Mention the causes and the ways to cure. Psychology speech topics to help and advice other persons.
• How do you remember what you know? In other words describe the way your brain works for short-term and long-term memories. Molecular and chemical actions and reactions can be part of your informative conversation.
• Artificial Intelligence technologies. E.g. computer systems performing like humans (robotica), problem solving and knowledge management with reasoning based on past cases and data.
• Strong stimuli that cause changes in temporary behavior. E.g. Pills, money, food, sugar. In that case it is an good idea to speak about energy drinks and their short-term effectiveness – do not forget to mention the dangers …
• Jung’s theory about our ego, personal unconscious and collective unconscious. Psychoanalyst Carl Jung discovered that neurosis is based on tensions between our psyche and attitudes.
• What exactly is Emotional Intelligence? And why is it more important than IQ-ratings nowadays. How to measure EI with what personality tests?
• That brings me to the next psychology speech topics: the dangers of personality tests.
• Psychological persuasion techniques in speeches. E.g. body language, understanding audience’s motivations, trance and hypnosis.
• Marketing and selling techniques based on psychological effects. E.g. attractive stimulating colorful packaging, or influencing behavior of consumers while shopping in malls.
• Meditation helps to focus and calm down the mind. E.g. Teach your public to focus on breathing, revive each movement of an activity in slow motion, or the walking meditation.
• The reasons against and for becoming a behaviorist. Behaviorism is the methodological study of how the scientifically method of psychology.
• Sigmund Freud and his ideas. With a little bit of fantasy you can alter and convert these example themes into attractive psychology speech topics: our defense mechanisms, hypnosis and catharsis, psychosexual stages of development.
• Biological causes of a depression. E.g. biological and genetic, environmental, and emotional factors.
• When your boss is a woman. What happens to men? And to women?
• The first signs of anxiety disorders. E.g. sleeping and concentration problems, edgy and irritable feelings.
• How psychotherapy by trained professionals helps people to recover.
• How to improve your nonverbal communication skills and communicate effectively. Study someone’s incongruent body signs, vary your tone of voice, keep eye contact while talking informally of formally with a person.
• Always talk after traumatic events. Children, firefighter, police officers, medics in conflict zones.
• The number one phobia on earth is fear of public speaking – and not fear of dying. That I think is a very catchy psychological topic …

And a few more topics you can develop yourself:

• Dangers of personality tests.
• How to set and achieve unrealistic goals.
• Sigmund Freud Theory.
• The Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory.
• Three ways to measure Emotional Intelligence.
• Why public speaking is the number one phobia on the planet.
• Animated violence does influence the attitude of young people.
• Becoming a millionaire will not make you happy.
• Being a pacifist is equal to being naive.
• Change doesn’t equal progress.
• Everyone is afraid to speak in public.
• Ideas have effect and consequence on lives.
• Mental attitude affects the healing process.
• Philanthropy is the fundament of curiosity.
• Praise in public and criticize or punish in private.
• Sometimes it is okay to lie.
• The importance of asking yourself why you stand for something.
• The only answer to cruelty is kindness.
• The trauma of shooting incidents last a lifetime.
• To grab people’s attention on stage, keep a close eye on their attitude and social backgrounds.
• Torture as an interrogation technique is never acceptable.

207 Value Speech Topics – Get The Facts

66 Military Speech Topics [Persuasive, Informative]

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• Finding Sources
• Types of Sources
• Searching Tips and Tricks
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• Synthesis in Research
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• Citation Styles
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This guide was created to take you along a step by step process to develop a speech. It is mainly focused on helping you brainstorm, identify, and define a topic to research.

This is a general guide, so it may vary from your classroom assignments. As always, refer to your professor and syllabus for your project requirements. 

Narrow Your Topic

Evaluate your topic, cite your sources.

Consider these questions:

• What subjects or ideas interest you?
• What kinds of life experience do you have?
• What kinds of issues have affected you or people you care about?
• Do you have a passion about an idea, a question, a subject? How can you explain or describe it such that others might be passionate about it as well?
• Does your subject have an edge? Does the topic have passionate supporters and opponents as well as being logical and reasonable? Is it debatable? Is it an unsolved problem?

A good practice is to make a list of ideas. As an example, here is an imaginary student’s list of ideas:

With the topics on your list, ask yourself these questions:

• Which topics are most worthy of your time?
• Why is your topic significant?
• Does it work with my assignment? (Is your speech informative, persuasive, etc.)

It is often beneficial (unless the topic is given or encouraged) to avoid heavily discussed topics. This helps to keep the speech interesting rather than giving an audience information they hear regularly.

Overused topics may include abortion, global warming, affirmative action, the death penalty, recycling, and sex and violence in the media. There is always a possibility to find an interesting angle or portion of the topic, but make sure you verify it with a professor first.

Let's take our student's list as an example. Our student might not want to write a speech on recycling, but maybe they have a a great way to reuse/remake something that is normally thrown out. This could work as a topic for a demonstration speech, though they would need to have the topic approved.

What are some other topics ideas from this list?

One way to develop these ideas is to make a concept map. Below is a sample of the student's concept map if they focused on knitting.

• Concept Mapping

Now this particular student enjoys mysteries and crime shows, because they like to figure out who the culprit is. The student needs to write an informative speech, and decides that they could inform others on how to solve mysteries.

Since it is a very large topic, the student decides to focus on helping people solve mysteries by informing them on how to tell if someone is lying .

After narrowing the topic, evaluate your speech to see if it is a good fit for your assignment.

• If it takes a while to explain your topic is either too complicated or too broad. Consider your time requirements and if you can adequately discuss the topic.
• Begin to focus on what you want to say and why. Part of this will already be dictated by the type of speech you are assigned. Making a concept map can help provide you with ideas.
• Who will hear the information? Will they have experience with the topic? What other factors will influence how they will interpret the information?
• You will want to use solid, scholarly information on the topic. General information might be easy to find, but you will need facts and research to back up your claims and information.

In our example the student’s evaluation would look like this:

Write out your research question or thesis statement. Underline words that you believe best represent the main ideas.

How can we determine if someone is lying to us?

Second, create a list of synonyms for each word you underlined and use these terms to search for resources.

Lying OR lie-spotting Face perception Body language. Deception.

You can add additional terms as you survey what is available:

Lying OR Deception AND workplace or business Friendship or workplace or business

As you gather resources be sure to evaluate the resources!

Check out the Searching Strategies for Websites and Databases for more tips. Check out the Evaluating Resources page to avoid choosing bad sources for your projects!

There are lots of reasons to provide references to the sources that you use.

Your audience may want to know how to investigate your topic further. By providing your resources you are helping others who are interested in the same topic.

You also need to credit the people who did the research you are using otherwise you will be claiming it is your own (even if unintentionally doing so). Plagiarism is a serious offense.

Here is a definition of plagiarism:

“Plagiarism is appropriating someone else's words or ideas without acknowledgment. To understand plagiarism we must consider two questions: (1) How is plagiarism like or unlike theft— (2) Why is plagiarism considered wrong; why should we acknowledge the originator of an idea.”

(Encyclopedia of Ethics. London: Routledge, 2001. Credo Reference. 17 April 2009 <http://www.credoreference.com/entry/7915618>.)

Just like in college writing, speeches should provide your audience with verbal cues to the information you have used: the SOURCE where you found your information. (This might be an interview, scholarly article, book, or website, etc.); the AUTHOR, when available, and the DATE when your source was published or accessed (for web sources and interviews).

Here are three ways to incorporate citations for your speech:

• Use quotation marks to attribute words of another person on your note cards. You can express quotations in your speech in several ways.
• Provide credit or citation such that the audience can trace back to the original source.
• Paraphrasing the main ideas WITH correct attribution.  A paraphrase will replace some of the words while keeping the main idea of the original work.

For more information on how to cite sources, see the “Citation” page in this guide.

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Introduction to psychology.

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Session Overview

Session activities.

Read the following before watching the lecture video.

• [ Sacks ] Chapter 9, “The President’s Speech” (pp. 80-86)
• Study outline for K&R Chapter 6 (PDF)
• [Stangor] Chapter 9, “Intelligence and Language”

Lecture Videos

View Full Video Lecture 12: Language View by Chapter Language Basics: Sounds We Hear and Distinguish From Sound to Meaning: Syntax, Semantics, and Comprehension Problems with Language: Aphasia and the Neural Basis of Speech Language Acquisition: Infants, Bilingualism, and the Case of Genie Video Resources Removed Clips Lecture Slides (PDF - 1.7MB)

Language is just incredible – think about how easy it is for us, as babies, to learn our native language effortlessly, and yet how hard it is, once we’ve already learned a language, to learn another… Read more »

Check Yourself

Short answer questions.

• Language is a system of communication and representation that is governed by systematic rules. The rules of can be studied at multiple levels. For each of the following terms, identify the features of language they describe:

› View/Hide Answers

• Syntax: The description of how words are organized into phrases and sentences. Often called the “grammar” of a language.
• Semantics: The description of the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences.
• Phonology: The description of the sounds of a language and how they are put together to make words.
• Language is a powerful system because of the principle of discrete infinity, which means that a small number of basic units can be combined in an unlimited number of ways to represent and communicate ideas.
• What is the smallest unit of meaning in language called? Give an example of how these can be combined.
• What is the smallest contrastive unit of sound in language called? Give an example of one of these from English. Give an example of one of these from a foreign language you might have heard, but which is not present in English.
• Morpheme. For example: Un + believe + able = unbelievable
• Phoneme. For example: /k/ as in “cat” in English. In other languages but not English, e.g., the trilled “r” in Spanish, the clicks in Bantu, the trilled “r” in French, the hard “h” in Hebrew.
• It is remarkable that babies learn language so fast and so effectively, even though no one ever explicitly teaches them the rules of their language. Describe two facts you have learned about how babies learn language.

› Sample Answers

• Girls learn more words earlier than boys.
• Babies begin to lose the ability to discriminate foreign language speech sounds by 9-12 months.
• Children might use words wrong in overextensions (e.g. calling all animals “doggie”) or underextensions (refusing to call any other dog besides the family pet a “doggie”).

Further Study

These optional resources are provided for students that wish to explore this topic more fully.

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Psychologically speaking: your brain on writing

Remember when you were little and just learning how to write? Just writing your name was a huge accomplishment. Yet with practice, it became much easier. The brain is not a muscle; although, in some ways it develops like one. The more you use it in a specific way, the more able it is to perform the task. So what is the brain actually doing while you write? The following are a number of brain areas that work together to form ideas and get them down on paper.

Frontal Lobe

Hippocampus

Broca’s Area

Wernicke’s Area

Visual Cortex vs Speech Area

Caudate Nucleus

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Introduction: “Speech” and “Writing”

• Published: March 2012
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This section explores the various advantages of both speech and writing as ways of using language. It considers three realms or dimensions in which speaking and writing operate: speaking and writing as different physical activities, as different physical modalities or media, and as different linguistic products.

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Rice Speechwriting

Beginners guide to what is a speech writing, what is a speech writing: a beginner’s guide, what is the purpose of speech writing.

The purpose of speech writing is to craft a compelling and effective speech that conveys a specific message or idea to an audience. It involves writing a script that is well-structured, engaging, and tailored to the speaker’s delivery style and the audience’s needs.

Have you ever been called upon to deliver a speech and didn’t know where to start? Or maybe you’re looking to improve your public speaking skills and wondering how speech writing can help. Whatever the case may be, this beginner’s guide on speech writing is just what you need. In this blog, we will cover everything from understanding the art of speech writing to key elements of an effective speech. We will also discuss techniques for engaging speech writing, the role of audience analysis in speech writing, time and length considerations, and how to practice and rehearse your speech. By the end of this article, you will have a clear understanding of how speech writing can improve your public speaking skills and make you feel confident when delivering your next big presentation.

Understanding the Art of Speech Writing

Crafting a speech involves melding spoken and written language. Tailoring the speech to the audience and occasion is crucial, as is captivating the audience and evoking emotion. Effective speeches utilize rhetorical devices, anecdotes, and a conversational tone. Structuring the speech with a compelling opener, clear points, and a strong conclusion is imperative. Additionally, employing persuasive language and maintaining simplicity are essential elements. The University of North Carolina’s writing center greatly emphasizes the importance of using these techniques.

The Importance of Speech Writing

Crafting a persuasive and impactful speech is essential for reaching your audience effectively. A well-crafted speech incorporates a central idea, main point, and a thesis statement to engage the audience. Whether it’s for a large audience or different ways of public speaking, good speech writing ensures that your message resonates with the audience. Incorporating engaging visual aids, an impactful introduction, and a strong start are key features of a compelling speech. Embracing these elements sets the stage for a successful speech delivery.

The Role of a Speech Writer

A speechwriter holds the responsibility of composing speeches for various occasions and specific points, employing a speechwriting process that includes audience analysis for both the United States and New York audiences. This written text is essential for delivering impactful and persuasive messages, often serving as a good start to a great speech. Utilizing NLP terms like ‘short sentences’ and ‘persuasion’ enhances the content’s quality and relevance.

Key Elements of Effective Speech Writing

Balancing shorter sentences with longer ones is essential for crafting an engaging speech. Including subordinate clauses and personal stories caters to the target audience and adds persuasion. The speechwriting process, including the thesis statement and a compelling introduction, ensures the content captures the audience’s attention. Effective speech writing involves research and the generation of new ideas. Toastmasters International and the Writing Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill provide valuable resources for honing English and verbal skills.

Clarity and Purpose of the Speech

Achieving clarity, authenticity, and empathy defines a good speech. Whether to persuade, inform, or entertain, the purpose of a speech is crucial. It involves crafting persuasive content with rich vocabulary and clear repetition. Successful speechwriting demands a thorough understanding of the audience and a compelling introduction. Balancing short and long sentences is essential for holding the audience’s attention. This process is a fusion of linguistics, psychology, and rhetoric, making it an art form with a powerful impact.

Identifying Target Audience

Tailoring the speechwriting process hinges on identifying the target audience. Their attention is integral to the persuasive content, requiring adaptation of the speechwriting process. A speechwriter conducts audience analysis to capture the audience’s attention, employing new york audience analysis methods. Ensuring a good introduction and adapting the writing process for the target audience are key features of a great speech. Effective speechwriters prioritize the audience’s attention to craft compelling and persuasive speeches.

Structuring Your Speech

The speechwriting process relies on a well-defined structure, crucial to both the speech’s content and the writing process. It encompasses a compelling introduction, an informative body, and a strong conclusion. This process serves as a foundation for effective speeches, guiding the speaker through a series of reasons and a persuasive speechwriting definition. Furthermore, the structure, coupled with audience analysis, is integral to delivering a great speech that resonates with the intended listeners.

The Process of Writing a Speech

Crafting a speech involves composing the opening line, developing key points, and ensuring a strong start. Effective speech writing follows a structured approach, incorporating rhetorical questions and a compelling introduction. A speechwriter’s process includes formulating a thesis statement, leveraging rhetorical questions, and establishing a good start. This process entails careful consideration of the audience, persuasive language, and engaging content. The University of North Carolina’s writing center emphasizes the significance of persuasion, clarity, and concise sentences in speechwriting.

Starting with a Compelling Opener

A speechwriting process commences with a captivating opening line and a strong introduction, incorporating the right words and rhetorical questions. The opening line serves as both an introduction and a persuasive speech, laying the foundation for a great speechwriting definition. Additionally, the structure of the speechwriting process, along with audience analysis, plays a crucial role in crafting an effective opening. Considering these elements is imperative when aiming to start a speech with a compelling opener.

Developing the Body of the Speech

Crafting the body of a speech involves conveying the main points with persuasion and precision. It’s essential to outline the speechwriting process, ensuring a clear and impactful message. The body serves as a structured series of reasons, guiding the audience through the content. Through the use of short sentences and clear language, the body of the speech engages the audience, maintaining their attention. Crafting the body involves the art of persuasion, using the power of words to deliver a compelling message.

Crafting a Strong Conclusion

Crafting a strong conclusion involves reflecting the main points of the speech and summarizing key ideas, leaving the audience with a memorable statement. It’s the final chance to leave a lasting impression and challenge the audience to take action or consider new perspectives. A good conclusion can make the speech memorable and impactful, using persuasion and English language effectively to drive the desired response from the audience. Toastmasters International emphasizes the importance of a strong conclusion in speechwriting for maximum impact.

Techniques for Engaging Speech Writing

Engage the audience’s attention using rhetorical questions. Create a connection through anecdotes and personal stories. Emphasize key points with rhetorical devices to capture the audience’s attention. Maintain interest by varying sentence structure and length. Use visual aids to complement the spoken word and enhance understanding. Incorporate NLP terms such as “short sentences,” “writing center,” and “persuasion” to create engaging and informative speech writing.

Keeping the Content Engaging

Captivating the audience’s attention requires a conversational tone, alliteration, and repetition for effect. A strong introduction sets the tone, while emotional appeals evoke responses. Resonating with the target audience ensures engagement. Utilize short sentences, incorporate persuasion, and vary sentence structure to maintain interest. Infuse the speech with NLP terms like “writing center”, “University of North Carolina”, and “Toastmasters International” to enhance its appeal. Engaging content captivates the audience and compels them to listen attentively.

Maintaining Simplicity and Clarity

To ensure clarity and impact, express ideas in short sentences. Use a series of reasons and specific points to effectively convey the main idea. Enhance the speech with the right words for clarity and comprehension. Simplify complex concepts by incorporating anecdotes and personal stories. Subordinate clauses can provide structure and clarity in the speechwriting process.

The Power of Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal cues, such as body language and gestures, can add emphasis to your spoken words, enhancing the overall impact of your speech. By incorporating visual aids and handouts, you can further augment the audience’s understanding and retention of key points. Utilizing a conversational tone and appropriate body language is crucial for establishing a genuine connection with your audience. Visual aids and gestures not only aid comprehension but also help in creating a lasting impression, captivat**ing** the audience with compelling visual elements.

The Role of Audience Analysis in Speech Writing

Tailoring a speech to the audience’s needs is paramount. Demographics like age, gender, and cultural background must be considered. Understanding the audience’s interests and affiliation is crucial for delivering a resonating speech. Content should be tailored to specific audience points of interest, engaging and speaking to their concerns.

Understanding Audience Demographics

Understanding the varied demographics of the audience, including age and cultural diversity, is crucial. Adapting the speech content to resonate with a diverse audience involves tailoring it to the different ways audience members process and interpret information. This adaptation ensures that the speech can effectively engage with the audience, no matter their background or age. Recognizing the importance of understanding audience demographics is key for effective audience analysis. By considering these factors, the speech can be tailored to meet the needs and preferences of the audience, resulting in a more impactful delivery.

Considering the Audience Size and Affiliation

When tailoring a speech, consider the audience size and affiliation to influence the tone and content effectively. Adapt the speech content and delivery to resonate with a large audience and different occasions, addressing the specific points of the target audience’s affiliation. By delivering a speech tailored to the audience’s size and specific points of affiliation, you can ensure that your message is received and understood by all.

Time and Length Considerations in Speech Writing

Choosing the appropriate time for your speech and determining its ideal length are crucial factors influenced by the purpose and audience demographics. Tailoring the speech’s content and structure for different occasions ensures relevance and impact. Adapting the speech to specific points and the audience’s demographics is key to its effectiveness. Understanding these time and length considerations allows for effective persuasion and engagement, catering to the audience’s diverse processing styles.

