motivation theories essay introduction

Motivation Theories Essay

Introduction, theories of motivation – elton mayo, abraham maslow, theories’ application in creative technology, motivation theory in marketing, motivation tools and techniques, references list.

Motivation is the force that drives people into action and encourages them into exerting more effort towards carrying out something. Motivated employees feel more comfortable and will have feelings of happiness and fulfillment. Besides, motivated workers tend to produce quality results, and are more productive than their counterparts are.

Different factors exist that can determine how an individual is motivated; for instance, everyone has basic needs like; food and shelter which can be catered for by pay. However, other diverse motivators exist that stimulate people into action. A creative environment can encourage motivation especially in design where a high level of creativity is critical.

Some workers will do well given the problem solving nature of their jobs and support initiative against challenges. Besides, creative staff will find the diverse nature of their occupation encouraging because they have the opportunity to try special responsibilities.

According to Elton Mayo, employees are not only motivated by pay, but could also be highly motivated if their social needs are fulfillment especially when they are at the workplace (Sheldrake, 2003). Mayo introduced a new way of looking at employees and argued that managers and supervisors need to have an interest in employees. This involves valuing their opinions and treating them in a worthwhile manner by recognizing that they take pride in inter-personal interactions.

While coming up with the theory, Mayo experimented at the Western Electric Hawthorne factory in Chicago. He separated two groups of women employees and viewed the outcome to productivity intensity in varying environments like working conditions and lighting. Contrary to his expectations, he was surprised to note the productivity of the employees improved or remained constant even with varying lighting and other working conditions. He then concluded that employees are highly motivated by various factors.

Among his top picks are better communication between employees and their managers. When employees feel there exists consultation on their roles and responsibilities with the managers, they tend to perform better also if given the chance to give feedback.

The second factor he discovered was the fact that employees responded very well to increased manager participation in their working lives. Besides the two, Mayo also identified teamwork as a motivator in working environments. He stated that corporate and businesses should reorganize to encourage teamwork, which is a theory that closely links to paternalistic management style.

In the 1950’s, Abraham Maslow with Frederick Herzberg came up with the neo-human relations school. According to Montana and Charnov (2008), “The school focused on employees’ psychological needs” (p. 408). In his theory, Maslow illustrates five stages in human needs that workers need to fulfill at the workplace.

Maslow then structured the needs into a hierarchy. When a lower need is fulfilled that an employee will be motivated to the next stage or need. For instance, a person threatened by hunger will have a great motivation to achieve a basic wage to satisfy the need to eat by buying food. in this sense, the person will have less motivation towards getting a formal or secure employment.

At the bottom, of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, physiological needs are the lowest and the most basic; this involves the basic needs of humans, which he argued must be satisfied to sustain life. After the physiological needs are satisfied, attention now shifts towards safety.

In a job environment, this could mean the workers are motivated to such things like living in a safe area, secure job and medical insurance as well as saving for the future. Mackay (2007) noted that “If employees feel there is not enough security provided by their jobs, higher needs will remain unattended” (p.281). Social needs are third in the hierarchy.

Maslow’s theory explains that once the lower levels are satisfied, social needs become a motivator as people have other needs for friends or the need to belong. Esteem needs come after employees feeling the need to be recognized and build their reputation. At the peak of the hierarchy, Maslow describes that this is where people pursue the need to self -actualize.

However, Montana and Charnov (2008) state that “Maslow’s theory stipulates that need to self- actualize is not fully realized as people are constantly pursuing changing endeavors” (p.191). The needs here are mostly related to truth, justice and meaning.

In creative businesses, such as website design, businesses should strive towards giving incentives that meet the needs of the staff to motivate them to progress up the hierarchy.

Furthermore, Maslow’s theory dictates that, it is essential for managers to realize that workers respond differently to different incentives to increase output. Besides, all workers progress up the hierarchy at different paces. According to Mayo’s theory, creative employees should be encouraged to work in teams. Sheldrake (2003) found out that “creativity seems to be strengthened by teamwork” (p.122).

When applying motivation theories in marketing, few changes are necessary. As explained by O’Neil and Drillings (1994) “different employees in different departments will be motivated by different incentives” (p.233). In the marketing of merchandise, high levels of motivation are required from the staff.

A good salary package and attractive benefits attracted from the sales will be necessary in ensuring maximum productivity is reached. On the contrary, employees in creative fields require a serene working environment among other incentives to maximize on productivity.

Pleasure technique is one of the oldest. The tool ensures a pleasurable reward for productivity and in turn creates motivation in employees to become more productive, besides when employees feel that their efforts are being rewarded they will tend to produce more and more.

According to Daft and Lane (2007) “performance incentives play a key role in ensuring high levels of motivation” (p. 102). It works best by creating an appeal to people’s selfishness, and by giving employees an opportunity to earn more, you as an employer will earn more.

In addition, setting deadlines will help achieve more as workers will tend to realize more productivity and are able to concentrate more when nearing a deadline. This can be achieved by creation of smaller deadlines that lead to a bigger result. It is important for managers to encourage team spirit and create an environment of teamwork.

Mackay (2007) noted that “when people work in a team they tend to be more effective” (p. 253) and besides, they don’t want to pull others down by not putting enough effort. Encouraging creativity is very essential, as employees feel more comfortable within an optimistic environment. The last tool for effective motivation is communication. Managers should uphold open channels of communication. This enables one to fix the problems as soon as they arise and it creates a better working environment.

It is important for every business to take note of the theory to implement. Depending on its line of trade, various incentives may be given to employees to maximize production.

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Motivation: Introduction to the Theory, Concepts, and Research

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Motivation is a psychological construct that refers to the disposition to act and direct behavior according to a goal. Like most of psychological processes, motivation develops throughout the life span and is influenced by both biological and environmental factors. The aim of this chapter is to summarize research on the development of motivation from infancy to adolescence, which can help understand the typical developmental trajectories of this ability and its relation to learning. We will start with a review of some of the most influential theories of motivation and the aspects each of them has emphasized. We will also explore how biology and experience interact in this development, paying special attention to factors such as: school, family, and peers, as well as characteristics of the child including self-esteem, cognitive development, and temperament. Finally, we will discuss the implications of understanding the developmental trajectories and the factors that have an impact on this development, for both teachers and parents.

• Achievement
• Motivational theories
• Influences on motivation

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Arango, P. (2018). Motivation: Introduction to the Theory, Concepts, and Research. In: Orellana García, P., Baldwin Lind, P. (eds) Reading Achievement and Motivation in Boys and Girls. Literacy Studies, vol 15. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75948-7_1

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Motivation: The Driving Force Behind Our Actions

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Verywell / Emily Roberts 

• Improvement

The term motivation describes why a person does something. It is the driving force behind human actions. Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.

For instance, motivation is what helps you lose extra weight, or pushes you to get that promotion at work. In short, motivation causes you to act in a way that gets you closer to your goals. Motivation includes the biological , emotional , social , and cognitive forces that activate human behavior.

Motivation also involves factors that direct and maintain goal-directed actions. Although, such motives are rarely directly observable. As a result, we must often infer the reasons why people do the things that they do based on observable behaviors.

Learn the types of motivation that exist and how we use them in our everyday lives. And if it feels like you've lost your motivation, do not worry. There are many ways to develop or improve your self-motivation levels.

Press Play for Advice on Motivation

Hosted by therapist Amy Morin, LCSW, this episode of The Verywell Mind Podcast shares an exercise you can use to help you perform your best. Click below to listen now.

Follow Now : Apple Podcasts / Spotify / Google Podcasts

What Are the Types of Motivation?

The two main types of motivation are frequently described as being either extrinsic or intrinsic.

• Extrinsic motivation arises from outside of the individual and often involves external rewards such as trophies, money, social recognition, or praise.
• Intrinsic motivation is internal and arises from within the individual, such as doing a complicated crossword puzzle purely for the gratification of solving a problem.

A Third Type of Motivation?

Some research suggests that there is a third type of motivation: family motivation. An example of this type is going to work when you are not motivated to do so internally (no intrinsic motivation), but because it is a means to support your family financially.

Why Motivation Is Important

Motivation serves as a guiding force for all human behavior. So, understanding how motivation works and the factors that may impact it can be important for several reasons.

Understanding motivation can:

• Increase your efficiency as you work toward your goals
• Drive you to take action
• Encourage you to engage in health-oriented behaviors
• Help you avoid unhealthy or maladaptive behaviors, such as risk-taking and addiction
• Help you feel more in control of your life
• Improve your overall well-being and happiness

Click Play to Learn More About Motivation

This video has been medically reviewed by John C. Umhau, MD, MPH, CPE .

What Are the 3 Components of Motivation?

If you've ever had a goal (like wanting to lose 20 pounds or run a marathon), you probably already know that simply having the desire to accomplish these things is not enough. You must also be able to persist through obstacles and have the endurance to keep going in spite of difficulties faced.

