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Narrative Analysis – Types, Methods and Examples

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Narrative Analysis

Definition:

Narrative analysis is a qualitative research methodology that involves examining and interpreting the stories or narratives people tell in order to gain insights into the meanings, experiences, and perspectives that underlie them. Narrative analysis can be applied to various forms of communication, including written texts, oral interviews, and visual media.

In narrative analysis, researchers typically examine the structure, content, and context of the narratives they are studying, paying close attention to the language, themes, and symbols used by the storytellers. They may also look for patterns or recurring motifs within the narratives, and consider the cultural and social contexts in which they are situated.

Types of Narrative Analysis

Types of Narrative Analysis are as follows:

Content Analysis

This type of narrative analysis involves examining the content of a narrative in order to identify themes, motifs, and other patterns. Researchers may use coding schemes to identify specific themes or categories within the text, and then analyze how they are related to each other and to the overall narrative. Content analysis can be used to study various forms of communication, including written texts, oral interviews, and visual media.

Structural Analysis

This type of narrative analysis focuses on the formal structure of a narrative, including its plot, character development, and use of literary devices. Researchers may analyze the narrative arc, the relationship between the protagonist and antagonist, or the use of symbolism and metaphor. Structural analysis can be useful for understanding how a narrative is constructed and how it affects the reader or audience.

Discourse Analysis

This type of narrative analysis focuses on the language and discourse used in a narrative, including the social and cultural context in which it is situated. Researchers may analyze the use of specific words or phrases, the tone and style of the narrative, or the ways in which social and cultural norms are reflected in the narrative. Discourse analysis can be useful for understanding how narratives are influenced by larger social and cultural structures.

Phenomenological Analysis

This type of narrative analysis focuses on the subjective experience of the narrator, and how they interpret and make sense of their experiences. Researchers may analyze the language used to describe experiences, the emotions expressed in the narrative, or the ways in which the narrator constructs meaning from their experiences. Phenomenological analysis can be useful for understanding how people make sense of their own lives and experiences.

Critical Analysis

This type of narrative analysis involves examining the political, social, and ideological implications of a narrative, and questioning its underlying assumptions and values. Researchers may analyze the ways in which a narrative reflects or reinforces dominant power structures, or how it challenges or subverts those structures. Critical analysis can be useful for understanding the role that narratives play in shaping social and cultural norms.

Autoethnography

This type of narrative analysis involves using personal narratives to explore cultural experiences and identity formation. Researchers may use their own personal narratives to explore issues such as race, gender, or sexuality, and to understand how larger social and cultural structures shape individual experiences. Autoethnography can be useful for understanding how individuals negotiate and navigate complex cultural identities.

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying themes or patterns that emerge from the data, and then interpreting these themes in relation to the research question. Researchers may use a deductive approach, where they start with a pre-existing theoretical framework, or an inductive approach, where themes are generated from the data itself.

Narrative Analysis Conducting Guide

Here are some steps for conducting narrative analysis:

• Identify the research question: Narrative analysis begins with identifying the research question or topic of interest. Researchers may want to explore a particular social or cultural phenomenon, or gain a deeper understanding of a particular individual’s experience.
• Collect the narratives: Researchers then collect the narratives or stories that they will analyze. This can involve collecting written texts, conducting interviews, or analyzing visual media.
• Transcribe and code the narratives: Once the narratives have been collected, they are transcribed into a written format, and then coded in order to identify themes, motifs, or other patterns. Researchers may use a coding scheme that has been developed specifically for the study, or they may use an existing coding scheme.
• Analyze the narratives: Researchers then analyze the narratives, focusing on the themes, motifs, and other patterns that have emerged from the coding process. They may also analyze the formal structure of the narratives, the language used, and the social and cultural context in which they are situated.
• Interpret the findings: Finally, researchers interpret the findings of the narrative analysis, and draw conclusions about the meanings, experiences, and perspectives that underlie the narratives. They may use the findings to develop theories, make recommendations, or inform further research.

Applications of Narrative Analysis

Narrative analysis is a versatile qualitative research method that has applications across a wide range of fields, including psychology, sociology, anthropology, literature, and history. Here are some examples of how narrative analysis can be used:

• Understanding individuals’ experiences: Narrative analysis can be used to gain a deeper understanding of individuals’ experiences, including their thoughts, feelings, and perspectives. For example, psychologists might use narrative analysis to explore the stories that individuals tell about their experiences with mental illness.
• Exploring cultural and social phenomena: Narrative analysis can also be used to explore cultural and social phenomena, such as gender, race, and identity. Sociologists might use narrative analysis to examine how individuals understand and experience their gender identity.
• Analyzing historical events: Narrative analysis can be used to analyze historical events, including those that have been recorded in literary texts or personal accounts. Historians might use narrative analysis to explore the stories of survivors of historical traumas, such as war or genocide.
• Examining media representations: Narrative analysis can be used to examine media representations of social and cultural phenomena, such as news stories, films, or television shows. Communication scholars might use narrative analysis to examine how news media represent different social groups.
• Developing interventions: Narrative analysis can be used to develop interventions to address social and cultural problems. For example, social workers might use narrative analysis to understand the experiences of individuals who have experienced domestic violence, and then use that knowledge to develop more effective interventions.

Examples of Narrative Analysis

Here are some examples of how narrative analysis has been used in research:

• Personal narratives of illness: Researchers have used narrative analysis to examine the personal narratives of individuals living with chronic illness, to understand how they make sense of their experiences and construct their identities.
• Oral histories: Historians have used narrative analysis to analyze oral histories to gain insights into individuals’ experiences of historical events and social movements.
• Children’s stories: Researchers have used narrative analysis to analyze children’s stories to understand how they understand and make sense of the world around them.
• Personal diaries : Researchers have used narrative analysis to examine personal diaries to gain insights into individuals’ experiences of significant life events, such as the loss of a loved one or the transition to adulthood.
• Memoirs : Researchers have used narrative analysis to analyze memoirs to understand how individuals construct their life stories and make sense of their experiences.
• Life histories : Researchers have used narrative analysis to examine life histories to gain insights into individuals’ experiences of migration, displacement, or social exclusion.

Purpose of Narrative Analysis

The purpose of narrative analysis is to gain a deeper understanding of the stories that individuals tell about their experiences, identities, and beliefs. By analyzing the structure, content, and context of these stories, researchers can uncover patterns and themes that shed light on the ways in which individuals make sense of their lives and the world around them.

The primary purpose of narrative analysis is to explore the meanings that individuals attach to their experiences. This involves examining the different elements of a story, such as the plot, characters, setting, and themes, to identify the underlying values, beliefs, and attitudes that shape the story. By analyzing these elements, researchers can gain insights into the ways in which individuals construct their identities, understand their relationships with others, and make sense of the world.

Narrative analysis can also be used to identify patterns and themes across multiple stories. This involves comparing and contrasting the stories of different individuals or groups to identify commonalities and differences. By analyzing these patterns and themes, researchers can gain insights into broader cultural and social phenomena, such as gender, race, and identity.

In addition, narrative analysis can be used to develop interventions that address social and cultural problems. By understanding the stories that individuals tell about their experiences, researchers can develop interventions that are tailored to the unique needs of different individuals and groups.

Overall, the purpose of narrative analysis is to provide a rich, nuanced understanding of the ways in which individuals construct meaning and make sense of their lives. By analyzing the stories that individuals tell, researchers can gain insights into the complex and multifaceted nature of human experience.

When to use Narrative Analysis

Here are some situations where narrative analysis may be appropriate:

• Studying life stories: Narrative analysis can be useful in understanding how individuals construct their life stories, including the events, characters, and themes that are important to them.
• Analyzing cultural narratives: Narrative analysis can be used to analyze cultural narratives, such as myths, legends, and folktales, to understand their meanings and functions.
• Exploring organizational narratives: Narrative analysis can be helpful in examining the stories that organizations tell about themselves, their histories, and their values, to understand how they shape the culture and practices of the organization.
• Investigating media narratives: Narrative analysis can be used to analyze media narratives, such as news stories, films, and TV shows, to understand how they construct meaning and influence public perceptions.
• Examining policy narratives: Narrative analysis can be helpful in examining policy narratives, such as political speeches and policy documents, to understand how they construct ideas and justify policy decisions.

Characteristics of Narrative Analysis

Here are some key characteristics of narrative analysis:

• Focus on stories and narratives: Narrative analysis is concerned with analyzing the stories and narratives that people tell, whether they are oral or written, to understand how they shape and reflect individuals’ experiences and identities.
• Emphasis on context: Narrative analysis seeks to understand the context in which the narratives are produced and the social and cultural factors that shape them.
• Interpretive approach: Narrative analysis is an interpretive approach that seeks to identify patterns and themes in the stories and narratives and to understand the meaning that individuals and communities attach to them.
• Iterative process: Narrative analysis involves an iterative process of analysis, in which the researcher continually refines their understanding of the narratives as they examine more data.
• Attention to language and form : Narrative analysis pays close attention to the language and form of the narratives, including the use of metaphor, imagery, and narrative structure, to understand the meaning that individuals and communities attach to them.
• Reflexivity : Narrative analysis requires the researcher to reflect on their own assumptions and biases and to consider how their own positionality may shape their interpretation of the narratives.
• Qualitative approach: Narrative analysis is typically a qualitative research method that involves in-depth analysis of a small number of cases rather than large-scale quantitative studies.

Advantages of Narrative Analysis

Here are some advantages of narrative analysis:

• Rich and detailed data : Narrative analysis provides rich and detailed data that allows for a deep understanding of individuals’ experiences, emotions, and identities.
• Humanizing approach: Narrative analysis allows individuals to tell their own stories and express their own perspectives, which can help to humanize research and give voice to marginalized communities.
• Holistic understanding: Narrative analysis allows researchers to understand individuals’ experiences in their entirety, including the social, cultural, and historical contexts in which they occur.
• Flexibility : Narrative analysis is a flexible research method that can be applied to a wide range of contexts and research questions.
• Interpretive insights: Narrative analysis provides interpretive insights into the meanings that individuals attach to their experiences and the ways in which they construct their identities.
• Appropriate for sensitive topics: Narrative analysis can be particularly useful in researching sensitive topics, such as trauma or mental health, as it allows individuals to express their experiences in their own words and on their own terms.
• Can lead to policy implications: Narrative analysis can provide insights that can inform policy decisions and interventions, particularly in areas such as health, education, and social policy.