Choosing the Right Time for Your Speech

Selecting the optimal start and opening line is crucial for capturing the audience’s attention right from the beginning. It’s essential to consider the timing and the audience’s focus to deliver a compelling and persuasive speech. The right choice of opening line and attention to the audience set the tone for the speech, influencing the emotional response. A good introduction and opening line not only captivate the audience but also establish the desired tone for the speech.

Determining the Ideal Length of Your Speech

When deciding the ideal length of your speech, it’s crucial to tailor it to your specific points and purpose. Consider the attention span of your audience and the nature of the event. Engage in audience analysis to understand the right words and structure for your speech. Ensure that the length is appropriate for the occasion and target audience. By assessing these factors, you can structure your speech effectively and deliver it with confidence and persuasion.

How to Practice and Rehearse Your Speech

Incorporating rhetorical questions and anecdotes can deeply engage your audience, evoking an emotional response that resonates. Utilize visual aids, alliteration, and repetition to enhance your speech and captivate the audience’s attention. Effective speechwriting techniques are essential for crafting a compelling introduction and persuasive main points. By practicing a conversational tone and prioritizing clarity, you establish authenticity and empathy with your audience. Develop a structured series of reasons and a solid thesis statement to ensure your speech truly resonates.

Techniques for Effective Speech Rehearsal

When practicing your speech, aim for clarity and emphasis by using purposeful repetition and shorter sentences. Connect with your audience by infusing personal stories and quotations to make your speech more relatable. Maximize the impact of your written speech when spoken by practicing subordinate clauses and shorter sentences. Focus on clarity and authenticity, rehearsing your content with a good introduction and a persuasive central idea. Employ rhetorical devices and a conversational tone, ensuring the right vocabulary and grammar.

How Can Speech Writing Improve Your Public Speaking Skills?

Enhancing your public speaking skills is possible through speech writing. By emphasizing key points and a clear thesis, you can capture the audience’s attention. Developing a strong start and central idea helps deliver effective speeches. Utilize speechwriting techniques and rhetorical devices to structure engaging speeches that connect with the audience. Focus on authenticity, empathy, and a conversational tone to improve your public speaking skills.

In conclusion, speech writing is an art that requires careful consideration of various elements such as clarity, audience analysis, and engagement. By understanding the importance of speech writing and the role of a speech writer, you can craft effective speeches that leave a lasting impact on your audience. Remember to start with a compelling opener, develop a strong body, and end with a memorable conclusion. Engaging techniques, simplicity, and nonverbal communication are key to keeping your audience captivated. Additionally, analyzing your audience demographics and considering time and length considerations are vital for a successful speech. Lastly, practicing and rehearsing your speech will help improve your public speaking skills and ensure a confident delivery.

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Chapter 6: Indirect Learning and Human Potential

Speech and Language

Civilization began the first time an angry person cast a word instead of a rock .

Sigmund Freud

Observational learning has been evidenced in many species of animals including birds (Zentall, 2004) but approximations to speech appear practically unique to humans. Paul Revere famously ordered a lantern signal of “one if by land and two if by sea” during his Revolutionary War midnight ride through the streets of Massachusetts. This is not functionally different from the distinct alarm calls emitted by vervet monkeys in the presence of eagles, snakes, and leopards (Strushaker, 1967; Seyfarth and Cheney, 1980). Through observational learning, young vervets learn to respond to different screeches for “heads up”, “heads down”, and “look around!” Vervets hide under trees to the eagle warning, rear on their hind paws to the snake warning, and climb the nearest tree to the leopard warning. Recently, even more descriptive “speech” has been demonstrated in prairie dogs (Slobodchikoff, Perla, & Verdolin, 2009). These examples are the closest we see to social learning of speech in other animals. Slobodchikoff (2012) has written a fun and informative review of animal communication entitled Chasing Dr. Doolittle: Learning the Language of Animals .

Meltzoff and Moore (1977, 1983) demonstrated unambiguous examples of imitation in infant humans as young as 12- to 21-days of age, leading to the conclusion that humans normally do not need to be taught this mode of learning.

Watch the following video of Dr. Metzloff describing his research demonstrating imitation in young infants:

Skinner (1986) contributed an interesting but admittedly post-hoc speculative theoretical article describing possible evolutionary scenarios for the adaptive learning of imitation and speaking. An imitative prompt is more informative than an ordinary gestural prompt in that it specifies the specific characteristics of a desired response. Speech is preferable to signing as a means of communication since it is possible at long distances and other circumstances where individuals cannot see each other.

Hockett’s Features of Language

If we are to understand human behavior, we must understand how language is acquired and its impact upon subsequent adaptive learning. Before we proceed, we must consider what we mean by language. Charles Hockett (1960) listed 13 features that he considered essential to language:

• Vocal-auditory channel – We saw in Chapter 1 that the human being’s brain, with its disproportional amount of space dedicated to the tongue, larynx, and voice box, facilitates the acquisition of speech. Sign language, involving a manual-visual channel, is mostly restricted to deaf people and those wishing to communicate with them.
• Broadcast transmission and directional reception – Sound is sent out in all directions while being received in a single place. This provides an adaptive advantage in that people can communicate with others out of their line of sight.
• Rapid fading (transitoriness) – Sounds are temporary. Writing and audio-recordings are techniques used to address this limitation of speech (and alas, lectures).
• Interchangeability – One must be able to transmit and receive messages.
• Total feedback – One must be able to monitor one’s own use of language.
• Specialization – The organs used for language must be specially adapted to that task. Human lips, tongues and throats meet this criterion.
• Semanticity – Specific signals can be matched with specific meanings. Different sounds exist for different words.
• Arbitrariness – There is no necessary connection between a meaningful unit (e.g., word) and its reference.
• Discreteness – There are distinct basic units of sound (phonemes) and meaning (morphemes).
• Displacement – One must be able to communicate about things that are not present. One must be able to symbolically represent the past and the future.
• Productivity – The units of sound and meaning must be able to be combined to create new sounds and meaningful units (sentences).
• Duality of patterning – The sequence of meaningful units must matter (i.e., there must be a syntax).
• Traditional Transmission – Specific sounds and words must be learned from other language users.

Although all of Hockett’s features are frequently cited as  essential characteristics of language , the first three elements are restricted to speech. These features do not apply to sign language, letter writing, reading, and other examples of non-vocal/auditory modes of symbolic communication.  The essential characteristics are interchangeability, semanticity, arbitrariness, discreteness, productivity, syntax, and displacement.

Describe Hockett’s major characteristics of language.

Language Acquisition

The principles of predictive and control learning help us understand the acquisition of language and the role it plays in subsequent human adaptation. At a few months old, infants start to babble and are able to make all the possible human sounds. Eventually, as the child is increasingly exposed to the sounds of her/his social unit, some of the sounds are “selected” and others removed from the repertoire. Routh (1969) demonstrated that infants are able to make subtle discriminations in sounds. The frequency of speaking either vowels or consonants could be increased if selectively reinforced with tickles and “coos.” It has been demonstrated that the mother’s vocal imitation of a child’s verbalizations is also an effective reinforcer (Pelaez, Virues-Ortega, and Gewirtz, 2011).

Children may learn their first word as early as 9 months. Usually the first words are names of important people (“mama”, “dada”), often followed by greetings (“hi”, “bye”) and favored foods. As described in Chapter 5, classical conditioning procedures may be used to establish word meaning. For example, the sound “papa” is consistently paired with a particular person. Children are encouraged to imitate the sound in the presence of the father. It may be the source of humor (or embarrassment) when a child over-generalizes and uses the word for another male adult. With experience, children learn to attend to the relevant dimensions and apply words consistently and exclusively to the appropriate stimuli or actions (e.g., “walk”, “run”, “eat”, etc.). Similarly, words are paired with the qualities of objects (e.g., “red”, “circle”, etc.) and actions (e.g., “fast”, “loud”, etc.). Children learn to abstract out the common properties through the process of concept formation. Words are also paired with quantities of objects. In the same way that “redness” may be a quality of diverse stimuli having little else in common, “three-ness” applies to a particular number of diverse stimuli.

Much of our vocabulary applies to non-observable objects or events. It is important to teach a child to indicate when “hurt” or “sick”, or “happy” or “sad.” In these instances, an adult must infer the child’s feelings from his/her behavior and surrounding circumstances. For example, if you see a child crying after bumping her head, you might ask if it hurts. As vocabulary size increases, meaning can be established through higher-order conditioning using only words. For example, if a child is taught that a jellyfish is a “yucky creature that lives in the sea and stings”, he/she will probably become fearful when swimming in the ocean.

Since different languages have different word orders for the parts of speech, syntax (i.e., grammatical order) must be learned. At about 18 months to 2 years of age, children usually start to combine words and by 2-1/2 they are forming brief (not always grammatical) sentences. With repeated examples of their native language, children are able to abstract out schemas (i.e., an organized set of rules) for forming grammatical sentences (e.g., “the car is blue”, “the square is big”, etc.). It is much easier to learn grammatical sequences of nonsense words (e.g., The maff vlems oothly um the glox nerfs) than non-grammatical sequences (e.g., maff vlem ooth um glox nerf). This indicates the role of schema learning in the acquisition of syntax (Osgood, 1957, p.88). Children usually acquire the intricacies of grammar by about 6 years of age. In the next chapter, we will describe the process of abstraction as it applies to concept learning, schema development, and problem-solving.

Vocabulary size has been found to be an important predictor of success in school (Anderson & Freebody, 1981). Major factors influencing vocabulary size include socio-economic status (SES) and the language proficiencies of significant others, particularly the mother. In a monumental project, Hart and Risley (1995) recorded the number of words spoken at home by parents and 7-month-to 36-month-old children in 42 families over a 3-year period. They found that differences in the children’s IQ scores, language abilities, and success in school were all related to how much their parents spoke to them. They also found significant differences in the manner in which low and high SES parents spoke to their children. Low SES parents were more likely to make demands and offer reprimands while high SES parents were more likely to engage in extended conversations, discussion, and problem-solving. Whereas the number of reprimands given for inappropriate behavior was about the same for low and high SES parents, high SES parents administered much more praise.

Speech becomes an important and efficient way of communicating one’s thoughts, wishes, and feelings. This is true for the Nukak as well as for us. Given the harshness of their living conditions and the limits of their experiences, the Nukak have much in common with low SES children within our society. Declarative statements (e.g., “the stick is sharp”, “the stove is hot”; “pick up the leaves”, “don’t fight with your sister”; “I am happy”, “you are tired”, become the primary basis for conducting much of the everyday chores and interactions.

Describe how control learning principles apply to the acquisition of language.

Spoken language is observed in stone-age hunter/gatherer and technologically advanced cultures. There has been controversy concerning the role of nature and nurture in human language development (Chomsky, 1959; Skinner, 1957). Skinner, writing from a functionalist/behavioral perspective, tellingly entitled his book Verbal Behavior , not “Using Language.” Watson (1930) described thinking as “covert speech” while Skinner (1953) referred to “private behavior.” According to Vygotsky (originally published in 1934), children initially “think out loud” and eventually learn to “think to themselves.” Skinner suggested that speaking and thinking were not different in kind from other forms of behavior and that respondent conditioning (predictive learning) and operant conditioning (control learning) could provide the necessary experiential explanatory principles. There was no need to propose a separate “language acquisition device” to account for human speech.

We saw in Chapter 5, how predictive learning principles could be applied to the acquisition of word meaning. Basically, Skinner argued that words could serve as overt and covert substitutes for the control learning ABCs. As antecedents, words could function as discriminative stimuli and warning stimuli. For example, “Give mommy a kiss” or “Heads up!” As consequences, words can substitute for reinforcers and punishers (e.g., “Thank you.”, “Stop that!”). A rule is a common, useful, and important type of verbal statement including each of the control learning ABCs (Hayes, 1989). That is, a rule specifies the circumstances (antecedents) under which a particular act (behavior) is rewarded or punished (consequence). For example, a parent might instruct a child, “At dinner, if you eat your vegetables you can have your dessert” or, “When you get to the curb look both ways before crossing the street or you could get hit by a car.”

Chomsky, a psycholinguist, submitted a scathing critique of Skinner’s book, emphasizing how human genetics appears to include a “language acquisition device.” The Chapter 1 picture of the human homunculus, with its disproportional brain space dedicated to the body parts involved in speech, certainly suggests that the human being’s structure facilitates language acquisition. The homunculus also implies there is adaptive value to spoken language; otherwise these structures would not have evolved. Proposing a “language acquisition device”, similar to proposing an instinct to account for speech, is a circular pseudo-explanation. The language acquisition device is inferred from the observation of speech, it does not explain speech. Remember, a psychological explanation must specify specific hereditary and/or environmental causes. Chomsky does neither, whereas Skinner is quite specific about the types of experience that will foster different types of verbal behavior. It is not as though Skinner denies the role of human structure in the acquisition of speech or its importance as indicated in the following quote. “The human species took a crucial step forward when its vocal musculature came under operant control in the production of speech sounds. Indeed, it is possible that all the distinctive achievements of the species can be traced to that one genetic change” (Skinner, 1986). Neuroscientists and behavioral neuroscientists are actively engaged in research examining how our “all-purpose acquisition device” (i.e., brain) is involved in the learning of speech, reading, quantitative skills, problem-solving, etc.

Human beings may have started out under restricted geographic and climatic conditions in Africa, but we have spread all over the globe (Diamond, 2005). We developed different words and languages tailored to our environmental and social circumstances. There is much to be learned from the school of hard knocks, but it is limited to our direct experience and can be difficult or dangerous. Our verbal lives enormously expand learning opportunities beyond our immediate environment to anything that can be imagined. Indirect learning (i.e., observation or language) often speeds up adaptive learning and eliminates danger. It is not surprising that human parents universally dedicate a great deal of effort to teaching their children to speak. It makes life easier, safer, and better for them as well as their children.

MacCorquodale (1969) wrote a retrospective appreciation of Skinner’s book along with a comprehensive and well-reasoned response (1970) to Chomsky’s critique. Essentially, MacCorquodale described Chomsky as a structuralist and Skinner as a functionalist. That is, Chomsky attempted to describe how the structure of the mind enables language. Skinner was concerned with how language enables individuals to adapt to their environmental conditions. Paraphrasing Mark Twain, an article marking the 50th anniversary of its publication concluded that “Reports of the death of Verbal Behavior and behaviorism have been greatly exaggerated” (Schlinger, 2008).

Reading and Writing

It is language in written form that has enabled the rapid and widespread dissemination of knowledge within and between cultures. It is also the medium for recording our evolving advances in knowledge and technology. Early forms of Bronze Age writing were based on symbols or pictures etched in clay. Later Bronze Age writing started to include phonemic symbols that were precursors to the Iron Age Phoenician alphabet consisting of 22 characters representing consonants (but no vowels). The Phoenician alphabet was adopted by the Greeks and evolved into the modern Roman alphabet. The phonetic alphabet permitted written representation of any pronounceable word in a language.

The Arabic numbering system was originally invented in India before being transmitted to Europe in the Middle Ages. It permits written representation of any quantity, real or imagined, and is fundamental to mathematics and the scientific method, which rely on quantification and measurement. The alphabet and Arabic numbers permit words to become “permanent” in comparison to their transitory auditory form. This written permanence made it possible to communicate with more people over greater distances and eventually to build libraries. The first great library was established at Alexandria, Egypt in approximately 300 years B.C. Scrolls of parchment and papyrus were stored on the walled shelves of a huge concrete building (Figure 6.5).   Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press in 1439 enabled mass publication of written material throughout Western Europe (Figure 6.6). Today, e-books are available on electronic readers that can be held in the palm of your hands (Figure 6.7)! It should not be surprising that college student differences in knowledge correlate with their amount of exposure to print (Stanovich and Cunningham, 1993).

Figure 6.5  The library at Alexandria.

Figure 6.6  Gutenberg’s printing press.

Figure 6.7  The library now.

Attributions

Figure 6.5 “The library at Alexandria” by Wikimedia is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

Figure 6.6 “Guttenburg’s printing press” by עדירל is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0

Figure 6.7 “A mazon Kindle” by Jleon is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0

essential features of language include:

interchangeability (ability to transmit and receive messages)

semanticity (specific signals have specific meanings)

arbitrariness of connection between a meaningful unit (e.g., word) and its reference

discreteness of basic units of sound (phonemes) and meaning (morphemes)

productivity (units of meaning must be combined to create new sounds and sentences

syntax (the sequence of meaningful units must matter)

displacement (ability to communicate about things that are not present in the past and future)

specifies the circumstances (antecedents) under which a particular act (behavior) is rewarded or punished

permits written representation of any pronounceable word in a language

permits written representation of any quantity, real or imagined; fundamental to mathematics and the scientific method

Psychology Copyright © by Jeffrey C. Levy is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Writing in Psychology Overview

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

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Psychology is based on the study of human behaviors. As a social science, experimental psychology uses empirical inquiry to help understand human behavior. According to Thrass and Sanford (2000), psychology writing has three elements: describing, explaining, and understanding concepts from a standpoint of empirical investigation.

Discipline-specific writing, such as writing done in psychology, can be similar to other types of writing you have done in the use of the writing process, writing techniques, and in locating and integrating sources. However, the field of psychology also has its own rules and expectations for writing; not everything that you have learned in about writing in the past works for the field of psychology.

Writing in psychology includes the following principles:

• Using plain language : Psychology writing is formal scientific writing that is plain and straightforward. Literary devices such as metaphors, alliteration, or anecdotes are not appropriate for writing in psychology.
• Conciseness and clarity of language : The field of psychology stresses clear, concise prose. You should be able to make connections between empirical evidence, theories, and conclusions. See our OWL handout on conciseness for more information.
• Evidence-based reasoning: Psychology bases its arguments on empirical evidence. Personal examples, narratives, or opinions are not appropriate for psychology.
• Use of APA format: Psychologists use the American Psychological Association (APA) format for publications. While most student writing follows this format, some instructors may provide you with specific formatting requirements that differ from APA format .

Types of writing

Most major writing assignments in psychology courses consists of one of the following two types.

Experimental reports: Experimental reports detail the results of experimental research projects and are most often written in experimental psychology (lab) courses. Experimental reports are write-ups of your results after you have conducted research with participants. This handout provides a description of how to write an experimental report .

Critical analyses or reviews of research : Often called "term papers," a critical analysis of research narrowly examines and draws conclusions from existing literature on a topic of interest. These are frequently written in upper-division survey courses. Our research paper handouts provide a detailed overview of how to write these types of research papers.

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How to write a speech that your audience remembers

Whether in a work meeting or at an investor panel, you might give a speech at some point. And no matter how excited you are about the opportunity, the experience can be nerve-wracking . 

But feeling butterflies doesn’t mean you can’t give a great speech. With the proper preparation and a clear outline, apprehensive public speakers and natural wordsmiths alike can write and present a compelling message. Here’s how to write a good speech you’ll be proud to deliver.

What is good speech writing?

Good speech writing is the art of crafting words and ideas into a compelling, coherent, and memorable message that resonates with the audience. Here are some key elements of great speech writing:

• It begins with clearly understanding the speech's purpose and the audience it seeks to engage. 
• A well-written speech clearly conveys its central message, ensuring that the audience understands and retains the key points. 
• It is structured thoughtfully, with a captivating opening, a well-organized body, and a conclusion that reinforces the main message. 
• Good speech writing embraces the power of engaging content, weaving in stories, examples, and relatable anecdotes to connect with the audience on both intellectual and emotional levels. 