These different elements or components are needed to get and stay motivated. Researchers have identified three major components of motivation: activation, persistence, and intensity.

• Activation is the decision to initiate a behavior. An example of activation would be enrolling in psychology courses in order to earn your degree.
• Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist. An example of persistence would be showing up for your psychology class even though you are tired from staying up late the night before.
• Intensity is the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal. For example, one student might coast by without much effort (minimal intensity) while another student studies regularly, participates in classroom discussions, and takes advantage of research opportunities outside of class (greater intensity).

The degree of each of these components of motivation can impact whether you achieve your goal. Strong activation, for example, means that you are more likely to start pursuing a goal. Persistence and intensity will determine if you keep working toward that goal and how much effort you devote to reaching it.

Tips for Improving Your Motivation

All people experience fluctuations in their motivation and willpower . Sometimes you feel fired up and highly driven to reach your goals. Other times, you might feel listless or unsure of what you want or how to achieve it.

If you're feeling low on motivation, there are steps you can take to help increase your drive. Some things you can do to develop or improve your motivation include:

• Adjust your goals to focus on things that really matter to you. Focusing on things that are highly important to you will help push you through your challenges more than goals based on things that are low in importance.
• If you're tackling something that feels too big or too overwhelming, break it up into smaller, more manageable steps. Then, set your sights on achieving only the first step. Instead of trying to lose 50 pounds, for example, break this goal down into five-pound increments.
• Improve your confidence . Research suggests that there is a connection between confidence and motivation. So, gaining more confidence in yourself and your skills can impact your ability to achieve your goals.
• Remind yourself about what you've achieved in the past and where your strengths lie. This helps keep self-doubts from limiting your motivation.
• If there are things you feel insecure about, try working on making improvements in those areas so you feel more skilled and capable.

Causes of Low Motivation

There are a few things you should watch for that might hurt or inhibit your motivation levels. These include:

• All-or-nothing thinking : If you think that you must be absolutely perfect when trying to reach your goal or there is no point in trying, one small slip-up or relapse can zap your motivation to keep pushing forward.
• Believing in quick fixes : It's easy to feel unmotivated if you can't reach your goal immediately but reaching goals often takes time.
• Thinking that one size fits all : Just because an approach or method worked for someone else does not mean that it will work for you. If you don't feel motivated to pursue your goals, look for other things that will work better for you.

Motivation and Mental Health

Sometimes a persistent lack of motivation is tied to a mental health condition such as depression . Talk to your doctor if you are feeling symptoms of apathy and low mood that last longer than two weeks.

Theories of Motivation

Throughout history, psychologists have proposed different theories to explain what motivates human behavior. The following are some of the major theories of motivation.

The instinct theory of motivation suggests that behaviors are motivated by instincts, which are fixed and inborn patterns of behavior. Psychologists such as William James, Sigmund Freud , and William McDougal have proposed several basic human drives that motivate behavior. They include biological instincts that are important for an organism's survival—such as fear, cleanliness, and love.

Drives and Needs

Many behaviors such as eating, drinking, and sleeping are motivated by biology. We have a biological need for food, water, and sleep. Therefore, we are motivated to eat, drink, and sleep. The drive reduction theory of motivation suggests that people have these basic biological drives, and our behaviors are motivated by the need to fulfill these drives.

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs is another motivation theory based on a desire to fulfill basic physiological needs. Once those needs are met, it expands to our other needs, such as those related to safety and security, social needs, self-esteem, and self-actualization.

Arousal Levels

The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people are motivated to engage in behaviors that help them maintain their optimal level of arousal. A person with low arousal needs might pursue relaxing activities such as reading a book, while those with high arousal needs might be motivated to engage in exciting, thrill-seeking behaviors such as motorcycle racing.

The Bottom Line

Psychologists have proposed many different theories of motivation . The reality is that there are numerous different forces that guide and direct our motivations.

Understanding motivation is important in many areas of life beyond psychology, from parenting to the workplace. You may want to set the best goals and establish the right reward systems to motivate others as well as to  increase your own motivation .

Knowledge of motivating factors (and how to manipulate them) is used in marketing and other aspects of industrial psychology. It's an area where there are many myths, and everyone can benefit from knowing what works with motivation and what doesn't.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emotion and Motivation

Introduction to Motivation

What you’ll learn to do: explain motivation, how it is influenced, and major theories about motivation.

Motivation to engage in a given behavior can come from internal and/or external factors. There are multiple theories have been put forward regarding motivation—biologically oriented theories that say the need to maintain bodily homeostasis motivates behavior, Bandura’s idea that our sense of self-efficacy motivates behavior, and others that focus on social aspects of motivation. In this section, you’ll learn about these theories as well as the famous work of Abraham Maslow and his hierarchy of needs.

Learning Objectives

• Illustrate intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
• Describe basic theories of motivation, including concepts such as instincts, drive reduction, and self-efficacy
• Explain the basic concepts associated with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

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Consumer Motivation and Involvement

14 Motivational Theories and Models

Motivations are often considered in psychology in terms of drives , which are internal states that are activated when the physiological characteristics of the body are out of balance, and goals , which are desired end states that we strive to attain. Motivation can thus be conceptualized as a series of behavioural responses that lead us to attempt to reduce drives and to attain goals by comparing our current state with a desired end state (Lawrence, Carver, & Scheier, 2002).

Drive Theory

What is the longest you’ve ever gone without eating? A couple of hours? An entire day? How did it feel? Humans rely critically on food for nutrition and energy, and the absence of food can create drastic changes, not only in physical appearance, but in thoughts and behaviours. If you’ve ever fasted for a day, you probably noticed how hunger (a form of “tension,” or “hangry” as we call it in my house) can take over your mind, directing your attention to foods you could be eating (a cheesy slice of pizza, or perhaps some cold ice cream), and motivating you to obtain and consume these foods. It’s not until you’ve eaten that your hunger begins to face and the tension you have experienced disappears.

Hunger is a drive state , an affective experience (something you feel, like the sensation of being tired or hungry) that motivates organisms to fulfill goals that are generally beneficial to their survival and reproduction. Like other drive states, such as thirst or sexual arousal, hunger has a profound impact on the functioning of the mind. It affects psychological processes, such as perception, attention, emotion, and motivation , and influences the behaviours that these processes generate.

How Food Advertising Engages Consumers

How do marketers capitalize on the tension that exists when we are hungry or thirsty? Have you ever seen an ad for a juicy steak when you’re feeling hungry? Or ice cream when it’s warm outside and you’ve just eaten dinner? Marketers both enhance our drive state (the tension we feel when we have an unmet goal or desire) through commercials and other forms of advertisements, as well as solve it by making products readily available through wide and prolific distribution systems. Thirsty? No problem, walk about 10 metres and you’re bound to find a Coke somewhere.

Food advertising both engages our senses and enhances our drive state (think: food courts at shopping malls, sample stations at Costco, Ikea’s restaurants, and farmers’ markets in the summertime) and only the savvy of marketer who exasperates the tension is also there with product ready at hand.

Homeostasis

Like a thermostat on an air conditioner, the body tries to maintain homeostasis , the natural state of the body’s systems, with goals, drives, and arousal in balance. When a drive or goal is aroused — for instance, when we are hungry — the thermostat turns on and we start to behave in a way that attempts to reduce the drive or meet the goal (in this case to seek food). As the body works toward the desired end state, the thermostat continues to check whether or not the end state has been reached. Eventually, the need or goal is satisfied (we eat), and the relevant behaviours are turned off. The body’s thermostat continues to check for homeostasis and is always ready to react to future needs.

Many homeostatic mechanisms, such as blood circulation and immune responses, are automatic and non-conscious. Others, however, involve deliberate action. Most drive states motivate action to restore homeostasis using both “ punishments ” and “ rewards .” Imagine that these homeostatic mechanisms are like molecular parents. When you behave poorly by departing from the set point (such as not eating or being somewhere too cold), they raise their voice at you. You experience this as the bad feelings, or “punishments,” of hunger, thirst, or feeling too cold or too hot. However, when you behave well (such as eating nutritious foods when hungry), these homeostatic parents reward you with the pleasure that comes from any activity that moves the system back toward the set point.

Expectancy Theory

Expectancy theory explains motivations much differently than drive theory. While drive theory explains why we are motivated to eat, drink, and sleep (to reduce tensions arising to unmet needs—hunger, thirst, tiredness), expectancy theory explains motivations where desirable outcomes can be achieved through our effort and performance.