Limitations of Narrative Analysis

Here are some of the limitations of narrative analysis:

• Subjectivity : Narrative analysis relies on the interpretation of researchers, which can be influenced by their own biases and assumptions.
• Limited generalizability: Narrative analysis typically involves in-depth analysis of a small number of cases, which limits its generalizability to broader populations.
• Ethical considerations: The process of eliciting and analyzing narratives can raise ethical concerns, particularly when sensitive topics such as trauma or abuse are involved.
• Limited control over data collection: Narrative analysis often relies on data that is already available, such as interviews, oral histories, or written texts, which can limit the control that researchers have over the quality and completeness of the data.
• Time-consuming: Narrative analysis can be a time-consuming research method, particularly when analyzing large amounts of data.
• Interpretation challenges: Narrative analysis requires researchers to make complex interpretations of data, which can be challenging and time-consuming.
• Limited statistical analysis: Narrative analysis is typically a qualitative research method that does not lend itself well to statistical analysis.

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Narrative Analysis 101

Everything you need to know to get started

By: Ethar Al-Saraf (PhD)| Expert Reviewed By: Eunice Rautenbach (DTech) | March 2023

If you’re new to research, the host of qualitative analysis methods available to you can be a little overwhelming. In this post, we’ll  unpack the sometimes slippery topic of narrative analysis . We’ll explain what it is, consider its strengths and weaknesses , and look at when and when not to use this analysis method. 

Overview: Narrative Analysis

• What is narrative analysis (simple definition)
• The two overarching approaches  
• The strengths & weaknesses of narrative analysis
• When (and when not) to use it
• Key takeaways

What Is Narrative Analysis?

Simply put, narrative analysis is a qualitative analysis method focused on interpreting human experiences and motivations by looking closely at the stories (the narratives) people tell in a particular context.

In other words, a narrative analysis interprets long-form participant responses or written stories as data, to uncover themes and meanings . That data could be taken from interviews, monologues, written stories, or even recordings. In other words, narrative analysis can be used on both primary and secondary data to provide evidence from the experiences described.

That’s all quite conceptual, so let’s look at an example of how narrative analysis could be used.

Let’s say you’re interested in researching the beliefs of a particular author on popular culture. In that case, you might identify the characters , plotlines , symbols and motifs used in their stories. You could then use narrative analysis to analyse these in combination and against the backdrop of the relevant context.

This would allow you to interpret the underlying meanings and implications in their writing, and what they reveal about the beliefs of the author. In other words, you’d look to understand the views of the author by analysing the narratives that run through their work.

The Two Overarching Approaches

Generally speaking, there are two approaches that one can take to narrative analysis. Specifically, an inductive approach or a deductive approach. Each one will have a meaningful impact on how you interpret your data and the conclusions you can draw, so it’s important that you understand the difference.

First up is the inductive approach to narrative analysis.

The inductive approach takes a bottom-up view , allowing the data to speak for itself, without the influence of any preconceived notions . With this approach, you begin by looking at the data and deriving patterns and themes that can be used to explain the story, as opposed to viewing the data through the lens of pre-existing hypotheses, theories or frameworks. In other words, the analysis is led by the data.

For example, with an inductive approach, you might notice patterns or themes in the way an author presents their characters or develops their plot. You’d then observe these patterns, develop an interpretation of what they might reveal in the context of the story, and draw conclusions relative to the aims of your research.

Contrasted to this is the deductive approach.

With the deductive approach to narrative analysis, you begin by using existing theories that a narrative can be tested against . Here, the analysis adopts particular theoretical assumptions and/or provides hypotheses, and then looks for evidence in a story that will either verify or disprove them.

For example, your analysis might begin with a theory that wealthy authors only tell stories to get the sympathy of their readers. A deductive analysis might then look at the narratives of wealthy authors for evidence that will substantiate (or refute) the theory and then draw conclusions about its accuracy, and suggest explanations for why that might or might not be the case.

Which approach you should take depends on your research aims, objectives and research questions . If these are more exploratory in nature, you’ll likely take an inductive approach. Conversely, if they are more confirmatory in nature, you’ll likely opt for the deductive approach.

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Strengths & Weaknesses

Now that we have a clearer view of what narrative analysis is and the two approaches to it, it’s important to understand its strengths and weaknesses , so that you can make the right choices in your research project.

A primary strength of narrative analysis is the rich insight it can generate by uncovering the underlying meanings and interpretations of human experience. The focus on an individual narrative highlights the nuances and complexities of their experience, revealing details that might be missed or considered insignificant by other methods.

Another strength of narrative analysis is the range of topics it can be used for. The focus on human experience means that a narrative analysis can democratise your data analysis, by revealing the value of individuals’ own interpretation of their experience in contrast to broader social, cultural, and political factors.

All that said, just like all analysis methods, narrative analysis has its weaknesses. It’s important to understand these so that you can choose the most appropriate method for your particular research project.

The first drawback of narrative analysis is the problem of subjectivity and interpretation . In other words, a drawback of the focus on stories and their details is that they’re open to being understood differently depending on who’s reading them. This means that a strong understanding of the author’s cultural context is crucial to developing your interpretation of the data. At the same time, it’s important that you remain open-minded in how you interpret your chosen narrative and avoid making any assumptions .

A second weakness of narrative analysis is the issue of reliability and generalisation . Since narrative analysis depends almost entirely on a subjective narrative and your interpretation, the findings and conclusions can’t usually be generalised or empirically verified. Although some conclusions can be drawn about the cultural context, they’re still based on what will almost always be anecdotal data and not suitable for the basis of a theory, for example.

Last but not least, the focus on long-form data expressed as stories means that narrative analysis can be very time-consuming . In addition to the source data itself, you will have to be well informed on the author’s cultural context as well as other interpretations of the narrative, where possible, to ensure you have a holistic view. So, if you’re going to undertake narrative analysis, make sure that you allocate a generous amount of time to work through the data.

When To Use Narrative Analysis

As a qualitative method focused on analysing and interpreting narratives describing human experiences, narrative analysis is usually most appropriate for research topics focused on social, personal, cultural , or even ideological events or phenomena and how they’re understood at an individual level.

For example, if you were interested in understanding the experiences and beliefs of individuals suffering social marginalisation, you could use narrative analysis to look at the narratives and stories told by people in marginalised groups to identify patterns , symbols , or motifs that shed light on how they rationalise their experiences.

In this example, narrative analysis presents a good natural fit as it’s focused on analysing people’s stories to understand their views and beliefs at an individual level. Conversely, if your research was geared towards understanding broader themes and patterns regarding an event or phenomena, analysis methods such as content analysis or thematic analysis may be better suited, depending on your research aim .

Let’s recap

In this post, we’ve explored the basics of narrative analysis in qualitative research. The key takeaways are:

• Narrative analysis is a qualitative analysis method focused on interpreting human experience in the form of stories or narratives .
• There are two overarching approaches to narrative analysis: the inductive (exploratory) approach and the deductive (confirmatory) approach.
• Like all analysis methods, narrative analysis has a particular set of strengths and weaknesses .
• Narrative analysis is generally most appropriate for research focused on interpreting individual, human experiences as expressed in detailed , long-form accounts.

If you’d like to learn more about narrative analysis and qualitative analysis methods in general, be sure to check out the rest of the Grad Coach blog here . Alternatively, if you’re looking for hands-on help with your project, take a look at our 1-on-1 private coaching service .

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Thanks. I need examples of narrative analysis

Here are some examples of research topics that could utilise narrative analysis:

Personal Narratives of Trauma: Analysing personal stories of individuals who have experienced trauma to understand the impact, coping mechanisms, and healing processes.

Identity Formation in Immigrant Communities: Examining the narratives of immigrants to explore how they construct and negotiate their identities in a new cultural context.

Media Representations of Gender: Analysing narratives in media texts (such as films, television shows, or advertisements) to investigate the portrayal of gender roles, stereotypes, and power dynamics.

Where can I find an example of a narrative analysis table ?

Please i need help with my project,

how can I cite this article in APA 7th style?

please mention the sources as well.

My research is mixed approach. I use interview,key_inforamt interview,FGD and document.so,which qualitative analysis is appropriate to analyze these data.Thanks

Which qualitative analysis methode is appropriate to analyze data obtain from intetview,key informant intetview,Focus group discussion and document.

I’ve finished my PhD. Now I need a “platform” that will help me objectively ascertain the tacit assumptions that are buried within a narrative. Can you help?

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Narrative Analysis

• Reference work entry
• First Online: 01 January 2022
• pp 3387–3388
• Cite this reference work entry

• Sara E. Stemen 3 &
• Kate de Medeiros 3  

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Discourse ; Qualitative analysis ; Stories

Narrative analysis refers to research which examines the act of oral or written storytelling (Holstein and Gubrium 2012 ). Specifically, researchers who engage in narrative analysis seek to interpret how stories are told and why stories are told in a particular way (de Medeiros 2014 ; Riessman 1993 ).

Narratives are commonly used as a way to understand the experience of aging and later life (de Medeiros 2014 ). Knowing how to analyze narratives, or stories about one’s life, can provide rich insight into the experiences of older persons. Narrative, in its most basic form, is often viewed as telling of an event. Bamberg ( 2012 ) expanded upon this basic definition by providing six premises of narrative practice. First, narratives exist as part of a larger tapestry of worldly activities and events. Second, narratives can be presented textually (written) or performed orally. Third, narratives offer information about an event...