Ultimately, it is the combination of these elements, along with the authenticity and delivery of the speaker , that transforms words on a page into a powerful and impactful spoken narrative.

What makes a good speech?

A great speech includes several key qualities, but three fundamental elements make a speech truly effective:

Clarity and purpose

Remembering the audience, cohesive structure.

While other important factors make a speech a home run, these three elements are essential for writing an effective speech.

The main elements of a good speech

The main elements of a speech typically include:

• Introduction: The introduction sets the stage for your speech and grabs the audience's attention. It should include a hook or attention-grabbing opening, introduce the topic, and provide an overview of what will be covered.
• Opening/captivating statement: This is a strong statement that immediately engages the audience and creates curiosity about the speech topics.
• Thesis statement/central idea: The thesis statement or central idea is a concise statement that summarizes the main point or argument of your speech. It serves as a roadmap for the audience to understand what your speech is about.
• Body: The body of the speech is where you elaborate on your main points or arguments. Each point is typically supported by evidence, examples, statistics, or anecdotes. The body should be organized logically and coherently, with smooth transitions between the main points.
• Supporting evidence: This includes facts, data, research findings, expert opinions, or personal stories that support and strengthen your main points. Well-chosen and credible evidence enhances the persuasive power of your speech.
• Transitions: Transitions are phrases or statements that connect different parts of your speech, guiding the audience from one idea to the next. Effective transitions signal the shifts in topics or ideas and help maintain a smooth flow throughout the speech.
• Counterarguments and rebuttals (if applicable): If your speech involves addressing opposing viewpoints or counterarguments, you should acknowledge and address them. Presenting counterarguments makes your speech more persuasive and demonstrates critical thinking.
• Conclusion: The conclusion is the final part of your speech and should bring your message to a satisfying close. Summarize your main points, restate your thesis statement, and leave the audience with a memorable closing thought or call to action.
• Closing statement: This is the final statement that leaves a lasting impression and reinforces the main message of your speech. It can be a call to action, a thought-provoking question, a powerful quote, or a memorable anecdote.
• Delivery and presentation: How you deliver your speech is also an essential element to consider. Pay attention to your tone, body language, eye contact , voice modulation, and timing. Practice and rehearse your speech, and try using the 7-38-55 rule to ensure confident and effective delivery.

While the order and emphasis of these elements may vary depending on the type of speech and audience, these elements provide a framework for organizing and delivering a successful speech.

How to structure a good speech

You know what message you want to transmit, who you’re delivering it to, and even how you want to say it. But you need to know how to start, develop, and close a speech before writing it. 

Think of a speech like an essay. It should have an introduction, conclusion, and body sections in between. This places ideas in a logical order that the audience can better understand and follow them. Learning how to make a speech with an outline gives your storytelling the scaffolding it needs to get its point across.

Here’s a general speech structure to guide your writing process:

• Explanation 1
• Explanation 2
• Explanation 3

How to write a compelling speech opener

Some research shows that engaged audiences pay attention for only 15 to 20 minutes at a time. Other estimates are even lower, citing that people stop listening intently in fewer than 10 minutes . If you make a good first impression at the beginning of your speech, you have a better chance of interesting your audience through the middle when attention spans fade. 

Implementing the INTRO model can help grab and keep your audience’s attention as soon as you start speaking. This acronym stands for interest, need, timing, roadmap, and objectives, and it represents the key points you should hit in an opening. 

Here’s what to include for each of these points: 

• Interest : Introduce yourself or your topic concisely and speak with confidence . Write a compelling opening statement using relevant data or an anecdote that the audience can relate to.
• Needs : The audience is listening to you because they have something to learn. If you’re pitching a new app idea to a panel of investors, those potential partners want to discover more about your product and what they can earn from it. Read the room and gently remind them of the purpose of your speech. 
• Timing : When appropriate, let your audience know how long you’ll speak. This lets listeners set expectations and keep tabs on their own attention span. If a weary audience member knows you’ll talk for 40 minutes, they can better manage their energy as that time goes on. 
• Routemap : Give a brief overview of the three main points you’ll cover in your speech. If an audience member’s attention starts to drop off and they miss a few sentences, they can more easily get their bearings if they know the general outline of the presentation.
• Objectives : Tell the audience what you hope to achieve, encouraging them to listen to the end for the payout. 

Writing the middle of a speech

The body of your speech is the most information-dense section. Facts, visual aids, PowerPoints — all this information meets an audience with a waning attention span. Sticking to the speech structure gives your message focus and keeps you from going off track, making everything you say as useful as possible.

Limit the middle of your speech to three points, and support them with no more than three explanations. Following this model organizes your thoughts and prevents you from offering more information than the audience can retain. 

Using this section of the speech to make your presentation interactive can add interest and engage your audience. Try including a video or demonstration to break the monotony. A quick poll or survey also keeps the audience on their toes. 

Wrapping the speech up

To you, restating your points at the end can feel repetitive and dull. You’ve practiced countless times and heard it all before. But repetition aids memory and learning , helping your audience retain what you’ve told them. Use your speech’s conclusion to summarize the main points with a few short sentences.

Try to end on a memorable note, like posing a motivational quote or a thoughtful question the audience can contemplate once they leave. In proposal or pitch-style speeches, consider landing on a call to action (CTA) that invites your audience to take the next step.

How to write a good speech

If public speaking gives you the jitters, you’re not alone. Roughly 80% of the population feels nervous before giving a speech, and another 10% percent experiences intense anxiety and sometimes even panic. 

The fear of failure can cause procrastination and can cause you to put off your speechwriting process until the last minute. Finding the right words takes time and preparation, and if you’re already feeling nervous, starting from a blank page might seem even harder.

But putting in the effort despite your stress is worth it. Presenting a speech you worked hard on fosters authenticity and connects you to the subject matter, which can help your audience understand your points better. Human connection is all about honesty and vulnerability, and if you want to connect to the people you’re speaking to, they should see that in you.

1. Identify your objectives and target audience

Before diving into the writing process, find healthy coping strategies to help you stop worrying . Then you can define your speech’s purpose, think about your target audience, and start identifying your objectives. Here are some questions to ask yourself and ground your thinking : 

• What purpose do I want my speech to achieve? 
• What would it mean to me if I achieved the speech’s purpose?
• What audience am I writing for? 
• What do I know about my audience? 
• What values do I want to transmit? 
• If the audience remembers one take-home message, what should it be? 
• What do I want my audience to feel, think, or do after I finish speaking? 
• What parts of my message could be confusing and require further explanation?

2. Know your audience

Understanding your audience is crucial for tailoring your speech effectively. Consider the demographics of your audience, their interests, and their expectations. For instance, if you're addressing a group of healthcare professionals, you'll want to use medical terminology and data that resonate with them. Conversely, if your audience is a group of young students, you'd adjust your content to be more relatable to their experiences and interests. 

3. Choose a clear message

Your message should be the central idea that you want your audience to take away from your speech. Let's say you're giving a speech on climate change. Your clear message might be something like, "Individual actions can make a significant impact on mitigating climate change." Throughout your speech, all your points and examples should support this central message, reinforcing it for your audience.

4. Structure your speech

Organizing your speech properly keeps your audience engaged and helps them follow your ideas. The introduction should grab your audience's attention and introduce the topic. For example, if you're discussing space exploration, you could start with a fascinating fact about a recent space mission. In the body, you'd present your main points logically, such as the history of space exploration, its scientific significance, and future prospects. Finally, in the conclusion, you'd summarize your key points and reiterate the importance of space exploration in advancing human knowledge.

5. Use engaging content for clarity

Engaging content includes stories, anecdotes, statistics, and examples that illustrate your main points. For instance, if you're giving a speech about the importance of reading, you might share a personal story about how a particular book changed your perspective. You could also include statistics on the benefits of reading, such as improved cognitive abilities and empathy.

6. Maintain clarity and simplicity

It's essential to communicate your ideas clearly. Avoid using overly technical jargon or complex language that might confuse your audience. For example, if you're discussing a medical breakthrough with a non-medical audience, explain complex terms in simple, understandable language.

7. Practice and rehearse

Practice is key to delivering a great speech. Rehearse multiple times to refine your delivery, timing, and tone. Consider using a mirror or recording yourself to observe your body language and gestures. For instance, if you're giving a motivational speech, practice your gestures and expressions to convey enthusiasm and confidence.

8. Consider nonverbal communication

Your body language, tone of voice, and gestures should align with your message . If you're delivering a speech on leadership, maintain strong eye contact to convey authority and connection with your audience. A steady pace and varied tone can also enhance your speech's impact.

9. Engage your audience

Engaging your audience keeps them interested and attentive. Encourage interaction by asking thought-provoking questions or sharing relatable anecdotes. If you're giving a speech on teamwork, ask the audience to recall a time when teamwork led to a successful outcome, fostering engagement and connection.

10. Prepare for Q&A

Anticipate potential questions or objections your audience might have and prepare concise, well-informed responses. If you're delivering a speech on a controversial topic, such as healthcare reform, be ready to address common concerns, like the impact on healthcare costs or access to services, during the Q&A session.

By following these steps and incorporating examples that align with your specific speech topic and purpose, you can craft and deliver a compelling and impactful speech that resonates with your audience.

Tools for writing a great speech

There are several helpful tools available for speechwriting, both technological and communication-related. Here are a few examples:

• Word processing software: Tools like Microsoft Word, Google Docs, or other word processors provide a user-friendly environment for writing and editing speeches. They offer features like spell-checking, grammar correction, formatting options, and easy revision tracking.
• Presentation software: Software such as Microsoft PowerPoint or Google Slides is useful when creating visual aids to accompany your speech. These tools allow you to create engaging slideshows with text, images, charts, and videos to enhance your presentation.
• Speechwriting Templates: Online platforms or software offer pre-designed templates specifically for speechwriting. These templates provide guidance on structuring your speech and may include prompts for different sections like introductions, main points, and conclusions.
• Rhetorical devices and figures of speech: Rhetorical tools such as metaphors, similes, alliteration, and parallelism can add impact and persuasion to your speech. Resources like books, websites, or academic papers detailing various rhetorical devices can help you incorporate them effectively.
• Speechwriting apps: Mobile apps designed specifically for speechwriting can be helpful in organizing your thoughts, creating outlines, and composing a speech. These apps often provide features like voice recording, note-taking, and virtual prompts to keep you on track.
• Grammar and style checkers: Online tools or plugins like Grammarly or Hemingway Editor help improve the clarity and readability of your speech by checking for grammar, spelling, and style errors. They provide suggestions for sentence structure, word choice, and overall tone.
• Thesaurus and dictionary: Online or offline resources such as thesauruses and dictionaries help expand your vocabulary and find alternative words or phrases to express your ideas more effectively. They can also clarify meanings or provide context for unfamiliar terms.
• Online speechwriting communities: Joining online forums or communities focused on speechwriting can be beneficial for getting feedback, sharing ideas, and learning from experienced speechwriters. It's an opportunity to connect with like-minded individuals and improve your public speaking skills through collaboration.

Remember, while these tools can assist in the speechwriting process, it's essential to use them thoughtfully and adapt them to your specific needs and style. The most important aspect of speechwriting remains the creativity, authenticity, and connection with your audience that you bring to your speech.

5 tips for writing a speech

Behind every great speech is an excellent idea and a speaker who refined it. But a successful speech is about more than the initial words on the page, and there are a few more things you can do to help it land.

Here are five more tips for writing and practicing your speech:

1. Structure first, write second

If you start the writing process before organizing your thoughts, you may have to re-order, cut, and scrap the sentences you worked hard on. Save yourself some time by using a speech structure, like the one above, to order your talking points first. This can also help you identify unclear points or moments that disrupt your flow.

2. Do your homework

Data strengthens your argument with a scientific edge. Research your topic with an eye for attention-grabbing statistics, or look for findings you can use to support each point. If you’re pitching a product or service, pull information from company metrics that demonstrate past or potential successes. 

Audience members will likely have questions, so learn all talking points inside and out. If you tell investors that your product will provide 12% returns, for example, come prepared with projections that support that statement.

3. Sound like yourself

Memorable speakers have distinct voices. Think of Martin Luther King Jr’s urgent, inspiring timbre or Oprah’s empathetic, personal tone . Establish your voice — one that aligns with your personality and values — and stick with it. If you’re a motivational speaker, keep your tone upbeat to inspire your audience . If you’re the CEO of a startup, try sounding assured but approachable. 

4. Practice

As you practice a speech, you become more confident , gain a better handle on the material, and learn the outline so well that unexpected questions are less likely to trip you up. Practice in front of a colleague or friend for honest feedback about what you could change, and speak in front of the mirror to tweak your nonverbal communication and body language .

5. Remember to breathe

When you’re stressed, you breathe more rapidly . It can be challenging to talk normally when you can’t regulate your breath. Before your presentation, try some mindful breathing exercises so that when the day comes, you already have strategies that will calm you down and remain present . This can also help you control your voice and avoid speaking too quickly.

How to ghostwrite a great speech for someone else

Ghostwriting a speech requires a unique set of skills, as you're essentially writing a piece that will be delivered by someone else. Here are some tips on how to effectively ghostwrite a speech:

• Understand the speaker's voice and style : Begin by thoroughly understanding the speaker's personality, speaking style, and preferences. This includes their tone, humor, and any personal anecdotes they may want to include.
• Interview the speaker : Have a detailed conversation with the speaker to gather information about their speech's purpose, target audience, key messages, and any specific points they want to emphasize. Ask for personal stories or examples they may want to include.
• Research thoroughly : Research the topic to ensure you have a strong foundation of knowledge. This helps you craft a well-informed and credible speech.
• Create an outline : Develop a clear outline that includes the introduction, main points, supporting evidence, and a conclusion. Share this outline with the speaker for their input and approval.
• Write in the speaker's voice : While crafting the speech, maintain the speaker's voice and style. Use language and phrasing that feel natural to them. If they have a particular way of expressing ideas, incorporate that into the speech.
• Craft a captivating opening : Begin the speech with a compelling opening that grabs the audience's attention. This could be a relevant quote, an interesting fact, a personal anecdote, or a thought-provoking question.
• Organize content logically : Ensure the speech flows logically, with each point building on the previous one. Use transitions to guide the audience from one idea to the next smoothly.
• Incorporate engaging stories and examples : Include anecdotes, stories, and real-life examples that illustrate key points and make the speech relatable and memorable.
• Edit and revise : Edit the speech carefully for clarity, grammar, and coherence. Ensure the speech is the right length and aligns with the speaker's time constraints.
• Seek feedback : Share drafts of the speech with the speaker for their feedback and revisions. They may have specific changes or additions they'd like to make.
• Practice delivery : If possible, work with the speaker on their delivery. Practice the speech together, allowing the speaker to become familiar with the content and your writing style.
• Maintain confidentiality : As a ghostwriter, it's essential to respect the confidentiality and anonymity of the work. Do not disclose that you wrote the speech unless you have the speaker's permission to do so.
• Be flexible : Be open to making changes and revisions as per the speaker's preferences. Your goal is to make them look good and effectively convey their message.
• Meet deadlines : Stick to agreed-upon deadlines for drafts and revisions. Punctuality and reliability are essential in ghostwriting.
• Provide support : Support the speaker during their preparation and rehearsal process. This can include helping with cue cards, speech notes, or any other materials they need.

Remember that successful ghostwriting is about capturing the essence of the speaker while delivering a well-structured and engaging speech. Collaboration, communication, and adaptability are key to achieving this.

Give your best speech yet

Learn how to make a speech that’ll hold an audience’s attention by structuring your thoughts and practicing frequently. Put the effort into writing and preparing your content, and aim to improve your breathing, eye contact , and body language as you practice. The more you work on your speech, the more confident you’ll become.

The energy you invest in writing an effective speech will help your audience remember and connect to every concept. Remember: some life-changing philosophies have come from good speeches, so give your words a chance to resonate with others. You might even change their thinking.

Elevate your communication skills

Unlock the power of clear and persuasive communication. Our coaches can guide you to build strong relationships and succeed in both personal and professional life.

Elizabeth Perry, ACC

Elizabeth Perry is a Coach Community Manager at BetterUp. She uses strategic engagement strategies to cultivate a learning community across a global network of Coaches through in-person and virtual experiences, technology-enabled platforms, and strategic coaching industry partnerships. With over 3 years of coaching experience and a certification in transformative leadership and life coaching from Sofia University, Elizabeth leverages transpersonal psychology expertise to help coaches and clients gain awareness of their behavioral and thought patterns, discover their purpose and passions, and elevate their potential. She is a lifelong student of psychology, personal growth, and human potential as well as an ICF-certified ACC transpersonal life and leadership Coach.

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The Psychology of Writing and the Cognitive Science of the Perfect Daily Routine

By maria popova.

Such strategies, it turns out, may be psychologically sound and cognitively fruitful. In the altogether illuminating 1994 volume The Psychology of Writing ( public library ), cognitive psychologist Ronald T. Kellogg explores how work schedules, behavioral rituals, and writing environments affect the amount of time invested in trying to write and the degree to which that time is spent in a state of boredom , anxiety , or creative flow . Kellogg writes:

[There is] evidence that environments, schedules, and rituals restructure the writing process and amplify performance… The principles of memory retrieval suggest that certain practices should amplify performance. These practices encourage a state of flow rather than one of anxiety or boredom. Like strategies, these other aspects of a writer’s method may alleviate the difficulty of attentional overload. The room, time of day, or ritual selected for working may enable or even induce intense concentration or a favorable motivational or emotional state. Moreover, in accordance with encoding specificity, each of these aspects of method may trigger retrieval of ideas, facts, plans, and other relevant knowledge associated with the place, time, or frame of mind selected by the writer for work.

Kellogg reviews a vast body of research to extract a few notable findings. Among them is the role of background noise, which seems to fall on a bell curve of fecundity: High-intensity noise that exceeds 95 decibels disrupts performance on complex tasks but improves it on simple, boring tasks — noise tends to raise arousal level, which can be useful when trying to stay alert during mindless and monotonous work, but can agitate you out of creative flow when immersed in the kind of work that requires deliberate, reflective thought. (The psychology of writing, after all, as Kellogg notes in the introduction, is a proxy for the psychology of thinking.) The correlation between skill level and task difficulty also plays a role — feeling like your skills are not up to par raises your level of anxiety, which in turn makes noise more bothersome.

These effects, of course, are relative to one’s psychological constitution — Kellogg surmises that writers more afflicted with the modern epidemic of anxiety tend to be more disconcerted by noisy environments. Proust and Carlyle appear to have been among those writers — the former wrote in a cork-lined room to eliminate obtrusive sounds and the latter in a noiseproof chamber to ensure absolute silence — whereas Allen Ginsberg was known for being able to write anywhere, from trains to planes to parks. What matters, Kellogg points out, are each writer’s highly subjective requirements for preserving the state of flow:

The lack of interruption in trains of thought may be the critical ingredient in an environment that enables creative flow. As long as a writer can tune out background noise, the decibel level per se may be unimportant. For some writers, the dripping of a faucet may be more disruptive than the bustle of a cafe in the heart of a city.

Turning an eye to research on the specific timing and duration of writing sessions, Kellogg points to several studies indicating that working for 1 to 3 hours at a time, then taking a break before resuming, is most conducive to productivity, not only for writers but also for athletes and professional musicians — a finding since repeated in more recent research. He also cites a 1985 study of circadian rhythms — something scientists have since explored with swelling rigor — which found that performance on intellectual tasks peaks during morning hours, whereas perceptual-motor tasks fare better in the afternoon and evening. Hemingway, in fact, intuited this from his own experience, telling George Plimpton in a rare 1958 interview:

When I am working on a book or a story I write every morning as soon after first light as possible. There is no one to disturb you and it is cool or cold and you come to your work and warm as you write. You read what you have written and, as you always stop when you know what is going to happen next, you go from there. You write until you come to a place where you still have your juice and know what will happen next and you stop and try to live through until morning when you hit it again. You have started at six in the morning, say, and may go on until noon or be through before that.