According to expectancy theory , individual motivation to put forth more or less effort is determined by a rational calculation in which individuals evaluate their situation (Porter & Lawler, 1968; Vroom, 1964). According to this theory, individuals ask themselves three questions:

• Whether the person believes that high levels of effort will lead to outcomes of interest, such as performance or success. This perception is labeled expectancy . For example, do you believe that the effort you put forth in a class is related to performing well in that class? If you do, you are more likely to put forth effort.
• The degree to which the person believes that performance is related to subsequent outcomes, such as rewards. This perception is labeled instrumentality . For example, do you believe that getting a good grade in the class is related to rewards such as getting a better job, or gaining approval from your instructor, or from your friends or parents? If you do, you are more likely to put forth effort.
• Finally, individuals are also concerned about the value of the rewards awaiting them as a result of performance. The anticipated satisfaction that will result from an outcome is labeled valence . For example, do you value getting a better job, or gaining approval from your instructor, friends, or parents? If these outcomes are desirable to you, your expectancy and instrumentality is high, and you are more likely to put forth effort.

Student Op-Ed: Share a Coke, but only some of you

A consumer behaviour concept called “ expectancy theory ” can help illustrate how soft drink giant Coca-Cola (Coke) promoted class and race disparity in America. Expectancy Theory essentially explains that consumers’ decisions are driven by “positive incentives” (Solomon, White & Dahl, 2014). Choosing a certain product rather than any other alternative provides a consumer with a more positive result, like a higher social status. Coke’s marketing techniques during the time of America’s civil rights movement and during its early competition against rival Pepsi, draws a connection between a widening socio-economic class gap and consumers’ choices.

In Irene Angelico’s (1998) film, “The Cola Conquest,” we see how Coke was conceived in Atlanta, Georgia at the end of the American Civil War. To its core, the Coca-Cola company is a deeply southern company built through civil unrest. Specifically, Coke was born at a time when Black people were believed to be second-class citizens. And in their advertising, Coke used caricatures of Black people to demonstrate this belief. In Angelico’s film, Coke is described as a symbol of nationalism to the American people: for white people this meant something to be protected; for Black people it meant everything they were denied (Angelico, 1998).

Since its conception in 1886, the soda magnate has implemented an aggressive marketing strategy to capture as much of the market as possible. So when competition and copy cats came in, Coke easily pulled through with momentum they had been building for decades. At that point, consumers already associated “Coke” with being  “American.” When Pepsi launched into the marketplace, arguably Coke’s biggest competitor to this day, Pepsi was branded as a second class drink. People still enjoyed Pepsi, but not in public. “Real Americans” drank Coke. Pepsi was reserved for “non-Americans” (this usually meant Black Americans).

Consumers’ decisions to choose Coke, as shown in the film, is born out of a desire to not be “othered” by friends, family, or strangers. Coke identified how the socioeconomic gap existing between classes could be leveraged as a positioning strategy to align the brand with emerging middle and upper-class Americans. Consequently, this ultimately meant a specific race too. I think it’s critical to be aware of the fact that Coke’s success came at the cost of dignity for Black Americans. I also feel that Coke, without question, operated on their collectives biases which informed their marketing: so instead of developing marketing strategies based on consumers’ needs and wants, the company was guided by historical and racial differences.

Now, when I look at advertisements I have to think more critically about the messages they are conveying: what are they telling me to think? I think the truth of the matter is that while some messages will always go over my head, I need to be aware of the fact that I won’t always have context for every marketing message put in front of me.

It’s inevitable that how I see myself is probably always going to be tied to the products that I buy. But being smart about where I spend my money and recognizing that it’s a privilege to have the freedom to choose, helps me to become a more socially responsible consumer. I think consumers need to realize that big corporations, like the Coca-Cola company, have a significant impact on shaping our cultures and that choosing a product might sometimes mean jeopardizing a whole community.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

One of the most important humanists, Abraham Maslow (1908-1970), conceptualized personality in terms of a pyramid-shaped hierarchy of motives, also called the “ Hierarchy of Needs .” At the base of the pyramid are the lowest-level motivations, including hunger and thirst, and safety and belongingness. Maslow argued that only when people are able to meet the lower-level needs are they able to move on to achieve the higher-level needs of self-esteem, and eventually self-actualization, which is the motivation to develop our innate potential to the fullest possible extent.

Motivating Consumers in a Time of Crisis

Following the economic crisis that began in 2008, the sales of new automobiles dropped sharply virtually everywhere around the world — except the sales of Hyundai vehicles. Hyundai understood that people needed to feel secure and safe and ran an ad campaign that assured car buyers they could return their vehicles if they couldn’t make the payments on them without damaging their credit. Seeing Hyundai’s success, other carmakers began offering similar programs. Likewise, banks began offering “worry-free” mortgages to ease the minds of would-be homebuyers. For a fee of about $500, First Mortgage Corp., a Texas-based bank, offered to make a homeowner’s mortgage payment for six months if he or she got laid off (Jares, 2010).

Likewise, during the 2020 Coronavirus Pandemic, brands started to adopt a new line of “worry-free” messaging such as Pizza Hut’s “contact-free” delivery option for consumers living under conditions of quarantine and physical isolation.

Maslow studied how successful people, including Albert Einstein, Abraham Lincoln, Martin Luther King Jr., Helen Keller, and Mahatma Gandhi, had been able to lead such successful and productive lives. Maslow (1970) believed that self-actualized people are creative, spontaneous, and loving of themselves and others. They tend to have a few deep friendships rather than many superficial ones, and are generally private. He felt that these individuals do not need to conform to the opinions of others because they are very confident and thus free to express unpopular opinions. Self-actualized people are also likely to have peak experiences, or transcendent moments of tranquility accompanied by a strong sense of connection with others.

Maslow & Blackfoot Nation

But did you know that Maslow’s work was informed by the Blackfoot ( Niitsitapi  or  Siksikaitsitapi)   people? In 1943, Maslow spent several weeks performing anthropological research on Blackfoot territory, an experience that had a “powerful impact” on him (Taylor, 2019). Cindy Blackstock, an academic, child welfare activist, and member of Gitksan First Nation, along with Leroy Little Bear, an academic and researcher who founded the Native American Studies Department at the University of Lethridge (Little Bear later went on to be the founding director of the Native American Program at Harvard University) have both put forward that Maslow’s exposure to the Blackfoot people, culture, and way of life was, “instrumental in his formation of the ‘hierarchy of needs’ model'” (Leroy Little Bear, n.d.; Taylor, 2019).

According to Blackstock, Maslow’s model is “a rip-off from the Blackfoot nation”: instead of a triangle, in the Blackfoot tradition they used a tipi to depict an upward motion to the skies (Blackstock, 2014). And, while Maslow’s model places self-actualization at the top of the inverted triangle, the Blackfoot tradition identifies self-actualization as the foundation, followed by “community actualization,” then “cultural perpetuity” (Lincoln Michel, 2014). As Arley Cruthers, a Communications Instructor at Kwantlen Polytechnic University points out, in Maslow’s model self actualization represents the “pinnacle of human achievement,” whereas for the Blackfoot, self-actualization provides a foundation for greater community and cultural purpose (Cruthers, n.d.).

To see these models side-by-side and read more about their differences and how Maslow appropriated Blackfoot culture to inform his research, visit Karen Lincoln Michel’s blog post: Maslow’s hierarchy connected to Blackfoot beliefs .

These two competing models remind us how cultural context shapes consumers needs and wants.

Student Op-Ed: Coca-Cola Marketing for Maslow — Using Consumer Motivation to Create Life-Long Customers

Abraham Maslow’s hierarchical approach to motivation has been universally “adopted by marketers” (Solomon, White, & Dahl, 2015, p. 100) because it helps them to understand which level of need their target consumer is trying to meet and how to market their product to fulfill that need (Thompson, 2019). Coca-Cola (Coke) is known for its unique and innovative marketing strategies and their approach to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is no exception. Throughout history, Coke has expertly targeted every tier of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, and by doing so they have created and retained dedicated life-long customers.

The first tier in Maslow’s model is physiological, or basic, needs. The consumers at this level are solely seeking to satisfy their basic survival needs, such as water and staple food items (Walker, 2017). In 1986, Roberto C. Goizueta, the Chairman and CEO of Coke at the time, is quoted saying: “Eventually the number 1 beverage on earth will not be tea, or coffee, or wine, or beer, it will be soft drinks. Our soft drinks.” (Angelico, Neidik, & Webb, 1998) proving that the company was determined to target the consumers in this motivation tier. Since then, Coca Cola has managed to convince consumers that it should be a staple in their diet, and for many, it has completely replaced water, but this was not always the case (Angelico et al., 1998).

In 1886, John Pemberton combined the healing properties of the coco leaf and the cola nut to create a drink that would eventually become Coca Cola; he originally created and marketed it as a “brain-tonic” or “cure-all elixir” (Angelico et al., 1998). Though Maslow would not be born for another 20 or so years (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2019), Pemberton was inadvertently marketing his elixir to the second tier in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: safety needs; which includes health, security, and protection. According to Maslow, consumers will not be motivated by safety needs until their physiological needs have been met (Walker, 2017). While Coke is no longer regarded as a “health” drink, it still appeals to consumers motivated by safety needs because it provides them with the comforting feel of home. During WW2, one severely wounded American soldier even credited holding in his hand an empty Coke bottle for being “the only thing that kept him from dying all night long” (Angelico et al., 1998).

