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Research Sentence Examples

I was trying to research the buyer.

How is your research going?

Sensing my reaction she added, It's sort of what I do in my job; research things.

Well, she wants to do a little research to see if she can find an explanation.

I'm sure the museum will be grateful and help us in our research all they can.

The pulpit of St Mary's was no longer closed to him, but the success of Balliol in the schools gave rise to jealousy in other colleges, and old prejudices did not suddenly give way; while a new movement in favour of " the endowment of research " ran counter to his immediate purposes.

She would claim to be a research scientist.

No one said it, but internet research indicated that a coma which lasted more than two weeks might become permanent.

No one had a suggestion for the next step, but Fred was determined to continue to research the ownership of the severed digit.

Fred O'Connor seemed a tad put out that he'd been absent from the final confrontation in the Lucky Pup Mine until Dean reminded him that without his Internet connection and library research , Martha's bones would still be without identity.

I did some tests and then asked Ginny for some research help.

Thousands of people research diseases because they individually want to cure them.

Research conducted during quiet nights such as this only bolstered her opinion that the only organization that might have the capabilities still couldn't have done this.

The university being disorganized, Grynaeus pursued his studies, and in 1531 visited England for research in libraries.

I am not saying the research scientist loses out to the florist in Akron, Ohio.

I'll leave that research up to Fred.

My wife and I promised we'd research the matter for her.

She eagerly informed the pair how she planned to attend tomorrow's ice festival activities, in search of first hand research for what was sure to be a winning chapter.

To us, their descendants, who are not historians and are not carried away by the process of research and can therefore regard the event with unclouded common sense, an incalculable number of causes present themselves.

I can probably get close with a few years of research , but not in two months.

Even Fred O'Connor was taking the day off from his historical research to watch the festivities.

The three were north of sixty and involved with Fred's research activities.

Whatever the case, research and contemplation had not dampened the desire for more children – their children.

She'd done research on the drugs; they were antipsychotics, anti-anxiety pills and a bunch of other fun drugs.

Thousands of people research alternative energy because a breakthrough will change the world and make fortunes.

Not only has scientific study advanced at the university of Buenos Aires, but scientific research is promoting the development of the country; examples are the geographical explorations of the Andean frontier, and especially of the Patagonian Andes, by Francisco P. Moreno.

The study failed due to the inept scientist in charge of the research .

The Internet will greatly speed the research and, hopefully, the safety of GM foods.

It's kinda cool, except that Toby isn't old enough to research everything yet.

As a research tool, this 11th edition is unparalleled - even today.

Myers in two papers published in the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research .

How's the rest of your research coming?

Freeman and Charles Elton discovered by historical research that a breach of the conditions of the professorship had occurred, and Christ Church raised the endowment from Loo a year to £50o.

For an account of these see Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research , vii.

See also his "Notes of Seances with D.D.Home," Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research , vi.

Doing research , mostly on-line with my computer and the library for a while, but it's closed until Monday.

And I've got some research to do down at the library.

Nor is she getting any research help from me!

I think he's trying to do his research before Claire gets there.

For other sources see articles "Bohmische-Bruder" and "Zinzendorf" in Hauck's Realencyklopaedie; and for latest results of historical research , Zeitschrift fur Briidergeschichte (half-yearly).

It is owing to these leading orographical features - divined by Carl Ritter, but only recently ascertained and established as fact by geographical research - that so many of the great Rivers.

Flournoy, Des Indes a la Planete Mars (Geneva, 1900; there is an English translation published in London); Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research , passim.

In the following year he made his first acquaintance with the literature of Spain under the influence of his friend and biographer, Ticknor; and, while its attractiveness proved greater than he had at the outset anticipated, the comparative novelty of the subject as a field for research served as an additional stimulus.

History had always been a favourite study with him, and Mably's Observations sur l'histoire appears to have had considerable influence in determining him to the choice of some special period for historic research .

He could only use the eye which remained to him for brief and intermittent periods, and as travelling affected his sight prejudicially he could not anticipate any personal research amongst unpublished records and historic scenes.

Ockley's book on the Saracens " first opened his eyes " to the striking career of Mahomet and his hordes; and with his characteristic ardour of literary research , after exhausting all that could be learned in English of the Arabs and Persians, the Tatars and Turks, he forthwith plunged into the French of D'Herbelot, and the Latin of Pocock's version of Abulfaragius, sometimes understanding them, but oftener only guessing their meaning.

Now the early Christian centuries were anything but a period of scientific research .

In still more western fields of research much additional light has been thrown since 1875 on the physiography of the great deserts and oases of Arabia.

On the death of his uncle in 1823 Wheatstone and his brother succeeded to the business; but he never seems to have taken a very active part in it, and he virtually retired after six years, devoting himself to experimental research , at first chiefly with regard to sound.

The results of these skilfully conducted observations were published in a memoir on The Uranian and Neptunian Systems. 3 From this research it appears that the orbits of all four satellites of Uranus are sensibly circular, and although no special search was made, he concludes that none of Sir William Herschel's supposed outer satellites can have any real existence.

As the result of research in the diplomatic correspondence at the Record Office in London 4 Mr Lang finds a clue in the affairs of the French Huguenot, Roux de Marsilly, the secret agent for a Protestant league against France between Sweden, Holland, England and the Protestant cantons of Switzerland, who in February 1669 left London, where he had been negotiating with Arlington (apparently with Charles II.'s knowledge), for Switzerland, his confidential valet Martin remaining behind.

He took an early interest in archaeological research , and between 1875 and 1880 was busily engaged in studying ancient British remains at Stonehenge and elsewhere; in 1880 he published his book on Stonehenge, with an account of his theories on this subject.

Next to the duty of original research , Polybius ranks that of impartiality.

After doing some research work at Simancas in Spain, he became professor of history at the university of Dorpat in 1867; and was then in turn professor at Konigsberg, Bonn and Leipzig.

By his writings, as much as by his explorations, Rockhill has made his name great in the annals of Asiatic research .

The first great result of recent geogra phical research has been to modify pre-existing ideas of results vestigate the orography of the vast central region represented by in.

A few words of explanation concerning Pasteur's first research are necessary to give the key to all his future work.

It simply consisted iri the application, to the elucidation of these complex problems, of the exact methods of chemical and physical research .

But his powers of patient research and of quick and exact observation were about to be put to a severe test.

Schelle, Turgot (Paris, 1909); and Marquis de Segur, Au Couchant de la monarchie (Paris, 1910), contain much that is based on recent research .

Among the other writers previous to the Revolution mention must be made of John Ray the botanist and of John Evelyn, both men of great talent and research , whose works are still in high estimation.

But the modern conception of society or the state owes more to biology than philosophy, and actual research has destroyed more frequently than it has justified the assumptions of the older philosophical school.

There would probably have been no controversy at all on this subject but for the fact that economics was elaborated into systematic form, and made the basis of practical measures of the greatest importance, long before the remarkable development in the 19th century of historical research , experimental science and biology.

There is another very important instrument of investigation which can be used in our own time, but cannot be employed in historical research .

The fact that Adam Smith, with the meagre materials of the 18th century at his disposal, saw his way to important generalizations which later research has established on a firm basis, may enhance greatly the reputation of Adam Smith, but does not strengthen the generalizations.

His historical research was exemplified in his De antiquitate ecclesiae, and his editions of Asser, Matthew Paris, Walsingham, and the compiler known as Matthew of Westminster; his liturgical skill was shown in his version of the psalter and in the occasional prayers and thanksgivings which he was called upon to compose; and he left a priceless collection of manuscripts to his college at Cambridge.

Recent research has, however, explained how it came about that a son born on the earlier date received the name Nabulione (Napoleon).

Prehistoric research had now begun to extend beyond the Greek mainland.

If we are to accept and profit by Dorpfeld's nomenclature, we must be satisfied that, in their later historic habitats, both Lycians and Carians showed unmistakable signs of having formerly possessed the civilizations attributed to them in prehistoric times - signs which research has hitherto wholly failed to find.

Escherich (1901), after a new of these twenty-one divisions are so different from the others that research on the embryology of the muscid Diptera, claims that the they can scarcely be considered true segments.

Again, the arrangement followed in the Pterylographie was of course based on pterylographical considerations, and we have its author's own word for it that he was persuaded that the limitation of natural groups could only be attained by the most assiduous research into the species of which they are composed from every point of view.

Jeffrey Bell, with an appendix by Garrod containing a summary of the latter's own continuation of the same line of research .

The evocation of spirits, especially in the form of necromancy, is an important branch of the demonology of many peoples; and the peculiarities of trance mediumship, which seem sufficiently established by modern research , go far to explain the vogue of this art.

Bacon, accordingly, withdrew from the scholastic routine and devoted himself to languages and experimental research .

As an instance of his method, Bacon gives an investigation into the nature and cause of the rainbow, which is really a very fine specimen of inductive research .

Careful research has shown that very little can with accuracy be ascribed to him.

He had already acquired a considerable reputation in physiological research .

When nominalism was revived in the 14th century by the English Franciscan, William of Occam, it gave evidence of a new tendency in thought, a distrust of abstractions and an impulse towards direct observation and inductive research , a tendency which had its fulfilment in the scientific movement of the Renaissance.

Graber turned their attention to the detailed investigation of some one species or to special points in the structure of some particular organs, using for the elucidation of their subject the ever-improving microscopical methods of research .

Yet judged by modern standards he had an inadequate conception of the meaning of ordered research .

Wherever Poggio went he carried on the same industry of research .

Instruments of this type are called Electrodynamometers, and have been employed both as laboratory research instruments and for technical purposes.

None of the numerous publications which we owe to Buchon can be described as thoroughly scholarly; but they have been of great service to history, and those concerning the East have in especial the value of original research .

His account, drawn up from notes taken in the main from personal observation, possesses an especial importance for topographical research , owing to his method of describing each object in the order in which he saw it during the course of his walks.

A period of British activity in research followed in the 18th century.

Leake (Topography of Athens and the Demi, 2nd ed., 1841) brought the descriptive literature to an end and inaugurated the period of modern scientific research , in which German archaeologists have played a distinguished part.

Athens has thus become a centre of learning, a meeting-place for scholars and a basis for research in every part of the Greek world.

While modern research has added considerably to our knowledge of prehistoric Athens, a still greater light has been thrown on the architecture and topography of the city in the earlier historic or " archaic " era, the subsequent age of Athenian greatness, and the period of decadence which set in with the Macedonian conquest; the first extends from the dawn of history to 480-479 B.C., when the city was destroyed by the Persians; the second, or classical, age closes in 322 B.C., when Athens lost its political independence after the Lamian War; the third, or Hellenistic, in 146 B.C., when the state fell under Roman protection.

Little was known of the buildings on the Acropolis in the pre-Persian period before the great excavations of 1885-1888, which rank among the most surprising achievements of modern research .

Owing to the numbers and activity of its institutions, both native and foreign, for the prosecution of research and the encouragement of classical studies, Athens has become Scientific once more an international seat of learning.

He emphasized that the practical training should include (1) the qualitative and quantitative analysis of mixtures, (2) the preparation of substances according to established methods, (3) original research - a course which has been generally adopted.

Since their day many chemists have entered the lists, new and powerful methods of research have been devised, and several new elements definitely characterized.

The extraordinary patience requisite to a successful termination of such an analysis can only be adequately realized by actual research ; an idea may be obtained from Crookes's Select Methods in Analysis.

The clarification and spirit of research so clearly emphasized by Robert Boyle in the middle of the 17th century is reflected in the classification of substances expounded by Nicolas Lemery, in 1675, in his Cours de chymie.

Still, till the last Berzelius remained faithful to his original theory; experiment, which he had hitherto held to be the only sure method of research , he discarded, and in its place he substituted pure speculation, which greatly injured the radical theory.

His life in London was varied by frequent visits to Italy, where he occupied himself more in literary and antiquarian research than with art.

Gayarre, coming down to the war, based on deep and scholarly research , and greatly altered in successive editions.

For the discovery of mines, special permits of research , on which there is a fee of £T5 to £T 15, are necessary; full details of the requisite formalities are given in the law.

The research of a mine in no way impairs the rights of ownership of the land in which the mine is located.

Perles' essays are rich in suggestiveness, and have been the starting-point of much fruitful research .

It was his great good fortune to find abundant unused material for his Life of Hume, and to be the first to introduce the principles of historical research into the history of Scotland.

The International Research Council formed just after the war constituted a section for Physical Oceanography, which held its first meeting in Paris in 1921.

On the whole, oceanographical research was being taken up most actively in Europe, but much important work was also begun in America, for instance the fine hydrographical research in the Pacific by the Scripps Institute of the university of California.

Since Faraday's time his laws have been confirmed by modern research , and in favourable cases have been shown to hold good with an accuracy of at least one part in a thousand.

The principal object of this more recent research has been the determination of the quantitative amount of chemical change associated with the passage for a given time of a current of strength known in electromagnetic units.

The vestment was a monument of careful and painstaking research , profusely illustrated.

As a rule the cells are minute, and this has especially stood in the way of embryological research .

Little light has been thrown on the affinities of the Brachiopoda by recent research , though speculation has not been wanting.

The results of Omars research werea revised edition of the Zif or astronomical tables, and the introduction of the Tarikh-i-Malikshahi or JalalI, that is, the so-called Jalalian or SeljUk era, which commences in A.H.

They are the chief instruments of research , and have themselves much benefited by being so employed.

Weak health, however, caused him from early days to devote himself to research , mainly on church history in the later middle ages, and his literary reputation rests on the important books he produced on this subject.

The difficulties in the way of solving it are very great, and up to the present time the best authorities are not agreed as to the result, the effect of half a century of research having been merely to reduce the uncertainty within continually narrower limits.

Wills 1 has made successful use of it in a research on the effects of temperature, a matter of great industrial importance.

Terada in a research remarkable for its completeness and the ingenuity of the experimental methods employed.

On the 6th of November 1766, Lagrange was installed in his new position, with a salary of 6000 francs, ample leisure for scientific research , and royal favour sufficient to secure him respect without exciting envy.

The In- stituto Historico e Geographico Brazileiro, though devoted chiefly to historical research , has rendered noteworthy service in its encouragement of geographical exploration and by its publication of various scientific memoirs.

Until 1904 archaeological research in Laconia was carried on only sporadically.

A charming style, a vivid fancy, exhaustive research , were not to be expected from a hard-worked barrister; but he must certainly be held responsible for the frequent plagiarisms, the still more frequent inaccuracies of detail, the colossal vanity which obtrudes on almost every page,'the hasty insinuations against the memory of the great departed who were to him as giants, and the petty sneers which he condescends to print against his own contemporaries, with whom he was living from day to day on terms of apparently sincere friendship.

Dodd's Jefferson Davis (Philadelphia, 1907), which embodies the results of recent historical research .

It is a spirit which distrusts abstractions, which makes for direct observation, for inductive research .

But he made little way, and failed to obtain a vacant physicianship at St George's hospital; the result was that he abandoned medicine and took to original research .

This book, which comes down to the year 1526 and the extinction of Czech independence,'was founded on laborious research in the local archives of Bohemia and in the libraries of the chief cities of Europe, and remains the standard authority.

Recent historical research has ascertained that the country was densely peopled in the 15th century.

The Uralian travels of Anthony Reguly (1843-1845), and the philological labours of Paul Hunfalvy and Joseph Budenz, may be said to have established it, and no doubt has been thrown on it by recent research , though most authorities regard the Magyars as of mixed origin physically and combining Turkish with Finno-Ugric elements.

During the earlier part of its existence the Hungarian academy devoted itself mainly to the scientific development of the language and philological research .

For philological and ethnographical research into the origin and growth of the language none excels Paul Hunfalvy.

It is a popular and compendious reproduction of the Ada Sanctorum, exhibiting great industry and research , and is in all respects the best work of its kind in English literature.

In the first place, the continued study of human population has thrown additional light on some of the questions involved, whilst the progress of microscopical research has given us a clear foundation as to the structural facts connected with the origin of the egg-cell and sperm-cell and the process of fertilization.

The suggestion requires further experimental testing, for which the case of the parthenogenetic production of a portion of the offspring, in such insects as the bee, offers a valuable opportunity for research .

Specialists may here and there improve on a statement or a theory, but it will always remain a great authority, a monument of patient and exhaustive research of intellectual power, and f ripe and disciplined judgment.

In spite of all the valuable research work that has been done within the last few years, the essential cause of new growths still remains unknown.

It is notable that an important instrument of research , the speculum, which has been reinvented in modern times, was used by Soranus; and specimens of still earlier date, showing great mechanical perfection, have been found among the ruins of Pompeii.

Galen was as devoted to anatomical and, so far as then understood, physiological research as to practical medicine.

Unfortunately it was neither this nor his zeal for research that chiefly won him followers, but the completeness of his theoretical explanations, which fell in with the mental habits of succeeding centuries, and were such as have flattered the intellectual indolence of all ages.

Morbid anatomy now became a recognized branch of medical research , and the movement was started which has lasted till our own day.

He did not originate this line of research , for it had been pursued, if not originated, by Haller, and cultivated systematically by Tommasini, an Italian "contra-stimulist"; but he carried it out with much elaboration.

Rene Theophile Hyacinthe Laennec (1781-1826) was the inventor of this most important perhaps of all methods of medical research .

His immense contributions to anatomy and pathology cannot be estimated here, but his services in stimulating research and training investigators belong to the history of general medicine.

The combination of clinical and anatomical research led, as in the hands of the great French physicians, to important discoveries by English investigators.

Thus it was, partly because the habit of acceptance of authority, waning but far from extirpated, dictated to the clinical observer what he should see; partly because the eye of the clinical observer lacked that special training which the habit and influence of experimental verification alone can give, that physicians, even acute and practised physicians, failed to see many and many a symptomatic series which went through its evolutions conspicuously enough, and needed for its appreciation no unknown aids or methods of research , nor any further advances of pathology.

If the striking conceptions of Paul Ehrlich and Emil Fischer continue to prove as fertile in inspiring and directing research as at present they seem to be, another wide sphere of.