Location and physical environment also play a role in maintaining a sustained and productive workflow. Bob Dylan, for instance, extolled the virtues of being able to “put yourself in an environment where you can completely accept all the unconscious stuff that comes to you from your inner workings of your mind.” Reviewing the research, Kellogg echoes Faulkner’s memorable assertion that “the only environment the artist needs is whatever peace, whatever solitude, and whatever pleasure he can get at not too high a cost” and notes that writers’ dedicated workspaces tend to involve solitude and quiet, although “during the apprenticeship phase of a writer’s career, almost any environment is workable” — most likely a hybrid function of youth’s high tolerance for distraction and the necessity of sharing space earlier in life when the luxury of privacy is unaffordable.

But the key psychological function of such dedicated environments isn’t so much superstitious ritualization — an effort to summon the muse through the elaborate juju of putting everything in its right place — as cognitive cueing. Kellogg considers the usefulness of a special space used solely for writing, which cultivates an “environment that cues the desired behavior”:

This phenomenon can be reinterpreted in terms of the cognitive concept of encoding specificity. The abstract ideas, images, plans, tentative sentences, feelings, and other personal symbols that represent the knowledge needed to construct a text are associated with the place and time of the writing environment. These associations are strongest when the writer engages in few if any extraneous activities in the selected environment. Entering the environment serves as a retrieval cue for the relevant knowledge to enter the writer’s awareness. Once the writer’s attention turns to the ideas that pop into consciousness, the composing process flows again. Particular features of the environment may serve as specific prompts for retrieving, creating, and thinking. For instance, a scene outside an office window, a painting hanging on the wall, or a plant sitting in the corner may become associated with thinking deeply about a particular text under development. Staring at the feature elicits knowledge representations bearing on the problem at hand.

This strategy is rather similar to the one most often recommended for treating insomnia — instituting a regular bedtime and using the bedroom as a space dedicated solely to sleep, in order to optimize the brain’s ability to enter rest mode upon going to bed and cue that behavior each night just by entering that environment. (Perhaps not coincidentally, many of the most successful writers are also zealous in their sleep habits .)

In fact, Kellogg cites a 1990 treatment program, developed by research psychologist Bob Boice developed for educators and other professionals who must write for a living and who were struggling with writer’s block , which uses a similar approach:

A key component of [Boice’s] program is the rearranging of the writing environment. He recommends that the writer “establish one or a few regular places in which you do all serious writing” and “nothing but serious writing; other writing (e.g., correspondence) would be carried out elsewhere.” Boice insists that magazines, novels, and other nonessential reading material be banned, social interactions minimized or eliminated, and cleaning and straightening up of the place delayed until a writing session is completed. By following these recommendations, the writer creates a space solely to think and write, avoiding extraneous activities. This space, therefore, becomes associated with all the mental products of creating meaning and can then serve as a unique retrieval cue for those products.

Note that these strategies were developed more than a decade before modern smartphones existed and long before social networks like Facebook and Twitter were moaning their constant 95-decibel siren calls for our attention. Today, Boice’s treatment program would no doubt also require the elimination of smartphones and any medium of social networking from the dedicated writing environment, among countless other “nonessential” forms of communication that the past, as is usually the case, could not have envisioned of the future.

Thomas Mann seems to have captured many of the principles Kellogg unveils in a single exquisite letter to the Austrian writer and journalist Viktor Polzer:

For writing I must have a roof over my head, and since I enjoy working by the sea better than anywhere else, I need a tent or a wicker beach chair. Much of my composition, as I have said, has been conceived on walks; I also regard movement in the open air as the best means of reviving my energy for work. For a longer book I usually have a heap of preliminary papers close at hand during the writing; scribbled notes, memory props, in part purely objective — external details, colorful odds and ends — or else psychological formulations, fragmentary inspirations, which I use in their proper place.

In the closing of the chapter, Kellogg considers what the wide variation of such routines and rituals reveals:

The diversity in environments chosen by writers, from Proust’s cork-lined room to Sarraute’s Parisian cafe, suggests the flexibility of human thought. A person can think in any environment, though some locations become habitual for certain individuals. The key is to find an environment that allows concentrated absorption in the task and maximum exposure to retrieval cues that release relevant knowledge from long-term memory.

Indeed, despite all these fruitful strategies for optimizing creative flow, the bigger truth — something I wholeheartedly believe — remains: There is no ideal rotation of the chair or perfect position of the desk clock that guarantees a Pulitzer. What counts, ultimately, is putting your backside in the chair — or, if you happen to be Ernest Hemingway or Virginia Woolf, dragging your feet to your standing desk — and clocking in the hours, psychoemotional rain or shine. Showing up day in and day out, without fail, is the surest way to achieve lasting success.

Complement The Psychology of Writing — which goes on to explore such cognitive crannies as the intricacies of symbol-creation, the role of personality in writing, and the impact of drugs and daydreams on the creative process — with Anna Deavere Smith on discipline , a guided tour of the daily rituals of famous writers , and some pointers on how to hone your creative routine .

— Published August 25, 2014 — https://www.themarginalian.org/2014/08/25/the-psychology-of-writing-daily-routine/ —

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Writing in Psychology

The goal of scientific writing is effective communication, communication of abstract propositions, logical arguments, empirical observations, experimental results, and their interrelations and interactions.  Clear organization, as well as lucid and precise writing, are very important conditions for such communication.  This guide is designed to help you produce clear and well written papers, no matter what the topic or format.

To achieve clarity, good writing must be precise in it use of words, free of ambiguity, orderly in its presentation of ideas, economical in expression, smooth in flow, and considerate of the reader.

Strive to choose words which convey the intended meaning. Qualifiers are often a source of imprecision. Expressions such as “quite a large part,” “practically all,” “very few,” and the like are interpreted differently by different readers or in different contexts. They weaken statements, especially those dealing with empirical observations.

Do not use words incorrectly (when you mean think do not write feel), and avoid coined terms (use concept not conceptum).

Avoiding ambiguity. The referent for each term should be so apparent that the reader will not have to search over prior material. Ambiguity is avoided by indicating the referent every time you use this, that, these, and those (e.g., this test and that trial). Also, make certain that the first sentence of a paragraph is comprehensible by itself; do not depend on a vague reference to earlier statements.

Economy of expression.   Strive for clear, economical expression. Avoid overly sophisticated terms, as well as overly complex sentences.

Smoothness of expression.  Do not introduce a topic abruptly. If the reader is likely to ask “How does this fit in?” more transition is necessary. Similarly, do not abandon an argument suddenly. If a reader feels “left hanging,” the discussion needs a concluding statement.

Sudden shifts in tense should be avoided. Do not move capriciously between past and present tense within the same paragraph or successive paragraphs. Past tense is usually appropriate for a literature review (Smith reported) or the experimental design or procedure (the animals were injected), inasmuch as it is an historical account. Using present tense suggests a dialogue between the author and reader and should be used where that situation is appropriate. Future tense is rarely appropriate.

Verbs must agree with their subjects, and pronouns with the nouns to which they refer. This simple rule is usually not troublesome except with plural words of Latin or Greek origin that end in a. For example, data, criteria, and phenomena are plural.

Consideration of the reader

In scientific writing, devices that attract attention to words, sounds or other embellishments, instead of ideas, are inappropriate. Heavy alliteration, accidental rhyming, poetic expression, and clichés are suspect. They are unsuitable in scientific writing because they lead the reader, who is looking for information, away from the theme of the paper. Metaphors are sometimes helpful, but use them sparingly. Avoid mixed metaphors. Literal and figurative usage mix badly; for example, “During the interview, the client sat with her head in her hands and her eyes on the floor.”

Absolute insistence on the third person and the passive voice (“it is thought” or “it is suggested”) has been a strong tradition in scientific writing. It is now thought that this results in a deadly, pompous style known as “scientificese,” and is no longer seen as essential to the preservation of objectivity. However, despite a slight relaxation of these rules, the use of the passive voice and the third person is still the norm in most scientific writing. See the section below for additional information on person and voice.

Avoiding Sexism

Sexism can spring from subtle errors in research design, inaccurate interpretation, or imprecise word choices. An investigator may unintentionally introduce bias into the research design, for example, by using stimulus materials and measures that suggest to one sex or the other what responses are “appropriate.” Or, in interpretation, an investigator may make unwarranted generalizations about both men and women from data about one sex. Imprecise word choices, which occur frequently in journal writing, may be interpreted as biased, discriminatory, or demeaning even if they are not intended to be.

Problems of designation.   When you refer to a person or persons, choose words that are accurate, clear, and free from bias. For example, the use of “man” as a generic noun can be ambiguous and may convey an implicit message that women are of secondary importance. You can choose nouns, pronouns, and adjectives to eliminate, or at least to minimize, the possibility of ambiguity in sex role identity. Problems of designation are divided into two subcategories: ambiguity of referent, when it is unclear whether the author means one sex or both, and stereotyping, when the author conveys unsupported or biased connotations about sex roles and identity.

Problems of evaluation.   Scientific writing, as an extension of science, should be free of implied or irrelevant evaluation of the sexes. Difficulties may derive from the use of clichés, such as “man and wife,” which is non-parallel and implies differences in status and lifestyle (husband and wife” are parallel, or “man and woman”). Problems of evaluation, like problems of designation, are divided into ambiguity of referent and stereotyping.

Avoiding sexist language.  The task of changing language may seem awkward at first. Nevertheless, careful attention to meaning and practice in rephrasing will overcome any initial difficulty. The result of such effort is accurate, unbiased communication. For example, instead of “Much has been written about the effect that a child’s position among his siblings has on his intellectual development”, you might say, “Much has been written about the relationship between sibling position and intellectual development in children.”

Avoiding Ethnic Bias

Like language that may be interpreted as sexist, language that may be construed as ethnically biased can be classified into problems of designation and problems of evaluation.

Problems of designation.   Styles and preferences for nouns referring to ethnic groups change over time. In some cases, even members of a group disagree about the preferred name at a specific time. Ascertain the most acceptable current terms and use them.

Problems of evaluation.   The majority of instances of implied irrelevant evaluation seem to occur when the writer uses one group (usually the writer’s own group) as the standard against which others are assessed. Unfortunately, the basis for negative comparisons is usually established during the planning of the research, for example, by the choice of empirical measures.

At the writing stage, avoid language that suggests evaluation. An example of implied evaluation is found in the phrase “culturally deprived” when it is used to describe a single group rather than to compare two or more groups. Using the term to describe one group of participants implies that one culture is a universally accepted standard against which others are judged. As a test of implied evaluation, substitute another group (e.g., your own) for the group being discussed.  If you are offended by the revised statement, there is probably bias in the original statement.

Types of Papers in Psychology

Writing papers in psychology is much like writing papers in any other discipline. Nevertheless, in psychology, there are a number of different types of papers which may be required. As always, it is best to consult with your instructor, or carefully read the syllabus, to know what is expected of you in any particular course. The following provides a brief description of the types of papers which may be assigned.

Report . In a report, a student is expected to accurately and concisely convey the arguments contained in the book or article read. There is no interpretation in most reports. Instead, the goal is to summarize what the author has said.

Review . In a review, one analyzes a work written by someone else. Generally, the thesis of the paper is either agreement or disagreement with the position taken by the author. The opening paragraph provides a brief synopsis of the book or article ending with a thesis statement which states your evaluation. The body of the paper then presents the arguments and associated evidence justifying your viewpoint.

Critical Analysis . A critical analysis is known by a number of different names. It is sometimes called a literature review, a policy paper, or even simply a term paper. In a critical analysis, the point of the paper is to integrate a number of works by different people relevant to a specific topic or issue. In many ways, it combines and extends the type of writing contained in reports and reviews. Like a report you must accurately present the positions of others and like a critical analysis your evaluation of that body of research and/or theory is critical. A critical analysis usually begins with an opening paragraph which presents the problem or topic in general terms. The opening should lead the reader to a clear thesis statement which is often the final sentence in the opening paragraph. The thesis statement should indicate what you intend to show in the paper. Thus, the thesis should take a position. The body of the paper then presents the arguments you will use to justify your thesis. What is important is that you use research/theory to justify your position. You must interpret the research/theory rather than simply report it. Interpretation means that you must explain how a particular finding or method is relevant to your thesis statement. Everything contained in a critical analysis should help you justify your thesis.

Research Proposal . Some courses require research proposals. Since the format for the proposal may depend on the course for which it is written, it is important to ask the instructor for any special instructions. In the absence of special instructions/requirements, the following should apply.

A research proposal has two basic sections. The introduction has as its basic goal the presentation and justification of a testable hypothesis. The opening paragraph of a research proposal generally identifies a problem and indicates the independent variables of the proposed study. The final paragraph of a research proposal usually provides a brief narrative description of the proposed research and ends with a statement of the hypotheses to be tested. Given that you now have a general sense of where to begin (the opening) and where you want to end (the hypotheses), the trick is figure out how to get there from here. The purpose of the body of the paper is to justify the hypotheses through a careful analysis of the available research and theory. Thus, the body of the paper must review the research relevant to the independent variables in your proposal. Again, interpretation of the research rather than simply reporting is the goal. You must state what the research means for the hypotheses you are trying to develop. A research proposal is successful if a reader can easily understand how your interpretation of the research/theory led you to the specific hypotheses presented.

The second section, titled methods, describes the way you are planning to test the hypotheses. It is frequently sub-divided into sections titled, subjects, design, and procedure. Individual instructors may ask for additional sections. Check to see that you are following the instructor’s recommendations.

Lab Report . A lab report usually contains the same sections as a research proposal with the addition of a results section which contains the data and a discussion which addresses the implications of the data for the hypotheses which prompted the study. Instructors generally have a format for lab reports. Check with the instructor for the format to use in that course.

Writing the Paper

Choosing a topic . If your professor has given you a list of suggested topics, of course, take those suggestions seriously. Often, however, you are asked to choose a topic on your own. One way to do this is to step back from your day-to-day immersion in the course and take a broad view of the course content, the breadth of the topics covered, their meaning to you, and their application to your experience, or to “real world” situations that interest you. Examining your textbook from this perspective, skimming its table of contents, index, and chapter subheadings (especially those chapters you haven’t read yet), can be very helpful, and should help you decide on a topic that will sustain your interest and enthusiasm. It is also helpful at this stage to look for a topic that, perhaps from class lectures or your text, you know generates controversy or interesting questions, or leaves you room to participate in problem solving.

Once you have some preliminary ideas, read what is readily available on the topic in your text or the library. Talk to other students and with your professor. Remember that the professor can be a major resource and should be approached early in the process to help you clarify your choice. However, do not expect your professor to welcome a visit which begins with, “I can’t think of anything to write a paper on.” Professors much prefer directing your thinking to doing it for you!

It is important to select a topic which is appropriate in terms of its level of difficulty. A topic which is too broad will lead to a superficial paper without an adequate focus. A topic which is too narrow will make it difficult for you to find enough relevant material, or what you discover may be too complex for you. What is appropriate will also depend upon the level of your course. Some examples will illustrate this problem.

Too Broad:  Emotional disturbances schizophrenia

Too narrow:  Habit disorder in children speech problems in childhood schizophrenia

Better:  Behavioral models of causal factors in emotional disturbances schizophrenia

One test of the appropriateness of your topic will be the amount of relevant material you can find in the library. If you find too little, the topic may be too narrow; if you feel overwhelmed by the amount available, it may be too broad.

Searching the literature . Establish early the level of sophistication you expect to achieve with the topic you have chosen. If you are really interested in, or expect to achieve, state of the art knowledge in the area, you will need to start early and search the literature systematically. Frequently, professors set criteria for the minimum number of books, journals, or magazines cited. Bear in mind that asking questions such as: “How many references do I need?”, or “How long should my paper be?”, is comparable to asking, “How long is a piece of string?” Teachers give answers only to insure adequate work and to avoid having many unnecessarily long papers. The amount of information available and its relevance to the goals of your paper will more appropriately determine the length of your reference list.

Refer to the section of this manual that deals with the library to get some hints on how to proceed. Start with a preliminary look at the subject catalog for book holdings and check recent issues of the indexes and abstracts most likely to cover your topic to see if there is at least some literature available. You may find that the library’s findings must be supplemented by inter-library loans. This should cause no major difficulty if you allow sufficient time for materials to be located and sent.

Reading and organizing. As you read the literature concerning your topic, proceed by systematically taking notes; be sure to record what you feel is important. It is easy to get absorbed in the reading and to move on to other materials without pausing to take notes. However, every good writer needs to accumulate notes carefully before attempting to write a paper. It is very helpful to write notes on index cards so they may be reordered at a later date. Substantive notes summarizing a study or article can be written in the form they might be used in your paper. For instance, after reading a 10 page research report in a journal, your note could summarize the key points in a paragraph that begins:

Throckmorton and Doe (1979) tested the effect of humor on reducing pre-exam anxiety by showing videotapes of early Candid Camera TV shows during breakfast in a large dining hall on the campus of a small Midwestern liberal arts college. The subjects, 215 juniors and seniors, reported ….

By consistently taking the time to do this with material that has a high probability of being included in your paper, your literature review will largely be done when you sit down to write the paper. One word of caution is in order, however. Some detail oriented students get trapped by their note taking. They report finding it hard to screen their reading for importance or relevance and consequently write down everything they read. Some also find it hard to focus their reading and study in one area only; they end up with enough material for several papers instead of one. All of your reading and note taking need to be guided by an ever evolving game plan and goal for the paper.

After you have decided on a topic, collected the relevant research, and taken notes, you have to think about writing the paper. The following are some points to consider as you begin to write.

The Audience . Before you begin to write, ask yourself, “For whom am I writing this paper?” Your answer to this question will determine the amount of detail included in the paper and the amount of sophistication of the writing. For example, think about how you would present any topic to your younger brother or sister who is in elementary school, a fellow student, a senior psychology major, your professor, or the major researcher on your topic. Obviously, if you wrote for the major researcher, your younger brother or sister would not have a clue about what you are writing about. Similarly, if you wrote for your younger brother or sister, the major researcher would be insulted. It is important that you do not write in such a way that the reader is either insulted or confused. Unless your instructor tells you otherwise, assume that your audience is another student who is familiar with the basic concepts and ideas in psychology that you are covering. In other words, a fellow student in the course should be able read your paper, understand what you are arguing, and accurately report back to you what you have written.

The Opening Paragraph . The opening paragraph introduces the reader to the problem or issue to be addressed in the paper, it limits what the paper will cover, and it provides a central thesis for the paper. Edit out those vague, general throw away sentences often found in an opening paragraph. The following are examples of those sentences:

Since humans are social beings, we are all affected by people around us. B. F. Skinner, a famous psychologist who teaches at Harvard and invented the Skinner box which is used to study operant conditioning, is a controversial figure in psychology.

The opening paragraph should make the reader want to read the paper which follows. It should grab someone’s attention and identify quickly and clearly what the paper is about. If you are addressing a problem, note why the problem is important. If you are analyzing some variables, let the reader know what variables will be considered in the paper. Most importantly, the opening paragraph should lead to and end with a clear, concise thesis statement.