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Bamberg M (2012) Narrative practice and identity navigation. In: Holstein JA, Gubrium JF (eds) Varieties of narrative analysis. Sage, Thousand Oaks, pp 99–124

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de Medeiros K (2014) Narrative gerontology in research and practice. Springer, New York

de Medeiros K (2016) Narrative gerontology: countering the master narratives of aging. Narrative Works 6(1):63–81. From https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/NW/article/view/25446/29491

Holstein JA, Gubrium JF (2012) Varieties of narrative analysis. Sage, Thousand Oaks

Riessman CK (1993) Narrative analysis. Sage, Newbury Park

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Department of Sociology and Gerontology, Miami University, Oxford, OH, USA

Sara E. Stemen & Kate de Medeiros

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Population Division, Department of Economics and Social Affairs, United Nations, New York, NY, USA

Department of Population Health Sciences, Department of Sociology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA

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Department of Sociology and Center for Population Health and Aging, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA

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Department of Sociology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA

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Stemen, S.E., de Medeiros, K. (2021). Narrative Analysis. In: Gu, D., Dupre, M.E. (eds) Encyclopedia of Gerontology and Population Aging. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22009-9_558

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Narrative analysis in health psychology: a guide for analysis

a School of Psychology, Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand

Mary Breheny

b School of Health Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand

Introduction: Telling stories is a natural way to explain our experiences to others. Through telling stories, we come to understand these experiences, and to explain our own and other’s place in the world. Stories are an opportunity to present a version of ourselves and to shape how we would like to be seen. By analysing stories, we also reveal something about the social world beyond the immediate story. Objectives: Applying a narrative approach to interviews can be challenging for the beginning narrative scholar. This paper provides a worked example of a narrative psychology approach to analysis. We present examples identifying the different levels at work in stories: personal stories, interpersonal accounts, and social narratives. Beyond identifying the levels, we offer further suggestions to assist with the narrative analysis of interview transcripts. These suggestions provide a way to start to understand why stories have been told, and what their telling reveals more broadly. To illustrate how to build a narrative analysis, we use a small set of interviews with older people in residential care.

Articles arguing for a narrative psychology approach often conclude by stating that detailed analysis of narrative can aid understanding of identity and social life. Empirical papers seldom include much detail of how the analysis was conducted, moving from the participant recruitment to the findings as if the production of the analysis itself were self-evident. In this paper, we provide a detailed worked example to help the beginning scholar produce a narrative analysis from interview data. Examples are provided that demonstrate the levels of analysis, and the ways that characters, settings and rhetorical features can be used to understand the stories people tell. This paper demonstrates how to build an analysis from data collected for a narrative psychology project and aims to provide flexible ways to think about and engage confidently with narrative data.

The individual story is the immediate focus in narrative analysis since the stories told about everyday life are the basis of narrative psychology. These are the accounts of events or experiences that people provide to others, which order events in time and typically provide some sense of causal linking of events (Murray, 2003 ; Polkinghorne, 1995 ). Stories allow people to provide their own context; when people tell their story they give the details that are important to understand the message of the story. Stories can be used to reframe chaotic experiences in a predictable narrative order, or to highlight or resolve tensions. In this way, the unexpected can be made sensible and predictable.

To illustrate the personal story level of analysis, below is an extract in which Yvonne describes how she came to live in residential care. She stories profound transitions, her increasing immobility due to her Parkinson’s disease, and the death of her husband in three sentences to story this transition.

Gemma: Can you tell me, Yvonne, how you came to be in here?

Yvonne: I got Parkinson’s, so I couldn’t move or do anything. So, my daughters, my husband, thought it was better for me, to be here. My husband died, that was all.

Gemma: I’m sorry to hear that. Excuse me, I’ll just shut that door. And how do you feel about being in here?

Yvonne: I know I can’t look after myself, so I just have to be here. [Gemma: Sure.]

Interviews vary in the extent of storytelling provided; some participants readily tell detailed stories, whereas others provide much simpler stories as Yvonne does. Although brief, this illustrates a whole story of Yvonne’s transition to residential care, with a beginning, middle, and end; characters who play roles in the narrative and a resolution. In this way, Yvonne stories a simple account that reframes residential aged care as an inevitable outcome given her circumstances. In spite of widespread narratives of ageing as decline, many older people do not anticipate needing residential care. In this way, Yvonne’s shift to residential care troubles a trajectory in which she may have expected to age at home. Stories do not reveal to others what happened or who we are in any transparent way, but are a process of telling others how we would like to be seen. Even in this simple account, Yvonne presents herself as logical, able to comprehend her situation and recognise the impact of her declining health on others, and to conclude that residential care is the sensible alternative, restoring coherence to Yvonne’s altered living situation.

Stories are told to an audience of at least one other, so they are a joint project with an active audience (Mishler, 1986 ; Murray, 2018 ). Because of this, stories are shaped to fit the expectations of the interactional moment. In the context of an interview, participants may orient to telling a good and entertaining or insightful story. Andrew illustrates this explicitly by comparing his humorous approach to other participants’ more reserved accounts:

Andrew: Well I gotta tell you something, in this place it’s quite funny. Because I’ve often thought of writing a book about it, you know, ‘My Life Inside and Out’, you know. And, you know, some are very snooty, have you noticed that?

Gemma: And just, I think sometimes people don’t know what to say, so they didn’t say much more than sort of ‘yes’ or ‘no’, whereas it’s quite good asking you a question and you’ll tell me a story, whereas not everyone-

Andrew: [Interposing] I like telling all the stories, you know. [Gemma.: Yeah, it’s really good [laughter].] [Laughter] I’m full of little stories.

Andrew, like many participants, views his role as telling good stories and sees these as both enjoyable and useful for the researcher. Because story recipients take an active part in shaping the story that is told, the story is situated in this particular interaction, shaped by the responses the interviewer gives (De Fina & Georgakopoulou, 2008 ). Andrew also explicitly uses humour to draw Gemma in, encouraging her to characterise the other residents as haughty in contrast to his jovial and engaging approach. This illustrates the way that interview participants work to situate the interviewer in different ways: for example as a confidant, as a co-conspirator, as an empathic listener. Identifying these roles can aid the interpersonal level of analysis. While the immediate listener is usually the interviewer, the person telling the story also has an awareness of the ‘unknown’ audience (particularly if the interview is being audio recorded). For example, other researchers, supervisors, thesis readers and journal readers may all be part of this unseen audience. The awareness that their story will reach beyond the moment of the interview influences what the participant tells.

The characteristics of the researcher and the relationship between the participant and researcher also influences both the story and how it is told (Silver, 2013 ). The following illustrates how the interviewer, Gemma, in her late twenties, plays a role in shaping what is said:

Valerie: Well, only the last, it sounds funny to you when I say ‘only the last 20 or 30 years’, which is a small part of my life, but I lived in most other cities.

Valerie begins to discuss the recent events of her life, but then corrects herself as she realises her recent history would encompass all of Gemma’s lifetime. In addition, because Valerie knows that Gemma has an academic interest in ‘older people’, she may be primed to tell her stories through a lens that emphasises this part of her identity. In this research, the participants may be more likely to describe their satisfaction with the animal therapy programme and the care facility to Gemma, the young health researcher, than if they were asked by an older friend or another resident. Examining the stories as an interpersonal co-construction means recognising the story is a local rendering of these events for this particular audience.

The interviewer also supports and encourages some versions of experience more than other accounts. This is particularly the case when stories challenge the interviewer and the overriding narrative that they hold about the experience they are researching. In the following personal story about the experience of animal therapy, Jean tells Gemma a story about enjoying the animals for the physical affection they bring to her life in residential care. In response to this simple account, Gemma encourages Jean to tell a story about how she came to live in residential care, a standard technique to encourage participants to story their experiences. In response, Jean laughs and says, ‘I’m old, I’m bed-ridden mainly’ and reasserts that the animals are just a simple pleasure in her life. Gemma again tries to overlay a narrative of choice and ‘liking’ living in residential care, which Jean again resists. For Jean, being old and bed-ridden is not about choosing where one lives or ‘liking’ where one lives, it is about being well looked after. To reinforce this, Jean tells a parallel story of her cat who also lives in its own residential care facility – a cattery in another city. In this case too, the participant notes that her cat is the boss of the place and well cared for. The following extract demonstrates how the story plays out between the young interviewer and the older participant:

Gemma: Oh, ok. Well … they call the programme ‘Animal Therapy’, have you ever heard of that before?

Jean: Yes I have.

Gemma: What do you think about that?

Jean: I think it’s a marvellous idea. And I think particularly, someone like me who’s been bed-ridden for a while, someone bringing a puppy or a kitten and letting them snuggle up against you is lovely.

Gemma: Can you tell me about how you came to be in here?

Jean: In bed like this?

Gemma: Yes, or in the rest home or both.

Jean: I’m just old [laughter]. No I um, I don’t know how to describe it really, I’m old, I’m bed ridden mainly, people come in with their wee kittens or their dogs and we have a wee cuddle together. That’s about it.

Gemma: Were you living at home before you moved in here?

Jean: Um, not really in a rest home. I don’t really know how to describe that. I’ve always been looked after in some way. I don’t know. [Gemma: That’s fine.] I’m really old, I don’t remember. (…)

Gemma: Do you quite like living here?

Jean: I don’t have much choice actually. But no, they’re very good to me and look after me. No I’m very fortunate.

Gemma: And do you ever see the, there is a cat that lives here as well isn’t there?

Jean: The cat that belongs to me lives at Masterton in the cattery there, which is a very good cattery, it’s well looked after. In fact she’s the boss cat there as far as I can make out. Locks the other cats into place.

Gemma: Oh I see. Ok, great. Is there anything else you’d like to talk about, about the animals or the programme?

Jean: No I, I just like to see them. Particularly the young ones the puppies or the kittens. And they’re little cuddlers, you know. [Gemma: So, it’s the affection that you like?] Mm [nodding] (…)

Gemma: Mm. Alright, well thank you so much for your time today.

Jean: Oh that’s – I’m always glad to talk about animals.

Gemma: Yeah, can I get you a cup of tea or anything?

Jean: No thank you, I’m so well-looked-after.

Gemma: Oh good, I’m glad to hear that. What have you got planned for the rest of your day? Do you have a lot planned for the rest of your day?

Jean: No. [Laughter] You don’t have plans when you lie in bed all day.

Gemma: Do you- you don’t get to leave at all?

Jean: Um, not really, no. I don’t want to. I just like being here, and they’re so good, they really do look after you.

Gemma: Excellent, well alright, I hope you have a lovely rest of your day.