Now the cellular pathology of the blood, investigated by the aid of modern staining methods, is as important as that of the solid organs; no clinical investigator - indeed, apart from research , no practitioner at this day - can dispense with examination of the blood for purposes of diagnosis; its coagulability and the kinds and the variations of the cells it contains being evidence of many def i nitely morbid states of the body.

Chemical, physiological and pathological research is exploring the secret of these more refined kinds of "anchorage" of molecules.

It is in the structure of the brain itself that modern research has attained the most remarkable success.

Perhaps no advance in medicine has done so much as the study of tuberculosis to educate the public in the methods and value of research in medical subjects, for the results, and even the methods, of such labours have been brought home not only to patients and their friends, but also to the farmer, the dairyman, the butcher, the public carrier, and, indeed, to every home in the land.

It is interesting to find that, with all this activity in the present reformed methods of research and verification are not confined to the work of the passing day; in the brilliant achievements of modern research and reconstruction the maxim that "Truth is the daughter of Time" has not been forgotten.

He prepared a new edition of the monk Theophilus's celebrated treatise, Diversarum artium schedula, and for several years devoted his Saturday mornings to laboratory research with the chemist Aline Girard at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, the results of which were utilized by Marcellin Berthelot in the first volume (1894) of his Chimie au moyen dge.

Dr Hopkinson presented a rare combination of practical with theoretical ability, and his achievements in pure scientific research are not less intrinsically notable than the skill with which he applied their results to the solution of concrete engineering problems. His original work is contained in more than sixty papers, all written with a complete mastery both of style and of subject-matter.

The Royal Institution, Albemarle Street, was founded in 1799, maintains a library and laboratories and promotes research in connexion with the experimental sciences.

It presented in an attractive style what were then the latest results of scholarly research , but was criticized as wanting in erudition.

In this section an attempt is made to indicate briefly the causes which have led to so great a diversity of opinion, and to describe in outline the principles underlying the chief schemes of chronology that have been suggested; a short account will then be given of the latest discoveries in this branch of research , and of the manner in which they affect the problems at issue.

But recent research has discredited this theory both in England and on the continent.

In France itself he trained at the Ecole des Chartes and the College de France a band of disciples who continued the traditions of exact research that he established.

His Geschichte des Volkes Israel, the result of thirty years' labour, was epoch-making in that branch of research .

Godin, a member of the French commission for measuring an arc of the meridian near Quito, became professor of mathematics at San Marcos in 1750; and the botanical expeditions sent out from Spain gave further zest to scientific research .

But the most valuable and important historical work by a modern Peruvian is General Mendiburu's (1805-1885) Diccionario historico-biografico del Peru, a monument of patient and conscientious research , combined with critical discernment of a high order.

It is interesting to note this early employment of the camera obscura in the field of astronomical research , in which its latest achievements have been of such pre-eminent value.

This mental attitude, combined with a certain lack of initiative and the weakness of his health, probably prevented him from doing full justice to his splendid powers of experimental research .

CeramicsAll research proves that up to the 12th century of the Christian era the ceramic ware produced in Japan was of a very rude character.

His views as to the physiological functions of the spinal cord are also in agreement with recent research , and he anticipated many of the pre-eminent offices of the ductless glands which students of the present time are only beginning to discover.

But a profound change was' coming over him, which led him to leave the domain of physical research for that of psychical and spiritual inquiry.

Though disappointed with the Crimea as a place of residence, Pallas continued to live there, devoted to constant research , especially in botany, till the death of his second wife in 1810, when he removed to Berlin, where he died on the 8th of September 1811.

C. Roberts-Austen's six Reports (1891 to 2904) to the Alloys Research Committee of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, London, the last report being concluded by William Gowland; the Cantor Lectures on Alloys delivered at the Society of Arts and the Contribution a l'etude des alliages (2902), published by the Societe d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale under the direction of the Commission des alliages (2896-2900), should be consulted.

He entered holy orders and ultimately attained the rank of abbe; but his tastes all lay in the direction of experimental research , especially on the subject of electricity.

Mariana's Historiae, though in many parts uncritical, is justly esteemed for its research , accuracy, sagacity and style.

Still more did he encourage the habit of inquiry and research , more valuable than his.

Whether his conclusion is justified or not, it helps to show how strongly the trend of contemporary research is setting against the theory of Kattenbusch that the Roman Creed when adopted at Antioch became the parent of all Eastern forms. It does not, however, militate against the possibility that the Roman Creed was carried from Rome to Asia Minor and to Palestine in the 2nd century.

His earliest research work was undertaken in Rutherford's laboratory in Manchester, whither he went as lecturer in physics after leaving Oxford.

After two years he resigned his lectureship in order to devote more time to research work, and was elected John Harling fellow.

It displays considerable research and sagacity, and even when dealing with contemporary events gives a favourable impression, upon the whole, of the author's candour and truth.

When research in oceanography began, the conditions of the sea were of necessity observed only from the coast and from islands, the information derived from mariners as to the condition of parts of the sea far from land being for the most part mere anecdotes bearing on the marvellous or the frightful.

A substitute for this originality was found at Alexandria in learned research , extended and multifarious knowledge.

The spirit of all their productions is the same, that of learned research .

Modern research has proved that such reactions are not occasioned by water acting as H 2 0, but really by its ions (hydrions and hydroxidions), for the velocity is proportional (in accordance with the law of chemical mass action) to the concentration of these ions.

In any attempt to determine the relative importance of Protestant and Catholic countries in promoting modern progress it must not be forgotten that religion is naturally conservative, and that its avowed business has never been to forward scientific research or political reform.

The Boston public library, exceeded in size in the United States by the library of Congress at Washington - and probably first, because of the large number of duplicates in the library of Congress - and the largest free municipal library in the world; the library of Harvard, extremely well chosen and valuable for research ; the collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society (1791); the Boston Athenaeum (1807); the State Library (1826); the New England Historic Genealogical Society (1845); the Congregational Library; the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1780); and the Boston Society of Natural History (1830), all in Boston, leave it easily unrivalled, unless by Washington, as the best research centre of the country.

Armstrong resigned his position in 1863, and for seventeen years the government adhered to the older method of loading, in spite of the improvements which experiment and research at Elswick and elsewhere had during that period produced in the mechanism and performance of heavy guns.

He did a lot of research so he is not confused by the enigma of the pain that comes with the disease.

Though Abulfeda as a late epitomator did not afford a startingpoint for methodical study of the sources, Reiske's edition with his version and notes certainly laid the foundation for research in Arabic history.

At first he occupied himself with ordinary routine work, but being far from satisfied with the scope which this afforded, he seized eagerly upon the opportunity for novel research , offered by Kirchhoff's discoveries in spectrum analysis.

It consists, that is to say, in a range of bright lines, the agreement of which with the negative pole bands of nitrogen, together with details of interest connected with its mode of production, was ascertained by a continuance of the research .

He was himself a diligent investigator and experimenter, and he did much to encourage original research among his pupils, one of whom was Dr Joseph Black.

He soon made his influence felt there - new and more extensive laboratories were built, and for the first time in England a period of research became a necessary part of the academic course in chemistry for an honours degree.

In England, however, people cared for none of these things, and were blind to the commercial potentialities of scientific research .

His first research , carried out in Liebig's laboratory at Giessen, was on coal-tar, and his investigation of the organic bases in coal-gas naphtha established the nature of aniline.

According to the ordinary laws of research , the book, being written at a time long posterior to the events it records, can have only a secondary value, although that is no reason why here and there valuable material should not have been preserved.

That science must be left free to determine the aims of her investigation, to select and apply her own methods, and to publish the results of her researches without restraint, is a postulate which Ultramontanism either cannot understand or treats with indifference, for it regards as strange and incredible the fundamental law governing all scientific research - that there is for it no higher aim than the discovery of the truth.

He founded two gold medals for the encouragement of scientific research , one in the award of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and the other in that of the Scottish Society of Arts.

He was made an honorary member of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain in 1886 and received the Hanbury medal for original research in chemistry in 1889.

In that year he was demobilized and retired into academic life, being elected to a research fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford.

In common with his works generally, it is distinguished by exhaustiveness of treatment and research , critical ability, a remarkable degree of accuracy, and a certain insight into the past which he gained from his practical experience of men and institutions.

It is suggested, then, in the light of modern psychical research , that Mephistopheles, though (as the Faust-books record) invisible to any one else, was visible enough to Faust himself and to Wagner, the famulus who shared his somnambulistic experiences.

This opened up a new field of research , and led the way in the study of Cryptogamic reproduction, which has since been much advanced by the labours of numerous botanical inquiries.

Hull published accounts of an exact and extensive research , in which the principle had been fully and precisely confirmed as regards both transparent and opaque bodies.

Hofmann, in whose own research laboratory he was in the course of a year or two promoted to be an assistant.

His benefactions in the shape of buildings and endowments for education and research are too numerous for detailed enumeration, and are noted in this work under the headings of the various localities.

Louis Blanc possessed a picturesque and vivid style, and considerable power of research ; but the fervour with which he expressed his convictions, while placing him in the first rank of orators, tended to turn his historical writings into political pamphlets.

His chief title to fame, however, is his pioneering work in the application of the art of photography to astronomical research .

Scholars desiring to explore for themselves the sources of Polish history from the nth century to the 18th have immense fields of research lying open before them in the Acta historica res gestas Poloniae illustrantia (1878, &c.), the Scriptores rerum polonicarum (1872, &c.), and the Historical Dissertations (Pol., 1874, &c.), all three collections published, under the most careful editorship, by the University of Cracow.

The value of this book is great both on account of the research it displays and its philosophical and unprejudiced style.

From that time he gave up his life to study and scientific research , and soon took a prominent place in the band of inquirers, known as the "Invisible College," who devoted themselves to the cultivation of the "new philosophy."

In addition to the menagerie, there is an infirmary and operating room, an anatomical and pathological laboratory, and the Society holds scientific meetings and publishes stately volumes containing the results of zoological research .

The above explanation of the special degradation of the Nethinim, though they were connected with the Temple service, seems to be the only way of explaining the Talmudic reference to their tabooed position, and is an interesting example of the light that can be reflected on Biblical research by the Talmud.

Though handicapped in his later years by delicate health, his intellectual grasp and wide knowledge and research gradually made him famous as a jurist and historian.

These lines of research have been described in the preceding section on the apparatus criticus.

At the same time, however little of Rendel Harris's results may ultimately be accepted by the textual critics of the future, his work will always remain historically of the first importance as having done more than anything else to stimulate thought and open new lines of research in textual criticism in the last decade of the 19th century.

The Old Syriac, if we take the Sinaitic MS. as the purest form, compared in the same way, has a similar double series of interpolations and omissions, but neither the omissions nor the interpolations are the same in the Old Latin as in the Old Syriac. Such a line of research suggests that instead of being able, as WH thought, to set the Western against the Neutral text (the Alexandrian being merely a development of the latter), we must consider the problem as the comparison of at least three texts, a Western (geographically), an Eastern and the Neutral.

Denham, and several important voyages for scientific research were made in the second half of the 19th century, including one from Austria under Captain Wiillerstorf Urbair (1858), and one from Italy in the vessel "Magenta" (1865-1868), which was accompanied by the scientist Dr Enrico Giglioli.

Independently of its value as being compiled from original documents, it bears evidence of great research , and has been of essential benefit to later writers.

Yet in spite of his business cares he found time for an extraordinary amount of original research , and every year he published two or three papers, most of which contained some discovery or observation of importance.

Research was at once his occupation and his relaxation, and his natural endowments were cultivated by unceasing practice and unwearied attention.

The history and literature of Catalonia have been closely studied, and in many cases the results of research are published in the Catalan language.

Scientific research is not, of course, bound by official standards.

So far this later research appears to confirm the opinion of Böckh (2) that fundamental units of measure were at one time derived from weights and capacities.

His work was destroyed,' but the copious extracts which we find in Lactantius, Augustine, Jerome, Macarius Magnus and others show how profoundly he had studied the Christian writings, and how great ' was his talent for real historical research .

The history of this science, like that of all physical sciences, covers two parallel lines of development which have acted and reacted upon each other - namely, progress in exploration, research and discovery, and progress in philosophic interpretation.

Huxley questioned the time value of fossils, but recent research has tended to show that identity of species and of mutations is, on the whole, a guide to synchroneity, though the general range of vertebrate and invertebrate life as well as of plant life is generally necessary for the establishment of approximate synchronism.

Thus Huxley, with true prophetic instinct, found that the sum of primitive characters of all the higher placental mammals points to a stem form of a generalized insectivore type, a prophecy which has been fully confirmed by the latest research .

We have shown that the direct observation of the origin of new characters in palaeontology brings them within that domain of natural law and order to which the evolution of the physical universe conforms. The nature of this law, which, upon the whole, appears to be purposive or teleological in its operations, is altogether a mystery which may or may not be illumined by future research .

The characteristics of Lelewel as an historian are great research and power to draw inferences from his facts; his style is too often careless, and his narrative is not picturesque, but his expressions are frequently terse and incisive.

Indeed, the honour has been claimed for him of being one of the founders of the modern school of historical research .

He was not improbably moved by considerations of foreign policy to publish his Russes et Prussiens, guerre de Sept Ans (1895), a popular work, though based on solid research .

Other alleged discoveries, such as' the construction of early Roman history out of still earlier ballads, have not been equally fortunate; but if every positive conclusion of Niebuhr's had been refuted, his claim to be considered the first who dealt with the ancient history of Rome in a scientific spirit would remain unimpaired, and the new principles introduced by him into historical research would lose nothing of their importance.

Of late years considerable progress has taken place in our knowledge of these organisms, research upon them having been stimulated by the realization of their extreme importance in medical parasitology.

In view, however, of the great interest excited by Schaudinn's work on avian parasites, as well as on account of the far-reaching importance of his conclusions to the study of the Haematozoa, a brief summary of his celebrated research is necessary.

However this may be, the research of subsequent workers - e.g.

Sensory Automatism is the term given by students of psychical research to a centrally initiated hallucination.

Phenomena of this kind play a large part in primitive ceremonies of divination and in our own day furnish much of the material of Psychical Research .

He worked slowly when in his study, and willingly lingered over research .

His life was spent as a practising physician in London, but he also occupied himself with chemical research .

Four years later he was admitted a solicitor, and in course of time he acquired an extensive practice, but his taste and inclination ultimately led him to devote almost the whole of his time to literary research , and especially the elucidation of the history of the university of Cambridge.

The dramatist must have heard of Timur in other quarters, equally reliable it may be with those available in the present stage of Oriental research .

Solovyov's Modern Priestess of Isis, translated by Walter Leaf (1895), in Arthur Lillie's Madame Blavatsk y and Her Theosophy (1895), and in the report made to the Society for Psychical Research by the Cambridge graduate despatched to investigate her doings in India.

In acoustics his principal work was a research on the transmission of sound through solids, the explanation of Chladni's figures of vibrating solids, various investigations of the principles of acoustics and the mechanism of hearing, and the invention of new musical instruments, e.g.

Nothing has discredited emendation as a means of improving texts more than the want of method, common care and research , which those addicted to it show.

But after all this original research he got no further.

Numerous parallels exist between the Arthurian and early Irish heroic cycles, notably the Fenian or Ossianic. This Fenian cycle is very closely connected with the Tuatha de Danaan, the Celtic deities of vegetation and increase; recent research has shown that two notable features of the Arthurian story, the Round Table and the Grail, can be most reasonably accounted for as survivals of this Nature worship, and were probably parts of the legend from the first.

Professor Rhys' Studies in the Arthurian Legend are largely based on Welsh material, and may be consulted for details, though the conclusions drawn are not in harmony with recent research .

Recent research , however, points to these cords of the rete testis et ovarii as being derived from the coelomic epithelium instead of from the mesonephros.

It is often described as formed of three lobes two lateral and a median or posterior, but careful sections and recent research throw doubt on the existence of the last.

It is a work of ability and research ; and, though Cardinal Wiseman's claim for its author that he was "the only impartial historian of our country" may be disregarded, the book remains interesting as representing the view taken of certain events in English history by a devout, but able and learned, Roman Catholic in the earlier part of the 19th century.

He prosecuted his school work with characteristic vigour, and succeeded in combining with his school duties an enormous amount both of theological research and of literary activity.

Although the information which has been brought to bear upon Egyptian life and customs substantiates the general accuracy of the local colouring in some of the biblical narratives, the latter contain several inherent improbabilities, and whatever future research may yield, no definite trace of Egyptian influence has so far been found in Israelite institutions.

Thus, whatever evidence may be supplied by archaeological research , the problem of the Exodus must always be studied in the light of the biblical narratives.

From this period Bent devoted himself particularly to archaeological research .

In Lower Egypt practically all the mummies have perished; but in Upper Egypt, as they were put out of reach of the inundation, the cemeteries, in spite of rifling and burning, yield immense numbers of preserved bodies and skeletons; attention has from time to time been directed to the scientific examination of these in order to ascertain race, cause of death, traces of accident or disease, and the surgical or medical processes which they had undergone during life, &c. This department of research has been greatly developed by Dr Elliott Smith in Cairo.

As thus purified by successive advances of embryological research , the Mollusca were reduced to the Cuvierian classes of Cephalopoda, Pteropoda, Gastropoda and Acephala.

Michaelis's Introduction to the New Testament, with notes of his own, in which he may be said to have introduced German methods of research into English biblical scholarship. His History of the Politics of Great Britain and France (1799) brought him much notice and a pension from William Pitt.

While the work gives evidence throughout of wide and welldirected research , he preferred to write it in the form of a student's manual; but it was a manual so original that it gained him admission to the Institute in 1881.

When James Bradley and Samuel Molyneux entered this sphere of astronomical research in 1725, there consequently prevailed much uncertainty as to whether stellar parallaxes had been observed or not; and it was with the intention of definitely answering this question that these astronomers erected a large telescope at the house of the latter at Kew.