The Thesis Statement . The thesis statement tells the reader what your paper is all about. It takes a position. It tells the reader what you plan to show in the paper. Writing a paper can be compared to taking a trip. Knowing where you want to end up is like having a clear thesis statement. You can organize your arguments to lead the reader to your conclusion. Not having a clear thesis statement is like not knowing where you want to end up. Almost any piece of information is relevant and your paper is confused. The following are some examples of vague thesis statements:

Men and women differ in the influence strategies they use. This paper explores the differences between behavioral and cognitive therapies.

The intergroup contact hypothesis can be used to reduce prejudice other than racial prejudice.

Compare the thesis statements above with those below. Can you see why the statements below are clearer and more focused?

Discrimination against women will continue as long as women use indirect power while men exercise direct power. Cognitive therapies are superior to behavioral therapies because they consider both behavior and the client’s thought processes.

Use of the intergroup contact hypothesis can reduce prejudice against handicapped people

When you have a clear, focused thesis, you know what you have to show in the paper. In the first example, you would have to show how gender differences in power lead to discrimination. In the second, you would have to show why altering the client’s thinking is more important than just changing inappropriate behavior. In the third, you would have to show how the intergroup contact hypothesis can be used to reduce prejudice against the handicapped.

Remember that an interesting opening paragraph and a clear thesis statement is important regardless of the type of paper you are writing. The body of the paper may differ, however, as a function of paper type. In a report, the body of the paper conveys the basic ideas contained in the book or article you read. In a review, the body of the paper presents the reasons, and supporting evidence, for why you agree or disagree with the article or book. In a literature review, the body of the paper presents the arguments or points you are trying to make, interpreting the research/theory to provide support for those arguments. In a research proposal, the body of the paper interprets the research/theory to show why the hypothesis is legitimate.

Outlining your paper before you begin is always a good idea. It helps you organize your ideas and more importantly prevents you from leaving something out. Some outline and other simply write and then edit. If you can teach yourself to use outlines effectively, do so. It will save you time in the long run. If you cannot outline, allow yourself extra time for editing. Nevertheless, always realize that editing will be required.

Writing the First Draft

Some worry so much about every word that they become paralyzed and unable to write. Allow yourself the luxury of putting words down on paper the first time without worrying about whether they are absolutely correct. Our advice to procrastinators and worriers is to write first, edit second, and save the worrying for the outcome of the next national election. You can always edit yesterday’s awkward writing, but only if you wrote the first draft yesterday.

Editing and Rewriting.  With a first draft in the computer, the hard part is over. Now you can concentrate on refining what you said without the worry of what to say. You now want to edit for content, style, and organization. Have you said everything you wanted to say? Are all the sections consistent with the outline? Does some material need to be moved to another section, or should you revise the outline? Are you writing clearly? Have you used consistent style throughout and adhered to the proper guidelines for quotations, headings, referencing others’ work, and so forth?

The number of drafts necessary for a really “good” piece of writing depends on an individual’s ability and experience, as well as his or her criteria for good. While students rarely allow sufficient time for many drafts, professional writers often do four or more drafts and then turn their work over to a copy editor for polishing. Like any highly refined technique, good writing is the result of practice.

When you have done one or more rewrites of your paper, consider these two suggestions before preparing a final copy for your professor. First, let someone else read your paper for style, flow, and clarity. Of course, your paper must remain only your work, but there is no reason why you can’t make use of your friend’s evaluation of your style.

Style and Technical Considerations

The paragraph. The basic unit of writing is the paragraph. Rarely can a sentence stand alone. When you introduce an idea, it should be developed. In some ways a paragraph is like a mini-paper in that it starts with a central concept, develops that concept, and summarizes it. A good paragraph has two characteristics. First, it is unified: each sentence within a paragraph contributes to the same basic concept. You will usually state the concept in a topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph. Second, the sentences in a paragraph should flow naturally. That is, the ideas presented in each sentence should relate to those contained in the sentences before and after.

Transitional devices.  One key to making your paper flow is to use transitional words or devices. Transitional words are helpful in tying one sentence to another and connecting different ideas within the same paragraph or paper. Common kinds of transitional devices include pronouns (e.g., “Lewin was a father of social psychology. He also …”), repeating words or phrases (e.g., “Werner proposed the orthogenic theory of development. Many current developmental theorists have a foundation in Werner’s work.”), and using synonyms or closely related works (e.g., “Cats are a favorite laboratory animal for the study of sleep. As we all know, felines like to sleep.”).

Transitional words can be used in many other ways. You probably already use transitional devices to make comparisons, provide examples, or enumerate. Table 1 provides some examples of transitional phrases and their functions.

Table 1. Examples of Transitional Phrases and Their Functions.

Make comparisons:  Similarly/however/in contrast/on the other hand but/likewise/yet/nevertheless

Augment your point:  In addition/also/too/and/furthermore

Enumerate:  First/second/next/finally/last

Give examples:  For example/to illustrate

Reach conclusions: As a result/as a consequence/therefore/thus

Summarize:  In summary/in short/to summarize

The first sentence of each paragraph may contain a transitional expression relating it to the preceding paragraph. If the new paragraph continues the theme of the preceding paragraph, use a transition like “in addition,” or “furthermore.” If you intend to introduce a new concept or wish to contrast, use “on the other hand” or “in contrast.” Use “in conclusion” or “to summarize” if you are summarizing or reaching a conclusion.

Supporting statements.  A key to writing clearly is being specific. Avoid using broad generalizations unless you follow them with concrete examples. Document or validate your point with data. If you state, “The intelligence scores of mothers and their children are strongly related.” support this statement with research findings or theory. For example, “In a study of 2,500 17 year-olds, Hollister (1983) found the strongest predictor of IQ was the mother’s IQ.”

The proper tense.  Choosing the correct tense in which to write your psychology paper can be confusing. The basic rule is to avoid the future tense. Most of your paper should be written in the past tense. The reason is that most of what you are describing has already been done. That is, the literature you cite has already been written, and the studies have already been conducted. As a general rule, discussions of prior research, descriptions of procedure, or statements of results, are in the past tense. For example:

Literature review:  Mitchell’s study found (not finds) …

Procedure:  The subjects were (not are) …

Results:  Mean scores were (not are) …

While most of your paper will be written in the past tense, certain statements may be in the present tense. A rule of thumb is to use the present tense in a scientific paper for statements which have continuing or general applicability. Therefore, definitions or statements from a well-defined theory should be stated in the present tense. For example:

Definition:  Drever defines …; in this experiment pain is …

Theory:  The orthogenetic theory states that …; Freud says …

Hypothesis:  Memory was not expected to correlate with motivation.

Results:  Mitchell demonstrated (past tense when referring to a particular study) that person nodes are used (present tense   when referring to general findings) …

References to tables or figures: Table 1 shows …

Correct person and voice.  In addition to tense, verbs can show voice and person. The active voice implies action by the subject (“The butler committed the crime.”), while the passive voice indicates something is happening to the actor (“The crime was committed by the butler.”). Traditionally, scientific papers have been written in the third person and the passive voice, i.e., “The researcher administered the survey.” The purpose of this writing style is to de-emphasize the personal nature of the report. The procedures and data are to stand on their own. However, this often results in clumsy prose that is difficult or boring to read. In term papers it is usually better to use the active voice. “Jones found …” rather than “It was found by Jones …” The use of the first person, “I,” should be reserved for those situations where the writer is clearly expressing his or her own views. Avoid the use of “we.”

Agreement of subject and verb.  The most common grammatical errors concern subject verb agreement. Singular and plural forms of a verb are sometimes incorrectly matched with a subject noun or pronoun. Every sentence must have both a subject and a verb. The subject is that part of the sentence that performs. For example, “Mark is an industrial psychologist.” In the case of a passive sentence, the subject receives the action of the verbs (e.g., “The shot was given to Smedley.”). The verb expresses action or a state of being. For example, “Mabel ran in the Boston Marathon.” or “The rats were psychotic.”

Correct singular and plural forms.  Many psychology students get confused about the singular and plural forms of certain scientific terms. The following list should be helpful.

Table 2. Singular and Plural Forms for a Number of Words

Singular                                 Plural

criterion                                  criteria

phenomenon                         phenomena

apparatus                               apparatus or apparatuses

stimulus                                 stimuli

analysis                                 analyses

datum                                     data

appendix                                appendixes or appendices

Avoiding sexist language.  You may have learned to write using the generic words he, him, his, man, and mankind to refer to people in general. In addition, you may have habits that either subtly or blatantly support sex role stereotypes. Until recently such sexist usage was not questioned. However, we encourage you to adopt a nonsexist alternative. Since 1977, the American Psychological Association has encouraged writing styles that support egalitarian attitudes and assumptions about people and sex roles. Below are some tips on writing in an appropriate, nonsexist manner.

1. Don’t use the words “girls” or “boys” unless you are speaking specifically about children; use “women” and “men” instead.

2. Substitute “person” for “man” and “people” for “men” unless you are talking specifically about males.

3. Use the plural when you are referring to a class of people. For example, “Students prefer their classes …,” rather than “A student prefers his classes…” The use of plurals will help you avoid the generic male pronoun.

4. Don’t designate gender unless it’s relevant. For example, use “minister” rather than “woman minister.”

5. Remember to use current job titles, instead of previous sexist ones. Examples of appropriate titles include: police officer, flight attendant, postal worker, secretary (not office girl).

Grammar and style.  Avoid the use of long involved sentences, inverted phrases, etc., which can lead to confusion. Simple, direct declarative sentences are usually the best. The style of psychology papers may seem dry but it is intended to be clear and consistent. Avoid emotionally loaded words (e.g., drastically significant, desperately needed). An evaluation need not have moral implications; an author may be incorrect without the results being unwarranted, bad, etc.

Titles and headings.  Except for very short papers (two or three pages) your paper should have a title page . Center the title about midway down the title page. Under the title, center your name. In the lower right hand corner of the page, include the number and name of the course for which the paper is being prepared, the date it is submitted, and your pledge. Remember to type of word “pledge” and sign your name.

The next page begins the body of your paper. Center your title in uppercase and lowercase letters about two inches below the top of the page (do not underline). In the upper right hand corner of this and the following pages should be a page number. Make this page one. Page numbering and headers, as they are called, can be done automatically with PC-Write.

Effective use of headings helps the writer to organize a paper effectively and the reader to better understand a paper’s content. Therefore, we encourage you to make appropriate use of headings as a means of organizing your paper. You can see how headings and titles are used in the paper in Appendix A.

Three levels of headings are sufficient for most student papers. They are illustrated below:

Usually the material which follows the title on the second page is introductory. The purpose of such material is presumed by a reader and no heading such as “Introduction” is used. The first time you use a heading will be for a section later in the body of the paper.

Items in a series.  Sometimes it is very helpful to organize material using a list. When this appears within a paragraph or sentence, items should be noted alphabetically: (a) first item, (b) second item, and so on.

Another type of list is one made up of a series of conclusions or steps in some procedure which need to be entered on separate lines for emphasis. Each item is treated as a separate paragraph. These should be indented and listed as follows:

1. Item number one. The first line of each item should be indented. Additional material continues on subsequent lines.

2. Item number two.

3. Item number three and so forth.

Numbers in the text. The use of numbers in psychology is somewhat different from other styles of writing. In psychology it is important to ensure precision and clarity with the statistics often included in a paper.

A rule of thumb for using numbers in your paper is that all numbers 10 and above should be expressed in Arabic figures, and all numbers below 10 should be expressed in words. There are, however, some important exceptions. For example, a sentence should never begin with an Arabic number. The table which follows summarizes the use of numbers in the text of a paper. Table 3.  Use of Numbers in Text.

Express as Numbers                                                 Express as Words

Numbers 10 and above                                          Numbers less than 10

Ages and dates                                                        Common fractions (two thirds of the U.S. population)

Groups of numbers with some above and some below 10

Percentages and percentiles                             Numbers that begin a sentence

Ratios                                                                         Precise measures or quantities (Fifty-four percent of the group)

Scores                                                                        Usual expressions (Fourth of July)

Statistical functions                                              Street numbers in addresses

Sums of money

Abbreviations.  Abbreviations are used in a paper when they will help make a reader’s task easier, but it is possible to overuse abbreviations. When in doubt, avoid an abbreviation. Certain terms and titles have meaning to almost everyone familiar with the field. For example, MMPI can be used as a clear substitute for Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, and almost any reader would comprehend the use of IQ instead of Intelligence Quotient. These abbreviations make the task of reading simpler.

References.  One of the most important tasks in the preparation of papers is the proper citation of references. This may seem a little confusing since most students are used to thinking of bibliographies. There are some important differences between the two. A reference section includes only those literature items that are actually cited in the paper. A bibliography will include items that served as background material but which were not explicitly cited (also, see the Citation Guidelines page for more information on referencing).

References in the text.  When you discuss almost anything that is not original with you, such as a book, journal article, or even a lecture, it must have a reference. Psychology papers use the name/date method of noting such citations, not footnotes.

For every statement that you have adapted from another source, there should be both a name or names and a publication date included in the body of the paper. There are a three basic ways in which a reference can be cited. First, the sentence containing the material can begin with the author and date:

Jones (1983) was one of the first researchers to study carefully the annual spring migration of college students to southern beaches.

Second, the above style could be changed to the following:

In 1983 Jones first began to study carefully the annual spring …

Third, the author’s name and the date of publication may be placed in parentheses at the conclusion of the statement:

One recent study examined the annual spring migration of college students to southern beaches (Jones, 1983).

The reference may be linked with a single sentence or even a paragraph, but the material to which you are referring should be clear from the way you have entered the citation. If you refer to one article or book several times in the same paragraph, or on the same page, you need only use the date once, unless the reader would be confused by such things as other references with the same author which have different dates. The best rule to follow in this case is common sense. Always ask yourself, will the reader easily understand the source of the material referenced?

Multiple authors.  There are instances when you use references with several authors, or several references which address the same material. Some of the ways in which this can be handled are illustrated below:

Several early studies (Good & John, 1955; James & Stevens, 1962) collected data on student sleeping habits.

Note that the ampersand (&) is used between authors’ names when they are enclosed in parentheses, and a semicolon separates different references. Also note that the references are listed alphabetically and in order of publication.

Sometimes you will use a reference in your paper with more than two authors. The first time you cite such a reference in your paper, list all of the authors:

Perhaps the most comprehensive study of “walkman” listening behavior was done by Johnson, Jones, and James (1982).

If you cite the same study again, you may omit the names of all but the first author and substitute “et al.” for the other authors:

One of the most interesting conclusions of Johnson et al. (1962) …

Secondary sources.  You may find it necessary to cite a reference from a secondary source. For example, you might find a pertinent article discussed in your textbook but discover that the study is unavailable in the library. This is most likely to occur with older articles or articles from foreign journals. While you should be careful this doesn’t occur too often in a paper, it is usually acceptable to use such a reference in the text. However, it should be followed by the notation in parentheses such as:

Pavlov (cited in Hilgard & Bower, 1966) was the first to study …

Since you have read about Pavlov in Hilgard and Bower , only the secondary source is listed in the reference section at the end of the paper.

Quotations.  You may wish to include quotations to emphasize important points in your paper. Brief quotations can be marked with quotation marks and included as a part of the text. Quotations longer than one sentence or 40 words should be set in an indented block without quotation marks, as illustrated below. Whenever you use a quotation, it should be referenced in the same way as other material, with the important addition of the page number(s) on which the original appeared.

An important issue is raised by Walker (1978) who indicates “the unusual habit of compulsive and repetitive running back and forth in confined space while attempting to force a large ball through a metal hoop high above the ground” (p. 363) requires more careful study by behavioral scientists.  Miller (1973) has also studied these behaviors and draws the following conclusion:

It is clear that the individuals who engage in this activity are often above average in height and lanky in physical build. This common characteristic adds credibility to the hypothesis that the compulsion to engage in such behavior is biologically based. (p. 18)

In looking at these samples, note that the page numbers follow the quotation marks, or, in the case of the longer block quote, follows the period at the end of the quote. It would also have been possible to arrange the material so that the author’s name, the date of the reference and the page number follow the quote in parentheses.

One author dismissed the conjecture about basketball as “a case of behavioral scientists failing to see ‘the forest through the trees’” (Doe, 1982, p. 343).

Web-Based References.  APA has recently updated the format for citing material taken from the World Wide Web.  A summary of the format rules for web material can be found at:  https://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html

Reference Lists.  At the conclusion of your paper should be a list of all the references cited in the text. Only references which have actually been used in preparation of the paper should be included here. You must be sure that there is consistency between the citation in the text and the reference list.

The style we are describing is consistent with the American Psychological Association style. The two major types of references are those taken from journals (technical, professional magazines) and those from books. The examples below should cover most of the more common types of references. If you have questions about how to present an unusual source of material, check with your professor. And note that the first line of a reference is flush with the left margin but subsequent lines are indented.

Murray, R., & Jones, J. (1982). Mating behavior of squirrels on the capitol mall. Journal of Squirrel Psychology, 2 , 123-128.

Jackson, J. K., Jackson, K. J., & Jackson, J. J. (1952). The effects of birth order on career selection (2nd ed.). Green Bay, WI: Green Bay Press.

Bindrim, P. (1980, July). Group therapy: Protecting privacy. PsychologyToday , pp. 24, 27-28.

Zuzman, J. (1975). Recognition and management of psychiatric emergencies. In H. L. P. Resnik & H. L. Ruben (Eds.), Emergency psychiatric care (pp. 35-59). Bowie, MD: Charles Press.

Kopolow, L. E., Brands, A. B., Burton, J. L., & Ochberg, F. (1975). Litigation and mental health services (National Institute of Mental Health, DHEW Publication No. ADM 76-261). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

NSF commission looks at science education. (1983, May). APA Monitor , p.34.

The first reference is a standard journal article. Note carefully the punctuation and capitalization. The 2 is the volume number of the journal.

The next reference is a book. Note that only the first letter of the first word is capitalized. The book was published in Green Bay, WI by Green Bay Press.

Professional journals have continuous page numbering. That is, page numbering continues from one issue to the next for an entire year. When this system is used, it is not necessary to include the month of publication as part of the date. However, most popular magazines begin each issue with page 1. In this situation, it is necessary to include the month as part of the date. See example three above.

There are a number of special situations that require special reference formats. The fourth example above is a situation where several authors have contributed chapters to a book. Zuzman is the author of a chapter in a book edited by Resnik and Ruben.

The final two examples are a government publication and a news article without an author. The final item would be noted as NSF (1983) in the body of the paper.

References are listed alphabetically by author, or in order of publication if there are several items by the same author. Where there is more than one author, all single author references by an author come first. Then the listing proceeds alphabetically by second author, then third author, etc.

References are typed in the following way. The first line of each reference begins at the left-hand margin of the paper. The following lines are indented five spaces, making it easy for the reader to quickly locate a reference by the author’s name.

Grading Standards

Although professors use varying grading standards, most can tell you what an “A” paper should be like. The following grading standards are meant to be general guidelines only.

An “A” paper has a clear point that the average reader could express in one sentence if asked to do so. This point is substantiated, developed, or discussed with evidence or examples or detail that is concrete, vivid, and logically arranged. The sentences in the “A” paper invite re-reading because they are interesting. The “A” paper is excellent for this level of instruction.

A “B” paper also has a clear point with pertinent concrete detail used to support or explain that point. It too shows above-average usage and control of punctuation, but sentence patterns and length may not indicate the writing competence of the “A” paper. Diction may be not quite as precise. It too may invite re-reading.