The mismatch between Gemma and Jean is best illustrated when Gemma asks Jean what she has planned for the rest of the day. This provokes laughter as Jean explains that making plans is not part of life when you are bed-ridden in residential care. Gemma responds with a level of bewilderment with ‘Do you- you don’t get to leave at all?’, introducing an alternative narrative of a good life as based upon choices, plans, and engagement with a wider world. From Gemma’s perspective, residential care is limited and restrictive. Jean instead returns to the message of her story, that she is well cared for, and reinforces this message by responding to Gemma’s offer of a cup of tea with the decisive ‘No thank you, I’m so well-looked-after’. Jean’s account of a good life fundamentally differs from Gemma’s; it is about physical affection, good quality care and needs met reliably. Finally, in recognition, of Gemma’s youthful lack of comprehension, Jean reframes her experience of residential care in ways that she feels that Gemma can understand. In contrast to her previous account, she states simply that she does not want to leave, she likes being there, and restates that she feels well cared for. By analysing the story as a joint construction between Gemma and Jean, we can see the completely different narratives they use to understand what it means to have a good life, which structures their disparate assessment of life in residential care. The story that Jean tells does not belong to her alone, but is a co-construction between them both. It is worth noting that this mismatch was not apparent to Gemma during the interview, as the participant and interviewer are carried along by the story during the interaction.

In doing narrative research, we are interested in more than the personal stories told to an audience. We are also interested in understanding how these stories reflect society more broadly. In narrative theorising, Somers ( 1994 ) calls these culturally shared stories ‘public narratives’. Murray refers to them as ‘ideological narratives’. In essence, these all refer to the understandings of ‘how things should be’ that are shared by society at large: shared understandings of social life that shape what we believe to be good, shape how we believe people should act, and how we can understand why people do what they do. Understanding the social narratives that shape the stories people tell requires the analyst to reflect on the assumptions they and the participant might share about the world. This includes examining the way the story is supposed to go (e.g. good triumphs over evil, or adversity is overcome). It also includes examining what the characters are entitled to do and why they have that right. Examining these shared understandings in the stories people tell reveals the society the analyst and the participant both live in . For example, old age as a state of decline is a shared understanding that was often used by participants in residential care, either as a narrative they used to contrast their own experience (‘I’m not old in that way’) or to explain their experience (‘of course this is what my life is like, because that’s what being old is’). All topics have narratives that shape the expected course of events, and interview participants and interviewers both reflect, reinforce and resist these in their accounts.

To illustrate the social narratives that shape the personal stories, we present an extended account from Cathy describing her limited interest and involvement in the animal therapy programme. She explains this as due to her ability to maintain mobility outside the home in comparison to other residents, such as Annette, whose limitations she hints at before trailing off. Cathy signals the beginning of her personal story by saying ‘Sunday’s an example where I called a taxi … ’. This orients the reader to a particular day and time through which Cathy stories herself as ageing actively out in the community. Cathy recounts a Sunday walk to the waterfront as a pleasant alternative when her usual family outing is cancelled. In this way, Cathy uses social narratives of active ageing to situate herself as an older person, still physically active, socially interested and interesting, and located in the world outside residential care.

Cathy: Ah [pause] I can’t imagine what could be done um [to improve animal therapy], because prolonging the meetings – and because I mean in that short time we get the history, if she has it, on the animal and … and I honestly can’t think of any way, and no I don’t think that a more formal approach is the answer. Now Annette might have some–and she … For example, I’m still managing to be mobile, ah [pause] growing less mobile, growing more tired all the time. Nevertheless, I mean, Sunday’s an example where I call a taxi and ah Sunday I–I usually see my family but I wasn’t–they weren’t able to see me on Sunday because you know Christmas and social engagements and they were invited to a barbeque, and–but I wasn’t going to spend the whole lovely day, because Sunday was lovely [Crosstalk] [Gemma: Beautiful.] And um taxi down to AquaCentre and then, delightful walk as far as the rotunda ah, and, three really pleasant social encounters, so I mean that was what one gets to long for in here, ah to meet someone like you for example, that I can talk to you. Because I don’t actually get that much chance to talk, so that’s why you find people like me pretty gabby [Gemma: Laugh] [Cathy: Laugh] And, yeah. And, uh, so Sunday was for me a very successful day except that at the end when I went back to AquaCentre where they’re always kind enough to ring me a taxi, I encountered something I’m beginning to encounter a little bit more, which was that a taxi came, saw me, and did a U turn [Crosstalk] [Gemma: Really?] Because what am I, old woman, with a walker that has to be put in the car, probably going to some nearby rest home. Ah, we’re not popular. And I have been refused, ah, ‘No I’m sorry I’m not free I have to get my notes done’. That sort of thing.

Gemma: That’s terrible, I’m sorry to hear that.

Cathy: Yes, has to do entirely I think with the Total Mobility–with age, Total Mobility with age where they only get half from me, and then they have to wait and (…) you know in other words they don’t get the full fare to begin with [Crosstalk] [Gemma: Up front] they get half of it, and then they send their bills in and Total Mobility send them the rest of it [Crosstalk] [Gemma: That’s terrible.] So I had to walk all the way then from AquaCentre, which I wasn’t expecting. I had pretty well used up most of the energy but I said, well, make it a positive thing in your life today, you’ve got an extra-long walk. So I just took my time and dawdled along to City New World and got ah, got in a taxi that was there. So, Gemma, it’s been a bit of a lost effort for you.

This account of active ageing is troubled by a detailed sub-story of Cathy’s difficulty in getting a taxi, and her interpretation of why that happened. The taxi driver’s refusal to accept the fare when he sees that Cathy is an older person with a walker forces Cathy to see herself through this lens, as physically and financially troublesome: requiring help with her walker and paperwork to claim the full fare. Instead of ageing actively, she is positioned as burdensome and declining. This works to trouble the distinction her story set out to make, that Cathy is different from those other older people who are immobile and unable to engage with the outside world. The way Cathy describes what she thinks the taxi driver sees when he looks at her tells us about how Cathy is positioned by a narrative of ageing as decline and burden, how her body reads as aged to others, and the effect she sees that having on her everyday life. Telling stories is an embodied process (Polkinghorne, 1995 ). What we are able to say depends upon the physical condition of our bodies and the social expectations that brings, for example, as able bodied or disabled, young or old (Holstein, Parks, & Waymack, 2011 ). The kind of body a person has is deeply embedded in their story, because their body can be the topic, the cause, and the instrument of their story (Becker, 1997 ; Frank, 1991 , 1995 ). Cathy returns to her initial message by storying an extra-long walk as a positive outcome, repairing the apparently conflicting sub-story of the difficulty taking a taxi. In this way, she reframes this unexpected ending as part of a narrative of active ageing which also includes a relentlessly positive attitude (Breheny & Stephens, 2019 ). Her final sentence returns the listener to the original story, that interviewing Cathy is a lost effort for Gemma, as she is not old in the same way as the residents that animal therapy is designed to benefit, residents like Annette.

These social narratives are not contained; they often have elements of alternative accounts within them. The way the story is resolved shows the relative merit the storyteller places on alternative narratives available to account for their circumstances. For example, a narrative of ‘active ageing’ might recognise decline as inevitable, whilst also framing decline as something to resist. Cathy points to this with ‘I’m still managing to be mobile, ah [pause] growing less mobile, growing more tired all the time’. Some narratives fit together compatibly, while others create tensions, which the narrator must work rhetorically to resolve (Breheny & Stephens, 2011 ). The ways that these stories are resolved show the relative power of the available narratives.

Historical changes can also alter wider narratives of social life, because what can be storied (i.e. what makes sense), changes over time (Bell, 1999 ) . For example, narratives of ageing as a state of decline and disengagement have given way to expectations for people to age ‘actively’ (Breheny & Stephens, 2019 ). Expectations for active ageing can mean living in residential care represents (to society and to the older person themselves) a failure to maintain health and vitality into old age. Social expectations are constantly shifting and these changes influences what can be told. The way an experience is storied at one time will be different from an account given at a different time.

What is a narrative approach?

Narrative research is not a singular approach; rather, it refers to a range ways of examining the role of storytelling in understanding identity and social life (Riessman, 2008 ). Narrative approaches recognise that the stories people tell are significant; they are worthy of close examination, both for the ways they signal the important events of people’s lives and how they reflect and reinforce social identities. Narrative analysis is concerned with stories as a whole rather than separating them into themes or abstracting them into discourses (Murray, 2003 ; Riessman, 2008 ). Because people make sense of their experiences through storytelling, it is this storying of experiences that is the focus of analysis within a narrative approach.

Telling a story or thinking in stories comes automatically to most people because people have been socialised through stories their whole lives. By listening to cultural stories and children’s stories, hearing people tell us about the happenings of their day, and watching plays and movies, we absorb narrative structure. Because of this, we use stories to put events into an order that makes sense to us. Stories are useful to tell others what events happened, to explain why those events are important, and to understand what they might mean for who we are (Somers, 1994 ). Stories are not just a set of events ordered in time, they are a set of events put into order to convey a particular meaning, to provide an explanation of who we are and how others should see us (Riessman, 2008 ).

Social and cultural familiarity with storytelling provides the building blocks that we use to shape the events of our lives into stories. These building blocks are of two types. The first is the structures that tell us how to set up a story, how to describe the scene, how to order the events and actions, and the skills to move the audience to the resolution of the story. Secondly, stories are built on taken for granted understandings of how social life does and should work (Murray, 2018 ). Because of this, the stories people tell give us insights into the, often unspoken, rules for reacting to and interacting with the world, because they reflect broader narratives of social life that we have absorbed (Crossley, 2008 ). Because these are part of how we assume the world to be, they are hard to see, but vital for analysing why some stories are told and not others. Michael Murray describes this by saying we ‘swim in a sea of stories that seeps into our consciousness and our very identity’ ( 2003 , p. 98). A narrative approach aims to make visible that which has already shaped our consciousness and identity.

What is a narrative?

There are a variety of distinctions drawn in narrative theorising between a story and a narrative. For the purposes of this paper, we make the distinction that a story is the account of events the speaker tells, while a narrative refers to the wider accounts of social life that are drawn upon to tell a story. Consequently, we suggest that people tell stories, and that they use widely available narratives to tell these stories. By using the word narrative, we shift to the analysis of a story, the ways the analyst comes to understand not just what the story says, but what it might mean and how it might be linked to other stories. Although people tell stories that are personal to them, the structures that shape these stories do not belong to them alone (Riessman, 2008 ). Even profoundly personal stories are embedded in the social, cultural, and material conditions which make certain stories and identities available and others unavailable (Silver, 2013 ). Narratives are the overarching structures and understandings that influence how and why these stories are told. This is what narrative psychology is concerned with: ‘the structure, content, and function of the stories that we tell each other and ourselves in social interaction’ (Murray, 2003 , p. 95).