His views on the function of grammar were summarized in a paper on The Spiritual Rights of Minute Research delivered at Bryn Mawr on the 16th of June 1895.

Cotton and silk culture have been experimented with on the islands; and the work of the Hawaiian Agricultural Experiment Station is of great value, in introducing new crops, in improving old, in studying soils and fertilizers and in entomological research .

Philological rather than theological in character, it marked an epochal change from the old homiletic commentary, and though more recent research , patristic and papyral, has largely changed the method of New Testament exegesis, Alford's work is still a quarry where the student can dig with a good deal of profit.

Struthious birds, was placed beyond cavil, and the author called upon all interested in zoology to aid in further research as to this singular form.

That Huc was suspected unjustly was amply proved by later research .

This first success of Faraday in electro-magnetic research became the occasion of the most painful, though unfounded, imputations against his honour.

In 1841 he found that he required rest, and it was not till 1845 that he entered on his second great period of research , in which he discovered the effect of magnetism on polarized light, and the phenomena of diamagnetism.

He developed a great research laboratory of experimental physics, attracting numerous workers from many countries and colonies; advances were made in the investigation of the conduction of electricity through gases, in the determination of the charge and mass of the electron and in the development of analysis by means of positive rays.

During the World War he presided over several research committees and he assisted various Government departments in an advisory capacity.

These works provoked no little criticism on account of the challenge they threw down to the high-church party, but the research and fairness displayed were admitted on all hands.

This scholarly linguist, equipped with modern methods of scientific research , did not confine himself to the classical period like Csoma, but extended his ' The Capuchin friars who were settled in Lhasa for a quarter of a century from 1719 studied the language; two of them, Francisco Orazio della Penna, well known from his accurate description of Tibet, and Cassian di Macerata sent home materials which were utilized by the Augustine friar Aug.

A good deal of new research on the grammar is to be found in Grierson's Linguistic Survey of India, part III., 1908.

Kirby (1815) founded an order Dermaptera for the earwigs, which had formed part of de Geer's Dermaptera, accepting Olivier's term Orthoptera for the rest of the assemblage, and as modern research has shown that the earwigs undoubtedly deserve original separation from the cockroaches, grasshoppers, crickets, &c., this terminology will probably become established.

The entire problem is not without its difficulties still, after all the research lavished upon it, but the probabilities seem to converge upon the conclusion that Paul was never released from his imprisonment, and consequently that he never revisited the East.

Most of the recent research on Pliny has been concentrated on the investigation of his authorities, especially those which he followed in his chapters on the history of art - the only ancient account of that subject which has survived.

But a younger member of the household, Willie Douglas, aged eighteen, whose devotion was afterwards remembered and his safety cared for by Mary at a time of utmost risk and perplexity to herself, succeeded on the 2nd of May in assisting her to escape by a 1 It is to be observed that the above conclusion as to the authenticity of the Casket Letters is the same as that arrived at upon different grounds by the most recent research on the subject.

At Tixall she was detained till her papers at Chartley had undergone thorough research .

Dodwell's works on ecclesiastical polity are more numerous and of much less value than those on chronology, his judgment being far inferior to his power of research .

At the end of 17 51 he was in Wittenberg again, where he spent about a year engaged in unremitting study and research .

As for the qualities necessary to secure success as a writer on history, he felt that he possessed them in a high degree; and, though neither his ideal of an historian nor his equipment for the task of historical research would now appear adequate, in both he was much in advance of his time.

For the encouragement of research and literary style the government awards periodical prizes which are very keenly contested.

Belgian literary activity extends also to historical research .

Among his works is the Book of Settlements, " a work of thorough and painstaking research unequalled in medieval literature" (Fiske).

Teleology, in this narrower sense, as the study of the adaptation of organic structures to the service of the organisms in which they occur, was completely revolutionized by Darwinism and the research founded on it.

As Britain was then at war with France, only the northern countries of Europe were quite open to his research at that time; but during the brief Peace of Amiens Malthus continued his investigations in France and Switzerland.

Owing to the completeness of the recorded data, and the great experimental skill with which the research was conducted, the results are probably among the most valuable hitherto available.

His principal works are his edition of the Sachsenspiegel (in 3 vols., 1827, 3rd ed., 1861, containing also some other important sources of Saxon or Low German law), which is still unsurpassed in accuracy and sagacity of research , and his book on Die Hausand Hofmarken (1870), in which he has given a history of the use of trade-marks among all the Teutonic nations of Europe, and which is full of important elucidations of the history of law and also contains valuable contributions to the history of art and civilization.

In this field of scientific research the Germans were the pioneers, and in it they are still pre-eminent, with Ranke as their most famous name and the Monumenta Germaniae historica as their greatest production.

He never married, and led a life of self-denial, entirely devoted to antiquarian research .

It has, of course, long been superseded as a result of the research indicated above.

That Sicily and Africa were once joined we know only from modern scientific research ; that Sicily and Italy were once joined is handed down in legend.

Scientific research might prosper, just as poetry withered, under the patronage of kings, and such research had now a vast amount of new material at its disposal and could profit by the old Babylonian and Egyptian traditions.

Exploration and Research .Owing to its early development of a high civilization with written records, its wealth, and its preservative climate, Egypt is the country which most amply repays archaeological research .

Since Flinders Petrie began, the general level of research has gradually risen, and, while much is shamefully bad and destructive, there is a certain proportion that fully realizes the requirements of scientific archaeology.

If the journals of accounts, the letters and business documents, had come down to us en masse, they would no doubt have yielded to research the history and life of Egypt day by day; but those that now represent a thousand years of the Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom together would not half fill an ordinary muniment chest.

The annual Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Explbration Fund contain summaries of the work done each year in the several departments of research .

While the youth of Egyptological research is in part responsible for this, the reason lies still more in the nature of the religion itself and the character of the testimony bearing upon it.

The complex original work and various alterations of it need thorough study, but it is now closed and research is forbidden.

He further founded a hospital for clinical research on a scale formerly unknown.

The Vita Justiniani of Ludewig or Ludwig (Halle, 1731), a work of patient research , is frequently referred to by Gibbon in his important chapters relating to the reign of Justinian, in the Decline and Fall (see Bury's edition, 1900).

He was one of the founders of the study of " Psychical Research ," and his other writings on anthropology include The Book of Dreams and Ghosts (1897), Magic and Religion (1901) and The Secret of the Totem (1905).

In later life, he gave up speculative thought and turned to scientific research , especially in mathematics, physics and astronomy.

The results of future research on the cytology of the group will be awaited with interest.

William was a pioneer in astronomical research and perhaps owes his most lasting fame to his discoveries in this branch of study.

From associates like these Di.irer could imbibe the spirit of Renaissance culture and research ; but the external aspects and artistic traditions which surrounded him were purely Gothic, and he had to work out for himself the style and formlanguage fit to express what was in him.

The "Melancolia," numbered "1" as though intended to be the first of a series, with its brooding winged genius sitting dejectedly amidst a litter of scientific instruments and symbols, is hard to interpret in detail, but impossible not to recognize in general terms as an embodiment of the spirit of intellectual research (the student's "temperament" was supposed to be one with the melancholic), resting sadly from its labours in a mood of lassitude and defeat.

Leaving the university without a degree, he published in 1576 a work of antiquarian research , translated from the German, entitled The Post of the World, describing the great cities of Europe; and soon afterwards he moved to Antwerp, where he resumed the name of Verstegen, and set up in business as a printer and engraver.

As a research tool, this 11th edition is unparallelled - even today.

Carlyle had spared no pains in research .

On his return he held official posts successively at Antwerp, Strassburg and Paris, and devoted himself to optical research .

The administration of the fund was handed over to a body of trustees, who devote the annual income (L100,000) partly to the payment of students' fees and partly to buildings, apparatus, professorships and research .

It ends, however, with the Union of the crowns in 1603, and though it is based on thorough research in MSS., many documents now available, such as the despatches of Spanish ambassadors to England, were not accessible to the learned author.

Scott's Tales of a Grandfather is, of course, full of interest, but is inevitably somewhat behind the mark of later years of research .

Returning to France, he devoted himself for some years to archaeological research .

Twenty years later he supplemented this book by an interesting collection of Documents relatifs a l'histoire de l'industrie et du commerce en France (2 vols., 1898-1900), and in 1897 he published L'Economie sociale de la France sous Henri IV, a volume containing the results of very minute research .

His university lectures, though perhaps lacking in inspiration, were full of original research and learning.

On the other hand, many of his ideas have passed into the common literary stock, and have been more precisely elaborated by later writers on sociology and history; and though his own work is now somewhat neglected, its influence was immensely valuable in provoking further research and speculation.

The charges of superficial analogies, so freely urged against the " Natur-philosophie " by critics who forget the impulse it gave to physical research by the identification of forces then believed to be radically distinct, do not particularly affect,Hegel.

The rest of his life he devoted to historical research , ultimately selecting as his special subject the Italian libraries up to the year 150o.

Goethe's grandsons have been so repeatedly accused of having dis p layed a dog-in-the-manger temper in closing the Goethehaus to the public and the Goethe archives to research , that the charge has almost universally come to be regarded as proven.

At Woolwich he remained until 1870, and although he was not a great success as an elementary teacher, that period of his life was very rich in mathematical work, which included remarkable advances in the theory of the partition of numbers and further contributions to that of invariants, together with an important research which yielded a proof, hitherto lacking, of Newton's rule for the discovery of imaginary roots for algebraical equations up to and including the fifth degree.

Recent research in bringing to light considerable portions of long-forgotten ages is revolutionizing those impressions which were based upon the Old Testament - the sacred writings of a small fraction of this.

Driver, Modern Research as illustrating the Bible (London, 1909), pp. 60 sqq., 90.

The fact remains that when accepted tradition conflicts with more reliable evidence it stands upon a level by itself; 8 and it is certain that a compilation based upon the knowledge which modern research - whether in the exact sciences or in history - has gained would have neither meaning for nor influence upon the people whom it was desired to instruct.

In the first the general political history will be set forth; in the second a sketch will be given of the cult of the " holy places "; the third will contain some particulars regarding the history of modern colonization by foreigners, which, while it has not affected the political status of the country, has produced very considerable modifications in its population and life; and the fourth will consist of a brief notice of the progress of exploration and scientific research whereby our knowledge of the past and the present of the land has been systematized.

Driver, Modern Research as illustrating the Bible (1909); P. Thomsen, Paldstina u.

Much light has been thrown on facts which have long been known in a practical way, by the labours of the Alloys Research Committee of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (England).

From an early age he engaged in original research with great success.

In the following years Thorbecke undertook a journey of research and study in Germany, staying at most of her famous universities, and making the acquaintance of his best-known contemporaries in the fatherland.

European research has clearly proved that the text in the Vedas adduced to authorize the immolation of widows was a wilful mistranslation.

He carried on his great research on the expansion of gases in the laboratory at Sevres, but all the results of his latest work were destroyed during the Franco-German War, in which also his son Henri (noticed above) was killed.

The ably the most perfect yet proposed for modern astrophysical research .

The remaining fifty-three years of his life were spent in London, and were devoted to geographical research chiefly among the materials in the East India House.

No polar expedition had been fitted out with greater care for the purpose of scientific research in meteorology, geology, glaciology and biology.

The sensation produced by the tragedy of the expedition was profound and a large fund was subscribed for the benefit of the relatives of the dead explorers and for the promotion of polar research .

He came into touch with advanced methods of scientific research , acquired great ability as a writer, keen perception of truth and an unflinching realization of the defects of his own people, and the unpleasant but essential fact that to have better government they must first deserve it.

Mild attempts, to be sure, to group the chief deities associated with the most important religious and political centres into a regular pantheon were made - notably in Nippur and later in Ur - but such attempts lacked the enduring quality which attaches to Khammurabi's avowed policy to raise Marduk - the patron deity of the future capital, Babylon - to the head of the entire Babylonian pantheon, as 1 Even in the case of the "Semitic" name of the famous Sargon I., whose full name is generally read Sharru-kenu-sha-ali, and interpreted as "the legitimate king of the city," the question has recently been raised whether we ought not to read "` Sharru-kenushar-ri" and interpret as "the legitimate king rules" - an illustration of the vacillation still prevailing in this difficult domain of research .

It was left for modern research to discover rules of harmony which the Romans obeyed unconsciously.

Sec±hi (1863-1867) who distinguished four " types "; subsequent research , whilst slightly modifying, has in the main confirmed this classification.

But his last great piece of pure research was on prussic acid.

After this research Gay-Lussac's attention began to be distracted from purely scientific investigation.

Among his research work of this period may be mentioned the improvements in organic analysis and the investigation of fulminic acid made with the help of Liebig, who, gained the privilege of admission to his private laboratory in 1823-1824.

This book he continued to amplify and improve in the light of further research ; the last edition appeared in 1902.

He prescribed regulative or limiting formulae for research as it was actually conducted in his world.

In another research dealing with the nature of alum he showed that one of the constituents of that substance, alumina, is contained in common clay, and further that the salt cannot be prepared by the action of sulphuric acid on alumina alone, the addition of an alkali being necessary.

Modern scientific research has vividly illustrated the stereotyped nature of the human mind; there is a general similarity in the effect of similar phenomena upon people at a similar stage of mental growth; there is an almost inherent or unconscious belief which has been transmitted through the countless ages of man's history.

Now anthropological research has vividly shown that woman, naturally fitted (as it seemed) to understand the mysteries of increase, was assigned a prominent part in rites for the furtherance of growth and fertility.

There is ample material for purely comparative purposes and for an estimate both of the general fundamental ideas and of the artificially-developed secondary speculations; but for any scientific research it is necessary to observe the social, religious and historical conditions of the provenance and period of the evidence, and for this the material is often insufficient.

As in the political world the states gained first the undisputed control of matters secular, rejecting even the proffered counsel of the Church, and then proceeded to establish their sovereignty over the Church itself, so was it in the empire of the mind, The rights gained for independent research were extended over the realm of religion also; the two indeed cannot remain separate, and man must subordinate knowledge to the authority of religion - or make science supreme, submitting religion to its scrutiny and judging it like other phenomena.

According to the Plague Research Committee of Bombay, the predisposing causes are " those leading to a lower state of vitality," of which insufficient food is probably the most important.

Incubation is generally from four to six days, but it has been observed as short as thirty-six hours and as long as ten days (Bombay Research Committee).

The results in India obtained by British and various foreign observers were uniformly unfavourable, and the verdict of the Research Committee (1900) was that the serum had " failed to influence favourably the mortality among those attacked."

His Origines Britannicae, or Antiquities of the British Church (1685), is a strange mixture of critical and uncritical research .

Yet it must be strongly emphasized, that recent historical research at the hands of experts in classical antiquity has tended steadily to verify such parts of the narrative as it can test, especially those connected with Paul's missions in the Roman Empire.

Quellenkritik, then, a distinctive feature of recent research upon Acts, solves many difficulties in the way of treating it as an honest narrative by a companion of Paul.

He began as a doctor in one of the poorest districts of Paris, but soon abandoned medicine for scientific research .

The first published research (1816) dealt with the dilatation of solids, liquids and gases and with the exact measurement of temperature, and it was followed by another in 1818 on the measurement of temperature and the communication of heat, which was crowned by the French Academy.

In 1830 he published a research , undertaken with Arago for the academy of sciences, on the elastic force of steam at high temperatures.

In the winter of 1873-1874 she visited Egypt, and was profoundly impressed by the new openings for archaeological research .

The Carnegie Institution of Washington, founded by Andrew Carnegie in 1902 and endowed by him with $22,000,000 ($10,000,000 in 1902; $12,000,000 later), is designed "to encourage in the broadest and most liberal manner, investigation, research and discovery, and the application of knowledge to the improvement of mankind; and in particular to conduct, endow and assist investigation in any department of science, literature or art, and to this end to co-operate with governments, universities, colleges, technical schools, learned societies and individuals; to appoint committees of experts to direct special lines of research ; to publish and distribute documents; and to conduct lectures, hold meetings and acquire and maintain a library."

The libraries and scientific collections of the Federal government and its various bureaus and institutions afford exceptional research opportunities for students and investigators.

The trend of recent historical research leads one even to doubt the validity of the very conception of any definite medieval period.

All earlier learning either passed into his writings, or was lost; all subsequent research turned upon his critical and grammatical work.

The fascination of pure study was so powerful, the Italians at that epoch were so eager to recover the past, that during the 15th century we have before our eyes the spectacle of this great nation deviating from the course of development begun in poetry by Dante and Petrarch, in prose by Boccaccio ism to and Villani, into the channels of scholarship and anti- - quarian research .

This is noticeable in Pomponazzo's system of materialism, based on the interpretation of Aristotle, but revealing a virile spirit of disinterested and unprejudiced research .

At the present time, in spite of the political troubles, books in almost every branch of research are found in the language, mainly translations or adaptations.

The fact that no ingenuity of modern research has been able to construct a real budget of expenditure and receipt for any part of the long centuries of the Empire is significant as to the secrecy that surrounded the finances, especially in the later period.

Ritter (1776-1810), ardently prosecuted research with the new instrument.

Oersted's discovery in 1819 was indeed epoch-making in the degree to which it stimulated other research .

From 1842 onwards to the end of the 19th century, he was one of the great master workers in the field of electrical discovery and research .

The work of Faraday from 1831 to 1851 stimulated and originated an immense mass of scientific research , but at the same time practical inventors had not been slow to perceive that it was capable of purely technical application.

Maxwell's electric and magnetic ideas were gathered together in a great mathematical treatise on electricity and magnetism which was published in 1873.1 This book stimulated in a most remarkable degree theoretical and practical research into the phenomena of electricity and magnetism.

Siemens on the electric furnace was continued and greatly extended by Henri Moissan and others on its scientific side, and electro-chemistry took its place as one of the most promising departments of technical research and invention.

This research opened a way of approach to the phenomena of radioactivity, and the history of the steps by' hich P. Curie and Madame Curie were finally led to the discovery of radium is one of the most fascinating chapters in the history of science.