A “C” paper makes a fairly clear point but may include occasional irrelevant information or misplaced ideas. It won’t have the clear organization of the “A” or “B” papers. Nor will sentences be as varied. Minor usage errors (such as pronoun references and noun agreement) and some punctuation errors may occur, and words may be used inaccurately on occasion. The “C” paper is average work for this level of instruction.

The “D” and “F” papers are difficult to process because of the “static” at the sentence level and foggy meaning due to uncontrolled diction and sentence structure. Words may be used inaccurately so frequently as to confuse readers. Ideas are difficult to get at because of uncontrolled sentences. Such papers are exhausting to the reader and invite only masochists to re-read them.

Plagiarism and the Honor Code

Using an idea, phrase, sentence, paragraph, etc., from someone else, whether a published writer or friend, (unless given credit in the text via a reference), is plagiarizing. Both direct quotes and paraphrased material must be credited by referencing. Paraphrasing means thinking through a point made by another person and restating it in your own words. It does not mean taking a phrase or sentence from another person and substituting a synonym here and there.   For more details see the document on proper citations .

Presenting Results

While experimental and library projects often require different writing styles and rules, there are many commonalities including scholarly work, clarity of expression, adherence to format, and appearance. The following applies to both experimental and library project papers.

Preliminary Pages (in order of appearance).  Title and signature pages. Note that the title of the paper (in capital letters) and your name are centered in the upper part of the page. The purpose of the paper is indicated at the bottom of the page. (Example of Title Page ; Example of Signature Page .)

The signature page indicates that the advisor and the second reader have approved the final draft of the project. The title and your name appear on this page using the same format as that used in the title page. Along the lower left hand margin of the signature page there should be places for both your advisor and the second reader to sign the comp after the orals.

Acknowledgments page.  An acknowledgments page is optional. However, it is customary to acknowledge those individuals who have provided significant assistance in the preparation of the project. Likely candidates include persons who helped prepare stimulus materials, persons who helped type the manuscript (if they were not paid), advisors who provided conceptual assistance, etc. If you decide to include an acknowledgments page, the word ACKNOWLEDGMENTS should be centered and typed in capital letters at the top of the page.

Table of contents (required). TABLE OF CONTENTS should be centered and typed in capital letters at the top of the page. All headings and subheadings in the paper should be included in the table of contents.

List of tables.  If your comp includes tables, a LIST OF TABLES page should be added. This page lists the titles of the tables and the pages on which they may be found. As with the table of contents, the title is centered and typed in capital letters.

List of figures .  The same rules used for a list of tables page would be used for a LIST OF FIGURES if figures are included in the comp.

Abstract (required).  An abstract is a synopsis of the comp. If your paper is reporting an experiment, the abstract should include a statement of the problem, type of subjects used, independent and dependent variables, the major findings, conclusions, and implications. For an experiment, abstracts are generally 100 to 150 words. Abstracts for library comprehensives are 75 to 100 words. Include the topic, thesis, sources used (e.g., published literature), conclusions, and implications. Abstracts should be succinct, accurate, and provide an informative overview of the project. Abstracts are typed in a one-paragraph double-spaced block (no indentation at the beginning). Center the word ABSTRACT at the top of the page in capital letters.

Numbering Preliminary Pages.  All the pages to this point (excepting the title and signature pages ) should be numbered using lower case Roman numerals, e.g., i, ii, etc. The page numbers should be placed on the upper right hand corner of the page.

Requirements of Style

The most basic requirement of style is adherence to the elementary rules of grammar and good usage. Following are some explicit suggestions about the use of tense, person, voice and number which are relevant in scientific writing.

Tense . Scientific reports are written in a combination of present and past tense. The literature cited has already been written, the study’s procedure has been carried out, and the results have been obtained, therefore these are written in the past tense (“the subjects performed”). Conclusions, on the other hand, are written in the present tense (“the data indicate”). This draws the reader into a “current” conversation with the writer.

Certain other statements are often written in the present tense. A useful rule is that the present tense indicates statements which have a continuing or general applicability. Definitions, statements from a well-defined theory, and hypotheses are stated in the present tense.

Illustrations:

Definition: “Webster defines …”

“In this study, a discrepancy is defined as …”

Theory: “The Gestalt theory holds that …”

Hypothesis: “It is hypothesized that intelligence is (not, “will be”) positively correlated with …”

Results: “Jones established (past tense, particular study) that auditory stimuli are (present tense, general findings) most effective …”

Person and voice .  Scientific communications are usually written in the third person, which often troubles inexperienced writers. There are occasions when the use of the first person is permissible (or even preferable).

The passive voice is used extensively, especially in describing procedures. Do not, however, let the passive voice lead to into clumsy, involved expression. Problems of person and voice are illustrated by these examples:

Bad : “We classified the subject’s responses…” (“We” is faulty, unless it refers to two or more defined persons. Never use “we” as a substitute for “I”.)

Better : “The investigator classified the subject’s responses…” (The statement tells who classified the responses, but without self-consciousness. Third-person references to “the experimenter” or “the investigator” are usual and acceptable. References to “the author” or “the writer” are generally avoided as self-conscious, except in theoretical arguments.)

Bad : “The classification of the subjects’ responses was carried out by dividing them …” (Clumsy use of passive voice. The writing is self-conscious, emphasizing the process of classifying.)

Better : “The subjects’ responses were divided…” (Better use of passive voice. The focus is on the research, not on the researcher.)

Headings .  In psychology it is appropriate to use two or three levels of headings positioned in this way:

The three headings would look like this in a manuscript:

If the paper requires four levels of headings, subordinate the three levels above by introducing another centered heading using upper and lower case letters and omitting the underlining.

Abbreviations .  Use abbreviations: (a) if the reader is more familiar with the abbreviation than with the complete form (LSD or ESP); (b) if the use of the abbreviation is conventional (IQ or REM), or (c) if considerable space can be saved and cumbersome repetition avoided.

Because the acronyms that psychologists employ in their daily writing may not be familiar to students or readers in other disciplines or locales, acronyms and abbreviations should be explained. A term to be abbreviated must, on its first appearance be spelled out completely and immediately followed by its abbreviation in parentheses. Thereafter, the abbreviation is used.

“Studies of simple reaction time (RT) to a visual target have found a strong negative relationship between RT and luminance.”

Note that no periods are used with these abbreviations

Statistics.  To present a statistic in the text, give the symbol, degrees of freedom, value, and probability level. In addition, give the mean, standard deviation, or other descriptive statistic to clarify the nature of the effect.

“As predicted, the first-grade girls reported a significantly greater liking for school ( M = 4.63) than did first-grade boys ( M = 1.38), t (22) = 2.62, p < .01.”

“The mean score for the long retention interval was 1.38, and the mean score for the short retention interval was 28.90. The analysis of variance indicated a significant retention interval effect, F (1, 34) = 123.07, p <.01.”

With chi-square, report degrees of freedom and sample size in parentheses:

X 2 (4, N = 90) = 10.51, p < .05

In scientific writing the word significant is only used when a statistical relationship at a specified level of confidence has been demonstrated. With the exception of Greek letters, underline or italisize all letters used as statistical symbols. This is true wherever they appear (text, tables, and figures).

MFdfrNSDtpnz

Numbers .  Use words to express numbers in the following cases:

(a) the numbers zero through nine, (b) any number, above or below 10, that begins a sentence.

Use numerals to express the following cases:

(a) number 10 or greater,

(b) any numbers above or below 10 that are:

(1) units of measurement or time “5-mg pellets for 3 days”

(2) ages “was 6 years old”

(3) times and dates “8:30 a.m. on May 6, 1972”

(4) percentages “a total of 6%”

(5) arithmetic manipulations “multiplied by 3”

(6) ratios “4:1”

(7) fractional or decimal quantities “on a 2 1/2-year old”

(8) scores and points on a scale “on a 7-point scale”

(9) actual numbers “the numerals 1-6”

(10) page numbers “on page 2”

(11) a series of four or more “1,3,5, and 7”

(12) numbers grouped for comparison within a sentence or a series of related sentences if any one of the numbers is 10 or above “of the 40 trails, 6 were practice trials” related sentences

Tables .  An informative table supplements–it does not duplicate–the text. In the text, refer to every table and its data. In the text tell the reader what to look for in the table, discussing the table’s highlights. If you discuss every item on the table in text, the table is unnecessary.

Tables must be intelligible without reference to the text. Explain all abbreviations (except such standard statistical abbreviations as M, SD, and df). In the text, refer to tables by their numbers:

…  as shown in Table 8, the responses …

… children with pretraining (see Table 8) …

Do not write “the table above/below” or “the table on page 32.”

When preparing tables, all number should be reported using the same number of decimal places. For example, instead of 3.4, 2.56, and 1, you should report 3.40, 2.56, 1.00.

Table numbers . Number all tables in the text with Arabic numerals in the order in which the tables are first mentioned in the paper. Identify tables of the appendix with capital letters and Arabic numerals (e.g., Table A-1 is the first table of Appendix A, Table C-2 is the second table of Appendix C).

Table titles . Give every table a brief but clear and explanatory title. The title should be left justified and either underlined or in italics.

Examples . Samples of well-prepared tables are provided in the Appendix. Examine them carefully. Pay special attention to Table 3, an example of an ANOVA table. Note that the table includes columns for df and F but none for SS or MS. MS error is given in parentheses. See your comp advisor for additional help in preparing correct tables.

Figures.  A well-prepared figure can convey the qualitative aspects of data, such as comparisons, relationships, and structural or pictorial concepts, more efficiently than can text or tables.

Standards for figures . The standards for good figures are simplicity, clarity, and continuity. A good figure

* augments rather than duplicates the text * conveys only essential facts * is easy to read, with elements (type, lines, labels, etc.) * is large enough to be read with ease * is easy to understand–its purpose is readily apparent

Types of figures . Graphs show relationships–comparisons and distributions–in a set of data. There are four major types of figures, line graphs, bar graphs, scatter graphs, and photographs.

1. Line graphs are used to show the relation between two quantitative variables. They are most often used to show continuous change or when the shape of the curve or curves is important.

2. Bar graphs or histograms are simple, adaptable, and telegraphic. They are used when the independent variable is categorical (e.g., as with different experimental conditions).

3. Scatter graphs consist of single dots plotted on a line graph; the dots are not joined by lines. A cluster of dots along a diagonal indicates a correlation.

4. Photographs have excellent eye appeal. They should be of professional quality and should be prepared with a background that produces the greatest contrast.

Many of the design and execution problems involved in producing figures are reduced with the use of the computer. See Figures and Tables for details.

Placement of Figures and Tables . Until recently figures and tables were placed on separate pages in a manuscript. The new convention is that figures and tables may be incorporated directly into the body of a paper, if that is convenient. A figure or a table should appear after the first reference to it. That is, a statement such as, “see Figure 1” should appear before the figure is placed in the paper. If figures or tables are on separate pages, number these pages just as you do all pages in the paper. You may also wish to look at the Figures and Tables page for more details.

Typing Instructions & Finishing Touches

Regardless of whether your comp is a library project or an empirical study, there are some rules of appearance which reflect professional interest and concern for your work. The appearance of your paper has an effect on how it is received. A neat, clean manuscript indicates that the writer cared about the paper.

Senior projects should be typed on white paper and double spaced, using 1 inch margins on top, bottom, left and right side.  The Psychology Department requires preparation of the original plus two copies of your comprehensive project. The original is placed in the library, one copy is retained by the first reader, and the second copy is kept by the student. As a courtesy, ask the second reader if he or she would like to keep a copy of the comp. In most cases, the second reader will not wish a copy. However, if the second reader is particularly interested in the topic or the presentation, a copy may be desired. The Psychology Department will pay for one copy of the paper. If additional copies are needed for the second reader, for an outside agency that provided participants, etc., the Department will pay for these copies as well.

All the copies of the paper should be submitted in hard cover, three hole red binders available from the Bookstore. In the final orals, there may be recommendations for rewriting a section of the paper or for correcting typographical errors. All such changes must be made and the corrected copies of the paper returned to the first reader within one week of the oral presentation.

Ordering and Numbering Pages .  Pages are ordered in the following manner: preliminary pages, the body of the paper including tables and figures, references, and appendices. All preliminary pages (except the title and signature pages) are numbered using lower case Roman numerals. All other pages are numbered in the upper right hand corner of the page.

Length.  There is no department policy on the length of a senior project. Length depends on the topic, the available literature, and a number of other factors. Make certain that your paper covers the topic and that you can defend its length. Consultation with both the first and second reader is advisable when determining the length of a paper.

Word Processing .  A single copy of the paper should be produced on a letter quality printer with other copies being made at the College Print Shop.

In addition to word processing, the college has other software that may be useful to the comp writer. These include spelling checkers, grammar checkers, and software to help organize and outline a paper.

Proofreading .  Carefully proofread the final copy of the comp before you turn it in. In the process of copying the comp, pages may be missed or be placed out of order. Be especially careful if someone has helped you type the paper. The typists may have made minor changes or errors which are difficult to catch, even if you have used a spelling checker.

Manuscript Checklist .  The most common oversights in manuscript preparation are listed below. Pay special attention to these items before submitting your comp.

________ Is the manuscript double-spaced with the exception of long quotations? Has the entire paper been proofread?

________ Have you provided an abstract of appropriate length?

________ Have you checked for appropriate placement of headings?

Mathematics and Statistics

________ Have you underlined all letters used as statistical symbols?

________ Are journal titles in the reference list spelled out fully?

________ Are all references cited in the body of the paper included in the reference list?

________ Is every item in the reference list cited in the body of the paper?

________ Have you included page numbers for quotations in the body of the paper?

________ Have you included page numbers in citations when the material which is  paraphrased is from a book?

Tables and Figures

________ Do all tables and figures meet specifications for complete title, adequate  headings, etc.?

The final copy of your paper should not be printed until after your orals. It is most likely that you will be asked to make changes in the manuscript. Put these preliminary copies in binders or envelopes for each reader. After the orals, make any changes that you have been asked to make, print a final copy, and have this duplicated, and then signed by the members of your committee. The project is not considered complete until all these steps have been taken.

The Final Copy of the Paper

Project feedback .  An important element of the senior project oral examination is the feedback that is provided to the student on his or her performance. Students will be advised at the end of the oral as to whether their project is acceptable or not, i.e., did the student pass or not. In addition, specific comments will be made regarding both the oral and the written presentations.  However, the actual grade on the comp will not be available at this time.  The Psychology 600 grade will be included on the grade report provided by the Registrar at the end of the semester.

As part of these comments, students may be asked to make minor revisions to their paper. These revisions will be limited to the correction of spelling errors, changing small technical details, etc. Since making these changes is considered part of the original effort, the project will be graded assuming that the changes will be made. However, a student who fails to complete the corrections as required may have his or her grade lowered accordingly.

Grading the senior project .  At the end of the final orals, the student is asked to leave the room for a few minutes while the faculty discuss the student’s performance. Although the criteria for each letter grade differ somewhat among faculty, just as they do for any course, the department has agreed upon a set of factors which will influence that final grade. These criteria differ slightly for laboratory and library projects.

Laboratory research.  The following items are used to judge performance of a laboratory project.

a) Quality of the research idea or hypothesis. (Including originality, utility, uniqueness, etc.)

b) Conduct of the research. (A qualitative evaluation of how well the student conducted the project, including diligence, adherence to methodology, etc.)

c) Quality of the paper.

Introduction . (Is the problem clearly specified: Are the hypotheses clear? Does the paper logically lead to the hypothesis? Is the relevant research reviewed?)

Method . (Could a reader replicate the research given the information provided in this section? Are subheadings used correctly?)

Results . (Are the results presented in a clear logical manner? Are appropriate statistical tests employed? Are all significance levels stated clearly and accurately?)

Discussion . (Do the results of the study support the discussion? Are all results mentioned in the results section discussed? Are implications and/or applications of the study clearly stated?)

Format and Mechanics. (Do the tables and figures supplement rather than substitute for the text? Are tables and figures clearly and accurately presented?)

(Are preliminary pages included? Are all cited studies referenced? Are references presented correctly? Are appendices included when necessary? Are appendices presented clearly?)

d) Final conference. (Does the student understand what he or she has done? Can he or she explain the methods and procedures in a clear and logical manner? Does the student understand the relationship between this project and the wider research area or theory involved?)

Remember that these criteria are designed to indicate the range of items that are considered in assigning a grade. The weight given to each factor will vary from instructor to instructor.

Library research . The following items are used to judge performance of a library project.

b) Conduct of the research. (A qualitative evaluation of how well the student conducted the project, including diligence, willingness to seek assistance, discussion of the project with the advisors during the formation of the project and its completion.)

Introduction . (Is the problem clearly specified? Will the reader understand the scope of the problem from the introduction?)

Organization . (Are the chapters of the paper organized logically? Does the organization of the chapters lead the reader to the writer’s conclusions? Within a chapter are arguments organized logically?)

Justification . (Are statements justified in terms of relevant research and/or theory? Are studies interpreted correctly? Cited appropriately?)

Conclusions . (Are the conclusions supported by the cited data? Are the conclusions linked to the available research and/or theory or merely stated? Implications and applications of the project noted and justified?)

Format and Mechanics . (Are necessary preliminary pages included? Are all cited studies referenced? Are references presented correctly? Are appendices included when appropriate? Are appendices presented clearly and correctly?)

d) Final conference (Comp Oral). (Does the student understand what he/she has done? Can he/she explain the methods and procedures in a clear and logical manner? Does the student understand the relationship between this project and the wider research area or theory being investigated?)

e) After you have completed all your revisions, you are ready to go to the print shop for your final copies. You need to have one copy for each of your readers, spiral bound. The library copy is to be submitted online through the Digital Asset Management site. You will also need to submit the Permissions Form to the library.

Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding Theory

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.

It represents tasks beyond the learner’s current abilities but are attainable with the help and guidance of the more knowledgeable other (MKO). The ZPD is the range of tasks a person can’t complete independently but can accomplish with support.

Thus, the term “proximal” refers to skills the learner is “close” to mastering. The ZPD ensures challenge is not too hard or too easy.

ZPD is the zone where instruction is the most beneficial, as it is when the task is just beyond the individual’s capabilities.

To learn, we must be presented with tasks just out of our ability range. Challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth.

The zone of proximal development was developed by Soviet psychologist and social constructivist Lev Vygotsky (1896 – 1934).

Vygotsky introduced the ZPD concept to criticize psychometric testing which only measured current abilities, not potential for development. He argued assessment should be collaborative to reveal emerging skills.

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been defined as:

“the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).

For teachers, the ZPD is the space between current teaching knowledge and potential new level with assistance. Willingness to learn enables ZPD progression.

Vygotsky believed that when a student is in the zone of proximal development for a particular task, providing the appropriate assistance will give the student enough of a “boost” to achieve the task.

To assist a person to move through the zone of proximal development, educators are encouraged to focus on three important components which aid the learning process:

• The presence of someone with knowledge and skills beyond that of the learner (a more knowledgeable other).
• Social interactions with a skillful tutor that allow the learner to observe and practice their skills.
• Scaffolding, or supportive activities provided by the educator, or more competent peer, to support the student as he or she is led through the ZPD.

Scaffolding Theory

The ZPD has become synonymous in the literature with the term scaffolding. However, it is important to note that Vygotsky never used this term in his writing, and it was introduced by Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976).