The motivational needs in the third tier, belonging and love, address consumers who feel their physiological and safety needs have been adequately satisfied who are now looking to spend more of their disposable income (Walker, 2017). This tier is an appealing choice for marketers (Walker, 2017), Coke included, due to the sheer volume of consumers motivated to make purchasing decisions that satisfy their social needs. Coke’s global growth strategy resulting in the brand becoming  “within an arm’s reach” of the consumer at all times, combined with its air of nostalgia sentimentally depicted in advertisements featuring children and the good ol’ days, resulted in many consumers purchasing Coke as a way to fulfill their intimacy motivations (Angelico et al., 1998). “Coca Cola is your friend. Wherever you go Coca Cola is always there, it’s like coming home to mother.” (Angelico et al., 1998).

The second to final tier, self-esteem needs, generally consists of luxury brands (Walker, 2017). In modern-day Eurocentric and Western cultures, we might not consider Coke a luxury item, but its early history is rooted in social status and classism. Mid-20th century, as a feature of American culture and domestic hospitality, a host would be expected to serve friends and family Coke over Pepsi, the former regarded as a luxury and the latter regarded as a, “second-class drink” (Angelico et al., 1998).

This social tier also encompasses motivations surrounding achievement, a theme present throughout Coke’s marketing  since the early days when a company hanging a Coke sign out resulted in “immediate business success” (Angelico et al., 1998). Achievement and success were also strong themes developed through the brand’s sponsorship marketing strategies, namely as a feature sponsor for Olympic events including the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta (Angelico et al., 1998) , which continue to this day.

Self-actualization needs, the final tier, addresses the motivations of  consumers who have already fulfilled their needs in all of the previous tiers and now desire a sense of self-fulfillment and accomplishment (Walker, 2017). Asa Candler, who transformed Coke into the soda giant we know today, appealed to consumers—name business men at the time –  in this tier by claiming “a Coca Cola taken at 8, energizes the brain ‘till 11” (Angelico et al., 1998). Candler also oversaw the creation of Coke’s iconic Normal Rockwell-style of advertisements which would catalyze 2 decades of “ads linking Coke to life’s special moments” (Angelico et al., 1998).

I believe Coke is the perfect brand to study when learning about Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Being able to market to the different motivations of consumers at each level of the model cannot be easy, but I believe it is the reason Coca Cola has maintained so much success over such a long period of time. Maslow’s model teaches us that, “[c]onsumers may have different need priorities at different times and stages of their lives” (Solomon et. al, 2015, p. 101), thus by marketing to all 5 tiers, Coca Cola can essentially guarantee life-long consumers.

Media Attributions

• The image of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Model is by Saul McLeod from the Creative Commons and licensed under BY-SA 4.0 .

Text Attributions

• The section on “Drive Theory” and the second paragraph under “Homeostasis” are adapted from Bhatia, S. & Loewenstein, G. (2019). “ Drive States “. In R. Biswas-Diener & E. Diener (Eds), Noba textbook series: Psychology. Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. DOI: nobaproject.com which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License .
• “Coca Cola Marketing for Maslow: Using Consumer Motivation to Create Life-Long Customers” is by Hartman, J. (2019) which is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA .
• The introductory paragraph; first paragraph on “Homeostasis”; and, the section under “Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs” are adapted from Introduction to Psychology 1st Canadian Edition by Charles Stangor, Jennifer Walinga which is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
• The section under “Expectancy Theory” is adapted from Organisational Behaviour: Adapted for Seneca [PDF] by Dr. Melissa Warner which is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0
• The first paragraph in the “Motivating Consumers in a Time of Crisis” is adapted from Principles of Marketing by University of Minnesota which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License .
• “Share a Coke, but only some of you” is by Ventura, S. (2019) which is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA .

Angelico, I.L. (Director). (1998). The Cola Conquest  [Film]. DLI Productions.

Blackstock, C. (2014, April). Maslow’s Hiearchy of Needs (Informed by Blackfoot Nation ALTA) , slide presented at the National Indian Child Welfare Association Conference.

Business Writing For Everyone   by Arley Cruthers is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License .

Freud, S. (1922). The unconscious.  The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 56 (3), 291.

Lawrence, J. W., Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2002). Velocity toward goal attainment in immediate experience as a determinant of affect.  Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32 (4), 788–802.

Leroy Little Bear (2019, October 5). In Wikipedia . https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leroy_Little_Bear.

Lincoln Michel, K. (2014, April 19). Maslow’s hiearchy connected to Blackfoot beliefs [Blog post]. https://lincolnmichel.wordpress.com/2014/04/19/maslows-hierarchy-connected-to-blackfoot-beliefs/.

Maslow, Abraham (1970).  Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Harper.

Porter, L. W., & Lawler, E. E. (1968). Managerial attitudes and performance . Homewood, IL:Irwin.

Solomon, M., White, K. & Dahl, D.W. (2017). Consumer Behaviour: Buying, Having, Being Seventh Canadian Edition. Pearson Education Inc.

Taylor, S. (2019, May 22). Original Influences: How the ideals of America—and psychology itself—were shaped by Native Americans. Psychology Today . https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/out-the-darkness/201903/original-influences.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2019, June 4). Abraham Maslow | American Psychologist . Encyclopaedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abraham-H-Maslow.

Thompson, M. (2019, March 11). Description of How Marketers Can Use Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs . Chron. https://smallbusiness.chron.com/description-marketers-can-use-maslows-hierarchy-needs-39333.html.

Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation . New York: Wiley.

Walker, K. (2017, August 28). Using Maslow’s Hierarchy to Reach Out to Customers . Business Administration Information. https://www.businessadministrationinformation.com/blog/using-maslows-hierarchy-to-reach-out-to-customers.

Drives represent the "tension" we feel when our body is out of balance, for example, due to hunger. Hunger is therefore a "drive state": drives represent physiological characteristics, or, things that we feel, and are motivated to resolve because they are essential to our survival.

A term used to describe a natural (and harmonious) state of our body's systems. Homeostasis is achieved when a need or goal is satisfied (e.g. when we're hungry we eat; when we're tired we sleep).

This theory works very differently from Drive theory because it explains our motivations when desirable outcomes are achieved through our own effort and performance.

Abraham Maslow's "Hierarchy of Needs" (1943) is a motivational theory that places 5 needs in a hierarchical structure. It begins with basic (physiological) needs; safety needs; social needs; ego needs; and ends with self-actualization needs. Maslow's theory was based on the belief that lower-level needs should be attended to before upper-level needs could be.

Introduction to Consumer Behaviour Copyright © 2021 by Andrea Niosi is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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BUS209: Organizational Behavior

Theories of Motivation

This article will introduce you to the basic needs of employees in the workplace. As you read, concentrate on the role of motivation in determining employee performance. Think back to our discussion on equity theory. How are fairness perceptions determined, and what are the consequences of these perceptions? You will also read about motivational theories and how you can use these theories to improve motivation in your workplace.

Introduction

Learning objectives.

• Understand the role of motivation in determining employee performance.
• Classify the basic needs of employees.
• Describe how fairness perceptions are determined and consequences of these perceptions.
• Understand the importance of rewards and punishments.
• Apply motivation theories to analyze performance problems.

9.1 Early Theories of Motivation

• What are the basic principles of Frederick Taylor’s concept of scientific management?

Motivation is the set of forces that prompt a person to release energy in a certain direction. As such, motivation is essentially a need- and want-satisfying process. A need is best defined as the gap between what is and what is required . Similarly, a want is the gap between what is and what is desired . Unsatisfied needs and wants create a state of tension that pushes (motivates) individuals to practice behavior that will result in the need being met or the want being fulfilled. That is, motivation is what pushes us to move from where we are to where we want to be, because expending that effort will result in some kind of reward.

Rewards can be divided into two basic categories: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic rewards come from within the individual—things like satisfaction, contentment, sense of accomplishment, confidence, and pride. By contrast, extrinsic rewards come from outside the individual and include things like pay raises, promotions, bonuses, prestigious assignments, and so forth. Exhibit 9.3 illustrates the motivation process.

Successful managers are able to marshal the forces to motivate employees to achieve organizational goals. And just as there are many types of gaps between where organizations are and where they want to be, there are many motivational theories from which managers can draw to inspire employees to bridge those gaps. In this chapter, we will first examine motivational theories that grew out of the industrial revolution and early ideas of organizational psychology. Then we will examine needs-based theories and more contemporary ideas about employee motivation like equity, expectancy, goals, and reinforcement theories. Finally, we will show you how managers are applying these theories in real-world situations.