The research into abstract qualities, the fundamental problem of physics, comes near to the metaphysical study of forms, which indeed differs from the first only in being more general, and in having as its results a form strictly so called, i.e.

The same kind of investigation maybe extended to many cases of natural motion, such as voluntary action or nutrition; and though inquiry is here directed towards concrete bodies, and does not therefore penetrate so deeply into reality as in research for forms, yet great results may be looked for with more confidence.

His valedictory thesis at the Ecole des Chartes, Serie chronologique des gardiens et seigneurs des Iles Normandes (1876), was a definitive work and but slightly affected by later research .

Lastly, statistical research has shown that the children of the married British clergy have been distinguished far beyond their mere numerical proportion.8/n==Authorities== - Henry Charles Lea, History of Sacerdotal Celibacy (3rd ed., 1907, 2 vols), is by far the fullest and best work on this subject, though a good deal of important matter omitted by Dr Lea may be found in Die Einfiihrung der erzwungenen Ehelosigkeit by the brothers Johann Anton and Augustin Theiner, which was put on the Roman Index, though Augustin afterwards became archivist at the Vatican (Altenburg, 1828, 2 vols.).

The literature has not been fully explored for its contribution to the various branches of antiquarian research .

Apart from the general interest of the literature for history and of its contents for various departments of research , the exegetical methods of the Talmud are especially instructive.

In 1894 he founded the Egyptian Research Account, which in 1905 was reconstituted as the British School of Archaeology in Egypt (not to be confused with the Egypt Exploration Fund, founded 1892).

Moreover, he was not strong; he had had no experience of public teaching; and he foresaw that the duties of a chair would put an end to private research .

The college, the chief educational centre in the Sudan, is a large, many-windowed building with accommodation for several hundred scholars and research laboratories and an economic museum.

A later research by Brieger along with Fraenkel pointed to the extracellular toxins of diphtheria, tetanus and other diseases being of proteid nature, and various other observers have arrived at a like conclusion.

The general result of such research has been to show that the toxic bodies are, like proteids, precipitable by alcohol and various salts; they are soluble in water, are somewhat easily dialysable, and are relatively unstable both to light and heat.

They themselves gave way to another presupposition equally fatal to true historical research , though in great measure common to them and their opponents.

Nor would this by any means militate against its use as a temple for consecrating the dead, or for sun-worship, or any other religious purpose.The most recent research suggests that Stonehenge was designed to a precise geometric plan,and was largely prefabricated.

More recent research , however, seems to have established the derivation from Wehr, dam.

George of Podébrad has from the first frequently been accused of having poisoned him, but historical research has proved that this accusation is entirely unfounded.

Natalis de Wailly's editions of 1868 and particularly 1874 are critical editions, embodying the modern research connected with the text, the value of which is considerable, but contestable.

In 1847 he gave his first lecture at St Thomas's Hospital, on the "Aims and Philosophic Method of Pathological Research ," followed a little later by lectures on general pathology in relation to the principles of diagnosis, and the treatment of disease.

This work, which embodied the results of many years' research , was distinguished by its strict adherence to the scientific method of investigation by experiment, and by the originality of its matter, containing, as it does, an account of the author's experiments on magnets and magnetical bodies and on electrical attractions, and also his great conception that the earth is nothing but a large magnet, and that it is this which explains, not only the direction of the magnetic needle north and south, but also the variation and dipping or inclination of the needle.

His talent for experimental research was utilized in investigation into improvements of the army rifle, and he was largely responsible for starting the Hythe School of Musketry.

But it suited also the practical bent of the Roman mind, with its comparative indifference to abstract speculation or purely scientific research .

For more recent times the materials were plentiful, and a rich field of research lay open to the student in the long series of laws, decrees of the senate, and official registers, reaching back, as it probably did, at least to the beginning of the 3rd century B.C. Nevertheless it seems certain that Livy never realized the duty of consulting these relics of the past, even in order to verify the statements of his authorities.

The consequence of this indifference to original research and patient verification might have been less serious had the written tradition on which Livy preferred to rely been more trustworthy.

Of independent research and critical analysis we find no trace, and the general agreement upon main facts is to be attributed simply to the regularity with which each writer copied the one before him.

At the most it only presupposes a comparison with other versions, equally second-hand, but either less generally accepted or less in harmony with his own views of the situation; and in many cases the reasons he gives for his preference of one account over another are eminently unscientific. Livy's history, then, rests on no foundation of original research or even of careful verification.

The idea that systematic efforts should be made to improve the breed of mankind by checking the birth-rate of the unfit and furthering the productivity of the fit was first put forward by him in 1865; he mooted it again in 1884, using the term "eugenics" for the first time in Human Faculty, and in 1904 he endowed a research fellowship in the university of London for the promotion of knowledge of that subject, which was defined as "the study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally."

Encouraged by what he saw at the Great Exhibition of 1851, Christy devoted the rest of his life to perpetual travel and research , making extensive collections illustrating the early history of man, now in the British Museum.

The gas itself was inhaled by Southey and Coleridge among other distinguished people, and promised to become fashionable, while further research yielded Davy material for his Researches, Chemical and Philosophical, chiefly concerning Nitrous Oxide, published in 1800, which secured his reputation as a chemist.

This work was on a larger scale, and embodied the results of a still greater amount of original research .

Research was carried on regularly from 1821 to 1827, and again from 1842 to 1850.

Die deutsche Philologie im Grundriss (1836) was at the time of its publication a valuable contribution to philological research , and historians of German literature still attach importance to his Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenliedes bis auf Luther (1832; 3rd ed., 1861), Unsere volkstiimlichen Lieder (3rd ed., 1869) and Die deutschen Gesellschaftslieder des 16.

Anthony a Wood says that Foxe "believed and reported all that was told him, and there is every reason to suppose that he was purposely misled, and continually deceived by those whose interest it was to bring discredit on his work," but he admits that the book is a monument of his industry, his laborious research and his sincere piety.

The investigations of the Society for Psychical Research show that premonitions, though rare in our own day, are not absolutely unknown.

The new impulse given to biological research by the publication of the Origin of Species bore fruit in Fritz Muller's Filr Darwin, in which an attempt was made to reconstruct the phylogenetic history of the class.

Thus history began as a branch of scientific research , - much the same as what the Athenians later termed philosophy.

This gigantic work is the first monument of modern historical research .

The father of modern French history, or at least of historical research , was Andre Duchesne (1584-1640), whose splendid collections of sources are still in use.

Its canons are the basis, indeed, almost the whole, of the science of diplomatic (q.v.), the touchstone of truth for medieval research .

In the 17th and 18th centuries English scholarship was enriched by such monuments of research as William Dugdale's Monasticon, Thomas Madox's History of the Exchequer, Wilkins's Concilia, and Thomas Rymer's Foedera.

The machinery of research , invented by the genius of men like Mabillon, was perfected and set going in all the archives of Europe.

These men of the factory - devoting their lives to the cataloguing of archives and libraries, to the publication of material, and then to the gigantic task of indexing what they have produced - have made it possible for the student in an American or Australian college to master in a few hours in his library sources of history which baffled the long years of research of a Martene or Rymer.

The apparatus for this research is too vast to be described here.

The files and indices of the English Historical Review, Historische Zeitschrift, Revue historique, or American Historical Review will alone reveal the strength and character of historical research in the later 19th century.

It is a general survey of the whole apparatus of historical research , and is the indispensable guide to the subject.

Then Lockhart and Woodthorpe in 1886 passed along the Wakhan tributary of the Oxus from its head to Ishkashim in Badakshan, and completed an enduring record of most excellent geographical research .

The wide acceptance of the Darwinian theory, as applied to, the descent of man, has naturally roused anticipation that geological research , which provides evidence of the animal life of incalculably greater antiquity, would furnish fossil remains of some comparatively recent being intermediate between the anthropomorphic and the anthropic types.

It cannot be denied in the light of modern historical research that if the Book of Daniel be regarded as pretending to full historical authority, the biblical record is open to all manner of attack.

With equal research and no less effect he painted on another occasion the head of a snaky-haired Medusa.

In the same year, 1490, Leonardo enjoyed some months of uninterrupted mathematical and physical research in the libraries and among the learned men of Pavia, whither he had been called to advise on some architectural difficulties concerning the cathedral.

Lastly, recent research has proved that it was in 1494 that Leonardo got to work in earnest on what was to prove not only by far his greatest but by far his most expeditiously and steadily executed work in painting.

Pacioli was equally amazed and delighted at Leonardo's two great achievements in sculpture and painting, and still more at the genius for mathematical, physical and anatomical research shown in the collections of MS. notes which the master laid before him.

For, if the members of a natural kind had no common idea to unite them, scientific research , having nothing objective in view, could at best afford a Aoyos or definition of the appropriate particulars; and, as the discrimination of the One and the Good implied the progression of particulars towards perfection, such a Xbyos or definition could have only a temporary value.

The essentially practical character of his administration has led many historians to tax him with avarice, but later research on the fiscal system of the papacy of the period, particularly the joint work of Samaran and Mollat, enables us very sensibly to modify the severe judgment passed on John by Gregorovius and others.

In Strabo's time the island was still the city, and Palaetyrus on the mainland was distant 30 stadia; modern research , however, indicates an extensive line of suburbs rather than one mainland city that can be identified with Palaetyrus.

It displays an immense extent of research , and is generally considered as his masterpiece.

There is no doubt that the result of recent research and of work now in progress will be to modify considerably the grouping of the conifers.

In the interval between his election and the assumption of his duties at Baltimore, he studied physics under Helmholtz at Berlin, and carried out a well-known research on the effect of an electrically charged body in motion, showing it to give rise to a magnetic field.

In 1814 he retired on half-pay, and devoted the remainder of his life to scientific research .

His examination of archives during his travels had awakened in him a taste for historical research , and under his rule St Blasien became a notable centre of the methodical study of history; it was here that Marquard Herrgott wrote his Monuments domus Austriacae, of which the first two volumes were edited, for the second edition, by Gerbert, who also published a Codex epistolaris Rudolphi I., Romani regis (1772) and De Rudolpho Suevico comite de Rhinfelden, duce et rege, deque ejus familia (1785).

As a matter of fact, the foundations of most dams are carried down in vertical trenches, the lower part only being in sound materials so that actual separation almost corresponding with the hypothetical On Some Disregarded Points in the Stability of Masonry Dams, Drapers' Company Research Memoir (London, 1904).

Geological research shows that the land surrounding the lake consists of gneiss, quartz and schistose rocks, covered, in the higher regions, with marl and red clay, and in the valleys with a rich black loam.

Early antiquaries identified Thetford (Theodford, Tetford, Tefford) with Sitomagus, but modern research shows that there is no conclusive evidence of a permanent settlement before the coming of the Angles.

There are three ways of research , and three ways only.

As a historical writer he is best known by his Histoire ecclesiastique et civile de la Lorraine (Nancy, 1728), founded on original research and various useful works on Lorraine, of which a full list is given in Vigouroux's Dictionnaire de la Bible.

This period of official life from 1830 to 1848 was spent, so far as philosophical study was concerned, in revising his former lectures and writings, in maturing them for publication or reissue, and in research into certain periods of the so phi history of philosophy.

Minute anatomical research has also aided to establish the Pelmatozoic theory by the gradual recognition in other classes of features formerly supposed to be confined to Pelmatozoa.

By Dellinger he was inspired with a deep love of historical research and a profound conception of its functions as a critical instrument.

Modern research and criticism have been applied in Die mittelrilterliche Kunst in Palermo, by Anton Springer (Bonn, 1869); Historische Topographie von Panormus, by Julius Schubring (Lubeck, 1870); Studii di stories palermitana, by Adolf Holm (Palermo, 1880).

With regard to the religious form of the story, recent research has again aided us - we know now that a legend similar in all respects to the Joseph of Arimathea Grail story was widely current at least a century before our earliest Grail texts.

In 1846 his first speech in the chamber of peers - Louis Philippe's House of Lords - was delivered on behalf of Poland; his second, on the subject of coast defence, is memorable for the evidence it bears of careful research and practical suggestion.

The post of astronomer-royal was offered him in 1881, but he preferred to pursue his peaceful course of teaching and research in Cambridge.

It serves as a means of research , more particularly in mathematical investigations, the simple laws thus deduced being subsequently modified by introducing assumptions in order to co-ordinate actual experiences.

Whewell was prominent not only in scientific research and philosophy, but also in university and college administration.

Applying to the study of the French Revolution the rules of historical criticism which had produced such rich results in the study of ancient and medieval history, he devoted himself to profound research in the archives, and to the publication of numerous most important contributions to the political, administrative and moral history of that marvellous period.

In1906-1908Dr Stein made a second and more important journey, principally for the purpose of antiquarian research , though he also carried out important geographical investigations, with the assistance of a native surveyor, in the Eastern Pamirs (about Mustagh-ata), in the Nissa valley south of Khotan, and elsewhere.

It seems that opinions may be formed of inquiry and study alone, which are then constructive; but where intuitive perception or the perceptive imagination is a robust possession, the fruits of research become assimilative - the food of a divining faculty which needs more or less of it according to the power of divination.

Trained as a notary, he followed this profession for some time but having achieved success with an historical romance, Wolfthurm (1830), he applied himself to historical research .

The pre-Socratic thinkers were all primarily devoted to ontological research ; but by the middle of the 5th century B.C. the conflict of their dogmatic systems had led some of the keenest minds to doubt the possibility of penetrating the secret of the physical universe.

They equally held that no speculative research was needed for the discovery of good and The .

In recent times it is among the more progressive of the sciences, because the new and improved methods of research now at command have found in its cultivation a field of practically unlimited extent, in which the lines of research may ultimately lead to a comprehension of the universe impossible of attainment before our time.

While it is true that the instruments and methods of research in these two branches are quite different in their details, there is so much in common in the fundamental principles which underlie their application, that it is unprofitable to consider them as completely distinct sciences.

The instruments used in astronomical research are described under their several names.

The famous " eclipse of Thales " in 585 B.C. has not, it is true, been authenticated by modern research 8; yet the story told by Herodotus appears to intimate that a knowledge of the Saros, and of the forecasting facilities connected with it, was possessed by the Ionian sage.

That is to say, ascertained or ascertainable effects were made the starting-point instead of the goal of research .

Before the stars can safely be employed as route-marks in the sky, their movements must accordingly be tabulated, and research into the method of such movements inevitably follows.

The proof supplied by him in 1802 that coupled stars mutually circulate threw open a boundless field of research ; and he originated experimental inquiries into the construction of the heavens by systematically collecting and sifting stellar statistics.

But thin amount of knowledge, however valuable in itself, is utterly inadequate to the needs of sidereal research ; and various.

This subtle mode of research was made available by Sir William Huggins in 1868.

But as yet, the recessional or approaching movements of only a few hundred stars have been registered; and this store of information is scanty indeed compared with the needs of research .

Under these circumstances the historical treatment is that best adopted to give a clear idea of the progress and results of research in this field.

But the great founder of celestial mechanics employed a geometrical method, ill-adapted to lead to the desired result; and hence his efforts to construct a lunar theory are of more interest as illustrations of his wonderful power and correctness in mathematical reasoning than as germs of new methods of research .

In Geneva his progress was arrested, and his resolution to pursue the quiet path of studious research was dispelled by what he calls the "formidable obtestation" of Guillaume Fare1.2

In conjunction with Sir George Newman he was mainly instrumental in securing the medical treatment of school children and State provision for medical research ; and he was one of the few doctors of distinction who supported Mr. Lloyd George in his struggle with the profession over the Insurance Act (1912).

He was one of the founders and first president of the Society for Psychical Research , and was a member of the Metaphysical Society.

In the necessary research he received some pecuniary help from Robert Boyle, but he was hindered in the preparation of the first part (1679) through being refused access to the Cotton library, possibly by the influence of Lauderdale.

He certainly added little to the stock of human knowledge, but the clearness of his exposition and the manner in which he, like Bacon, urged the importance of experimental research , were of inestimable service to the cause of science.

He holds that the true method of research is the analytic, rising from lower to higher notions; yet he sees clearly, and admits, that inductive reasoning, as conceived by Bacon, rests on a general proposition not itself proved by induction.

Even later, when the telescope was the only instrument of research , knowledge on this subject was confined to the appearances presented by the planets, supplemented by more or less probable inferences as to the nature of their surfaces.

Growing out of, but beyond this method is the beginning of a great branch of research which may ultimately explain many heretofore enigmatical phenomena of nature.

They were pleased to believe that Euemerus " by hostorical research had ascertained that the gods were once but mortal men."

Again, the study of the evolution of human institutions from the lowest savagery to civilization is essentially a novel branch of research , though ideas derived from an unsystematic study of anthropology are at least as old as Aristotle.

Whatever future research may bring, it cannot remove the internal peculiarities which combine to show that Genesis preserves, not literal history, but popular traditions of the past.

These labours are indispensable for scientific biblical study, and are most fruitful when they depend upon comprehensive methods of research .

But the spirit of research , fostered by the fusion of races and the social and intellectual competition thus engendered, was not crushed by these proceedings; and for the next century and more the higher minds of Spain found in Damascus and Bagdad the intellectual aliment which they desired.

It stands on the edge of the cliff rising from the sea at the gardens of St Martin, and was designed to house the collections made by the prince during twenty-five years of oceanographical research , and others.

Don Rafael Altamira has published an Historia de Espana y de la civilizacin espaola (2 vols., Barcelona, 1900-1902), in which he sums up the results of later research .

The Anales de Aragon of Gerbnimo Zurita (1610) are very far superior to the history of Mariana in criticism and research .

Still later, in 1874, Dr Cohn, after the most exhaustive experiments and bacteriological research , realized that the disease was caused by a bacillus, and - nine years later - the name Bacillus alvei was given to it by Cheyne and Cheshire, whose views were in agreement with those of Dr Cohn.

The college also contains the Wellcome laboratories for scientific research .

Scientific and medical subjects are dealt with in the Reports of the Wellcome Research Laboratories, Gordon College, Khartum.