There is no definitive approach to narrative analysis (Polkinghorne, 1995 ). Different authors have analysed narratives in different ways, and the ideas they offer can be used flexibly to analyse data. Narrative researchers have distinguished ‘big stories’, the highly structured narratives of past events, from ‘small stories’, the everyday interactional stories people tell in ordinary conversational encounters (Bamberg & Georgakopoulou, 2008 ). The distinctions between the highly rehearsed and structured ‘big stories’ and the fragmented and incomplete ‘small stories’ have been used to propose different approaches to analysis. Wilson and Stapleton ( 2010 ) argue that such distinctions are not always analytically useful. Using the levels of analysis approach demonstrated here, both highly structured narratives and everyday interactional accounts can be analysed in similar ways. They can both be understood as a specific account of particular events, located within an interactional setting, and as reflecting broader understanding of social life.

Identifying a story

There are several ways to identify a story. In a story, events are typically described as part of an evolving plot line: first this happened, followed by this, and subsequently, that. To make these events sensible over time, most stories use characters performing some kind of action brought together in a plot line (Grbich, 2013 ). For example, speakers regularly use days and times, places and character descriptions to signal the beginning of a story. Sometimes people tell straightforward stories, with the scene set beautifully, and the characters colourfully described. These resemble a traditional ‘story’: a clear sequence of beginning, middle, end; characters, setting, plot, and conclusion, presented in an unbroken sequence like a carefully rehearsed anecdote. Not all stories move so seamlessly or have a clear structure. Some stories are complicated, overlapping and unfinished, with digressions and sub-plots. Intuitively we understand that digressions are introduced when details are understood as necessary for the audience to understand the message of the story. Lack of clear narrative structure can be analytically important. When stories are started, abandoned, and re-introduced, it is valuable to examine why this occurred. Restricting analysis to accounts that meet all the structural requirements of a formulaic story might neglect particularly poignant or tense stories that participants struggle to finish. The narrative quality of these accounts of everyday life may be less immediately obvious, as they do not necessarily follow the structure we have been socialised to expect from a story. Some participants provide much less detailed stories overall (Gubrium & Holstein, 2012 ). It would be easy to dismiss the interviews with less detailed stories as not ‘good’ narrative data, but the brief and often bald accounts of experience with little embroidering are equally informative of social life.

Demonstrating narrative analysis: animal therapy in residential aged care

To demonstrate how to build a narrative analysis, we use a set of interviews with older people in residential care regarding their experience of involvement with an animal therapy programme (Wong, 2016 ). The research received ethical approval from the Massey University Human Ethics Committee. The data includes both some well- crafted stories and some brief stories that were analytically important. This data set was chosen to illustrate the analytic process; consequently, the results of this study are not presented in detail, but are available elsewhere (Wong, 2016 ).

Levels of narrative

Identifying narratives at work in the interview data requires analytic distance from the stories that people tell. This can be difficult as narrators are adept at constructing a story that draws the listener in and makes their account of the world seem sensible. Different approaches to narrative analysis have focused on different aspects as ways to gain analytical distance. Riessman ( 2008 ) describes different approaches that identify thematic similarity in the stories told, or attend to structural features of stories, or examine stories as performing interactional identities. Rather than concentrating on one of these aspects, Murray ( 2000 ) and other narrative researchers (Phibbs, 2008 ; Somers, 1994 ) suggest looking at the different levels stories are simultaneously told at, as a way to interpret the stories participants provide.

A story functions at multiple intersecting levels at the same time. By separating out these levels, analysts can better understand the ways that personal stories are situated within wider narrative structures available in society. Murray ( 2000 ) describes four levels of narratives: personal, interpersonal, positional and ideological. These levels are not separate, as ideological narratives provide the positions available for speakers that play out in interpersonal interactions. In practice it can be difficult for beginning researchers to distinguish between interpersonal or positional levels, and recognise how this reflects ideological narratives. Here we present a simplified structure of three levels as a straightforward way to start analysis. We make distinctions between the ways these three levels function: personal stories, interpersonal co-creation of accounts, and social narratives (Stephens & Breheny, 2013 ). This structure provides a framework for thinking about each level in turn. Separating out the levels is not the end of the analytic process. Narrative researchers are typically interested in how at least some of these levels work together (Stephens & Breheny, 2013 ) as well as how this contributes to a wider narrative analysis of the data set. By using worked examples to illustrate the analysis of each of these levels, we aim to make explicit the choices that underpin a narrative analysis and show the interactional and constructive nature of analysis.

Analytic devices

The previous section outlined different levels a story is simultaneously told at. The next section details further analytic tools that may assist in building an analysis from the data, illustrated by the research in residential aged care. These are ways to identify the stories told, to begin to understand why they have been told, and what their telling reveals about wider narratives. Considering when, where and by whom such stories can be comfortably told, as well as when, where and by whom such storytelling would defy social convention, leads the analyst into a more nuanced understanding of the narratives that structure social life.

Structural features

Narrative researchers have identified stories as having typical structural forms and these structural features can help the analyst to begin to see the story as a construction to serve an interactional purpose. For example, Labov’s ( 1997 ) identification of the typical structural features of a personal story (abstract, orientation, complicating action, evaluation, resolution, and coda) provides a way to understand the speaker’s explicit purpose in telling the story. In the example from Yvonne on page 7, the features of resolution and coda particularly demonstrate how Yvonne shifts from the events described in the past tense, to the present tense to both resolve the events described and return the story to the present. She does this to conclude: ‘so I just have to be here’. A structural analysis of this account highlights the inevitability of residential care, a resolution shared across many of the interviews for this research.

Alternatively, identifying the ways that stories adhere to broad genres such as comic or tragic, heroic or romantic may be a starting point for analysis. These broad narrative structures situate experiences in familiar plot sequences that listeners can recognise and consequently link the events to. By questioning how the speaker constructed their account, or linked specific events to a familiar genre, we can begin to understand why they shaped it in that way (Grbich, 2013 ).

Stage and setting

Stories are always set in a particular place and told from a particular setting. These may not match – for example, Cathy’s story takes place at the waterfront, but is told from the setting of the lounge of a residential aged care facility. Both the waterfront and the lounge are physical, social, and psychological settings. Both the location of telling and the location of the story itself shape the story and the unfolding events (van Vuuren & Westerhof, 2015 ). Because these contexts shape the story, they need to be explicitly considered in the analysis (Levitt, Motulsky, Wertz, Morrow, & Ponterotto, 2017 ). For example, the residential care setting was a key part of all the participants’ stories in the animal therapy research, whether it seemed immediately relevant to the question about animals or not. We can see this in Andrew’s transcript below, when the story told to Gemma quickly veers away from animal therapy directly. The fact that it does, and that this happened repeatedly through Andrew’s interview, underscored the lack of impact the animals had in the wider context of what it meant to Andrew to live in residential care. Andrew used the questions about animals as an opportunity to lead into stories that moved the listener away from the animal therapy programme and the care setting, by setting his stories in a different time as well as a different place. He refocused attention on animals he had owned previously, his technology skills, extensive travel, and the interests of his life before entering residential care.

Gemma: Does that mean you prefer when dogs come in here, than cats? Or do you not mind what animal Stephen brings in?

Andrew: I don’t mind cats. I had a cat. Long time ago. But it got run over. [Gemma: Oh, sorry to hear that.] They were a bigger part of me than the family. [Gemma: Really?] [Nods].

Gemma: Can you tell me more about that?

Andrew: Just never got on- they played sports, mad on sports, and I was mad on art, I was mad on, you know, music. I-I don’t care. I mean, as far as I’m concerned I’ve led a pretty full life. I had photography, and what you see in here now is nothing [indicates VCR tapes and recording equipment]. I had about 50 times the amount of stuff which I’ve got here. The place I had, I had TV sets galore, all round the place, above my head and god knows what, I was cutting movies. The only thing is the sad part about it is I couldn’t bring the rest of my cassettes, because I’ve got some terrific recordings. And some of the BBC hard talk and all that stuff, you know.

Gemma: Why couldn’t you bring them in?

Andrew: It takes about half the space of this room. I’m talking five thousand!

The stage for Andrew’s stories illustrates the separation of his ‘full’ life outside the residential care facility from the everyday experiences in the facility. He stories his identity to paint a picture of himself as a worldly and relevant man, technologically adept and conversant with current affairs. Analysing the story both for where it does take place and for where it does not, as well as considering the location of the participant and the interviewer is a key analytic tool. The places that stories are recounted shape the rights and responsibilities of different speakers. In this research, residents have different rights to speak than staff in residential settings, and both staff and residents differ from volunteer service providers. Consequently, place is different for each of the characters in this setting: for the residents it is a not-quite-home, for staff a place of work and professional identity, for volunteers a place of community service.

The setting of the story has implications for how each of the characters in the story are described as having particular roles and responsibilities. People perform their identity through telling stories (Riessman, 2008 ). Socially available narratives make a range of identity possibilities available, from broad identity categories based on age or gender, through to explicitly moralised identities such as having a ‘good life’. In this way, people tell stories to claim or avoid a particular identity (Bruner, 1990 ; Sarbin, 1986 ). Available narratives come with possible characters, whether this refers to generic characters such as the hero or the villain, or whether it refers to more specific possibilities such as the loving daughter or the devoted mother. In the data presented here, the participants variously presented themselves as loved and loving family members, as active, engaged and engaging older people, as appreciative care recipients. Each of these characters has a function in the story, which influences why the character has been described in that way, and what effect the listener has had on the character description. The personal, interpersonal and social levels of analysis work together to make some characters available and others unavailable. Narrative characters provide a way to represent a positive identity without having to make claims directly. Similarly, they provide an indirect or subtle way to question the motives of other people, particularly close family members or those in power relationships such as health care professionals. Whether presenting ourselves positively or others in a less flattering light, telling a story can lead the listener to a conclusion that may not be easily stated outright.

Tension in the story

Storying discomfort.

Narratives are functional and purposeful (Riessman, 2008 ), and choosing to convey a message through storytelling may indicate that it is difficult for the speaker to present their message in other ways. Sometimes stories seem incomplete because speakers hesitate to deliver the punchline in an explicit way. Instead, the speaker stories events, which lead the listener to a conclusion without having to be explicit. This demonstrates how the interpersonal level relies on a shared understanding from the societal level: both speaker and listener implicitly understand what the story should be, and therefore can tell when it deviates, or fill in the ending if the story trails off. This applies both to the immediate listener, and to how a broader audience might hear the story. Audiences understand the unspoken message because the assumptions upon which narratives are built are shared.