How can managers and organizations promote enthusiastic job performance, high productivity, and job satisfaction? Many studies of human behavior in organizations have contributed to our current understanding of these issues. A look at the evolution of management theory and research shows how managers have arrived at the practices used today to manage human behavior in the workplace. A sampling of the most influential of these theorists and research studies are discussed in this section.

Frederick Taylor’s Scientific Management

One of the most influential figures of the classical era of management, which lasted from about 1900 to the mid-1930s, was Frederick W. Taylor , a mechanical engineer sometimes called the “father of scientific management .” Taylor’s approach to improved performance was based on economic incentives and the premise that there is “one best way” to perform any job. As a manager at the Midvale and Bethlehem Steel companies in Philadelphia in the early 1900s, Taylor was frustrated at the inefficiency of the laborers working in the mills.

Convinced that productivity could be improved, Taylor studied the individual jobs in the mill and redesigned the equipment and the methods used by workers. Taylor timed each job with a stopwatch and broke down every task into separate movements. He then prepared an instruction sheet telling exactly how each job should be done, how much time it should take, and what motions and tools should be used. Taylor ’s ideas led to dramatic increases in productivity in the steel mills and resulted in the development of four basic principles of scientific management:

• Develop a scientific approach for each element of a person’s job.
• Scientifically select, train, teach, and develop workers.
• Encourage cooperation between workers and managers so that each job can be accomplished in a standard, scientifically determined way.
• Divide work and responsibility between management and workers according to who is better suited to each task.

Taylor published his ideas in The Principles of Scientific Management. His pioneering work vastly increased production efficiency and contributed to the specialization of labor and the assembly-line method of production. Taylor’s approach is still being used nearly a century later in companies such as UPS , where industrial engineers maximize efficiency by carefully studying every step of the delivery process looking for the quickest possible way to deliver packages to customers. Though Taylor’s work was a giant step forward in the evolution of management, it had a fundamental flaw in that it assumed that all people are primarily motivated by economic means. Taylor’s successors in the study of management found that motivation is much more complex than he envisioned.

Concept Check

• How did Frederic Taylor’s studies contribute to the early understanding of human motivation?
• How are Taylor’s insights still seen in today’s management practices?

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Table of Contents

What are motivation theories, popular motivational theories, conclusion , theories of motivation: a comprehensive guide.

Motivation drives an individual to go beyond the normal level and achieve success with great energy and enthusiasm. It pushes people to come out of their comfort zone, perform well, and be productive for their personal or professional growth. Theories of motivation allow management to understand the behavior of their employees based on their passion and interest. They put them in situations that lead to better progress of individuals and the organization as a whole.

Motivation theories refer to the study of the development of inspiration to achieve certain aims at a professional or personal level. It means the theories help identify the process of learning and understanding an individual's motivation to achieve a particular result. Motivation theories are helpful in several fields, including sociology, psychology, and business management. 

The theories are beneficial and widely applicable in management to identify the factors inspiring employees. Consequently, they aid in enhancing the productivity and profit of individuals and organizations.

Here are some popular motivational theories to find the factors that motivate individuals:

Maslow's Theory Of Hierarchical Needs

Any individual cannot focus on complex requirements until their basic requirements have not been fulfilled. Maslow’s theory outlines this hierarchy by creating a pyramid to portray the process of individuals fulfilling their basic needs before progressing to the higher level needs. These needs are generally categorized into five types, including

• Psychological Needs: It is about the basic survival needs that are needed in our daily life routine, such as food, shelter, water, clothes and so on. Psychological needs can only be fulfilled by the individual’s income.
• Safety Requirements: Safety needs refer to the needs that make individuals feel secure and protected. Protection from deprivation, employment security, health, property and other factors are included in safety requirements.
• Social Needs: They cover the individual’s sense of belonging. Everyone strives to associate with people and organizations to connect, affiliate, and join groups and communities. They indulge in team-building activities.
• Self-Esteem Needs: Individuals have a quest for recognition and respect. It makes them feel confident in their area and boosts self-esteem. This esteem can be fostered by acknowledging the employees' achievements and providing positive feedback.
• Self-Actualization Needs: Self-actualization is the highest phase of Maslow’s theory that trains individuals to have long-term complex goals to reach this level. The need inspires workers to deliver effective tasks, learn more, and work for their personal development in challenging fields. 

Mcclelland's Theory Of Needs

The theory affirms the three motivating drivers that every individual needs, though each would vary with the type of personality. The management must understand employees' behavior of striving for their specific needs and motivate them accordingly. The three dominant needs are as follows:

1. Achievement:

Some people have a hunger to be successful and get recognition. They always strive for competition to achieve higher standards in their work environment. Furthermore, they seek quick acknowledgment of their progress to be consistent in their result-based efforts.

2. Affiliation:

The theory claims that individuals want to be associated and accepted in groups. The theory aids management in understanding their employees' striving for growth within the team and building interpersonal skills, strengthening the relations between coworkers so that they can encourage them accordingly.

Some desire control of their work and are interested in leading others at their workplace. They incorporate their leadership skills to distribute work, coordinate events, and inspire coworkers.

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Incentive Theory

The theory determines that rewards or punishments influence employees' work behavior. Therefore, these are the primary motivators for individuals performing certain tasks and achieving specific results. For instance, 

• Bonus: It refers to the reward that is given to the employees for their exceptional performance. 
• Opportunity: It is a type of incentive given to individuals through paid training or continuing education to enhance their knowledge and build their skills.
• Promotion: Providing a higher position or salary can make employees feel their importance and growth.
• Paid off: Providing compensation for taking leave as additional holidays on emergency needs or planned trips can make employees feel satisfied.

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

The theory states that two factors influence satisfaction or dissatisfaction:

• Hygiene Factors: Satisfaction can be influenced by factors like professional relations, policies, working environment, attitude of the supervisor. If these factors are fine, they can motivate employees and vice versa.
• Motivators Factors: Motivating factors, including recognition, personal growth, achievements, career and responsibilities, are crucial for employees. Acknowledging these enhances job satisfaction.

Vroom's Expectancy Theory

The theory states that expectations for the future can have a major impact on an individual’s motivation. It means that conscious choices from the options given can boost pleasure and decrease pain. The factors that influence motivation are:

• Expectancy: It implies that Increased efforts bring success. It means if you work hard, you will get better outcomes.
• Instrumentality: Getting incentives or rewards if you meet performance expectations.
• Valence: It refers to how an employee gives importance to the expected results. 

McGregor’s Theory X And Theory Y 

McGregor introduced Mcgregor’s theory in his book named ‘The Human Side of Enterprise.’ In the book, he stated two styles of management, i.e., 

1. Theory X: 

The theory incorporates micromanaging individuals who have low motivation, are incapable of performing well, dislike their work, avoid work and responsibility and so on. Micromanagement gets the task done appropriately by using an authoritarian style of management. 

2. Theory Y: 

The theory states that managers can use a decentralized and participative management approach for people who are enthusiastic towards their work, take responsibility for their work or do not need to be supervised to get the task done appropriately.

Alderfer’s Erg Theory

The theory liquidized Maslow’s five hierarchy of needs into three categories, i.e., existence, growth and relatedness, along with physiological and materialistic desires (such as affection, clothing, food, water, etc.). It focuses on the following:

• Existence: It involves the basic needs for living, like food and shelter.
• Growth: It determines the intrinsic need for personal development aligned with self-esteem, achievement, and confidence. It requires problem-solving skills, creativity and morality.
• Relatedness: It involves interpersonal relationships, such as social interactions, terms with family members, belongings or love-related needs.

Theories of motivation aid management teams in bringing out the best ways to achieve organizational goals and work toward the desired outcomes. If we apply the theories of motivation successfully, it helps to bring positiveness, support, and inspire the employees efficiently, leading to the growth of individuals, teams and the entire organization. 

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1. What are the theories of motivation?

Theories of motivation help understand the factors that motivate individuals to perform efficiently toward their specific goals. It helps management to influence individuals to achieve the result effectively.

2. Who is the father of motivation theory?

An American psychologist, Abraham Maslow, is popularly known as the father of motivation theory.

3. What is Maslow's motivation theory?

Maslow’s motivation theory determines the five fundamental needs of individuals. It incorporates physiological, safety, love and belongingness (social need), esteem and self-actualization needs. Individuals cannot switch to their complex high-level needs before fulfilling these fundamental needs.

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Motivation Theories in Society

Introduction, content theories of motivation, process theories, possible measures to improve bill’s situation, list of references.

Motivation is a psychological factor that drives one to take action towards specific set goal. It ensures that individuals’ behavior is oriented towards that goal. Motivation can therefore qualify as a driving force since it propels one towards achieving the aim. It can also be referred to as an inner factor that can be characterized by a certain manner. Despite numerous theories that try to explain motivational factors, motivation starts with satisfaction of individual need. Motivation theories are divided into two major clusters, which are Content and Process Theories.