How far the more serious claim is likely to be revived in connexion with the renewal of research into the "occult" sciences generally, it is still too early to speculate; and it has to be recognized that such a point of view is opposed to the generally established belief that astrology is either mere superstition or absolute imposture, and that its former vogue was due either to deception or to the tyranny of an unscientific environment.

A research into the mutual perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn secured for him the prize of the Berlin Academy in 1830, and a memoir on cometary disturbances was crowned by the Paris Academy in 1850.

Among the species described may be mentioned P. leuckarti (Saenger), P. insignis (Dendy), P. oviparus (Dendy), P. viridimaculatus (Dendy), P. novae zealandiae (Hutton), but it is by no means certain that future research will maintain these.

The most satisfactory check on hypothesis is expert knowledge in the particular field of research by which rigorous tests may be applied.

On the completion of his arts course, he nominally studied divinity at Edinburgh until 1787; in1788-1789he spent rather more than a year as private tutor in a Virginian family, and from 1790 till the close of 1792 he held a similar appointment at Etruria in Staffordshire, with the family of Josiah Wedgwood, employing his spare time in experimental research and in preparing a translation of Buffon's Natural History of Birds, which was published in nine 8vo vols.

While in garrison at Bordeaux he came under the influence of Martinez de Pasquales, usually called a Portuguese Jew (although later research has made it probable that he was a Spanish Catholic),.

About the end of the 19th century research showed that there actually was a very minute but measurable periodic change of this kind.

Without assigning any definite date, we may say that recent research has tended to support the popular Greek idea that Ionia received its main Greek element rather late - after the descent of the Dorians, and, therefore, after any part of the Aegean period.

Among other fossil genera of recent institution, Archaeolepas, Lepidocoleus, Squama, Stramentum can only be mentioned as incentives to research .

For four years he was pastor of St Cierge in the Cevennes and then devoted himself entirely to historical research .

A few years later, Leber retired (1839), and sold to the library of Rouen the rich collection of books which he had amassed during thirty years of research .

He wrote glosses to the Talmud (tosaphot) and many Responsa of the utmost value for historical research .

Before considering the results of palaeobotanical research , some account must be given of the way in which the evidence is presented, or, in other words, of the modes of preservation of vegetable remains.

Equally indispensable is careful painstaking research .

It is to the value and variety of his matter, to his critical insight, breadth of view and wide research , and not least to the surpassing importance and interest of the period with which he deals, that Polybius owes his place among the writers of history.

The effects of many of these toxins bear a close resemblance to the action of certain wellknown drugs, as in the case of tetanus toxin and strychnine, and are studied by the same methods of observation and research .

His methods were doubtless known also to the French physiologist Magendie, who improved upon them, and who in 1809 published a research on the Upas Tieute and other strychnine-containing plants, in which he showed that their effects were due to an action on the spinal cord.

The methods of research are essentially those employed by physiologists, the action of substances being studied in the usual way on bacteria, leucocytes, frogs, rabbits and other animals.

Hence all natural research tends towards the form of a system of ends, and in its highest development would be a physico-theology.

I shall research this old man's recent holdings as tedious as the project will be.

He closed the door and moved the laptop Pierre had brought her to supplement her Oracle research .

The second was made two nights ago, after he left Deidre in the Atlanta apartment to help Andre research how to help her.

Cynthia cast her eyes downward while Gladys glared at Jerome with unfettered hatred, looking as if she wished she had a giant icicle to do her research here and now.

Did they want to acquiesce in a funding arrangement which excludes a majority of teacher education institutions from support for research .

It was the approach proposed by the sciences education board of the national research council in the USA.

Fund raising is arduous to get money for research that involves any type of human risk.

Cecil Kilpatric, presents the fruit of his detailed research for the benefits of those who appreciate brevity in writing.

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Research papers are source-based explanations of a topic, event, or phenomenon. The two methodologies of research, known as qualitative and quantitative research, explore topics with different objectives. The methodology you choose will determine which types of questions you ask before, during, and after the research process.

When you’re doing academic research, it’s important to define your purpose. That is where a purpose statement comes in. It clearly defines the objective of your qualitative or quantitative research. Get the details on a research purpose statement and how to create one through unique and real-world examples.

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Definition of research noun from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary

• scientific/medical/academic research
• They are raising money for cancer research.
• to do/conduct/undertake research
• I've done some research to find out the cheapest way of travelling there.
• research into something He has carried out extensive research into renewable energy sources.
• research on something/somebody Recent research on deaf children has produced some interesting findings about their speech.
• Research on animals has led to some important medical advances.
• according to research According to recent research, more people are going to the movies than ever before.
• Their latest research project will be funded by the government.
• Are you hoping to get a research grant ?
• a research fellow/assistant/scientist
• a research institute/centre/laboratory
• The research findings were published in the Journal of Environmental Quality.
• formulate/​advance a theory/​hypothesis
• build/​construct/​create/​develop a simple/​theoretical/​mathematical model
• develop/​establish/​provide/​use a theoretical/​conceptual framework
• advance/​argue/​develop the thesis that…
• explore an idea/​a concept/​a hypothesis
• make a prediction/​an inference
• base a prediction/​your calculations on something
• investigate/​evaluate/​accept/​challenge/​reject a theory/​hypothesis/​model
• design an experiment/​a questionnaire/​a study/​a test
• do research/​an experiment/​an analysis
• make observations/​measurements/​calculations
• carry out/​conduct/​perform an experiment/​a test/​a longitudinal study/​observations/​clinical trials
• run an experiment/​a simulation/​clinical trials
• repeat an experiment/​a test/​an analysis
• replicate a study/​the results/​the findings
• observe/​study/​examine/​investigate/​assess a pattern/​a process/​a behaviour
• fund/​support the research/​project/​study
• seek/​provide/​get/​secure funding for research
• collect/​gather/​extract data/​information
• yield data/​evidence/​similar findings/​the same results
• analyse/​examine the data/​soil samples/​a specimen
• consider/​compare/​interpret the results/​findings
• fit the data/​model
• confirm/​support/​verify a prediction/​a hypothesis/​the results/​the findings
• prove a conjecture/​hypothesis/​theorem
• draw/​make/​reach the same conclusions
• read/​review the records/​literature
• describe/​report an experiment/​a study
• present/​publish/​summarize the results/​findings
• present/​publish/​read/​review/​cite a paper in a scientific journal
• a debate about the ethics of embryonic stem cell research
• For his PhD he conducted field research in Indonesia.
• Further research is needed.
• Future research will hopefully give us a better understanding of how garlic works in the human body.
• Dr Babcock has conducted extensive research in the area of agricultural production.
• the funding of basic research in biology, chemistry and genetics
• Activists called for a ban on animal research.
• Work is under way to carry out more research on the gene.
• She returned to Jamaica to pursue her research on the African diaspora.
• Bad punctuation can slow down people's reading speeds, according to new research carried out at Bradford University.
• He focused his research on the economics of the interwar era.
• Most research in the field has concentrated on the effects on children.
• One paper based on research conducted at Oxford suggested that the drug may cause brain damage.
• Research demonstrates that women are more likely than men to provide social support to others.
• She's doing research on Czech music between the wars.
• The research does not support these conclusions.
• They are carrying out research into the natural flow patterns of water.
• They lack the resources to do their own research.
• What has their research shown?
• Funding for medical research has been cut quite dramatically.
• a startling piece of historical research
• pioneering research into skin disease
• They were the first to undertake pioneering research into the human genome.
• There is a significant amount of research into the effects of stress on junior doctors.
• He's done a lot of research into the background of this story.
• research which identifies the causes of depression
• spending on military research and development
• the research done in the 1950s that linked smoking with cancer
• The children are taking part in a research project to investigate technology-enabled learning.
• The Lancet published a research paper by the scientist at the centre of the controversy.
• Who is directing the group's research effort?
• She is chief of the clinical research program at McLean Hospital.
• James is a 24-year-old research student from Iowa.
• You will need to describe your research methods.
• Before a job interview, do your research and find out as much as you can about the company.
• Most academic research is carried out in universities.
• This is a piece of research that should be taken very seriously.
• This is an important area of research.
• There's a large body of research linking hypertension directly to impaired brain function.
• In the course of my researches, I came across some of my grandfather's old letters.
• demonstrate something
• find something
• identify something
• programme/​program
• research in
• research into
• research on
• an area of research
• focus your research on something
• somebody’s own research

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Research Definition

• investigation
• experimentation
• inquisition
• examination
• investigate
• do research

Origin of Research

Obsolete French recerche from recercher to search closely from Old French re- re- cerchier to search search

From American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 5th Edition

Early Modern French rechercher (“to examine closely"), from Old French recerchier (“to seek, to look for").

From Wiktionary

Research Sentence Examples

I was trying to research the buyer.

How is your research going?

Sensing my reaction she added, It's sort of what I do in my job; research things.

Well, she wants to do a little research to see if she can find an explanation.

I'm sure the museum will be grateful and help us in our research all they can.

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Research Is Also Mentioned In

• American Gas Association
• ECRI Weekly Leading Index
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• tertiary care
• science-park
• empirical-research

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Words ending with, unscrambles, words starting with r and ending with h, word length, words near research in the dictionary.

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What is Research: Definition, Methods, Types & Examples

The search for knowledge is closely linked to the object of study; that is, to the reconstruction of the facts that will provide an explanation to an observed event and that at first sight can be considered as a problem. It is very human to seek answers and satisfy our curiosity. Let’s talk about research.

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What is Research?

What are the characteristics of research.

• Comparative analysis chart

Qualitative methods

Quantitative methods, 8 tips for conducting accurate research.

Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or research problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research , and deductive methods are more commonly associated with quantitative analysis .

Research is conducted with a purpose to:

• Identify potential and new customers
• Understand existing customers
• Set pragmatic goals
• Develop productive market strategies
• Address business challenges
• Put together a business expansion plan
• Identify new business opportunities
• Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data. Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
• The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods.
• Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in natural settings.
• There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated with it.
• It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more research opportunities.
• It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in inference.
• Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information must be accurate and correct. For example, laboratories provide a controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of instruments or tools, and the experiment’s final result.

What is the purpose of research?

There are three main purposes:

• Exploratory: As the name suggests, researchers conduct exploratory studies to explore a group of questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a conclusion to the perceived problem. It is undertaken to handle new problem areas that haven’t been explored before. This exploratory data analysis process lays the foundation for more conclusive data collection and analysis.

LEARN ABOUT: Descriptive Analysis

• Descriptive: It focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through a process of data collection. Descriptive research describe the behavior of a sample population. Only one variable is required to conduct the study. The three primary purposes of descriptive studies are describing, explaining, and validating the findings. For example, a study conducted to know if top-level management leaders in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a considerable sum of money from the company profit.

LEARN ABOUT: Best Data Collection Tools

• Explanatory: Causal research or explanatory research is conducted to understand the impact of specific changes in existing standard procedures. Running experiments is the most popular form. For example, a study that is conducted to understand the effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.

Here is a comparative analysis chart for a better understanding:

It begins by asking the right questions and choosing an appropriate method to investigate the problem. After collecting answers to your questions, you can analyze the findings or observations to draw reasonable conclusions.

When it comes to customers and market studies, the more thorough your questions, the better the analysis. You get essential insights into brand perception and product needs by thoroughly collecting customer data through surveys and questionnaires . You can use this data to make smart decisions about your marketing strategies to position your business effectively.

To make sense of your study and get insights faster, it helps to use a research repository as a single source of truth in your organization and manage your research data in one centralized data repository .

Types of research methods and Examples

Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and Quantitative .

Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods.

Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods, usually open-ended questions . The responses collected are essentially non-numerical. This method helps a researcher understand what participants think and why they think in a particular way.

Types of qualitative methods include:

• One-to-one Interview
• Focus Groups
• Ethnographic studies
• Text Analysis

Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms . It uses a systematic way of investigating events or data. It answers questions to justify relationships with measurable variables to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.

Types of quantitative methods include:

• Survey research
• Descriptive research
• Correlational research

LEARN MORE: Descriptive Research vs Correlational Research

Remember, it is only valuable and useful when it is valid, accurate, and reliable. Incorrect results can lead to customer churn and a decrease in sales.

It is essential to ensure that your data is:

• Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.
• Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
• Reliable – other people who investigate in the same way can produce similar results.
• Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.
• Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business decisions.

Gather insights

• Identify the main trends and issues, opportunities, and problems you observe. Write a sentence describing each one.
• Keep track of the frequency with which each of the main findings appears.
• Make a list of your findings from the most common to the least common.
• Evaluate a list of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats identified in a SWOT analysis .
• Prepare conclusions and recommendations about your study.
• Act on your strategies
• Look for gaps in the information, and consider doing additional inquiry if necessary
• Plan to review the results and consider efficient methods to analyze and interpret results.

Review your goals before making any conclusions about your study. Remember how the process you have completed and the data you have gathered help answer your questions. Ask yourself if what your analysis revealed facilitates the identification of your conclusions and recommendations.

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Doing Research: A New Researcher’s Guide pp 1–15 Cite as

What Is Research, and Why Do People Do It?

• James Hiebert 6 ,
• Jinfa Cai 7 ,
• Stephen Hwang 7 ,
• Anne K Morris 6 &
• Charles Hohensee 6  
• Open Access
• First Online: 03 December 2022

15k Accesses

Part of the book series: Research in Mathematics Education ((RME))

Abstractspiepr Abs1

Every day people do research as they gather information to learn about something of interest. In the scientific world, however, research means something different than simply gathering information. Scientific research is characterized by its careful planning and observing, by its relentless efforts to understand and explain, and by its commitment to learn from everyone else seriously engaged in research. We call this kind of research scientific inquiry and define it as “formulating, testing, and revising hypotheses.” By “hypotheses” we do not mean the hypotheses you encounter in statistics courses. We mean predictions about what you expect to find and rationales for why you made these predictions. Throughout this and the remaining chapters we make clear that the process of scientific inquiry applies to all kinds of research studies and data, both qualitative and quantitative.

You have full access to this open access chapter,  Download chapter PDF

Part I. What Is Research?

Have you ever studied something carefully because you wanted to know more about it? Maybe you wanted to know more about your grandmother’s life when she was younger so you asked her to tell you stories from her childhood, or maybe you wanted to know more about a fertilizer you were about to use in your garden so you read the ingredients on the package and looked them up online. According to the dictionary definition, you were doing research.

Recall your high school assignments asking you to “research” a topic. The assignment likely included consulting a variety of sources that discussed the topic, perhaps including some “original” sources. Often, the teacher referred to your product as a “research paper.”

Were you conducting research when you interviewed your grandmother or wrote high school papers reviewing a particular topic? Our view is that you were engaged in part of the research process, but only a small part. In this book, we reserve the word “research” for what it means in the scientific world, that is, for scientific research or, more pointedly, for scientific inquiry .

Exercise 1.1

Before you read any further, write a definition of what you think scientific inquiry is. Keep it short—Two to three sentences. You will periodically update this definition as you read this chapter and the remainder of the book.

This book is about scientific inquiry—what it is and how to do it. For starters, scientific inquiry is a process, a particular way of finding out about something that involves a number of phases. Each phase of the process constitutes one aspect of scientific inquiry. You are doing scientific inquiry as you engage in each phase, but you have not done scientific inquiry until you complete the full process. Each phase is necessary but not sufficient.

In this chapter, we set the stage by defining scientific inquiry—describing what it is and what it is not—and by discussing what it is good for and why people do it. The remaining chapters build directly on the ideas presented in this chapter.

A first thing to know is that scientific inquiry is not all or nothing. “Scientificness” is a continuum. Inquiries can be more scientific or less scientific. What makes an inquiry more scientific? You might be surprised there is no universally agreed upon answer to this question. None of the descriptors we know of are sufficient by themselves to define scientific inquiry. But all of them give you a way of thinking about some aspects of the process of scientific inquiry. Each one gives you different insights.

Exercise 1.2

As you read about each descriptor below, think about what would make an inquiry more or less scientific. If you think a descriptor is important, use it to revise your definition of scientific inquiry.

Creating an Image of Scientific Inquiry

We will present three descriptors of scientific inquiry. Each provides a different perspective and emphasizes a different aspect of scientific inquiry. We will draw on all three descriptors to compose our definition of scientific inquiry.

Descriptor 1. Experience Carefully Planned in Advance

Sir Ronald Fisher, often called the father of modern statistical design, once referred to research as “experience carefully planned in advance” (1935, p. 8). He said that humans are always learning from experience, from interacting with the world around them. Usually, this learning is haphazard rather than the result of a deliberate process carried out over an extended period of time. Research, Fisher said, was learning from experience, but experience carefully planned in advance.

This phrase can be fully appreciated by looking at each word. The fact that scientific inquiry is based on experience means that it is based on interacting with the world. These interactions could be thought of as the stuff of scientific inquiry. In addition, it is not just any experience that counts. The experience must be carefully planned . The interactions with the world must be conducted with an explicit, describable purpose, and steps must be taken to make the intended learning as likely as possible. This planning is an integral part of scientific inquiry; it is not just a preparation phase. It is one of the things that distinguishes scientific inquiry from many everyday learning experiences. Finally, these steps must be taken beforehand and the purpose of the inquiry must be articulated in advance of the experience. Clearly, scientific inquiry does not happen by accident, by just stumbling into something. Stumbling into something unexpected and interesting can happen while engaged in scientific inquiry, but learning does not depend on it and serendipity does not make the inquiry scientific.

Descriptor 2. Observing Something and Trying to Explain Why It Is the Way It Is

When we were writing this chapter and googled “scientific inquiry,” the first entry was: “Scientific inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on the evidence derived from their work.” The emphasis is on studying, or observing, and then explaining . This descriptor takes the image of scientific inquiry beyond carefully planned experience and includes explaining what was experienced.

According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, “explain” means “(a) to make known, (b) to make plain or understandable, (c) to give the reason or cause of, and (d) to show the logical development or relations of” (Merriam-Webster, n.d. ). We will use all these definitions. Taken together, they suggest that to explain an observation means to understand it by finding reasons (or causes) for why it is as it is. In this sense of scientific inquiry, the following are synonyms: explaining why, understanding why, and reasoning about causes and effects. Our image of scientific inquiry now includes planning, observing, and explaining why.