Scaffolding consists of the activities provided by the educator, or more competent peer, to support the student as he or she is led through the zone of proximal development.

Support is tapered off (i.e., withdrawn) as it becomes unnecessary, much as a scaffold is removed from a building during construction. The student will then be able to complete the task again independently.

Wood et al. (1976, p. 90) define scaffolding as a process “that enables a child or novice to solve a task or achieve a goal that would be beyond his unassisted efforts.”

As they note, scaffolds require the adult to “controlling those elements of the task that are initially beyond the learner’s capability, thus permitting him to concentrate upon and complete only those elements that are within his range of competence” (p. 90).

It is important to note that the terms cooperative learning, scaffolding and guided learning all have the same meaning within the literature.

The following study provides empirical support both the concept of scaffolding and the ZPD.

Wood and Middleton (1975)

Procedure : 4-year-old children had to use a set of blocks and pegs to build a 3D model shown in a picture. Building the model was too difficult a task for a 4-year-old child to complete alone.

Wood and Middleton (1975) observed how mothers interacted with their children to build the 3D model. The type of support included:

• General encouragement e.g., ‘now you have a go.’ • Specific instructions e.g., ‘get four big blocks.’ • Direct demonstration, e.g., showing the child how to place one block on another.

The results of the study showed that no single strategy was best for helping the child to progress. Mothers whose assistance was most effective were those who varied their strategy according to how the child was doing.

When the child was doing well, they became less specific with their help. When the child started to struggle, they gave increasingly specific instructions until the child started to make progress again.

The study illustrates scaffolding and Vygotsky’s concept of the ZPD. Scaffolding (i.e., assistance) is most effective when the support is matched to the needs of the learner. This puts them in a position to achieve success in an activity that they would previously not have been able to do alone.

Wood et al. (1976) named certain processes that aid effective scaffolding:

• Gaining and maintaining the learner’s interest in the task.
• Making the task simple.
• Emphasizing certain aspects that will help with the solution.
• Control the child’s level of frustration.
• Demonstrate the task.

Intersubjectivity

Intersubjectivity is when two people (i.e., the child and helper) start a task together with different levels of skill and understanding, and both end up with a shared understanding.

As each member of the dyad adjusts to the perspective of the other, the helper has to translate their own insights in a ways that is within the grasp of the child, and the child develops a more complete understanding of the task.

It is essential that they work towards the same goal, otherwise there won’t be any collaboration. It is important that they negotiate, or compromise by always working for a shared view.

If you try to force someone to change their mind, then you”ll just get conflict. You need to stay within the boundaries of the other person’s zone of proximal development.

Example of Scaffolding

Vygotsky emphasized scaffolding, or providing support to learners to help them reach higher levels of understanding. This can be mapped to progressing through Bloom’s taxonomy , where educators scaffold tasks from basic understanding to more complex analysis and creation.

For example, a teacher might start by providing information (Remembering) and then ask questions that require understanding.

As students become more proficient, tasks can be scaffolded to require application, analysis, evaluation, and creation.

Example : In teaching a concept like photosynthesis:

• Remembering : The teacher provides the basic definition.
• Understanding : Students explain the process in their own words.
• Application : They might conduct an experiment on plants.
• Analysis : Dive deeper into how different variables affect the process.
• Evaluation : Debate the most critical components of photosynthesis.
• Creation : Design an optimal environment for plant growth.

Each step can be scaffolded, starting with substantial teacher support and gradually releasing responsibility to the students as they climb Bloom’s taxonomy, guiding students from foundational knowledge to higher-order thinking skills.

Scaffolding vs. Discovery Learning

Freund (1990) wanted to investigate if children learn more effectively via Piaget’s concept of discovery learning or guided learning via the ZPD.

She asked a group of children between the ages of three and five years to help a puppet decide which furniture should be placed in the various rooms of a doll’s house. First, Freund assessed what each child already understood about the placement of furniture (as a baseline measure).

Next, each child worked on a similar task, either alone (re: discovery-based learning) or with their mother (re: scaffolding / guided learning). To assess what each child had learned, they were each given a more complex, furniture sorting task.

The study’s results showed that children assisted by their mothers performed better at furniture sorting than the children who worked independently.

More Knowledgeable Other

The more knowledgeable other (MKO) refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level in a particular task, process, or concept than the learner.

It’s essential to note that the MKO isn’t necessarily an adult or a teacher. It could be a peer, a younger person, or even technology or media, as long as they provide the learner with the knowledge or scaffolding needed to perform a task.

Often, a child’s peers or an adult’s children may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience.

The relationship between the MKO and the ZPD is vital to Vygotsky’s theory. The MKO assists or scaffolds the learning experience to help the learner function within their ZPD.

Through this guidance, the learner can tackle and master tasks they couldn’t accomplish independently.

Over time, as the learner internalizes this support and becomes more capable, the scaffolding can be reduced, and the learner can perform the task without assistance. The ZPD moves as learners acquire new skills and knowledge with the help of the MKO.

In educational settings, the concepts of MKO and ZPD have inspired practices like cooperative learning, differentiated instruction, and scaffolded learning experiences.

Teachers aim to identify each student’s ZPD and then act as the MKO, or facilitate interactions with other MKOs, to provide the right level of support, allowing students to achieve and learn effectively.

Educational Applications

Vygotsky believes the role of education is to provide children with experiences which are in their ZPD, thereby encouraging and advancing their individual learning. (Berk, & Winsler, (1995).

“From a Vygotskian perspective, the teacher’s role is mediating the child’s learning activity as they share knowledge through social interaction” (Dixon-Krauss, 1996, p. 18).

Cooperative Learning

According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal instructions for the child.

Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or collaborative dialogue.

The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor (often the parent or teacher) and then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their own performance.

Lev Vygotsky views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers – within the zone of proximal development.

Scaffolding is a key feature of effective teaching, where the adult continually adjusts the level of his or her help in response to the learner’s level of performance.

In the classroom, scaffolding can include modeling a skill, providing hints or cues, and adapting material or activity (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

Consider these guidelines for scaffolding instruction (Silver, 2011).

• Assess the learner’s current knowledge and experience with the academic content.
• Relate content to what students already understand or can do.
• Break a task into small, more manageable tasks with opportunities for intermittent feedback.
• Use verbal cues and prompts to assist students.

Scaffolding not only produces immediate results, but also instills the skills necessary for independent problem-solving in the future.

A contemporary application of Vygotsky’s theories is “reciprocal teaching,” used to improve students” ability to learn from text.

In this method, teachers and students collaborate in learning and practicing four key skills: summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher’s role in the process is reduced over time.

Vygotsky’s theories also feed into current interest in collaborative learning, suggesting that group members should have different levels of ability so more advanced peers can help less advanced members operate within their zone of proximal development.

Examples of ZPD

Maria just entered college this semester and decided to take an introductory tennis course.  Her class spends each week learning and practicing a different shot.  Weeks go by, and they learn how to properly serve and hit a backhand.

During the week of learning the forehand, the instructor noticed that Maria was very frustrated because she kept hitting her forehand shots either into the net or far past the baseline.

He examines her preparation and swing.  He notices that her stance is perfect, she prepares early, she turns her torso appropriately, and she hits the ball at precisely the right height.

However, he notices that she is still gripping her racquet the same way she hits her backhand, so he goes over to her and shows her how to reposition her hand to hit a proper forehand, stressing that she should keep her index finger parallel to the racquet.

He models a good forehand for her, and then assists her in changing her grip. With a little practice, Maria’s forehand turns into a formidable weapon for her!

In this case, Maria was in the zone of proximal development for successfully hitting a forehand shot.  She was doing everything else correctly, but just needed a little coaching and scaffolding from a “More Knowledgeable Other” to help her succeed in this task.

When that assistance was given, she was able to achieve her goal. Provided with appropriate support at the right moments, students in classrooms will be able to achieve tasks that would otherwise be too difficult for them.

Clinical psychology trainees at the Center for Children and Families at Florida International University are trained using approaches aligned with Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (Hong & del Busto, 2020).

• Trainees are paired with more senior trainees (e.g., a first-year student with a second or third-year student) for co-therapy sessions. The senior trainee scaffolds the junior trainee’s learning by initially taking the lead and modeling skills, then gradually encouraging the junior trainee to become more independent in leading sessions as they demonstrate competence.
• This allows trainees to be involved in clinical care early in their training, with support and coaching from a more experienced peer. It meets them in their zone of proximal development – what they can do with guidance vs what they cannot yet do independently.
• Supervisors assign trainees different roles based on experience level. More senior trainees are given opportunities to develop supervisory skills by training junior peers. Junior trainees are supported in gaining clinical skills.
• The zone of proximal development concept is applied not just for patients in case conceptualization but also for trainees’ own professional development. Supervisors provide individualized support and scaffolding to help each trainee progress.

Social interaction, aided by cultural tools, supports teachers in developing new aspects of their practice and identity. The interpersonal activity facilitates the transformation of their teaching expertise.

This demonstrates the value of mediation through the ZPD (Shabani et al., 2010).

• Collaborative peers and mentors : Observing and discussing teaching practices with experienced colleagues helps teachers learn new instructional approaches and strategies. This social exchange facilitates development within their ZPD.
• Action research : By studying their own teaching through classroom inquiry, teachers can gain insights into improving their methods. The self-reflection shifts their ZPD forward.
• Diaries : Writing reflectively about teaching experiences enables teachers to analyze their development and assumptions. This metacognition expands their ZPD.
• Technology : Using digital tools and platforms introduces teachers to innovative teaching techniques. The technology mediates new pedagogical capabilities.
• TESOL discourse : Engaging with academic research and theory opens teachers to alternative perspectives on teaching and learning. This discourse stretches their ZPD.
• Coursework : Formal professional development courses scaffold teachers’ learning of new knowledge and competencies. The instruction targets their ZPD.
• Student data : Responses and achievement metrics provide feedback to teachers on areas needing growth. This evidence shifts teachers’ self-perception.

Berk, L., & Winsler, A. (1995). Scaffolding children’s learning: Vygotsky and early childhood learning. Washington, DC: National Association for Education of Young Children.

Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs . Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Dixon-Krauss, L. (1996). Vygotsky in the classroom. Mediated literacy instruction and assessment. White Plains, NY: Longman Publishers.

Freund, L. S. (1990). Maternal Regulation of Children’s Problem-solving behavior and Its Impact on Children’s Performance. Child Development , 61, 113-126.

Hong, N., & del Busto, C. T. (2020). Collaboration, scaffolding, and successive approximations: A developmental science approach to training in clinical psychology.  Training and Education in Professional Psychology ,  14 (3), 228.

Shabani, K., Khatib, M., & Ebadi, S. (2010). Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development: Instructional implications and teachers’ professional development.  English Language Teaching ,  3 (4), 237-248.

Silver, D. (2011). Using the ‘Zone’Help Reach Every Learner. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 47(sup1) , 28-31.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wass, R., & Golding, C. (2014). Sharpening a tool for teaching: the zone of proximal development.  Teaching in Higher Education ,  19 (6), 671-684.

Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psychiatry , 17, 89−100.

Wood, D., & Middleton, D. (1975). A study of assisted problem-solving. British Journal of Psychology , 66(2), 181−191.

Further Reading

• Educational implications of Vygotsky’s ZPD
• Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development: Instructional Implications and Teachers” Professional Development
• Scaffolds for Learning: The Key to Guided Instruction

What Is a Word Salad in Speech or Writing?

 ballyscanlon/Getty Images

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

The metaphorical expression   word salad  (or word-salad ) refers to the practice of stringing together words that have no apparent connection to one another—an extreme case of jumbled speech or disorderly  writing . Also called (in psychology)  paraphrasia .

Psychiatric clinicians use the term word salad to refer to a rare form of disorganized speech:

• Campbell's Psychiatric Dictionary ...a group of neologisms ," according to Robert Jean Campbell. "They are meaningless until the patient discusses the neologisms at length, thus revealing their underlying significance. It is a coded language, not unlike dreams in principle; the patient holds the table to the code and only he can provide meanings to the otherwise incomprehensible dialect .

Examples and Observations

• Manfred Spitzer [Psychiatrist Eugen] Bleuler described the relatively high frequency of indirect, oblique, or remote, associations in schizophrenic patients. This type of association, observed either in spontaneous speech or in the word-association test, goes from one word to another word via a not overtly spoken intermediate word. One of Bleuler's examples is wood-dead cousin . At first glance, this association appears to be a complete word salad . However, if you know that a cousin of the patient had died recently and was buried in a wooden coffin, it becomes obvious that this was, in fact, an indirect association, from wood to wooden coffin to dead cousin .
• D. Frank Benson and Alfredo Ardila Neologistic and semantic jargon are the primary components of a schizophrenic language output that has been termed word salad , an apt phrase for the mixture of misused linguistic features produced by the schizophrenic subject. Much more often, however, word salad is based on brain damage (Benson, 1979a).
• Noam Chomsky Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
• Susan Neville When there are recognizable words but no one else can make sense of them, they call it ' word salad .' No one ever thinks to call it music.
• Gregory Corso How nice it'd be to come home to her and sit by the fireplace and she in the kitchen aproned young and lovely wanting my baby and so happy about me she burns the roast beef and comes crying to me and I get up from my big papa chair saying Christmas teeth! Radiant brains! Apple deaf! God what a husband I'd make!

Word Salads and Creative Writing

• Heather Sellers The next key characteristic of schizophrenia was the tendency toward 'word salad.' There was an example, a rambling block quotation that strung together a grandmother's death, sunlight, dinner, and cats that didn't exist, interspersed with inappropriate laughter. Again not my mother. Again more like me. 'Word salad' was the exact name of a writing exercise I gave my students at the beginning of the year. In a piece of writing, those moves from death to dinner could be crucial, heartbreaking. I opened a fat gray volume titled Schizophrenia . I found a chart that listed the warning signs of the disease: birth complications, separation from parents, withdrawn behavior, emotional unpredictability, poor peer relations, solo play. One could also consider this the recipe for becoming an artist, a writer.

Word-Salad Poetry

• Nancy Bogen [Y]ou mustn't become so enamored of the sounds you're using as to lose sight of your meaning. To do so would be tantamount to creating word-salad , and even as a form of rebellion, that won't do, it simply won't. Why? Because it's been done too many times already and by now it's just plain boring, as boring as saying the same word or phrase over and over like a mantra. If people found it on a printed page, they'd simply shrug and move on; if they heard you reading it aloud, they'd just tune out. So what, some of you are saying? So plenty; you're supposed to be communicating—poetry is a special form of communication between yourself, the poet, and others who want to or may be persuaded to hear what you have to say in your language.

Word-Salad Spam

• Pui-Wing Tam Word-salad spam has become especially problematic in the last year, say antispam software companies. The technique of stringing together gibberish phrases was devised specifically to dodge a sophisticated type of screening technology, known as a Bayesian filter, which gained popularity in 2003.
• What is Clang Association?
• agrammatism
• Definition and Examples of Baby Talk or Caregiver Speech
• Direct Speech Definition and Examples
• Definition and Examples of Word Boundaries
• Definition and Examples of English Pronunciation
• Definition and Examples of Back-Formation
• Word Words (English)
• Reported Speech
• Biased Language Definition and Examples
• Definitions and Examples of Filler Words
• Pejorative Language
• The Definition of Taboo Language
• Ellipsis: Definition and Examples in Grammar
• Indirect Speech Definition and Examples
• What Are Nonsense Words?

Speaking And Writing Compared

Spoken and written language both have as their central function the communication of information about people and the world, and so it is common-sensical to assume that there are important similarities between speaking and writing. On the other hand, children and adults often find writing much harder than speaking, suggesting there are major differences between the productions of spoken and written language. Speaking and writing will now be compared.

Similarities

The view that speaking and writing are similar receives some support if we compare the theoretical approach to speech production of Dell et al. (1997) with the theory of writing proposed by Hayes and Flower (1986). In both theories, it is assumed there is an initial attempt to decide on the overall meaning that is to be communicated. At this stage, the actual words to be spoken or written are not considered. This is followed by the production of language, which often proceeds on a clause-by-clause basis.

Gould (1978) compared dictated and written business letters. Even those highly practised at dictation rarely dictated more than 35% faster than they wrote. This is noteworthy, given that people can speak five or six times faster than they can write. Gould (1980) divided the time taken to dictate and to write letters into various component times. His participants were videotaped while composing letters, and the generating, reviewing, accessing, editing, and planning times were calculated. Planning, which was assumed to occur during pauses not obviously devoted to other processes, accounted for more of the total time than any other process. Planning time represented about two-thirds of the total composition time for both dictated and written letters, and this explains why dictation was only slightly faster than writing.

Gould (1978) compared the quality of letter writing across three different response modes: writing; dictating; and speaking. Those who wrote very good letters also tended to dictate and to speak very good letters. The quality of letter writing is determined mainly by internal planning processes, and these processes are essentially the same regardless of the type of response. In addition, the knowledge that someone possesses (e.g., vocabulary; specific knowledge of the topic) is available for use whether that person is writing, speaking, or dictating. However, some of the findings may be specific to business letters. The absence of visual feedback with dictation might be a real disadvantage when composing essays or longer pieces of writing.

Differences

How do speaking and writing differ? Spoken language makes use of prosody (rhythm, intonation, and so on) to convey meaning and grammatical information, and gesture is also used for emphasis. In contrast, writers have to rely heavily on punctuation to supply the information provided by prosody in spoken language. Writers also make much more use than speakers of words or phrases signalling what is coming next (e.g., but; on the other hand). This helps to compensate for the lack of prosody in written language. Four of the most obvious differences between speaking and writing are as follows:

• Speakers typically know precisely who is receiving their message.

• Speakers generally receive moment-by-moment feedback from the listener or listeners (e.g., expressions of bewilderment).

• Speakers generally have much less time than writers to plan their language production.

• "Writing is in essence a more conscious process than speaking. spontaneous discourse is usually spoken, self-monitored discourse is usually written" (Halliday, 1987, pp. 67-69).

As a result, spoken language is generally fairly informal and simple in structure, with information often being communicated rapidly. In contrast, written language is more formal and complex in structure. Writers need to write clearly because they do not receive immediate feedback, and this slows down the communication rate.

Cognitive neuropsychologists have found that some brain-damaged patients have writing skills that are largely intact in spite of an almost total inability to speak and a lack of inner speech. Others can speak fluently, but find writing very difficult. In addition, there are other patients whose patterns of errors in speaking and in writing differ so much that it is hard to believe that a single system could underlie both language activities. However, these findings do not mean that the higher-level processes involved in language production (e.g., planning; use of knowledge) differ between speaking and writing.

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Readers' Questions

What are the similarities and differences between writing and speaking?

Similarities between writing and speaking: 1. Both involve communication: Both writing and speaking are mediums used for expressing ideas, thoughts, and messages to others. 2. Use of language: Both writing and speaking rely on the use of language to convey meaning and communicate effectively. They both require a strong understanding of grammar, vocabulary, and sentence structure. 3. Purpose: Both writing and speaking serve similar purposes, such as to inform, persuade, entertain, or engage an audience. 4. Organization: Both writing and speaking require the information to be organized in a logical manner, with clear introduction, body, and conclusion. Differences between writing and speaking: Presence of audience: Speaking involves direct interaction with an audience, while writing often requires the writer to imagine the reader. Speaking allows for immediate feedback and adjustments, while writing lacks real-time interaction. Medium: Speaking occurs in real-time, where communication is delivered through auditory and nonverbal cues, whereas writing is a visual medium that is read and interpreted at the reader's own pace. Permanence: Written messages are usually permanent, allowing the reader to revisit and refer back to the content at any time. Speaking, on the other hand, is transient, and once uttered, the words cannot be retracted or modified. Level of formality: Writing tends to be more formal due to its nature of being planned, structured, and often edited. Speaking, on the other hand, allows for more informal and spontaneous expression, with the use of slang, colloquialisms, or conversational language. Nonverbal cues: Speaking involves various nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions, gestures, and tone of voice, which can enhance or alter the meaning of the message. In writing, nonverbal cues are absent, and the message relies solely on the written words.