The content theory of motivation seeks to look at the issues that make people change within the course of time. This theory tries to answer the question “what motivates people?” (Leake, 2010) by examining people’s needs and goals in life generally. Content theory covers the works of Abraham Maslow, Alderfer and David McClelland among others. The theory does not indicate how they change but only highlights the factors that motivate people. This theory looks at motivation as being driven by needswants. For instance, when one is hungry, the hunger drives the individual to go out and get something to eat. Hunger in this case is a motivating factor. Once the need is satisfied, it ceases to be a motivating factor at that particular time. In this case study, Bill has a hunger to showcase his skills. That is what motivates him to join Secure Systems.

An example of content theory of motivation is the Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory. Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1998, p.68) developed this theory; it classifies all known human needs into a hierarchy of five groups. This groups form a pyramid as originally depicted by Abraham Maslow. At the bottom, there are physiological needs. Physiological needs are mainly the needs that a person has for food, air, water and shelter (Winslow 1998). This are considered as the most important needs in the life of a human being. The salaries he received from his previous employer and in the secure systems motivated Bill. The salary enabled him to cater his needs for food, shelter and other basic needs. After physiological needs, safety needs come second in the pyramid. This refers to the need to have a surrounding environment that is stable and secure. This includes an environment that is free from threats, illnesses and pain. Without a job, Bill could not secure these needs. Therefore, it propelled him to go to work even though the circumstances at his new job place were not favorable as it turned out later.

Belongingness comes after safety needs. Belongingness in this case can be considered as the need for love, affection and socializing with other people (Winslow 1998). By transferring from his old job, Bill got the chance to meet new people at Gremlin Electronics. The thought of meeting new people at Gremlin and Secure Systems motivated Bill to leave his old job for Secure Systems’ offer. Esteem needs follow belongingness in the hierarchy. This refers to the need to realize self-esteem, independence, commendable status and prestige (Buchanan & Huczynski 2010). At his previous job, Bill’s abilities were not fully exploited. When he joined Secure Systems, he was given a big project to handle by himself. This motivated him since mastery was being recognized at last.

Self-actualization esteem comes at the top of the pyramid as the last need. This refers to the need to gain respect and recognition from others. Bill was given the chance to work with Gremlin Electronics that had a contract with the Ministry of Defense. He was tasked with the responsibility of giving recommendations to the board and implementation. This is a huge task for anyone who had been working mainly in an office. The thought of being recognized as among the ones who implemented systems for the Ministry of Defense motivated him to work even harder to the extent that he did not notice the situation back at the office. This is what drives many people to go into politics so that they may be in a position of power where other members of the society should respect them.

Maslow concluded that the behavior of employee was motivated by several need levels at one and the same time. However, the most unsatisfied need on the lower level is bound to be the motivating factor for that particular employee. As a person satisfies the needs at a lower level, they cease to be motivating factors and the ones at the higher level start to be motivating factors. This is what referred to as satisfaction –progression process. The needs will continue calling until when they are satisfied. The only exception is self-actualization. Self-fulfillment is unique since when one experiences self actualization, he or she longs for more instead of less.

Some researchers have found out that some needs may not occur in the same way Maslow categorized the hierarchy of needs. Furthermore, satisfaction of needs at one level may not prompt for satisfaction of needs at a higher level in some people. As seen in the case of Bill, in the long run he was not paid a lot at Secure Systems. Salary for him is a way of satisfaction of his needs at a lower level. They, however, were not important to him since he was more focused on exposing his abilities.

Clayton Alderfer came up with his own theory in the year 1969 according to which he claimed that it was a simplified version of Maslow’s theory. In his approach, he merged physiological and safety needs into one group, named existence needs. Promise of better pay at Secure Systems meant that Bill’s physiological needs would be met. This motivated Bill to move from his old employer to Secure Systems. The need for belonging was renamed to relatedness need and he formed another group named growth needs, which catered for self-esteem and self-actualization. Working at Gremlin and giving recommendations gave Bill a chance to grow professionally. This was also a motivating factor due to a high-level exposure he was gaining.

Another theory that is relevant to this case study is the so-called Herzebergs Two Factor Theory. Frederick Herzberg developed this theory in the year 1959. According to the Two Factor theory, only two factors affected the motivation of an individual, they are hygiene factors and motivators. Hygiene factors are very critical and they may create dissatisfaction if an employee views them as being poor. Poor salaries, security of tenure and working condition create dissatisfaction among workers. In his new job position, Bill was given a huge project to deal with. This gave him a perception that there was job security especially since there was much focus on improvement of security systems. Herzerberg also paid special attention to the sense of achievement, recognition, sense of responsibility and personal growth as motivators. All these factors were present at Secure Systems. When the factors changed, Bill started becoming dissatisfied. The two groups, hygiene factors and motivators affect dissatisfaction and satisfaction respectively.

Process theory examines the relationship between inputs and the output resulting from the output. According to Mullins, process theory consists in the fact that if output is to be multiplied, the process involved must be enhanced while keeping some factors as constants (Mullins, 2010). Process theories are applied to human motivation to explain why human beings need change when they have been in place for too long. Process theories include expectancy theory, equity theory, reinforcement theory and goal setting theory. These theories mainly dwell on cognizant human decision processes in order to explain motivation. They all seek to explain how an individual can be energized, directed and made self-driven. These theories also stress out that human behavior is dependent on decision-making processes made by a conscious mind.

Victor Vroom in early 1960s modified a research by Kurt Lewin and Edward Tolman to come up with the expectancy theory. This theory suggests that people select behaviors (work related) that they are confident in, they bring outcomes they desire (Mullins, 2010). To determine the amount of energy to invest in a wok behavior, people mostly consider factors, such as their expectancy, instrumentality and valence. Expectancy refers to the expectation that the effort invested in that decision will yield desirable results.

Instrumentality refers to the belief that the certain level of performance will yield favorable outcomes while valence is the degree to which the expected results are likely to be favorable or non-favorable. For an individual to be fully motivated, these three factors must be high. Bill was not satisfied with the amount of work he was doing at his former employer’s place. When Secure Systems approach him with the Ministry of Defense project, Bill sees a chance that he has been waiting for. He, therefore, makes a decision to join Secure Systems. He works on the project with the aim of being recognized even though things do not go his way.

These are considered as the most important needs in the life of a human being. The salary he received from his previous employer and at secure systems motivated Bill. The salary enabled him to cater for food, shelter and other basic needs. After physiological needs, safety needs come in second in the pyramid. This refers to the need to have a close environment that is stable and secure. This includes an environment that is free from threats, illnesses and any pain.

Equity theory states that people have a tendency of comparing their efforts and rewards with those of others in a relevant position. This comparison creates a certain perception that has great influence on the motivation of an individual. Equity is present when those who compare themselves to others think that the ratio of efforts is similar for both of them. Under reward is present when one thinks that his efforts are underestimated when compared with rewards that another individual obtains in the same position, at the same time putting fewer efforts. Over reward, on the other hand, will exist if an individual’s effort to reward ratio is high while putting in less effort or higher, compared to another person who puts in the same effort.

Over rewarded individuals have subtle behaviors; they tend to convince themselves and others that effort to reward ratio is equal to the others. For instance, Bill was initially highly motivated when he joined Secure Systems due to the duties he was assigned to do. However, the attitude of his colleague, Leslie began to take effect on him. Leslie felt that he was under rewarded and he used the hard feelings in him to poison Bill’s mind. Leslie questioned him why he was working in the same dingy room as him and yet he earned more than him. When projects started becoming scarce, the situation was further aggravated.

Based on the equity theory, managers should strive to motivate their employees especially if they feel under rewarded because an under rewarded employee lacks motivation and may end up being a lousy worker. This theory emphasizes the need for a reward scheme that is equitable to all.

Another process argument named the goal setting theory suggests that the motivation and behavior of an individual are highly affected by the goals set by the individual. This argument was put forth byEdwin Locke and Gary Latham. This theory states that for one to have a motivated behavior, the person should set specific and challenging goals. The theory also emphasizes that specific goals should include quantitative targets to achieve progress in the particular behavior of interest (Leake, 2009). Bill was yearning for a chance to work at Secure Systems when he finally got it, poor working environment and lack of projects changed his mind. Challenging goals may seem impossible. Therefore, the individual puts in more effort to achieve them hence improving the person’s motivation. This is far better than vague goals or “pulls up your socks” encouragements that may not have significant effect on an individual.

The gap between specific goals and challenging goals is filled with many factors that dictate the level of motivation to be achieved. Goal commitment forms the first factor for one to achieve a certain goal; the person must invest in a lot of effort to achieve the goal. This explains why most managers and even teachers at school encourage students to participate in goal setting to increase their motivation. The second factor is self-efficacy. For one to achieve a goal, the person should have enough confidence and self-belief that he/she can accomplish the task. This means that individuals with high self-efficacy levels set challenging tasks and set out to achieve them unlike their counterparts who suffer from low efficacy.