We need to add a final note about this descriptor. We have phrased it in a way that suggests “observing something” means you are observing something in real time—observing the way things are or the way things are changing. This is often true. But, observing could mean observing data that already have been collected, maybe by someone else making the original observations (e.g., secondary analysis of NAEP data or analysis of existing video recordings of classroom instruction). We will address secondary analyses more fully in Chap. 4 . For now, what is important is that the process requires explaining why the data look like they do.

We must note that for us, the term “data” is not limited to numerical or quantitative data such as test scores. Data can also take many nonquantitative forms, including written survey responses, interview transcripts, journal entries, video recordings of students, teachers, and classrooms, text messages, and so forth.

Exercise 1.3

What are the implications of the statement that just “observing” is not enough to count as scientific inquiry? Does this mean that a detailed description of a phenomenon is not scientific inquiry?

Find sources that define research in education that differ with our position, that say description alone, without explanation, counts as scientific research. Identify the precise points where the opinions differ. What are the best arguments for each of the positions? Which do you prefer? Why?

Descriptor 3. Updating Everyone’s Thinking in Response to More and Better Information

This descriptor focuses on a third aspect of scientific inquiry: updating and advancing the field’s understanding of phenomena that are investigated. This descriptor foregrounds a powerful characteristic of scientific inquiry: the reliability (or trustworthiness) of what is learned and the ultimate inevitability of this learning to advance human understanding of phenomena. Humans might choose not to learn from scientific inquiry, but history suggests that scientific inquiry always has the potential to advance understanding and that, eventually, humans take advantage of these new understandings.

Before exploring these bold claims a bit further, note that this descriptor uses “information” in the same way the previous two descriptors used “experience” and “observations.” These are the stuff of scientific inquiry and we will use them often, sometimes interchangeably. Frequently, we will use the term “data” to stand for all these terms.

An overriding goal of scientific inquiry is for everyone to learn from what one scientist does. Much of this book is about the methods you need to use so others have faith in what you report and can learn the same things you learned. This aspect of scientific inquiry has many implications.

One implication is that scientific inquiry is not a private practice. It is a public practice available for others to see and learn from. Notice how different this is from everyday learning. When you happen to learn something from your everyday experience, often only you gain from the experience. The fact that research is a public practice means it is also a social one. It is best conducted by interacting with others along the way: soliciting feedback at each phase, taking opportunities to present work-in-progress, and benefitting from the advice of others.

A second implication is that you, as the researcher, must be committed to sharing what you are doing and what you are learning in an open and transparent way. This allows all phases of your work to be scrutinized and critiqued. This is what gives your work credibility. The reliability or trustworthiness of your findings depends on your colleagues recognizing that you have used all appropriate methods to maximize the chances that your claims are justified by the data.

A third implication of viewing scientific inquiry as a collective enterprise is the reverse of the second—you must be committed to receiving comments from others. You must treat your colleagues as fair and honest critics even though it might sometimes feel otherwise. You must appreciate their job, which is to remain skeptical while scrutinizing what you have done in considerable detail. To provide the best help to you, they must remain skeptical about your conclusions (when, for example, the data are difficult for them to interpret) until you offer a convincing logical argument based on the information you share. A rather harsh but good-to-remember statement of the role of your friendly critics was voiced by Karl Popper, a well-known twentieth century philosopher of science: “. . . if you are interested in the problem which I tried to solve by my tentative assertion, you may help me by criticizing it as severely as you can” (Popper, 1968, p. 27).

A final implication of this third descriptor is that, as someone engaged in scientific inquiry, you have no choice but to update your thinking when the data support a different conclusion. This applies to your own data as well as to those of others. When data clearly point to a specific claim, even one that is quite different than you expected, you must reconsider your position. If the outcome is replicated multiple times, you need to adjust your thinking accordingly. Scientific inquiry does not let you pick and choose which data to believe; it mandates that everyone update their thinking when the data warrant an update.

Doing Scientific Inquiry

We define scientific inquiry in an operational sense—what does it mean to do scientific inquiry? What kind of process would satisfy all three descriptors: carefully planning an experience in advance; observing and trying to explain what you see; and, contributing to updating everyone’s thinking about an important phenomenon?

We define scientific inquiry as formulating , testing , and revising hypotheses about phenomena of interest.

Of course, we are not the only ones who define it in this way. The definition for the scientific method posted by the editors of Britannica is: “a researcher develops a hypothesis, tests it through various means, and then modifies the hypothesis on the basis of the outcome of the tests and experiments” (Britannica, n.d. ).

Notice how defining scientific inquiry this way satisfies each of the descriptors. “Carefully planning an experience in advance” is exactly what happens when formulating a hypothesis about a phenomenon of interest and thinking about how to test it. “ Observing a phenomenon” occurs when testing a hypothesis, and “ explaining ” what is found is required when revising a hypothesis based on the data. Finally, “updating everyone’s thinking” comes from comparing publicly the original with the revised hypothesis.

Doing scientific inquiry, as we have defined it, underscores the value of accumulating knowledge rather than generating random bits of knowledge. Formulating, testing, and revising hypotheses is an ongoing process, with each revised hypothesis begging for another test, whether by the same researcher or by new researchers. The editors of Britannica signaled this cyclic process by adding the following phrase to their definition of the scientific method: “The modified hypothesis is then retested, further modified, and tested again.” Scientific inquiry creates a process that encourages each study to build on the studies that have gone before. Through collective engagement in this process of building study on top of study, the scientific community works together to update its thinking.

Before exploring more fully the meaning of “formulating, testing, and revising hypotheses,” we need to acknowledge that this is not the only way researchers define research. Some researchers prefer a less formal definition, one that includes more serendipity, less planning, less explanation. You might have come across more open definitions such as “research is finding out about something.” We prefer the tighter hypothesis formulation, testing, and revision definition because we believe it provides a single, coherent map for conducting research that addresses many of the thorny problems educational researchers encounter. We believe it is the most useful orientation toward research and the most helpful to learn as a beginning researcher.

A final clarification of our definition is that it applies equally to qualitative and quantitative research. This is a familiar distinction in education that has generated much discussion. You might think our definition favors quantitative methods over qualitative methods because the language of hypothesis formulation and testing is often associated with quantitative methods. In fact, we do not favor one method over another. In Chap. 4 , we will illustrate how our definition fits research using a range of quantitative and qualitative methods.

Exercise 1.4

Look for ways to extend what the field knows in an area that has already received attention by other researchers. Specifically, you can search for a program of research carried out by more experienced researchers that has some revised hypotheses that remain untested. Identify a revised hypothesis that you might like to test.

Unpacking the Terms Formulating, Testing, and Revising Hypotheses

To get a full sense of the definition of scientific inquiry we will use throughout this book, it is helpful to spend a little time with each of the key terms.

We first want to make clear that we use the term “hypothesis” as it is defined in most dictionaries and as it used in many scientific fields rather than as it is usually defined in educational statistics courses. By “hypothesis,” we do not mean a null hypothesis that is accepted or rejected by statistical analysis. Rather, we use “hypothesis” in the sense conveyed by the following definitions: “An idea or explanation for something that is based on known facts but has not yet been proved” (Cambridge University Press, n.d. ), and “An unproved theory, proposition, or supposition, tentatively accepted to explain certain facts and to provide a basis for further investigation or argument” (Agnes & Guralnik, 2008 ).

We distinguish two parts to “hypotheses.” Hypotheses consist of predictions and rationales . Predictions are statements about what you expect to find when you inquire about something. Rationales are explanations for why you made the predictions you did, why you believe your predictions are correct. So, for us “formulating hypotheses” means making explicit predictions and developing rationales for the predictions.

“Testing hypotheses” means making observations that allow you to assess in what ways your predictions were correct and in what ways they were incorrect. In education research, it is rarely useful to think of your predictions as either right or wrong. Because of the complexity of most issues you will investigate, most predictions will be right in some ways and wrong in others.

By studying the observations you make (data you collect) to test your hypotheses, you can revise your hypotheses to better align with the observations. This means revising your predictions plus revising your rationales to justify your adjusted predictions. Even though you might not run another test, formulating revised hypotheses is an essential part of conducting a research study. Comparing your original and revised hypotheses informs everyone of what you learned by conducting your study. In addition, a revised hypothesis sets the stage for you or someone else to extend your study and accumulate more knowledge of the phenomenon.

We should note that not everyone makes a clear distinction between predictions and rationales as two aspects of hypotheses. In fact, common, non-scientific uses of the word “hypothesis” may limit it to only a prediction or only an explanation (or rationale). We choose to explicitly include both prediction and rationale in our definition of hypothesis, not because we assert this should be the universal definition, but because we want to foreground the importance of both parts acting in concert. Using “hypothesis” to represent both prediction and rationale could hide the two aspects, but we make them explicit because they provide different kinds of information. It is usually easier to make predictions than develop rationales because predictions can be guesses, hunches, or gut feelings about which you have little confidence. Developing a compelling rationale requires careful thought plus reading what other researchers have found plus talking with your colleagues. Often, while you are developing your rationale you will find good reasons to change your predictions. Developing good rationales is the engine that drives scientific inquiry. Rationales are essentially descriptions of how much you know about the phenomenon you are studying. Throughout this guide, we will elaborate on how developing good rationales drives scientific inquiry. For now, we simply note that it can sharpen your predictions and help you to interpret your data as you test your hypotheses.

Hypotheses in education research take a variety of forms or types. This is because there are a variety of phenomena that can be investigated. Investigating educational phenomena is sometimes best done using qualitative methods, sometimes using quantitative methods, and most often using mixed methods (e.g., Hay, 2016 ; Weis et al. 2019a ; Weisner, 2005 ). This means that, given our definition, hypotheses are equally applicable to qualitative and quantitative investigations.

Hypotheses take different forms when they are used to investigate different kinds of phenomena. Two very different activities in education could be labeled conducting experiments and descriptions. In an experiment, a hypothesis makes a prediction about anticipated changes, say the changes that occur when a treatment or intervention is applied. You might investigate how students’ thinking changes during a particular kind of instruction.

A second type of hypothesis, relevant for descriptive research, makes a prediction about what you will find when you investigate and describe the nature of a situation. The goal is to understand a situation as it exists rather than to understand a change from one situation to another. In this case, your prediction is what you expect to observe. Your rationale is the set of reasons for making this prediction; it is your current explanation for why the situation will look like it does.

You will probably read, if you have not already, that some researchers say you do not need a prediction to conduct a descriptive study. We will discuss this point of view in Chap. 2 . For now, we simply claim that scientific inquiry, as we have defined it, applies to all kinds of research studies. Descriptive studies, like others, not only benefit from formulating, testing, and revising hypotheses, but also need hypothesis formulating, testing, and revising.

One reason we define research as formulating, testing, and revising hypotheses is that if you think of research in this way you are less likely to go wrong. It is a useful guide for the entire process, as we will describe in detail in the chapters ahead. For example, as you build the rationale for your predictions, you are constructing the theoretical framework for your study (Chap. 3 ). As you work out the methods you will use to test your hypothesis, every decision you make will be based on asking, “Will this help me formulate or test or revise my hypothesis?” (Chap. 4 ). As you interpret the results of testing your predictions, you will compare them to what you predicted and examine the differences, focusing on how you must revise your hypotheses (Chap. 5 ). By anchoring the process to formulating, testing, and revising hypotheses, you will make smart decisions that yield a coherent and well-designed study.

Exercise 1.5

Compare the concept of formulating, testing, and revising hypotheses with the descriptions of scientific inquiry contained in Scientific Research in Education (NRC, 2002 ). How are they similar or different?

Exercise 1.6

Provide an example to illustrate and emphasize the differences between everyday learning/thinking and scientific inquiry.

Learning from Doing Scientific Inquiry

We noted earlier that a measure of what you have learned by conducting a research study is found in the differences between your original hypothesis and your revised hypothesis based on the data you collected to test your hypothesis. We will elaborate this statement in later chapters, but we preview our argument here.

Even before collecting data, scientific inquiry requires cycles of making a prediction, developing a rationale, refining your predictions, reading and studying more to strengthen your rationale, refining your predictions again, and so forth. And, even if you have run through several such cycles, you still will likely find that when you test your prediction you will be partly right and partly wrong. The results will support some parts of your predictions but not others, or the results will “kind of” support your predictions. A critical part of scientific inquiry is making sense of your results by interpreting them against your predictions. Carefully describing what aspects of your data supported your predictions, what aspects did not, and what data fell outside of any predictions is not an easy task, but you cannot learn from your study without doing this analysis.

Analyzing the matches and mismatches between your predictions and your data allows you to formulate different rationales that would have accounted for more of the data. The best revised rationale is the one that accounts for the most data. Once you have revised your rationales, you can think about the predictions they best justify or explain. It is by comparing your original rationales to your new rationales that you can sort out what you learned from your study.

Suppose your study was an experiment. Maybe you were investigating the effects of a new instructional intervention on students’ learning. Your original rationale was your explanation for why the intervention would change the learning outcomes in a particular way. Your revised rationale explained why the changes that you observed occurred like they did and why your revised predictions are better. Maybe your original rationale focused on the potential of the activities if they were implemented in ideal ways and your revised rationale included the factors that are likely to affect how teachers implement them. By comparing the before and after rationales, you are describing what you learned—what you can explain now that you could not before. Another way of saying this is that you are describing how much more you understand now than before you conducted your study.

Revised predictions based on carefully planned and collected data usually exhibit some of the following features compared with the originals: more precision, more completeness, and broader scope. Revised rationales have more explanatory power and become more complete, more aligned with the new predictions, sharper, and overall more convincing.

Part II. Why Do Educators Do Research?

Doing scientific inquiry is a lot of work. Each phase of the process takes time, and you will often cycle back to improve earlier phases as you engage in later phases. Because of the significant effort required, you should make sure your study is worth it. So, from the beginning, you should think about the purpose of your study. Why do you want to do it? And, because research is a social practice, you should also think about whether the results of your study are likely to be important and significant to the education community.

If you are doing research in the way we have described—as scientific inquiry—then one purpose of your study is to understand , not just to describe or evaluate or report. As we noted earlier, when you formulate hypotheses, you are developing rationales that explain why things might be like they are. In our view, trying to understand and explain is what separates research from other kinds of activities, like evaluating or describing.

One reason understanding is so important is that it allows researchers to see how or why something works like it does. When you see how something works, you are better able to predict how it might work in other contexts, under other conditions. And, because conditions, or contextual factors, matter a lot in education, gaining insights into applying your findings to other contexts increases the contributions of your work and its importance to the broader education community.

Consequently, the purposes of research studies in education often include the more specific aim of identifying and understanding the conditions under which the phenomena being studied work like the observations suggest. A classic example of this kind of study in mathematics education was reported by William Brownell and Harold Moser in 1949 . They were trying to establish which method of subtracting whole numbers could be taught most effectively—the regrouping method or the equal additions method. However, they realized that effectiveness might depend on the conditions under which the methods were taught—“meaningfully” versus “mechanically.” So, they designed a study that crossed the two instructional approaches with the two different methods (regrouping and equal additions). Among other results, they found that these conditions did matter. The regrouping method was more effective under the meaningful condition than the mechanical condition, but the same was not true for the equal additions algorithm.

What do education researchers want to understand? In our view, the ultimate goal of education is to offer all students the best possible learning opportunities. So, we believe the ultimate purpose of scientific inquiry in education is to develop understanding that supports the improvement of learning opportunities for all students. We say “ultimate” because there are lots of issues that must be understood to improve learning opportunities for all students. Hypotheses about many aspects of education are connected, ultimately, to students’ learning. For example, formulating and testing a hypothesis that preservice teachers need to engage in particular kinds of activities in their coursework in order to teach particular topics well is, ultimately, connected to improving students’ learning opportunities. So is hypothesizing that school districts often devote relatively few resources to instructional leadership training or hypothesizing that positioning mathematics as a tool students can use to combat social injustice can help students see the relevance of mathematics to their lives.

We do not exclude the importance of research on educational issues more removed from improving students’ learning opportunities, but we do think the argument for their importance will be more difficult to make. If there is no way to imagine a connection between your hypothesis and improving learning opportunities for students, even a distant connection, we recommend you reconsider whether it is an important hypothesis within the education community.

Notice that we said the ultimate goal of education is to offer all students the best possible learning opportunities. For too long, educators have been satisfied with a goal of offering rich learning opportunities for lots of students, sometimes even for just the majority of students, but not necessarily for all students. Evaluations of success often are based on outcomes that show high averages. In other words, if many students have learned something, or even a smaller number have learned a lot, educators may have been satisfied. The problem is that there is usually a pattern in the groups of students who receive lower quality opportunities—students of color and students who live in poor areas, urban and rural. This is not acceptable. Consequently, we emphasize the premise that the purpose of education research is to offer rich learning opportunities to all students.

One way to make sure you will be able to convince others of the importance of your study is to consider investigating some aspect of teachers’ shared instructional problems. Historically, researchers in education have set their own research agendas, regardless of the problems teachers are facing in schools. It is increasingly recognized that teachers have had trouble applying to their own classrooms what researchers find. To address this problem, a researcher could partner with a teacher—better yet, a small group of teachers—and talk with them about instructional problems they all share. These discussions can create a rich pool of problems researchers can consider. If researchers pursued one of these problems (preferably alongside teachers), the connection to improving learning opportunities for all students could be direct and immediate. “Grounding a research question in instructional problems that are experienced across multiple teachers’ classrooms helps to ensure that the answer to the question will be of sufficient scope to be relevant and significant beyond the local context” (Cai et al., 2019b , p. 115).

As a beginning researcher, determining the relevance and importance of a research problem is especially challenging. We recommend talking with advisors, other experienced researchers, and peers to test the educational importance of possible research problems and topics of study. You will also learn much more about the issue of research importance when you read Chap. 5 .