The way a message is conveyed without being explicitly stated is illustrated in Valerie’s story about why she lives in residential care. The following extract comes at the end of a meandering discussion of whether or not Valerie had pets before she moved into residential care. To contextualise this, Gemma asks how long Valerie has been in residential care and whether Valerie likes living there. Valerie never directly answers whether she likes living there, but uses this moment to explain why she moved into residential care, and deliver the message to the listener that she’s grateful to be looked after but the situation is not necessarily something she would have chosen for herself if there were other options.

Gemma: And, do you like living here?

Valerie: I’m being very well looked after and I’m very fortunate because ah, I was at, ah home, um, and my husband had been dead some time, and I was on my own, and they lived in Halswell [close by] but not with me or me with them, and when they found the house, I’ll say ‘we’re in’, I’m not in it but um when I came in here and my part of the house, um my granddaughter’s in it now, so it’s nice I just left it as it was and all the furniture and crockery and everything’s there. [Gemma: That’s handy.] Mm, so that’s been worked out very well.

Gemma: And what was it that made you move in here?

Valerie: Ah, well I came, my daughter was going away for what they call respite, for respite care, and that was respite from me, and I went into a place still, not in Halswell, for the fortnight she and her husband went away, always thinking I would be out and in it again, but by this time it was obvious that I’d have to spend time here and I suppose it grew from that into full time. And I know it’s right. And she still, my daughter that was here this morning, she just lives round the block. [Gemma: Oh that’s handy.] She comes many days, she works. So it’s worked out very fortunately for me.

Valerie’s story is located within an overarching narrative of the family and family care of older people as preferable. To story her response to Gemma’s question, Valerie draws on the character of the ‘dutiful daughter’, who could no longer continue to support Valerie, who visits often even though she works. By indicating that her daughter needed respite from Valerie, she points to a tension in the story without directly criticising her daughter. Valerie casts herself as the grateful older person who recognises that her daughter was seeking respite from caring for her. Gemma affirms Valerie’s daughter living nearby as positive and appropriate indicating their shared understanding of the narrative of family life. The new house for the family does not include Valerie, she is not part of the ‘we’ that is accommodated within ‘when they found the house, I’ll say ‘we’re in’, I’m not in it but um’. Valerie is both included and excluded from the ‘we’ that she refers to and her account stories her appreciation of being considered whilst acknowledging her limited agency in deciding the arrangements. The resolution of the story draws together two key phrases from the account into the final sentence ‘So it’s worked out very fortunately for me’. This brings together Valerie’s claim that she is fortunate with her shifting reference to the situation working out. Earlier it was described as ‘been worked out’, where Valerie’s agency in the situation is unclear.

Examining when and why humour is used in a story can be another useful device. Tensions can be revealed and resolved with humour, and uncomfortable topics can be raised. For example, in the extract used to illustrate the interpersonal level, Jean uses laughter to show that she is aware of her limitations, and to diffuse the possible awkwardness of needing to explain the mismatch in understanding when Gemma repeatedly responds with confusion. Cathy also uses humour with self-deprecation to simultaneously show that the residential aged care facility can be a lonely place for her, and to acknowledge the negative stereotype of older people being very talkative: ‘Because I don’t actually get that much chance to talk, so that’s why you find people like me pretty gabby’. In this way, humour functions as a way to diffuse awkwardness by smoothing over any discomfiture the story might bring to the speaker or the listener. Examining why humour might have been used, what it might reveal, and what it might hide, can assist in exploring the narratives that are often glossed over in a humorous moment of interaction.

Another analytic tool is to identify the refrains, the repeated phrases that are used for narrative effect (Burck, 2005 ). A refrain attracts attention to a part of the story and points to the message the speaker particularly wishes to highlight. In the example on page 11–12, Jean’s refrain is ‘I’m really old’. The repeated use of this phrase in her account conveys how being old completely alters her experience of the world. Her life is no longer about plans and choices, but about pleasant fleeting interactions with the animals that visit and with nice people like Gemma. She uses this refrain as a way to make Gemma understand what it is like to live in residential care when she senses a mismatch of understanding. Jean repeats this point as it is the key message of the story she is telling, a message that she feels is being overlooked or misunderstood. By explicitly reiterating their point, the refrain points to the message the story is attempting to convey from the narrator’s perspective.

Building a narrative analysis

Although a detailed analysis of the data is the first stage of a narrative project, narrative analysis also requires moving from the analysis of specific stories to the analysis of the data set as a whole. Not every story told or every narrative identified will be in a final analysis. To build the narrative analysis, the researcher needs to decide which stories provide answers to their research question, rather than attempting to provide a complete account of everything every participant conveyed. It is also important to recognise that different researchers will produce different analyses by influencing the research at every stage: by asking different questions, reacting differently to the participants’ stories, and finally, identifying and choosing different narratives to answer the research question.

In this research project, although the research question was initially: ‘How do older people experience the animal therapy programme?’, over the course of the research the question shifted to a focus on understanding identity in residential care through the lens of an animal therapy intervention. For example, although Cathy’s extended story on page 14–15 was not directly related to her experience of animal therapy, it did underscore some of the other narratives that related to how her age and level of frailty structured her identity, which did impact her experience of animal therapy. This story explained why the animal therapy programme was not significant in Cathy’s life, by pointing to the value that social interaction and conversation with people outside the facility had for Cathy. At the personal story level, this account from Cathy is a way to both justify her participation in the interview (‘to meet someone like you for example, that I can talk to you’), whilst also acknowledging that she may not be the best participant for this particular piece of research (‘So, Gemma, it’s been a bit of a lost effort for you’.). She structures this account of herself as not the right person as she is not sufficiently immobile to truly benefit from the animal therapy programme, situating herself in this moment as quite different from the residents confined to the residential care facility. This is structured by an active ageing narrative, which Gemma supports as it matches wider expectations of a good life as enjoying the outside world and leaving the care facility. This is the same narrative of a good life that underpins Gemma’s bewilderment with Jean’s satisfaction with being confined to residential care.

Building the narrative analysis requires an attention to the transcripts as a set, particularly paying attention to similarities and to differences in the stories. Do the participants tell similar stories or use the same narratives? To illustrate the process of moving from the analysis of stories to the wider narrative analysis, we describe two of the narratives from this research. One of the recurring narratives identified, exemplified by the story from Jean, was that of animal therapy as a ‘Fleeting Pleasure’. This narrative described the experience of animal therapy as brief and infrequent, but enjoyable nonetheless. For participants like Jean, bed-ridden and unable to leave residential care, the therapy was a valued part of her life. An alternative narrative that participants used was that of ‘My Life Inside and Out’. This narrative is illustrated by Andrew’s stories of his life before entering residential care and by Cathy’s stories of how she fills her days outside of residential care. In this narrative, people, activities, and events that happen outside of residential care are valued. This separates out ‘real’ life from the limited possibilities available in residential care. This narrative demonstrates the limited reach of animal therapy in altering the experience of residential care, when valued identities are firmly located outside of this context.

A different kind of story

Although some narratives stand out because they recur across the interviews, narrative analysis is not only concerned with recurring narratives. At times, stories that do not seem to fit with the others shed light on the analysis as a whole. This links back to the way narratives are not contained in any way, and alternative accounts are often present within the stories. In this data, Annie storied her experience of animal therapy as a pure pleasure, but she also described the impact of the programme as something that ‘really does affect me’. Insight into why the impact of animal therapy was different for Annie was gained by looking at the Annie’s description of her transition into residential care:

Annie: I’d … I’d rather be in … in my home over there. Would I ever. Yeah, this is not a home; not a home-home, you know. It’s a house home. But never mind. It’s just one of those things when you get old and decrepit. (…)

Gemma: So would you say you don’t like living here?

Annie: Oh no, I wouldn’t say that at all. [Gemma: Oh right.] Oh no. [Gemma: You just prefer to be …] I’d prefer to be at my own house. This place has got a lot of people in it which is good, and a lot of them, believe it or not, used to live in [locality] and I’d see them around the … There’s just so many of them it’s incredible. Yeah. (…)

Annie: I’ve just suddenly thought of all the things I’ve given away. [Gemma: Yeah?] My sewing machine. My sewing machine, my toaster. [Gemma: Laughs] Hot water jug. You know, all these sort of things that … [sigh] are necessary. [Gemma: Are necessary?] Well, when they kick me out of here and wherever they put me, I don’t know, I’m gonna need those things.

Gemma: Is that likely that you won’t stay here?

Annie: Well, I don’t know. I don’t want to stay here forever. [Cluck]

In contrast to other participants, Annie did not imagine she would be in residential care permanently. The unique impact of the animal therapy programme on Annie was grounded in this difference. While others accepted the necessity of residential aged care as a long-term living situation, Annie saw it as a short-term solution. Because of this, she was able to appreciate positive aspects of residential care, such as the opportunities for social interaction, the quality of the staff, and the opportunity to receive visits from animals. Residential aged care structured the experiences and identities of those participants who saw it as their final chapter differently from Annie, who saw it as a temporary situation. In this way, considering both similarities and differences in the stories told strengthens the narrative analysis as a whole.

Ethics statement

The research received ethical approval from the Massey University Human Ethics Committee.

Bruner ( 1991 ) described an innovative storyteller as capable of ‘leading people to see human happenings in a fresh way, indeed in a way they had never “noticed” or even dreamed’ (p. 12). We see this as the potential of an innovative narrative analysis: to reveal the social world by presenting the analysis of stories in a novel way. This is why a prescriptive or formulaic approach to narrative analysis is insufficient; narrative analysis requires the ability to see patterns and connections as well as confusion and disjuncture to reveal the social world. The complexity of human experience, and the sometimes convoluted ways people relate their experience to others, demand flexibility and confidence to untangle. A convincing analysis requires clear and compelling signposting so the reader can see it too, once shown where to look. This paper provides some scaffolding as a way to begin, but every analysis reflects a unique combination of influences on the analysis. Familiarity with the process of analysis may help to build confidence to weave a narrative analysis out of many stories, to lead readers to see something they otherwise might have overlooked.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Mary Breheny http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1603-8033

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Using narrative analysis in qualitative research

Last updated

7 March 2023

Reviewed by

Jean Kaluza

After spending considerable time and effort interviewing persons for research, you want to ensure you get the most out of the data you gathered. One method that gives you an excellent opportunity to connect with your data on a very human and personal level is a narrative analysis in qualitative research. 