B.F. Skinner came up with another theory that he called reinforcement theory. This theory is both a learning theory and a motivation theory. This theory states that for motivated behavior to be achieved, there must be enforcers. This is to ensure that motivated behavior recurs repeatedly. The management of Secure Systems failed to ensure that Bill was well motivated by reinforcing his activities and not rewarding him properly for the good job he did at Gremlin. This theory further suggests that it is not practical to study the needs of an individual to understand motivation. However, it is more practical to examine the results of certain behaviors. This works in regards to the practicability that good behavior is rewarded and bad behavior is not rewarded thereby not repeatable by the individual. Managers can use this theory to effectively motivate their employees by always rewarding good behavior (Taylor 2010, p. 66).

The management of Secure Systems seems to be on the verge of losing the great talent in the person of Bill. They employed him and then gave him a lucrative project to work on; this made him feel great; he was motivated to care less about the surroundings. Lack of enough jobs has made him realize that he is working in poor conditions. The management, however, still has a chance to reverse this situation.

The first step to be taken to motivate Bill will be to improve the working conditions in the office. As described, the office is in poor condition as compared to the one he was working in previously. Working with his former employee, he had everything he needed in the office, including a secretary. Even though they may not give him a secretary, they would help the situation by improving the lighting, the floor carpet and the filing cabinets. The management should also revise their reward scheme so that Leslie also feels appreciated in order to prevent him from poisoning the minds of other workers including Bill. Lastly, Bill joined the organization because he was promised more opportunities that are challenging. Therefore, the management should look for ways of giving Bill more tasks that are challenging even if they are small in nature, that is, they should improve on the frequency of the jobs being awarded.

Buchanan, D & Huczynski, A 2010, Organizational Behaviour, Pearson Books, London.

Leake, B 2010, Evaluating explanations : A content theory , Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New York.

Maslow, A 1998, Maslow on Management, John Wiley, New York.

Mullins, L 1998, Management and Organisational Behaviour, Perason Books, Edinburgh Gate.

Taylor, F 2010, Motivational Theories : Maslow’s Hierachy of Needs, Cognitive Dissonance, need for Power, Self-determination Theory , General Books, London.

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Emotion and Motivation

Learning objectives.

• Illustrate intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Why do we do the things we do? What motivations underlie our behaviors? Motivation describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal. In addition to biological motives, motivations can be intrinsic (arising from internal factors) or extrinsic (arising from external factors) (Figure 1). Intrinsically motivated behaviors are performed because of the sense of personal satisfaction that they bring, while extrinsically motivated behaviors are performed in order to receive something from others.

Figure 1 . Intrinsic motivation comes from within the individual, while extrinsic motivation comes from outside the individual.

Think about why you are currently in college. Are you here because you enjoy learning and want to pursue an education to make yourself a more well-rounded individual? If so, then you are intrinsically motivated. However, if you are here because you want to get a college degree to make yourself more marketable for a high-paying career or to satisfy the demands of your parents, then your motivation is more extrinsic in nature.

In reality, our motivations are often a mix of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, but the nature of the mix of these factors might change over time (often in ways that seem counter-intuitive). There is an old adage: “Choose a job that you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life,” meaning that if you enjoy your occupation, work doesn’t seem like . . . well, work. Some research suggests that this isn’t necessarily the case (Daniel & Esser, 1980; Deci, 1972; Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999). According to this research, receiving some sort of extrinsic reinforcement (i.e., getting paid) for engaging in behaviors that we enjoy leads to those behaviors being thought of as work no longer providing that same enjoyment. As a result, we might spend less time engaging in these reclassified behaviors in the absence of any extrinsic reinforcement. For example, Odessa loves baking, so in her free time, she bakes for fun. Oftentimes, after stocking shelves at her grocery store job, she whips up pastries in the evenings because she enjoys baking. When a coworker in the store’s bakery department leaves his job, Odessa applies for his position and gets transferred to the bakery department. Although she enjoys what she does in her new job, after a few months, she no longer has much desire to concoct tasty treats in her free time. Baking has become work in a way that changes her motivation to do it (Figure 2). What Odessa has experienced is called the overjustification effect—intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is given. This can lead to extinguishing the intrinsic motivation and creating a dependence on extrinsic rewards for continued performance (Deci et al., 1999).

Figure 2 . Research suggests that when something we love to do, like icing cakes, becomes our job, our intrinsic and extrinsic motivations to do it may change. (credit: Agustín Ruiz)

Other studies suggest that intrinsic motivation may not be so vulnerable to the effects of extrinsic reinforcements, and in fact, reinforcements such as verbal praise might actually increase intrinsic motivation (Arnold, 1976; Cameron & Pierce, 1994). In that case, Odessa’s motivation to bake in her free time might remain high if, for example, customers regularly compliment her baking or cake decorating skills.

These apparent discrepancies in the researchers’ findings may be understood by considering several factors. For one, physical reinforcement (such as money) and verbal reinforcement (such as praise) may affect an individual in very different ways. In fact, tangible rewards (i.e., money) tend to have more negative effects on intrinsic motivation than do intangible rewards (i.e., praise). Furthermore, the expectation of the extrinsic motivator by an individual is crucial: If the person expects to receive an extrinsic reward, then intrinsic motivation for the task tends to be reduced. If, however, there is no such expectation, and the extrinsic motivation is presented as a surprise, then intrinsic motivation for the task tends to persist (Deci et al., 1999).

In addition, culture may influence motivation. For example, in collectivistic cultures, it is common to do things for your family members because the emphasis is on the group and what is best for the entire group, rather than what is best for any one individual (Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001). This focus on others provides a broader perspective that takes into account both situational and cultural influences on behavior; thus, a more nuanced explanation of the causes of others’ behavior becomes more likely. (You will learn more about collectivistic and individualistic cultures when you learn about social psychology.)

In educational settings, students are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation to learn when they feel a sense of belonging and respect in the classroom. This internalization can be enhanced if the evaluative aspects of the classroom are de-emphasized and if students feel that they exercise some control over the learning environment. Furthermore, providing students with activities that are challenging, yet doable, along with a rationale for engaging in various learning activities can enhance intrinsic motivation for those tasks (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). Consider Hakim, a first-year law student with two courses this semester: Family Law and Criminal Law. The Family Law professor has a rather intimidating classroom: He likes to put students on the spot with tough questions, which often leaves students feeling belittled or embarrassed. Grades are based exclusively on quizzes and exams, and the instructor posts results of each test on the classroom door. In contrast, the Criminal Law professor facilitates classroom discussions and respectful debates in small groups. The majority of the course grade is not exam-based, but centers on a student-designed research project on a crime issue of the student’s choice. Research suggests that Hakim will be less intrinsically motivated in his Family Law course, where students are intimidated in the classroom setting, and there is an emphasis on teacher-driven evaluations. Hakim is likely to experience a higher level of intrinsic motivation in his Criminal Law course, where the class setting encourages inclusive collaboration and a respect for ideas, and where students have more influence over their learning activities.

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Project Management Tutorial

By knowledgehut ., 1. what is project management, 2. activity-based costing, 3. agile project management, 4. basic management skills, 5. basic quality tools, 6. benchmarking process, 7. cause and effect diagram, 8. change management process, 9. communication management, 10. communication blocker, 11. communication methods, 12. communication channels, 13. communication model, 14. conflict management, 15. critical path method (cpm), 16. critical chain method, 17. crisis management, 18. decision making process, 19. design of experiment, 20. effective communication skills, 21. effective presentation skills, 22. enterprise resource planning, 23. event chain methodology, 24. extreme project management, 25. gantt chart tool, 26. just-in-time (jit) manufacturing, 27. knowledge management, 28. leads, lags & float, 29. management best practices, 30. management styles, 31. management by objective (mbo), 32. monte carlo analysis, 33. motivation theories, 34. negotiation skills, 35. organization structures, 36. pert estimation technique, 37. prince2 project management methodology, 38. pareto chart tool, 39. powerful leadership skills, 40. process-based management, 41. procurement documents, 42. procurement management, 43. project activity diagram, 44. project charter, 45. project contract types, 46. project cost control, 47. project kick-off meeting, 48. project lessons learnt, 49. project management methodologies, 50. project management office, 51. project management processes, 52. project management tools, 53. project management triangle, 54. project manager goals, 55. project portfolio management, 56. project quality plan, 57. project records management, 58. project risk categories, 59. project risk management, 60. project scope definition, 61. project selection methods, 62. project success criteria, 63. project time management, 64. project management software, 65. project workforce management, 66. quality assurance and quality control, 67. raci chart tool, 68. rewards and recognition, 69. requirements collection, 70. resource levelling, 71. staffing management plan, 72. stakeholder management, 73. statement of work (sow), 74. stress management techniques, 75. structured brainstorming, 76. succession planning, 77. supply chain management, 78. team building program, 79. team motivation, 80. the balanced score card, 81. the halo effect, 82. the make or buy decision, 83. the rule of seven, 84. the virtual team, 85. total productive maintenance, 86. total quality management, 87. traditional project management, 88. work breakdown structure, motivation theories.