Exercise 1.7

Identify a problem in education that is closely connected to improving learning opportunities and a problem that has a less close connection. For each problem, write a brief argument (like a logical sequence of if-then statements) that connects the problem to all students’ learning opportunities.

Part III. Conducting Research as a Practice of Failing Productively

Scientific inquiry involves formulating hypotheses about phenomena that are not fully understood—by you or anyone else. Even if you are able to inform your hypotheses with lots of knowledge that has already been accumulated, you are likely to find that your prediction is not entirely accurate. This is normal. Remember, scientific inquiry is a process of constantly updating your thinking. More and better information means revising your thinking, again, and again, and again. Because you never fully understand a complicated phenomenon and your hypotheses never produce completely accurate predictions, it is easy to believe you are somehow failing.

The trick is to fail upward, to fail to predict accurately in ways that inform your next hypothesis so you can make a better prediction. Some of the best-known researchers in education have been open and honest about the many times their predictions were wrong and, based on the results of their studies and those of others, they continuously updated their thinking and changed their hypotheses.

A striking example of publicly revising (actually reversing) hypotheses due to incorrect predictions is found in the work of Lee J. Cronbach, one of the most distinguished educational psychologists of the twentieth century. In 1955, Cronbach delivered his presidential address to the American Psychological Association. Titling it “Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology,” Cronbach proposed a rapprochement between two research approaches—correlational studies that focused on individual differences and experimental studies that focused on instructional treatments controlling for individual differences. (We will examine different research approaches in Chap. 4 ). If these approaches could be brought together, reasoned Cronbach ( 1957 ), researchers could find interactions between individual characteristics and treatments (aptitude-treatment interactions or ATIs), fitting the best treatments to different individuals.

In 1975, after years of research by many researchers looking for ATIs, Cronbach acknowledged the evidence for simple, useful ATIs had not been found. Even when trying to find interactions between a few variables that could provide instructional guidance, the analysis, said Cronbach, creates “a hall of mirrors that extends to infinity, tormenting even the boldest investigators and defeating even ambitious designs” (Cronbach, 1975 , p. 119).

As he was reflecting back on his work, Cronbach ( 1986 ) recommended moving away from documenting instructional effects through statistical inference (an approach he had championed for much of his career) and toward approaches that probe the reasons for these effects, approaches that provide a “full account of events in a time, place, and context” (Cronbach, 1986 , p. 104). This is a remarkable change in hypotheses, a change based on data and made fully transparent. Cronbach understood the value of failing productively.

Closer to home, in a less dramatic example, one of us began a line of scientific inquiry into how to prepare elementary preservice teachers to teach early algebra. Teaching early algebra meant engaging elementary students in early forms of algebraic reasoning. Such reasoning should help them transition from arithmetic to algebra. To begin this line of inquiry, a set of activities for preservice teachers were developed. Even though the activities were based on well-supported hypotheses, they largely failed to engage preservice teachers as predicted because of unanticipated challenges the preservice teachers faced. To capitalize on this failure, follow-up studies were conducted, first to better understand elementary preservice teachers’ challenges with preparing to teach early algebra, and then to better support preservice teachers in navigating these challenges. In this example, the initial failure was a necessary step in the researchers’ scientific inquiry and furthered the researchers’ understanding of this issue.

We present another example of failing productively in Chap. 2 . That example emerges from recounting the history of a well-known research program in mathematics education.

Making mistakes is an inherent part of doing scientific research. Conducting a study is rarely a smooth path from beginning to end. We recommend that you keep the following things in mind as you begin a career of conducting research in education.

First, do not get discouraged when you make mistakes; do not fall into the trap of feeling like you are not capable of doing research because you make too many errors.

Second, learn from your mistakes. Do not ignore your mistakes or treat them as errors that you simply need to forget and move past. Mistakes are rich sites for learning—in research just as in other fields of study.

Third, by reflecting on your mistakes, you can learn to make better mistakes, mistakes that inform you about a productive next step. You will not be able to eliminate your mistakes, but you can set a goal of making better and better mistakes.

Exercise 1.8

How does scientific inquiry differ from everyday learning in giving you the tools to fail upward? You may find helpful perspectives on this question in other resources on science and scientific inquiry (e.g., Failure: Why Science is So Successful by Firestein, 2015).

Exercise 1.9

Use what you have learned in this chapter to write a new definition of scientific inquiry. Compare this definition with the one you wrote before reading this chapter. If you are reading this book as part of a course, compare your definition with your colleagues’ definitions. Develop a consensus definition with everyone in the course.

Part IV. Preview of Chap. 2

Now that you have a good idea of what research is, at least of what we believe research is, the next step is to think about how to actually begin doing research. This means how to begin formulating, testing, and revising hypotheses. As for all phases of scientific inquiry, there are lots of things to think about. Because it is critical to start well, we devote Chap. 2 to getting started with formulating hypotheses.

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Hiebert, J., Cai, J., Hwang, S., Morris, A.K., Hohensee, C. (2023). What Is Research, and Why Do People Do It?. In: Doing Research: A New Researcher’s Guide. Research in Mathematics Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-19078-0_1

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• Research Objectives | Definition & Examples

Research Objectives | Definition & Examples

Published on July 12, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on November 20, 2023.

Research objectives describe what your research is trying to achieve and explain why you are pursuing it. They summarize the approach and purpose of your project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement . They should:

• Establish the scope and depth of your project
• Contribute to your research design
• Indicate how your project will contribute to existing knowledge

Table of contents

What is a research objective, why are research objectives important, how to write research aims and objectives, smart research objectives, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research objectives.

Research objectives describe what your research project intends to accomplish. They should guide every step of the research process , including how you collect data , build your argument , and develop your conclusions .

Your research objectives may evolve slightly as your research progresses, but they should always line up with the research carried out and the actual content of your paper.

Research aims

A distinction is often made between research objectives and research aims.

A research aim typically refers to a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear at the end of your problem statement, before your research objectives.

Your research objectives are more specific than your research aim and indicate the particular focus and approach of your project. Though you will only have one research aim, you will likely have several research objectives.

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Research objectives are important because they:

• Establish the scope and depth of your project: This helps you avoid unnecessary research. It also means that your research methods and conclusions can easily be evaluated .
• Contribute to your research design: When you know what your objectives are, you have a clearer idea of what methods are most appropriate for your research.
• Indicate how your project will contribute to extant research: They allow you to display your knowledge of up-to-date research, employ or build on current research methods, and attempt to contribute to recent debates.

Once you’ve established a research problem you want to address, you need to decide how you will address it. This is where your research aim and objectives come in.

Step 1: Decide on a general aim

Your research aim should reflect your research problem and should be relatively broad.

Step 2: Decide on specific objectives

Break down your aim into a limited number of steps that will help you resolve your research problem. What specific aspects of the problem do you want to examine or understand?

Step 3: Formulate your aims and objectives

Once you’ve established your research aim and objectives, you need to explain them clearly and concisely to the reader.

You’ll lay out your aims and objectives at the end of your problem statement, which appears in your introduction. Frame them as clear declarative statements, and use appropriate verbs to accurately characterize the work that you will carry out.

The acronym “SMART” is commonly used in relation to research objectives. It states that your objectives should be:

• Specific: Make sure your objectives aren’t overly vague. Your research needs to be clearly defined in order to get useful results.
• Measurable: Know how you’ll measure whether your objectives have been achieved.
• Achievable: Your objectives may be challenging, but they should be feasible. Make sure that relevant groundwork has been done on your topic or that relevant primary or secondary sources exist. Also ensure that you have access to relevant research facilities (labs, library resources , research databases , etc.).
• Relevant: Make sure that they directly address the research problem you want to work on and that they contribute to the current state of research in your field.
• Time-based: Set clear deadlines for objectives to ensure that the project stays on track.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.

They summarize the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .

Your research objectives indicate how you’ll try to address your research problem and should be specific:

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

Scope of research is determined at the beginning of your research process , prior to the data collection stage. Sometimes called “scope of study,” your scope delineates what will and will not be covered in your project. It helps you focus your work and your time, ensuring that you’ll be able to achieve your goals and outcomes.

Defining a scope can be very useful in any research project, from a research proposal to a thesis or dissertation . A scope is needed for all types of research: quantitative , qualitative , and mixed methods .

To define your scope of research, consider the following:

• Budget constraints or any specifics of grant funding
• Your proposed timeline and duration
• Specifics about your population of study, your proposed sample size , and the research methodology you’ll pursue
• Any inclusion and exclusion criteria
• Any anticipated control , extraneous , or confounding variables that could bias your research if not accounted for properly.

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Creating a Corporate Social Responsibility Program with Real Impact

• Emilio Marti,
• David Risi,
• Eva Schlindwein,
• Andromachi Athanasopoulou

Lessons from multinational companies that adapted their CSR practices based on local feedback and knowledge.

Exploring the critical role of experimentation in Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), research on four multinational companies reveals a stark difference in CSR effectiveness. Successful companies integrate an experimental approach, constantly adapting their CSR practices based on local feedback and knowledge. This strategy fosters genuine community engagement and responsive initiatives, as seen in a mining company’s impactful HIV/AIDS program. Conversely, companies that rely on standardized, inflexible CSR methods often fail to achieve their goals, demonstrated by a failed partnership due to local corruption in another mining company. The study recommends encouraging broad employee participation in CSR and fostering a culture that values CSR’s long-term business benefits. It also suggests that sustainable investors and ESG rating agencies should focus on assessing companies’ experimental approaches to CSR, going beyond current practices to examine the involvement of diverse employees in both developing and adapting CSR initiatives. Overall, embracing a dynamic, data-driven approach to CSR is essential for meaningful social and environmental impact.

By now, almost all large companies are engaged in corporate social responsibility (CSR): they have CSR policies, employ CSR staff, engage in activities that aim to have a positive impact on the environment and society, and write CSR reports. However, the evolution of CSR has brought forth new challenges. A stark contrast to two decades ago, when the primary concern was the sheer neglect of CSR, the current issue lies in the ineffective execution of these practices. Why do some companies implement CSR in ways that create a positive impact on the environment and society, while others fail to do so? Our research reveals that experimentation is critical for impactful CSR, which has implications for both companies that implement CSR and companies that externally monitor these CSR activities, such as sustainable investors and ESG rating agencies.

• EM Emilio Marti is an associate professor at the Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University. His research focuses on corporate sustainability with a specific focus on sustainable investing.”
• DR David Risi is a professor at the Bern University of Applied Sciences and a habilitated lecturer at the University of St. Gallen. His research focuses on how companies organize CSR and sustainability.
• ES Eva Schlindwein is a professor at the Bern University of Applied Sciences and a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Oxford. Her research focuses on how organizations navigate tensions between business and society.
• AA Andromachi Athanasopoulou is an associate professor at Queen Mary University of London and an associate fellow at the University of Oxford. Her research focuses on how individuals manage their leadership careers and make ethically charged decisions.

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Dogs can understand the meaning of nouns, new research finds

Study confirms our canine companions can grasp more than simple commands – or at least for items they care about

Dogs understand what certain words stand for, according to researchers who monitored the brain activity of willing pooches while they were shown balls, slippers, leashes and other highlights of the domestic canine world.

The finding suggests that the dog brain can reach beyond commands such as “sit” and “fetch”, and the frenzy-inducing “walkies”, to grasp the essence of nouns, or at least those that refer to items the animals care about.

“I think the capacity is there in all dogs,” said Marianna Boros, who helped arrange the experiments at Eötvös Loránd University in Hungary. “This changes our understanding of language evolution and our sense of what is uniquely human.”

Scientists have long been fascinated by whether dogs can truly learn the meanings of words and have built up some evidence to back the suspicion. A survey in 2022 found that dog owners believed their furry companions responded to between 15 and 215 words.

More direct evidence for canine cognitive prowess came in 2011 when psychologists in South Carolina reported that after three years of intensive training, a border collie called Chaser had learned the names of more than 1,000 objects , including 800 cloth toys, 116 balls and 26 Frisbees.

However, studies have said little about what is happening in the canine brain when it processes words. To delve into the mystery, Boros and her colleagues invited 18 dog owners to bring their pets to the laboratory along with five objects the animals knew well. These included balls, slippers, Frisbees, rubber toys, leads and other items.

At the lab, the owners were instructed to say words for objects before showing their dog either the correct item or a different one. For example, an owner might say “Look, here’s the ball”, but hold up a Frisbee instead. The experiments were repeated multiple times with matching and non-matching objects.

During the tests, researchers monitored the dogs’ brain activity through non-invasive electroencephalography, or EEG. The traces revealed different patterns of activity when the objects matched or clashed with the words their owner said. The difference in the traces was more pronounced for words that owners believed their dogs knew best.

Similar blips in EEG recordings were seen when humans performed the tests and were interpreted as people understanding a word well enough to form a mental representation that was either confirmed or confounded by the object they were subsequently shown.

Writing in Current Biology , the scientists say the results “provide the first neural evidence for object word knowledge in a non-human animal”.

Boros emphasised she was not claiming dogs understood words as well as humans. It will take further work to understand, for example, whether dogs can generalise in the way humans learn to as infants, and grasp that the word “ball” need not refer to one specific, heavily chewed spongy sphere.

The study raises the question of why, if dogs understand certain nouns, more of them don’t show it. One possibility is that a dog knows what a word refers to but is not bothered about acting on it. “My dog only cares about his ball,” said Boros. “If I bring him another toy, he doesn’t care about it at all.”

Dr Holly Root-Gutteridge, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Lincoln who was not involved in the study, called the work “fascinating”.

“It’s particularly interesting because I think it’s unlikely this started during domestication, so it may be widespread throughout mammals,” she said. “That’s highly exciting in itself as it shines new light on language evolution.

“It might be that the dogs don’t really care enough about the game of ‘fetch this particular thing’ to play along with the way we’ve been training and testing them so far. Your dog may understand what you’re saying but choose not to act.”

• Animal behaviour

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A Mathematician Uses AI to Find Meaning in Genomic Data

Imagine a murmuration of starlings on the wing—the flock wheels and turns as though a single organism—rising, falling, shifting in shape and form in response to cues undiscernible to the casual viewer. Zoom in and the independent behaviors of each bird that contribute to the flock’s coordinated movements become clear.

So, too, the genes in each of our cells operate in networks, activated or silenced by RNA in response to a wide array of environmental cues, at scales from single proteins within the cytoplasm of the cell, itself, to conditions within each tissue type and even the organism as a whole. Columbia Mailman School Assistant Professor of Biostatistics Wenpin Hou uses machine learning to analyze massive datasets from human tissue samples to reveal the biochemical activity within single cells. “My goal is to extract meaningful information from real-world, messy data using computational methods and software to drive forward the understanding of how and when the genes are regulated, and how we can control gene regulation in disease prevention and treatment,” she says.

Hou’s work has already yielded multiple open-source software programs. Her latest, GPTCelltype , applies artificial intelligence to the laborious process of manually annotating the array of cell types found in complex tissue samples for single-cell RNA analyses.

You combine theoretical mathematics and statistics with emerging computational methods, machine learning, and artificial intelligence to investigate how our genes respond to our environment. How did you get started?

Hou: In my undergrad studies, I noticed the elegant ways that differential equations could capture gene behaviors. That sparked a deep dive into gene regulatory networks for my PhD. The beauty of mathematics applied to biology was irresistible. I was amazed by how artfully mathematics could capture those delicate gene dynamics and regulations.

How did you make the jump from theoretical analyses to applied biomedical and public health research?

Hou: During my PhD, I worked on the theory behind modeling gene regulatory networks, intending to find gene therapies. Later, at MD Anderson Cancer Center, I worked to develop this concept for cancer therapies, but the stark reality of noisy and incomplete data stood in the way. This challenge steered me from theory to hands-on computational genomics. I discovered a passion for solving real health problems and realized the impact my research could have on disease therapy and prevention—a truly pivotal experience.

Why can’t theoretical computational models lead directly to clinical applications?

Hou: Theoretical models often assume “clean” data, which is in stark contrast to the complexity and noise inherent in real-world patient data. This discrepancy creates significant challenges when attempting to apply these models clinically. By integrating various types of gene regulation data—including gene expression, DNA methylation, histone modification, transcription factor activity, and targeted perturbations—we have the potential to bridge this gap and catalyze the creation of new therapies.

You currently lead two five-year, NIH-funded projects that have been awarded nearly $1.9 million. Each investigates the spatial landscapes of DNA methylation and gene regulatory networks. What does this mean?

Hou: DNA methylation— an epigenetic modification that can modulate gene expression—stands at the interface of genome, environment, and development. Detailing how that process unfolds in space and time to determine gene expression could contain valuable target information for early diagnosis and drug treatment. My goal is to develop methods that can predict DNA methylation landscapes and create maps of the spatial relationships among those cells.

Can you provide an example from your ongoing work on maternal-fetal health?

Hou: I approached pediatrician and molecular epidemiologist Dr. Xiaobin Wang in 2019 to work with her on the Boston Birth Cohort, which combines demographic data and DNA methylation data. I’ve been able to contribute to a series of analyses of how maternal smoking affects genes associated with overweight and obesity in children, and how certain prenatal vitamins may buffer the effects of maternal smoking on newborn gene expression.

ChatGPT is in the news. You’ve looked at using GPT AI models for biomedical research. What do you see as the power and pitfalls of AI in your line of work?

Hou: If the machine can do well in this kind of task, it has the potential to equip experts and increase the efficiency of the work in the pipeline. On the other hand, humans provide our input to GPT-4, and the way we prompt it—the way we convey our instructions—affects the results, especially when we try to apply GPT-4 to large datasets. We recommend that human experts confirm the validity of the output from GPT-4.

You cofounded a statistical genetics and genomics working group that sponsors an ongoing seminar series. Who can participate?

Hou: We bring together faculty, fellows, and grad students from biostatistics, computational biology, engineering, and medicine from both inside and beyond Columbia to discuss broad applications of methodologies for investigating how the genome and genes affect biological function and human health. All of our invited talks are hosted virtually, and the public is welcome to attend. We discuss the latest progress in the field, including new statistical and computational methodology, new data resources in genetics and genomics, and new bioengineering technologies.