How would the process differ between language production and writing?

Language production involves using the spoken word to produce language—such as talking out loud or using vocal sounds—while writing involves using a writing instrument, such as a pen or pencil, to communicate through written words. The process of language production relies on the speaker's use of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation to communicate, while writing requires the writer to physically produce written words that reflect the intended message. Additionally, language production can include gestures and non-verbal communication, while writing is composed only of written words.

What are the similarities of speaking and writing?

There are several similarities between speaking and writing: Communication: Both speaking and writing serve as means of communication to convey thoughts, ideas, and information to others. Language: Both rely on the use of a specific language and its rules, vocabulary, grammar, and syntax. Expression: Both provide a platform for self-expression and the ability to express personal opinions, emotions, and experiences. Purpose: Both speaking and writing can have various purposes such as informing, persuading, entertaining, or expressing oneself. Audience: Both require the consideration of the target audience to effectively convey the message and ensure understanding. Content organization: Both speaking and writing involve organizing thoughts and ideas in a structured and coherent manner to convey a clear message. Use of tone: Both speaking and writing can utilize different tones such as formal, informal, persuasive, or informative to cater to the context and audience. Use of non-verbal cues: While writing lacks non-verbal cues like body language and facial expressions, it can still incorporate elements such as punctuation, formatting, and the choice of words to convey similar messages. Revision and editing: Both speaking and writing often require revising and editing to improve clarity, coherence, and effectiveness of the message. Influence: Both speaking and writing have the potential to influence and impact others' opinions, perceptions, and actions.

What is the similarties between writing and speaking discource?

Both writing and speaking discourse involve conveying ideas in an organized and coherent way. Both rely on effective communication and the use of language to make an argument or point. Both also require the writer or speaker to be knowledgeable about their topic and to have an understanding of their audience. Additionally, both writing and speaking discourse require careful use of grammar and syntax to ensure clarity.

What is speaking in cognitive psychology?

Speaking in cognitive psychology refers to how people process language, including how they interpret, store, and recall language. This includes things like how quickly a person can understand and remember words, how well they can detect and understand syntax and grammar, and how they use language to think and communicate. It also includes how they use language to remember things, recognize patterns, and make decisions.

Speech Writing

Speech Examples

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Public speaking can be daunting for students. They often struggle to start, engage the audience, and be memorable. It's a fear of forgetting words or losing the audience's interest.

This leads to anxiety and self-doubt. Students wonder, "Am I boring them? Will they remember what I say? How can I make my speech better?"

The solution lies in speech examples. In this guide, we'll explore these examples to help students create captivating and memorable speeches with confidence.

So, keep reading to find helpful examples!

• 1. Speech Examples 
• 2. Tips to Write a Good Speech

Speech Examples 

Talking in front of a bunch of audiences is not as easy as it seems. But, if you have some good content to deliver or share with the audience, the confidence comes naturally.

Before you start writing your speech, it is a good idea that you go through some good speech samples. The samples will help to learn how to start the speech and put information into a proper structure. 

Speech Examples for Students 

Speech writing is a huge part of academic life. These types of writing help enhance the creative writing skills of students.

Here is an amazing farewell speech sample for students to learn how to write an amazing speech that will captivate the audience.

Below, you will find other downloadable PDF samples.

Speech Examples for Students

Every school and college has a student council. And every year, students elect themselves to be a part of the student council. It is mandatory to impress the student audience to get their votes. And for that, the candidate has to give an impressive speech. 

Here are some speech examples pdf for students.

Speech Examples For Public Speaking

Speech Examples About Yourself

Speech Examples Short

Speech Examples For College Students

Speech For Student Council

Speech Examples Introduction

Speech Example For School

Persuasive Speech Examples

The main purpose of a speech is to persuade the audience or convince them of what you say. And when it comes to persuasive speech , the sole purpose of speech becomes more specific.

Persuasive Speech Example

Informative Speech Examples

Informative speeches are intended to inform the audience. These types of speeches are designed to provide a detailed description of the chosen topic. 

Below we have provided samples of informative speech for you.

Informative Speech Example

Informative Speech Sample

Entertainment Speech Examples

Entertainment speeches are meant to entertain the audience. These types of speeches are funny, as well as interesting. The given speech samples will help you in writing an entertaining speech.

Entertainment Speech Example

Entertainment Speech Sample

Argumentative Speech Examples

Making a strong argument that is capable of convincing others is always difficult. And, when it comes to making a claim in an argumentative speech, it becomes more difficult. 

Check out the argumentative speech sample that demonstrates explicitly how an argumentative speech needs to be written.

Argumentative Speech Example

Demonstration Speech Examples

The demonstrative speeches are intended to demonstrate or describe the speech topic in depth. Get inspired by the demonstrative speech sample given below and write a captivating demonstrative speech.

Demonstration Speech Example

Demonstration Speech Sample

Motivational Speech Examples

Motivational speeches are designed to motivate the audience to do something. Read out the sample motivational speech given below and learn the art of motivational speech writing.

Impromptu Speech Examples

Impromptu speech writing makes you nervous as you are not good at planning and organization?

Check out the sample impromptu speech and learn to make bullet points of your thoughts and plan your speech properly.

Graduation Speech Examples

Are you graduating soon and need to write a graduation farewell speech?

Below is a sample graduation speech for your help. 

Wedding Speech Examples

“My best friend’s wedding is next week, and I’m the maid of honor. She asked me to give the maid of honor speech, but I’m not good at expressing emotions. I’m really stressed. I don’t know what to do.”

If you are one of these kinds of people who feel the same way, this sample is for you. Read the example given below and take help from it to write a special maid of honor speech.

Best Man Speech Examples

Father of The Bride Speech Example

Speech Essay Example

A speech essay is a type of essay that you write before writing a proper speech. It helps in organizing thoughts and information. 

Here is a sample of speech essays for you to understand the difference between speech format and speech essay format.

Tips to Write a Good Speech

Reading some famous and incredible sample speeches before writing your own speech is really a good idea. The other way to write an impressive speech is to follow the basic tips given by professional writers. 

• Audience Analysis: Understand your audience's interests, knowledge, and expectations. Tailor your speech to resonate with them.
• Clear Purpose: Define a clear and concise purpose for your speech. Ensure your audience knows what to expect right from the beginning.
• Engaging Opening: Start with a captivating hook – a story, question, quote, or surprising fact to grab your audience's attention.
• Main Message: Identify and convey your main message or thesis throughout your speech.
• Logical Structure: Organize your speech with a clear structure, including an introduction, body, and conclusion.
• Transitions: Use smooth transitions to guide your audience through different parts of your speech.
• Conversational Tone: Use simple, conversational language to make your speech accessible to everyone.
• Timing: Respect the allocated time and write the speech accordingly. An overly long or short speech can diminish the audience's engagement.
• Emotional Connection: Use storytelling and relatable examples to evoke emotions and connect with your audience.
• Call to Action (if appropriate): Encourage your audience to take action, change their thinking, or ponder new ideas.
• Practice Natural Pace: Speak at a natural pace, avoiding rushing or speaking too slowly.

So, now you know that effective communication is a powerful tool that allows you to inform, persuade, and inspire your audience. Throughout this blog, we've provided you with numerous examples and invaluable tips to help you craft a compelling speech. 

And for those moments when you require a professionally written speech that truly stands out, remember that our team is here to help. We can rescue you from writer's block and deliver an outstanding speech whenever you need it.

With our professional essay writing service , you can be confident in your ability to communicate your message effectively and leave a lasting impact. 

So, don't hesitate – place order now and buy speech that will truly captivate your audience.

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Aphasia, a communication disorder, is a result of injury or damage to the area of the brain that processes language and communication. People with aphasia have difficulty understanding and expressing language. Aphasia can manifest in both spoken and written forms—a person may have a hard time speaking and understanding spoken words. They may also have difficulty with reading and writing words. This can appear after a head injury , stroke, infection, or problems and conditions such as a brain tumor or neurological diseases such as Alzheimer’s and dementia .

• Types of Aphasia
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Aphasia varies widely and depends on the severity of the damage and the area of the brain. It is not an uncommon neurocognitive problem, some 25 to 40 percent of people who survive a stroke experience aphasia. A stroke is a common precursor for aphasia —blood flow to the brain is interrupted, which can result in damage to brain areas that process language. This condition can profoundly affect a person’s quality of life.

Aphasia happens across age brackets. But it is more likely in older adults because of problems like stroke and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and others.

This is a severe type of aphasia , where multiple language areas in the brain have been injured and affected—perhaps by a stroke or brain injury. People with global aphasia have impaired comprehension of single words, full sentences, and whole conversations. They may understand very little that is relayed to them.

This is also called non-fluent or expressive aphasia. The person who suffers from this has a diminished ability to speak spontaneously. They also cannot remember conjunctions and prepositions—"for," "and," "nor," "but," to name a few of many examples. They may understand what is being said to them, and they may be able to understand what they read.

This is also called fluent or receptive aphasia. People who suffer from this can relay connected speech, but they do not understand the meaning of words, may speak nonsense words, speak the wrong words, and have difficulty with written words. They may be unaware of what they are saying.

This is a milder form of expressive aphasia, and people with anomic aphasia cannot find the specific words, especially nouns and verbs, they are thinking about when speaking and writing. They may forget the word apple when looking at an apple.

This type of aphasia is similar to Broca’s, where speech is sparse and effortful, and not spontaneous. It is also similar to Wernicke’s aphasia, where the person is limited in their comprehension of speech.

• Perseverative aphasia: This unintentional repetition of words is also called recurrent perseveration. The conversation has moved on, but the person is still on the previous topic.

• Conductive aphasia: A person with this type of aphasia has halting speech, they are pausing to find the right word, and sometimes they settle on a tangential word.

• Paraphasia: This is also an expressive or receptive type where the person replaces words with wrong and unrelated words.

While aphasia can sometimes improve without treatment, speech and language therapy may be recommended. A speech and language therapist models correct speech and articulation and helps to build language skills.

This approach involves constraining the use of non-verbal communication methods, and encouraging the use of verbal communication; it can promote language recovery.

Various software applications and digital tools are available to aid in language therapy and practice. These can be used under the guidance of a speech therapist or independently.

This is a therapeutic approach that instructs people affected by aphasia and their loved ones in effective communication, both verbal and nonverbal. These strategies encompass various methods like drawing, gesturing, using cues, confirming information, and summarizing discussions to facilitate improved interaction.

A study in Finland found that singing can be an effective treatment. In the study, 50 aphasic  subjects joined a choir for a four-month period. The participants had varying degrees of impairment, from mild to severe. This intervention improved everyday communication and the benefits helped at a four-month follow-up.

”As the song goes…” How can singing help with finding lost words and improving psychosocial functioning after a stroke?

As Bruce Willis's condition reveals, aphasia is an isolating condition that stifles the ability to express or understand language.

Aphasia may impair a person’s ability to speak and understand others but does not affect their intelligence. It is a language disorder, not a cognitive disorder.

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How chatgpt can make writing easier — and what to avoid.

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Close up stock photograph of a mature man studying a see-through computer monitor that’s displaying ... [+] text provided by an AI (artificial intelligence) chatbot.

The launch of ChatGPT 17 months ago is considered by many to be a technological inflection point as significant as the launch of the integrated circuit, the internet, and the iPhone. As with any such disruption, each novelty brings out legions of detractors and supporters.

To address both sides of the issue, let’s examine the positive aspects of ChatGPT and, as a cautionary tale, allay the concerns of the detractors.

Generating content

As soon as ChatGPT came out, students started using the technology to do their written assignments which led to charges of cheating as this article by Michael Nietzel indicates. Businesspeople, too, started using the technology to do their daily work—emails, reports, marketing communications, product/service descriptions—and while businesspeople are not likely to be charged with cheating, the practice does have the downside of coming across as either bland, generic, or flowery. The title and subtitle of an article in The Atlantic says it all: “ChatGPT is Dumber Than You Think: Treat it like a toy not a tool.”

Instead, set an honor code for yourself. Never use generative AI tools to generate content from scratch. First, do a rough draft of your own. Then turn to the bot as a productivity tool and prompt it for a draft. Use any ideas or phrases from the bot and work them into a second draft of your own. Be sure you keep both drafts separate to maintain the integrity of your honor code.

Editing content

Read that second draft, now focusing on the language. To heighten the accuracy and color of your description, query the bot again for synonymous words or idiomatic phrases. You can also use dictionary.com, thesaurus.com, or Google’s Power Thesaurus, but if you give ChatGPT a sense of what you’re looking for, its natural language can provide closer suggestions. Don’t just cherry-pick from the list; use your native intuition to make the choice that fits best.

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Apple s iphone 16 pro design revealed in new leak, charlotte shooting 4 officers killed while serving warrant, enriching content.

As you develop your text, look for additional information that supports and adds depth to your ideas. If the information you find is lengthy or complex, copy and paste it into the bot and prompt it to simplify. Read the simplification and then work the information into your original draft using your own words.

During the process, be sure to double check the accuracy of your research. ChatGPT is often not only inaccurate but as this New York Times article reports, can provide misinformation.

Polishing content

Continue to review your text. Remember that one of the most frequently cited adages among professional writers is “Writing is rewriting.” With each review, you should be implementing a practice known as “Spaced Learning,” or walking away from your text. It’s a human technique that predates ChatGPT. For context, the opposite of Spaced Learning is cramming—need I say more?

In using ChatGPT and other generative AI tools this way, you will be implementing “error-driven learning,” a practice drawn from technology that enables and improves human thinking. In a recent Wall Street Journal article , Professor Charan Ranganath who runs the Dynamic Memory Lab at the Center for Neuroscience at the University of California, Davis, references the work of two cognitive psychologist in 1990 who noted that “neural network models of artificial intelligence learn through trial and error.” Professor Ranganath then ran an experiment in his lab that “used neural network models to simulate what happens in the hippocampus—a critical brain area for rapid learning.” His results found “that the human brain can learn and retain far more through trial and error.”

So go ahead and use ChatGPT to help you generate, edit, enrich, and polish your content, but be sure to keep your hand on the tiller by using an equal measure of your own human capabilities.

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Humza Yousaf, Scotland’s departing first minister, and the art of the resignation speech

Senior Lecturer in Political Communications, Nottingham Trent University

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Humza Yousaf’s resignation as first minister of Scotland was, in the end, expected, after a chain of events made his position untenable. It was trailed from early in the morning that he would be resigning, so when he finally addressed the media at lunchtime, there was no sense of shock in the room.

The departure speeches of government leaders are of course as varied as the reasons for which they are given. But there are consistencies across the genre, too.

Such speeches are usually between about 12 and 20 minutes long and follow what is crudely called the “turd sandwich” approach. They begin with a justification of the politician’s record in office, focusing on key successes and innovations. They then make comments about the future of politics – perhaps swiping at certain opponents or even members of their own party – and encourage public vigilance around certain issues. The speech will then conclude with broad comments about what the resigning leader may do in the future, observations that it has been an honour and pleasure to serve the public of “this great nation” and thanks to those who have helped in their career, including family and friends. Often a wife, husband or partner will stand dutifully at their side while the speech is made.

Yousaf spoke for just under 10 minutes , which may be a reflection of his short tenure of just over one year. He also largely resisted the urge to take swipes at others. He “genuinely” wished his party and the opposition well and said he had no ill feeling towards anyone. This may be a reflection of his own culpability in his downfall, but also his age (39) and his thoughts about what may be to come.

Yousaf welled up somewhat when he talked about the support of his wife and family, and this is a common occurrence in departure speeches. Gordon Brown was visibly upset as he spoke for the last time as prime minister in 2010, as was Theresa May in 2019. There are famous photographs of Margaret Thatcher in tears in the back of the car as she left Downing Street in 1990.

Staying humble

Few politicians are afforded the luxury of a departure on their own terms or even under the relatively steady circumstances of a regular turnover of democratic power. Many leave amid the chaos of governmental collapse or being stabbed in the back by rivals. Some leave in light of accusations of wrongdoing or mismanagement.

The context of the departure is important. However, it is often the character of the leader that matters more when it comes to the content and tone of the speech. Some leaders are simply more gracious and eloquent than others and Yousaf managed to convey a sense of humbleness, despite the frustrating circumstances.

This is in contrast to Kevin Rudd who gave one of the most compelling departure speeches at the end of his first stint as prime minister of Australia in 2010. Rudd was unable to speak at times due to his level of emotion, but was also clearly furious at being forced out by his deputy, and then successor, Julia Gillard. His jaw clenched and his words almost hissed at times.

Lost to history?

Few departure speeches are memorable. This is because they tend to have little bearing on policy and contain no profound political message. They also rarely contain any revealing or helpful information about the circumstances that underpin the departure. But there are some exceptions.

Japanese politician Ryutaro Nonomura’s memorable resignation speech went viral in 2014 when he sobbed incoherently and banged his fist on the desk after he had been accused of abusing his expenses.

In terms of importance of content though, the standout departure speech was probably made by US President Dwight Eisenhower when he left the White House in 1961 after two terms in office. Historical records tell us that Eisenhower put a lot of time into drafting his speech and wrote most of it himself. In it he made a profound critique of American politics and society and its direction of travel. He also coined a new term that remains in regular use today: the “military-industrial complex”.

In terms of fundamental issues, facing his country, Yousaf did mention Scottish independence and Scotland’s soft power overseas. But he refrained from discussing climate change and the debate about gender – which were key areas of disagreement with the Green party and Alba party and contributed to his demise. This was not a speech that is likely to be remembered – but perhaps, given the circumstances of his departure, and his own role in it, Yousaf would prefer it that way.

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Seats Still Available in Required Classes This Summer

Looking to stay on track with your degree requirements this Summer? There are still seats available in several courses being offered by the Department of Psychological Science.

Taking Summer classes can help you reach your goals more quickly, allow you to concentrate on one course at a time, and allow you to complete prerequisite requirements before the start of the Fall semester. Summer classes are also a great way to save money, as Summer per-credit rates are lower than Fall and Spring per-credit rates for regular courses. Financial aid is also available. To learn more about Summer classes,  visit the Boise State website .

Registration for Summer classes operates on a first-come, first-served basis.  Keep reading to learn more about what is still available, and feel free to  reach out to PSYC Advising  with any questions.

PSYC 120: Introduction to the Psychology Major

PSYC 120 is a 2-credit course required for all Psychology majors. In this class, you’ll learn about career options in the field of Psychology and how you can set yourself up for success as a college graduate.

PSYC 295: Statistical Methods

PSYC 295 is a 3-credit course required for all Psychology majors. In this class, you’ll be introduced to statistical concepts and methods frequently used in the analysis of data in the social sciences.

PSYC 321: Research Methods

PSYC 321 is a 4-credit course required for all Psychology majors. In this class, you’ll learn about how research is conducted in the field of psychology, data collection methods, data analysis, and practice research report writing.

Click here to view the full list of courses being offered by the Department of Psychological Science this Summer.