Master narrative analysis

Analyze your qualitative data faster and surface more actionable insights

• What is narrative analysis?

Narrative analysis is a type of qualitative data analysis that focuses on interpreting the core narratives from a study group's personal stories. Using first-person narrative, data is acquired and organized to allow the researcher to understand how the individuals experienced something. 

Instead of focusing on just the actual words used during an interview, the narrative analysis also allows for a compilation of data on how the person expressed themselves, what language they used when describing a particular event or feeling, and the thoughts and motivations they experienced. A narrative analysis will also consider how the research participants constructed their narratives.

From the interview to coding , you should strive to keep the entire individual narrative together, so that the information shared during the interview remains intact.

Is narrative analysis qualitative or quantitative?

Narrative analysis is a qualitative research method.

Is narrative analysis a method or methodology?

A method describes the tools or processes used to understand your data; methodology describes the overall framework used to support the methods chosen. By this definition, narrative analysis can be both a method used to understand data and a methodology appropriate for approaching data that comes primarily from first-person stories.

• Do you need to perform narrative research to conduct a narrative analysis?

A narrative analysis will give the best answers about the data if you begin with conducting narrative research. Narrative research explores an entire story with a research participant to understand their personal story.

What are the characteristics of narrative research?

Narrative research always includes data from individuals that tell the story of their experiences. This is captured using loosely structured interviews . These can be a single interview or a series of long interviews over a period of time. Narrative research focuses on the construct and expressions of the story as experienced by the research participant.

• Examples of types of narratives

Narrative data is based on narratives. Your data may include the entire life story or a complete personal narrative, giving a comprehensive account of someone's life, depending on the researched subject. Alternatively, a topical story can provide context around one specific moment in the research participant's life. 

Personal narratives can be single or multiple sessions, encompassing more than topical stories but not entire life stories of the individuals.

• What is the objective of narrative analysis?

The narrative analysis seeks to organize the overall experience of a group of research participants' stories. The goal is to turn people's individual narratives into data that can be coded and organized so that researchers can easily understand the impact of a certain event, feeling, or decision on the involved persons. At the end of a narrative analysis, researchers can identify certain core narratives that capture the human experience.

What is the difference between content analysis and narrative analysis?

Content analysis is a research method that determines how often certain words, concepts, or themes appear inside a sampling of qualitative data . The narrative analysis focuses on the overall story and organizing the constructs and features of a narrative.

What is the difference between narrative analysis and case study in qualitative research?

A case study focuses on one particular event. A narrative analysis draws from a larger amount of data surrounding the entire narrative, including the thoughts that led up to a decision and the personal conclusion of the research participant. 

A case study, therefore, is any specific topic studied in depth, whereas narrative analysis explores single or multi-faceted experiences across time. ​​

What is the difference between narrative analysis and thematic analysis?

A thematic analysis will appear as researchers review the available qualitative data and note any recurring themes. Unlike narrative analysis, which describes an entire method of evaluating data to find a conclusion, a thematic analysis only describes reviewing and categorizing the data.

• Capturing narrative data

Because narrative data relies heavily on allowing a research participant to describe their experience, it is best to allow for a less structured interview. Allowing the participant to explore tangents or analyze their personal narrative will result in more complete data. 

When collecting narrative data, always allow the participant the time and space needed to complete their narrative.

• Methods of transcribing narrative data

A narrative analysis requires that the researchers have access to the entire verbatim narrative of the participant, including not just the word they use but the pauses, the verbal tics, and verbal crutches, such as "um" and "hmm." 

As the entire way the story is expressed is part of the data, a verbatim transcription should be created before attempting to code the narrative analysis.

Video and audio transcription templates

• How to code narrative analysis

Coding narrative analysis has two natural start points, either using a deductive coding system or an inductive coding system. Regardless of your chosen method, it's crucial not to lose valuable data during the organization process.

When coding, expect to see more information in the code snippets.

• Types of narrative analysis

After coding is complete, you should expect your data to look like large blocks of text organized by the parts of the story. You will also see where individual narratives compare and diverge.

Inductive method

Using an inductive narrative method treats the entire narrative as one datum or one set of information. An inductive narrative method will encourage the research participant to organize their own story. 

To make sense of how a story begins and ends, you must rely on cues from the participant. These may take the form of entrance and exit talks. 

Participants may not always provide clear indicators of where their narratives start and end. However, you can anticipate that their stories will contain elements of a beginning, middle, and end. By analyzing these components through coding, you can identify emerging patterns in the data.

Taking cues from entrance and exit talk

Entrance talk is when the participant begins a particular set of narratives. You may hear expressions such as, "I remember when…," "It first occurred to me when…," or "Here's an example…."

Exit talk allows you to see when the story is wrapping up, and you might expect to hear a phrase like, "…and that's how we decided", "after that, we moved on," or "that's pretty much it."

Deductive method

Regardless of your chosen method, using a deductive method can help preserve the overall storyline while coding. Starting with a deductive method allows for the separation of narrative pieces without compromising the story's integrity.

Hybrid inductive and deductive narrative analysis

Using both methods together gives you a comprehensive understanding of the data. You can start by coding the entire story using the inductive method. Then, you can better analyze and interpret the data by applying deductive codes to individual parts of the story.

• How to analyze data after coding using narrative analysis

A narrative analysis aims to take all relevant interviews and organize them down to a few core narratives. After reviewing the coding, these core narratives may appear through a repeated moment of decision occurring before the climax or a key feeling that affected the participant's outcome.

You may see these core narratives diverge early on, or you may learn that a particular moment after introspection reveals the core narrative for each participant. Either way, researchers can now quickly express and understand the data you acquired.

• A step-by-step approach to narrative analysis and finding core narratives

Narrative analysis may look slightly different to each research group, but we will walk through the process using the Delve method for this article.

Step 1 – Code narrative blocks

Organize your narrative blocks using inductive coding to organize stories by a life event.

Example: Narrative interviews are conducted with homeowners asking them to describe how they bought their first home.

Step 2 – Group and read by live-event

You begin your data analysis by reading through each of the narratives coded with the same life event.

Example: You read through each homeowner's experience of buying their first home and notice that some common themes begin to appear, such as "we were tired of renting," "our family expanded to the point that we needed a larger space," and "we had finally saved enough for a downpayment."

Step 3 – Create a nested story structure

As these common narratives develop throughout the participant's interviews, create and nest code according to your narrative analysis framework. Use your coding to break down the narrative into pieces that can be analyzed together.

Example: During your interviews, you find that the beginning of the narrative usually includes the pressures faced before buying a home that pushes the research participants to consider homeownership. The middle of the narrative often includes challenges that come up during the decision-making process. The end of the narrative usually includes perspectives about the excitement, stress, or consequences of home ownership that has finally taken place. 

Step 4 – Delve into the story structure

Once the narratives are organized into their pieces, you begin to notice how participants structure their own stories and where similarities and differences emerge.

Example: You find in your research that many people who choose to buy homes had the desire to buy a home before their circumstances allowed them to. You notice that almost all the stories begin with the feeling of some sort of outside pressure.

Step 5 – Compare across story structure

While breaking down narratives into smaller pieces is necessary for analysis, it's important not to lose sight of the overall story. To keep the big picture in mind, take breaks to step back and reread the entire narrative of a code block. This will help you remember how participants expressed themselves and ensure that the core narrative remains the focus of the analysis.

Example: By carefully examining the similarities across the beginnings of participants' narratives, you find the similarities in pressures. Considering the overall narrative, you notice how these pressures lead to similar decisions despite the challenges faced. 

Divergence in feelings towards homeownership can be linked to positive or negative pressures. Individuals who received positive pressure, such as family support or excitement, may view homeownership more favorably. Meanwhile, negative pressures like high rent or peer pressure may cause individuals to have a more negative attitude toward homeownership.

These factors can contribute to the initial divergence in feelings towards homeownership.

Step 6 – Tell the core narrative

After carefully analyzing the data, you have found how the narratives relate and diverge. You may be able to create a theory about why the narratives diverge and can create one or two core narratives that explain the way the story was experienced.

Example: You can now construct a core narrative on how a person's initial feelings toward buying a house affect their feelings after purchasing and living in their first home.

Narrative analysis in qualitative research is an invaluable tool to understand how people's stories and ability to self-narrate reflect the human experience. Qualitative data analysis can be improved through coding and organizing complete narratives. By doing so, researchers can conclude how humans process and move through decisions and life events.

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Research Guides

Narrative Analysis

Nicole Ayers; Alexandra Fields; and Michelle Koehler

Description

Narrative analysis is a research methodology that is primarily used in qualitative research with the goal of understanding research participants’ “self-generated meanings” (Flick, 2014, p. 204). Narrative analysis uses participants’ voices and the events that participants describe as occurring in their lives in order to construct a chronological story from the data (Franzosi, 1998). Narrative analysis is seen as particularly helpful in conveying how the participants’ lived experiences, including their self-perceptions, perceptions of events, and perceptions of others, informs their understanding of themselves and the world, and it is rooted in a variety of narrative theories that help those engaging in narrative analysis identify different structures for generating stories out of data (Herman & Vervaeck, 2005). Not only does narrative analysis lend itself well to critical and interpretivist paradigms, but it is also seen as a particularly useful tool for ethnographers. The majority of researchers who employ narrative analysis methodologies do so because they want to understand the many contradictions and layers of meaning found in narratives as well as to understand how “narratives operate dialogically between the personal and the surrounding social worlds that produce, consume, silence and contest them” (Flick, 2014, p. 204). Therefore, narrative analysis offers researchers the opportunity to deconstruct participants’ stories and to recontextualize them within the larger social world, which can prove helpful to both interpretivist and critical paradigms that hope to explore and, potentially, contend misperceptions about those being studied.

Not only does narrative analysis lend itself well to critical and interpretivist paradigms, but it is also seen as a particularly useful tool for ethnographers. Specifically, since ethnographers frequently employ participant interviews as the tool for constructing an understanding of social phenomena and social locations, narrative analysis can provide a unique lens for ethnographers to place participants’ stories at the center of their research (Franzosi, 1998). Moreover, ethnographers have often been criticized for reifying existing stereotypes and misperceptions of their research participants. Narrative analysis, therefore, is seen as a potential strategy for ensuring that participants are the ones sharing their stories as opposed to the researchers sharing their interpretations of participants’ experiences (Gubrium & Holstein, 1999; Kim, 2016).