FTX founder Sam Bankman-Fried sentenced to 25 years on crypto fraud charges

NEW YORK − Sam Bankman-Fried was sentenced to 25 years in prison Thursday for stealing $8 billion from customers of the now-bankrupt FTX cryptocurrency exchange he founded, the last step in the former billionaire wunderkind's dramatic downfall.

U.S. District Judge Lewis Kaplan handed down the sentence at a Manhattan court hearing after rejecting Bankman-Fried's claim that FTX customers did not actually lose money and accusing him of lying during his trial testimony. A jury found Bankman-Fried, 32, guilty Nov. 2 on seven fraud and conspiracy counts stemming from FTX's 2022 collapse in what prosecutors have called one of the biggest financial frauds in U.S. history.

"He knew it was wrong," Kaplan said before handing down the sentence. "He knew it was criminal. He regrets that he made a very bad bet about the likelihood of getting caught. But he is not going to admit a thing, as is his right."

Bankman-Fried , wearing a beige short-sleeve jail T-shirt, acknowledged during 20 minutes of remarks to the judge that FTX customers had suffered, and he offered an apology to his former FTX colleagues.

The sentence marked the culmination of Bankman-Fried's plunge from an ultra-wealthy entrepreneur and major political donor to the biggest trophy to date in a crackdown by U.S. authorities on malfeasance in cryptocurrency markets. Bankman-Fried has vowed to appeal his conviction and sentence.

Kaplan said he had found that FTX customers lost $8 billion, FTX's equity investors lost $1.7 billion, and lenders to the Alameda Research hedge fund Bankman-Fried founded lost $1.3 billion.

"The defendant's assertion that FTX customers and creditors will be paid in full is misleading, it is logically flawed, it is speculative," Kaplan said. "A thief who takes his loot to Las Vegas and successfully bets the stolen money is not entitled to a discount on the sentence by using his Las Vegas winnings to pay back what he stole."

Is crypto real wealth? Black, Latino, LGBTQ investors see investments like bitcoin as 'a new path' to wealth and equity

The judge also said Bankman-Fried lied during his trial testimony when he said he did not know that his hedge fund had spent customer deposits taken from FTX.

Federal prosecutors had sought a sentence of 40 to 50 years. Bankman-Fried's lawyer, Marc Mukasey, had argued that a sentence of less than 5¼ years would be appropriate.

Addressing the judge, Bankman-Fried said: "Customers have been suffering. ... I didn't at all mean to minimize that. I also think that's something that was missing from what I've said over the course of this process, and I'm sorry for that."

Referring to his FTX colleagues, Bankman-Fried told the judge: "They put a lot of themselves into it, and I threw that all away. It haunts me every day."

Three of his former close associates testified as prosecution witnesses that he had directed them to use FTX customer money to plug losses at Alameda Research.

Nicolas Roos, a prosecutor with the U.S. attorney's office in Manhattan, told the judge: "The criminality here is massive in scale. It was pervasive in all aspects of the business."

During the hearing, Mukasey sought to distance his client from notorious fraudsters like Bernie Madoff.

"Sam was not a ruthless financial serial killer who set out every morning to hurt people," Mukasey said, describing his client as an "awkward math nerd" who worked hard to get customers their money back after FTX's collapse.

"Sam Bankman-Fried doesn't make decisions with malice in his heart," Mukasey added. "He makes decisions with math in his head."

Bankman-Fried testified in his own defense that he made mistakes such as not implementing a risk management team, but he denied he intended to defraud anyone or steal customers' money.

He was led into the courtroom by members of the U.S. Marshals Service. His parents, Stanford University law professors Joseph Bankman and Barbara Fried, were there.

Timeline of events leading up to FTX founder Sam Bankman-Fried's conviction

▶ 2017 : Bankman-Fried, a Massachusetts Institute of Technology graduate, quits his job as a quantitative trader at Jane Street Capital and launches Alameda Research, a trading firm focused on cryptocurrency.

▶ MAY 2019 : Bankman-Fried and former Google employee Gary Wang found FTX as a new platform to trade crypto tokens and derivatives.

▶ OCTOBER 2021 : FTX raises $420 million in venture funding, valuing the company at $25 billion. Bankman-Fried debuts on the Forbes billionaires list, which estimates his net worth at $22.5 billion. The magazine's assessment of his wealth would rise to $26 billion by the end of the year.

▶ FEBRUARY 2022 : The NFL Super Bowl's broadcast is heavy on cryptocurrency advertisements, signifying the height of the craze for the booming asset class. FTX's "Don't Miss Out" spot features actor Larry David, whose skepticism about the platform is portrayed as akin to an early human doubting the importance of the wheel.

▶ JUNE-JULY 2022 : Bankman-Fried emerges as the cryptocurrency sector's so-called "white knight" amid a collapse in the prices of Bitcoin and other digital assets. Alameda gives crypto lender Voyager Digital a $200 million credit facility, and FTX gives lender BlockFi a $250 million loan.

▶ NOV. 2, 2022 : Crypto news website CoinDesk publishes a leaked Alameda Research balance sheet showing that much of its $14.6 billion in assets is held in FTX's own token, called FTT. The token subsequently sheds around $400 million of its market cap, and rival exchange Binance says it will sell its FTT holdings.

▶ NOV. 11, 2022 : FTX files for U.S. bankruptcy protection after a wave of customer withdrawals, and Bankman-Fried resigns as its chief executive officer.

▶ DEC. 12, 2022: Bankman-Fried is arrested in the Bahamas, where he lives and where FTX is based. The U.S. Attorney's office in Manhattan later confirms that a federal grand jury has indicted him for fraud and conspiracy charges.

▶ DEC. 21, 2022 : Bankman-Fried leaves the Bahamas after agreeing to be extradited to the United States. While he is in the air, prosecutors reveal that Wang and Alameda chief executive Caroline Ellison have pleaded guilty and agreed to cooperate with prosecutors.

▶ DEC. 22, 2022 : Bankman-Fried makes an initial appearance in Manhattan federal court and is released to home detention at his parents' home in Palo Alto, California, on $250 million bond.

▶ JAN. 3-12, 2023 : Bankman-Fried pleads not guilty and U.S. District Judge Lewis Kaplan schedules his trial for October. In a post-arrest blog post, Bankman-Fried denies stealing funds and blames FTX's collapse on a broader downturn in crypto markets.

▶ AUG. 11, 2023 : Kaplan revokes Bankman-Fried's bail after finding probable cause to believe he tampered with witnesses at least twice, including by sharing Ellison's private writings with a New York Times reporter. Bankman-Fried is remanded to Brooklyn's Metropolitan Detention Center pending trial.

▶ OCT. 3, 2023 : Trial begins in Manhattan federal court.

▶ OCT. 28, 2023 : Bankman-Fried testifies in his own defense, saying a "lot of people got hurt" when FTX collapsed but insisting he did not defraud anyone or steal billions of dollars from customers.

▶ NOV. 2, 2023 : Bankman-Fried is convicted of all seven charges he faced.

▶ MARCH 28, 2024 : Bankman-Fried is set to be sentenced for his fraud conviction.

More From Forbes

Dogs understand our words more than they let on, science reveals.

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Science shows that dogs learn to form mental representations of words, shedding light on why they ... [+] often seem to grasp our conversations.

Nothing quite captures the heart like videos of dogs appearing to understand human language . Scroll through any platform, and you’re bound to find countless clips of pet owners testing their dogs’ comprehension, stringing together sentences with all their pet’s favorite words—walk, ball, park, food—to elicit those adorable head tilts and excited barks.

From afar, it seems like these furry friends have mastered the art of associating certain sounds with certain outcomes; say "sit," and they know a treat is on its way for complying. But this understanding of words as mere triggers for actions might only scratch the surface of how dogs process our language.

As it turns out, all dogs seem to be capable of forming mental representations of words, demonstrating a deeper level of linguistic comprehension that is not altogether different from how humans understand and process language, according to a recent study published in Current Biology.

How Are Humans And Dogs Similar When It Comes To Mental Representations Of Words?

In human language understanding, an effect called “the N400” plays a crucial role. It’s a response in the brain that happens around 400 milliseconds after a person hears or reads something that doesn’t match up with what they were expecting, based on the context.

For instance, if you’re reading a sentence about a cat playing with a “shoe,” but suddenly the word “apple” pops up instead, your brain might show an N400 response because “apple” doesn't fit the expected context. This response is a well-established marker for semantic processing, meaning it shows how our brains deal with meanings and associations between words and concepts.

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The fascinating part about this recent study is that it applied this concept, which has been well-studied in humans, to dogs. By using a similar approach—comparing brain responses to matched and mismatched words and objects—the researchers were able to observe an effect in dogs that resembles the human N400 effect. This means when dogs hear a word that they expect to be linked with a certain object, and then see something else, their brains show a distinct response, suggesting they were expecting the matching object based on the word they heard.

Regardless of their "vocabulary" size, dogs understand that words refer to specific objects. This ... [+] referentiality of lexical processing indicates an understanding of language similar to humans.

This finding is groundbreaking because it provides the first neural evidence that dogs, much like humans and preverbal infants, are not just reacting to sounds or performing trained behaviors. Rather, they actually understand, on some level, that words refer to specific objects in their environment. This discovery significantly deepens our understanding of how dogs process human language and suggests that the capacity for referential understanding of words might not be unique to humans.

How Did The Researchers Discover This?

Traditionally, to test if those without the ability to speak—like infants or animals—understand words, researchers have relied on asking them to make an active choice. For example, dogs might be asked to fetch a specific object after hearing its name. However, these tests often show that dogs fetch objects correctly at a rate no better than chance, suggesting they might not truly understand the words.

Seeking a deeper insight into dogs’ comprehension of human language, the researchers in this study took a novel approach. Instead of relying on physical actions like fetching, they decided to measure the brain activity of dogs using a non-invasive technique known as electroencephalography. An EEG allows scientists to observe how the brain reacts to different stimuli without requiring any physical response from the subject.

In their experiments, the owners of 18 dogs would say the name of a toy the dog was familiar with and then either present the matching toy or a different one. For instance, an owner might say, "Look, the ball," and then show either a ball or a different object, while the dog’s brain activity was recorded. This setup was designed to see if the dogs’ brains reacted differently when the object presented matched the word they heard versus when there was a mismatch.

The EEG recordings revealed distinct patterns of brain activity in dogs when they were shown the object that matched the word they heard, compared to when the object didn’t match.

Interestingly, the study also found that this capacity for understanding wasn’t limited to dogs with a large vocabulary of object names. Even dogs with a smaller number of known words showed this brain activity pattern, indicating that the ability to form mental representations of words and understand their referential nature is a widespread trait among dogs, not just a skill of a few exceptionally trained individuals.

What Does This Discovery Mean For Humans?

This discovery that dogs can understand words in a way similar to humans shakes up our views on language’s uniqueness. It suggests that the ability to link words with meanings might not be exclusively human, affecting theories on how language evolved. For dog owners, it’s a revelation—our furry friends likely grasp more than we realize, understanding some words as we do, not just following commands.

This research raises questions about whether this linguistic capability is unique to dogs or if other animals share it, hinting at broader implications for our understanding of animal intelligence and the origins of communication. It challenges us to rethink the cognitive abilities of non-human species and their potential for language-like understanding.

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Canada lynx historic range in US likely wider than previously thought

PULLMAN, Wash. — A broader past could mean a brighter future for Canada lynx in the U.S., according to recent research.

The study, published in the journal Biological Conservation , indicates that lynx might do well in the future in parts of Utah, central Idaho and the Yellowstone National Park region, even considering climate change and the lack of lynx in those areas now.

Using a model validated by historic records, researchers first found that in 1900, Canada lynx had more suitable habitat in the U.S. than the few northern corners of the country where they are found currently. The study showed the elusive big cat likely roamed over a larger area in the Pacific Northwest, Rocky Mountains, Great Lakes region and parts of New England.

“History matters even for wildlife,” said lead author Dan Thornton, a Washington State University wildlife ecologist. “As part of the criteria for species recovery, we have to understand their historic distribution. Otherwise, how can we help recover a species, if we don’t know what we’re recovering to?”

Having a more accurate picture of a species’ past can also help avoid an effect known as “shifting baseline syndrome,” Thornton added, which is a gradual change in what people accept as normal for the environment, or specifically in this case, a species’ habitat.

True to their name, Canada lynx are still abundant in Canada, but in the U.S. their numbers have dwindled. Currently, they are only found in limited, northern portions of Washington, Idaho, Montana, Minnesota and Maine. So far, recovery plans for lynx have been based on assumptions that they were never found much beyond these areas in the U.S., although a small population was successfully re-introduced to the Colorado Rockies in 1999.

This study, which has conservation implications for not only lynx but other threatened species, proposes one new way of estimating a species’ historic range, using modelling of suitable habitat validated by historical records.

Thornton and co-author Dennis Murray of Trent University in Canada created the model using factors to determine lynx’s suitable habitat like temperature, precipitation and land use in the last 40 years. They ran that model back in time to 1900 using historic climate and land use data to discover the possible past range, which they validated using records of lynx from museums as well as hunters and trappers who have prized the big cat for its fur.

The researchers then used the model to project suitable habitat into the future of 2050 and 2070. Even when accounting for climate change effects, they found areas that could be good for lynx that fall outside the species’ current range but likely within historically occupied areas: namely in central Idaho, northern Utah and the area in, and around, Yellowstone National Park. Whether or not these areas could support viable lynx populations now or in the future would require additional research, the authors noted.

Conserving lynx as a key predator is important for maintaining the integrity of forest ecosystems, the authors contend, and lynx are an iconic species in the mountains of the Pacific Northwest.

The researchers also hope that this approach to estimating historic range could help inform conservation efforts for other species.

“Thinking about historic range is really important. It’s also quite difficult because we often have limited data on where species were in the past,” Thornton said. “But there are potential ways to go about addressing that, and we wanted to provide one possible approach in this paper.”

This research received support from the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s National Institute of Food and Agriculture.

Media Contacts

• Daniel Thornton , WSU School of the Environment , 509-335-3713 , [email protected]
• Sara Zaske , WSU News & Media Relations , 509-335-4846 , [email protected]

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The Islamabad High Court granted an appeal to former Prime Minister Imran Khan on Monday, suspending his 14-year sentence for the conviction on graft charges, according to a statement from his political party, Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf.

The appeal pertains to the Toshakhana corruption case , in which Khan was accused of selling state gifts. The Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf party has consistently maintained that the charges against Khan were baseless and expressed confidence that justice would be served in higher courts.

Zulfiqar Bukhari, the spokesperson for Khan’s party, stated , “We had always maintained that all these charges are frivolous and as they go up the ladder into higher courts justice will be served and all cases will be annulled. Imran Khan and Bushra Bibi had never done anything illegal in the Toshakhana case. Rather those who stole cars are PM’s and Presidents today.”

Naeem Haider Panjutha, the spokesman to Imran Khan on Legal Affairs, also congratulated the nation on suspending the sentence in the Toshakhana case.

In March 2022, opposition parties removed Khan from office through a vote of no confidence in Parliament. Despite the suspension, Khan will remain in prison due to other convictions. In February, Khan appealed his convictions in three cases, the other two being the “cypher” case related to leaked diplomatic cables and a case involving the violation of a three-month waiting period for marriage.

The judicial proceedings in Khan’s cases have recently been scrutinized. On March 25, six judges from the Islamabad High Court wrote a letter to the Supreme Judicial Council alleging interference by Pakistan’s powerful intelligence agencies in the judiciary’s functioning.

According to a statement on Khan’s X (formerly Twitter), most of his cases are handled by the Islamabad High Court and its subordinate courts. However, the concerns that these courts face undue pressure and interference cast doubt on the fairness of the judicial proceedings. As a result, the Supreme Judicial Council must initiate an unbiased investigation into these serious allegations.

Maurice Papon convicted of war crimes

On April 2, 1998, Maurice Papon was convicted of war crimes for his role in deporting French Jews to concentration camps during the Nazi occupation of France. Under German occupation, Papon served as the supervisor of the Service for Jewish Questions in Bordeaux from which he collaborated with the Nazi S.S. and oversaw the deportation of 1,560 Jewish men, women, and children to concentration camps. Read an biography of Maurice Papon from the BBC.

Massachusetts enacted Vietnam antiwar bill

On April 2, 1970, the Governor of Massachusetts signed into law an anti-Vietnam War bill providing that no inhabitant of Massachusetts inducted into or serving in the armed forces "shall be required to serve" abroad in an armed hostility that had not been declared a war by Congress under Article I, Section 8, clause 11 of the United States Constitution. Supporters of the legislation hoped that the US Supreme Court would seize on the obvious conflict that the bill created between state and federal law and would rule on the constitutionality of the Vietnam War itself, but the Court refused to exercise original jurisdiction, forcing the case into the lower federal courts. See Anthony D'Amato, Massachusetts In The Federal Courts: The Constitutionality Of The Vietnam War [PDF], 4 Journal of Law Reform (1970).

Trial of Marquess of Queensberry begins, leading to the imprisonment of Oscar Wilde

On April 2, 1895, the libel trial of the Marquess of Queensberry began on allegations that he called Oscar Wilde a "posing somdomite [sic]". The trial led to the disclosure of details of Wilde's personal life that eventually resulted in his imprisonment for homosexuality. Read about the trials of Oscar Wilde.

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Meaning of research – Learner’s Dictionary

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• There is the potential for some really interesting research.
• She has done research into how children acquire language .
• The appeal raised over £2 million for AIDS research.
• This report echoes some of the earlier research I've read .
• The government has committed thousands of pounds to the research.

(Definition of research from the Cambridge Learner's Dictionary © Cambridge University Press)

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peanut butter (= a soft food made from crushed peanuts) and jam (= a soft sweet food made from fruit and sugar), or a sandwich with these inside. PB&J is short for peanut butter and jelly.

Sitting on the fence (Newspaper idioms)

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