Flick, U. (2014). The SAGE handbook of qualitative data analysis . London, England: SAGE.

Franzosi, R. (1998). Narrative analysis: Or why (and how) sociologists should be interested in narrative. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 517-554. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.24.1.517

Gubrium, J. F., & Holstein, J. A. (1999). At the border of narrative and ethnography. Journal of  Contemporary Ethnography , 28 (5), 561–573. https://dx.doi-org/10.1177/089124199129023550

Herman, L., & Vervaeck, B. (2005). Handbook of narrative analysis . Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

Kim, J.-H. (2016). Understanding narrative inquiry: The crafting and analysis of stories as research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Key Research Books and Articles on Narrative Analysis Methodology

In this paper, Franzosi makes the case for why sociologists should consider narrative analysis methodologies, suggesting that narrative analysis naturally aligns with the field of sociology. Franzosi asserts that since much of the empirical data that sociologists collect is inherently written as narrative, it is only natural for sociologists to utilize narrative analysis as a methodological approach to their research. Moreover, because Franzosi provides a clear working definition of narrative analysis, then walks readers through analysis of a narrative text, this paper is a useful tool not just for sociologists but for all academics interested in narrative analysis and looking for clarity on how one might engage in the narrative analysis of text.

In this article, Gubrium and Holstein assert that researchers often exist between the borders of ethnographic and narrative methodologies, and that, in the future, rather than delineating clear borders between these methodologies, researchers should instead become comfortable existing within the tensions of this border. Specifically, the argument is made that ethnographic research has been criticized for often reifying existing stereotypes or misunderstandings of those being studied rather than presenting an interpretation of the participants and their spaces/places through the eyes of those existing within them. Therefore, the suggestion is that narrative analysis could provide a tool for ethnographers to better understand the role of incorporating participants’ stories and understandings of their spaces and places within the ethnographic study. This paper is helpful then in demonstrating a rationale as well as a means for ethnographers to incorporate narrative analysis into their methodologies.

In this handbook, the authors define a variety of narrative theories and illuminate the potential benefits and limitations of each. The authors divide the book into three chapters based upon major narrative theoretical constructs: “Before and Surrounding Structuralism,” “Structuralism,” and “Post-Classical Narratology”. Within each chapter, the authors begin by providing the history and development of each theory as well as concrete understandings of how academics, researchers, and theorists alike would approach narrative analysis from their varied perspectives depending upon their narrative theory alignment. For example, the authors explain how classical structuralists and post-classicists approach narrative analysis differently, and they use two stories as models for demonstrating the different nuanced approaches to narrative analysis (p. 103). This text serves as a useful tool for those looking to engage in narrative analysis but struggling to understand its varied theoretical underpinnings and how they inform one’s approach to narrative analysis. however, for those looking for a basic definition and understanding of approaches to narrative analysis, this predominantly theoretical text may prove cumbersome.

Josselson, R. and Lieblich, A. (1999). Making meaning of narratives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

In this book, the authors present readers with ten essays that explore the use of narrative analysis within a variety of disciplines, including literary studies, nursing, criminology, sociology, and psychology. The first essay, unlike the other nine, begins by elucidating the issues, both methodological and ethical, that researchers may face by using people’s stories as their primary and/or only source of data, and it helps readers understand the notion of narratives telling many different truths. The other nine essays provide examples of narrative analysis research within specific disciplines. The strengths of this book are that it helps researchers conceptualize the varied ways in which narrative analysis can be applied and to think critically about the “multiple truths” that can be explored through narrative analysis. Thus, if one is less interested in the history of narrative analysis or multiple definitions of narrative analysis, but instead wants to see examples of narrative analysis in action, this book will prove useful.

Kim, J.-H. (2016). Understanding narrative inquiry: The crafting and analysis of stories as research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

This textbook provides both a theoretical and methodological understanding of narrative inquiry as a qualitative research theory and methodology. The book begins by exploring the many disciplines in which narrative inquiry can be employed and the theoretical underpinnings behind narrative inquiry. After providing a wealth of theoretical lenses for which researchers might employ narrative inquiry, Dr. Kim then provides explicit feedback on how one should engage in data collection and analysis using narrative inquiry; the book ends by addressing critical issues to consider as narrative researchers and including examples of narrative inquiry in action. Therefore, this textbook provides a thorough examination of narrative inquiry through both theoretical and methodological lenses, and it is highly recommended for any qualitative researcher interested in engaging in narrative research.

Recent Dissertations Using Narrative Analysis Methodology

Njoku, N. R. (2017). Woman in the making: The impact of the constructed campus environment of Xavier University of Louisiana on the construction of Black womanhood . Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (Order Number 10637092)

This study adopts a narrative analysis approach as a means for giving voice to African American woman attending Xavier University of Louisiana. Through a narrative analysis approach, participants’ perspectives were not contrasted to others, but rather highlighted individually. The narrative inquiry approach is centered within Black feminist epistemology and works toward telling the stories of each participant. The research questions guiding this research are:

• How do African American women construct Black womanhood?
• What role does the HBCU [historically Black colleges and universities] campus environment play in facilitating these constructions of Black womanhood? (p. 6)

Participants were alumni of Xavier University who identified as both African-American and cisgender women. The data were initially gathered through in-depth interviews to establish a timeline and develop a relationship between researcher and participant. For the second aspect of data collection, participants were asked to compose a timeline of their lives, combining pictures with the narrative. This then was used as a prompt for further reflection as each participant shared stories about the pictures along the timeline. One implication of this study is that research that conflates Black men muffles the voices of the women, who have their own narratives and experiences to share. The lack of nuance between groups lessens the chances that the needs of these women will be met in their academic endeavors.

Petrone, D. (2016). A narrative analysis of women’s desires and contributions to community, sentience, agency and transformation: A narrative analysis . Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (Order Number 10146171)

The goal of this dissertation is to explore the ways that women and their community develop agency. A perspective of critical literacy and narrative inquiry create a space where participants explore and grow; the assumption remains that “humanity is not finished” (p. ii), which allows for continued growth and development.

Within this study, narrative analysis is utilized along with a critical approach to disrupt ideas of power. Within a narrative analysis view, the narrative is seen as data, and a stance of embracing change that connects the words to the world is adopted. Additionally, the idea of highlighting the connection or collaboration between researcher and participant is important throughout this study. Data were gathered through a focus group comprised largely of friends or acquaintances of the researcher who shared a sense of “unfinishedness” (p. 51), which then allowed for a connection based on common sharing and support. Interviews were the primary source of data, both within the larger focus group and then with individuals. The implications of this study are in the possibility for human development, specifically in relation to internal growth, as individuals work to read, and interact with, the world.

Wingfield, M. V. (2018). Becoming all that I can be: Narrative analysis of African-American students’ literacy perceptions and experiences in an urban Title I school . Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (Order Number 10784392)

Within in this study, students’ writing, specifically poetry, is analyzed for its narrative connections to the students’ own lives. This allows for students’ narratives to disrupt the deficit approach frequently connected with research around Title I schools by acknowledging their “culturally situated literacies, opinions, and academic potential for success” (p. 72). More specifically, the purpose of this study is to explore students’ perceptions of literacy experiences through high school. The research questions guiding this study are:

• How do African-American high school graduates from a low-income urban community school describe their high school literacy experiences?
• How do African-American students perceive the ways in which their literacy experiences were culturally responsive by addressing their varied literacy practices? (p. 16)

Narrative analysis was adopted to explore a critical approach and culturally responsive pedagogy. Data were gathered through interviews and artifacts that included books, photos, and the senior portfolio. These data were analyzed as points within a story, or as part of the participants’ narrative of their experience. The implications of this study are support of culturally responsive pedagogy and critical literacies in Title I schools.

Internet Resources

Centre for Narrative Research’s Blog ( https://centrefornarrativeresearch.wordpress.com/2018/02/16/centre-for-narrative-research-spring-summer-2018-events/ )

The Centre for Narrative Research Blog offers an up-to-date blog from The University of East London’s School of Social Sciences with events around the world, which narrative researchers could attend.

The Australian Department of Defense: “A Review of Narrative Methodology” Bibliography PDF ( http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/css506/506%20readings/review%20of%20narritive%20methodology%20australian%20gov.pdf )

The Australian Department of Defense: Defense, Science and Technology Organisation (DSTO) published an annotated bibliography titled “A Review of Narrative Methodology.” The DTSO cites many publications of narrative methodology research that study human action. The executive summary that starts the bibliography provides a clear definition of narrative inquiry and its historical background.

Narrative Inquiry: What’s Your Story? ( http://qualitativeresearchontario.openetext.utoronto.ca/chapter/video-module-3-doing-qualitative-research/ )

A research guide from The University of Western Ontario provides video lectures pertaining to qualitative research.  Scroll down to a video lecture, entitled, “Narrative Inquiry: What’s Your Story?” from Dr. Debbie Laliberte Rudman of The University of Western Ontario. The resource also includes a list of suggested readings.

Professional Organizations and Conferences

The following associations and conferences have a focus on Narrative Inquiry. They serve as a venue for presenting current research.  They also serve as additional points for researchers to develop their understanding of and collaboration within the field of Narrative Inquiry.

The American Educational Resource Association (AERA) has a specific webpage for narrative research resources, which includes a YouTube Video of Vivian Gussin Paley’s discussion “How can we study the narrative of play when the children are given so little time to play?”, book suggestions with annotations, resources sorted by journals, books, teachers, multicultural, feminism, identity, qualitative books that include narrative research, specific journal articles, websites, and notes and comments from our members.

• AERA Narrative Research SIG Website ( https://sites.google.com/site/aeranarrativeresearchsig/home/resources-1 )
• The International Society for the Study of Narrative is an organization with an annual conference. http://narrative.georgetown.edu/conferences/
• Narrative Matters is a biannual conference on narrative analysis. The 2018 conference was held at the University of Twente in the Netherlands. https://www.utwente.nl/en/bms/narrativematters2018/

Narrative Analysis Copyright © 2019 by Nicole Ayers; Alexandra Fields; and Michelle Koehler is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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