Motivation is a state of mind, filled with energy and enthusiasm, which drives a person to work in a certain way to achieve desired goals. Motivation is a force that pushes people to work with a high level of commitment and focus, even if things are going against them. Motivation translates into a certain kind of human behavior.  In short, motivation is the driving force behind human actions.

There are many different forces that guide and direct our motivations. It is important to ensure that every team member in an organization is motivated and meets the  best  project management  course  bottom line. Various psychologists have studied human behavior and have formalized their findings in the form of various motivational theories. These motivational theories provide insights into the way people behave and what motivates them.    

Motivation theory is a way of looking at the motivation of a person and how this influences their behavior, whether for personal or professional reasons. It's important to every aspect of society but is especially relevant to business and management. Motivation is the key to more profitable employees, as a motivated employee is more productive.

What are the 5 Theories of Motivation?  

Motivation is a huge field of study. Psychologists have proposed many different theories of motivation. Some of the most famous motivational theories include the following:  

1. Maslow’s Theory of Hierarchical Needs  

Abraham Maslow postulated that a person will be motivated when all his needs are fulfilled.  P eople do not work for security or money, but they work to contribute and to use their skills. He demonstrated this by creating a pyramid to show how people are motivated and mentioned that ONE CANNOT ASCEND TO THE NEXT LEVEL UNLESS LOWER-LEVEL NEEDS ARE FULFILLED. The lowest level needs in the pyramid are basic needs and unless these lower-level needs are satisfied people do not look at working toward satisfying the upper-level needs.   

Below is the hierarchy of needs:  

• Physiological needs: are basic needs for survival such as air, sleep, food, water, clothing, sex, and shelter.  
• Safety needs: Protection from threats, deprivation, and other dangers (e.g.,  health, secure employment, and property)  
• Social (belongingness and love) needs: The need for association, affiliation, friendship, and so on.  
• Self-esteem needs:  The need for respect and recognition.  
• Self-actualization needs:  The opportunity for personal development, learning, and fun/creative/challenging work.  Self-actualization is the highest-level need to which a human being can aspire.  

The leader will have to understand at what level the team members are currently, and seek out to help them to satisfy those specific needs and accordingly work to help fulfill those needs. This will help the team members perform better and move ahead with the project. A  PMP certification  will help you better understand this concept. Also, as their needs get fulfilled, the team members will start performing, till the time they start thinking of fulfilling the next upper level of need as mentioned in the pyramid.  

2. Hertzberg’s two-factor Theory  

Hertzberg classified the needs into two broad categories; namely hygiene factors and motivating factors:  

• poor hygiene factors may destroy motivation but improving them under most circumstances will not improve  team motivation  
• hygiene factors only are not sufficient to motivate people, but motivator factors are also required   

3. McClelland’s Theory of Needs  

McClelland affirms that we all have three motivating drivers, which do not depend on our gender or age. One of these drives will be dominant in our behavior. The dominant drive depends on our life experiences.   

The three motivators are:  

• Achievement :  a need to accomplish and demonstrate own competence. People with a high need for achievement prefer tasks that provide for personal responsibility and results based on their own efforts.  They also prefer quick acknowledgment of their progress.  
• Affiliation :  a need for love, belonging and social acceptance. People with a high need for affiliation are motivated by being liked and accepted by others.  They tend to participate in social gatherings and may be uncomfortable with conflict.  
• Power :   a need for controlling own work or the work of others. People with a high need for power desire situations in which they exercise power and influence over others.  They aspire for positions with status and authority and tend to be more concerned about their level of influence than about effective work performance.  

4.  Vroom’s Theory of Expectancy  

Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation says that an individual’s motivation is affected by their expectations about the future. In his view, an individual’s motivation is affected by –  

• Having the appropriate resources available (e.g., raw materials, time)  
• Having the appropriate  management skills  to do the job  
• Having the required support to get the job done (e.g., supervisor support, or correct information on the job)  
• A clear understanding of the relationship between performance and outcomes – e.g., the rules of the reward ‘game’  
• Trust in the people who will take the decisions on who gets what outcome  
• Transparency in the process decides who gets what outcome  
• Valence:  is how much importance the individual places upon the expected outcome. For example, if someone is motivated by money, he or she might not value offers of additional time off.  

Motivation = V * I * E  

The three elements are important when choosing one element over another because they are clearly defined:  

• E>P expectancy:  our assessment of the probability that our efforts will lead to the required performance level.  
• P>O expectancy:  our assessment of the probability that our successful performance will lead to certain outcomes.  

5. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y  

Theory X and Theory Y were first explained by McGregor in his book, "The Human Side of Enterprise," and they refer to two styles of management – authoritarian (Theory X) and participative (Theory Y).  

Theory X:  Managers who accept this theory believe that  if you feel that your  team members dislike their work, have little motivation, need to be watched every minute, and are incapable of being accountable for their work, avoid responsibility and avoid work whenever possible, then you are likely to use an authoritarian style of management. According to McGregor, this approach is very "hands-on" and usually involves micromanaging people's work to ensure that it gets done properly.   

Theory Y:  Managers who accept this theory believe that if people are willing to work without supervision, take pride in their work, see it as a challenge, and want to achieve more, they can direct their own efforts, take ownership of their work and do it effectively by themselves. These managers use a decentralized, participative management style.    

6. Alderfer’s ERG Theory

C. P. Alderfer, an American psychologist, developed Maslow’s hierarchy of needs into a theory of his own.   

His theory suggests that there are three groups of core needs: existence (E), relatedness (R), and growth (G). These groups are aligned with Maslow’s levels of physiological needs, social needs, and self-actualization needs, respectively.  

Existence needs  concern our basic material requirements for living, which include what Maslow categorized as physiological needs such as air,  sleep, food, water, clothing, sex and shelter  and safety-related needs such as health, secure employment, and property.  

Relatedness needs  have to do with the importance of maintaining interpersonal relationships. These needs are based on social interactions with others and are aligned with Maslow’s levels of love/belonging-related needs such as friendship, family, and sexual intimacy and esteem-related needs such as gaining the respect of others.  

Growth needs  describe our intrinsic desire for personal development. These needs are aligned with the other part of Maslow’s esteem-related needs such as self-esteem, self-confidence, and achievement, and self-actualization needs such as morality, creativity, problem-solving, and discovery.  

Alderfer is of the opinion that when a certain category of needs is not being met, people will redouble their efforts to fulfill needs in a lower category.  

Maslow’s theory is very rigid and it assumes that the needs follow a specific and orderly hierarchy and unless a lower-level need is satisfied, an individual cannot proceed to the higher-level need i.e., an individual remains at a particular need level until that need is satisfied.  

Whereas, according to Alderfer’s theory, if a higher-level need is aggravated, an individual may revert to increasing the satisfaction of a lower-level need. This is called the frustration-regression aspect of ERG theory. ERG theory is very flexible as Alderfer perceived the needs as a range/variety instead of perceiving them as a hierarchy i.e., an individual can work on growth needs even if his existence or relatedness needs remain unsatisfied.   

For e.g., when growth needs aggravate, then an individual might be motivated to accomplish the relatedness need and if there are issues in accomplishing relatedness needs, then he might be motivated by the existence needs. Hence in this manner, frustration or aggravation can result in regression to a lower-level need.  

Another example could be, if someone’s self-esteem is suffering, he or she will invest more effort in the relatedness category of needs.  

Implications of the ERG Theory    

All managers must understand that an employee has various needs that must be satisfied at the same time. According to the ERG theory, if the manager focuses solely on one need at a time, then this will not effectively motivate the employee. The frustration-regression aspect of ERG Theory has an added effect on workplace motivation. For e.g., if an employee is not provided with growth and advancement opportunities in an organization, then he or she might revert to related needs such as socializing needs.   

To meet those socializing needs, if the environment or circumstances do not permit it, he might revert to the need for money to fulfill those socializing needs. By the time the manager realizes and discovers this, they will take more immediate steps to fulfill those needs which are frustrated until such time that the employee can again pursue growth.

You can further explore  K nowledgeHut's best project management course  wh ich goes into full detail about the same.

Motivation is the state of mind which pushes all human beings to perform to their highest potential, with good spirits and a positive attitude.  The various motivation theories outlined above help us to understand what are the factors that drive motivation. It is a leader’s job to ensure that every individual in the team and the organization is motivated, and inspired to perform better than their best. This is neither quick nor easy, but in the long-term, the gains that are derived from happy employees far outweigh the time and effort spent in motivating them!  

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A valuable piece of knowledge. Thank you!

Eniola Samson

This blog is appreciated, thanks.

I like the article. Thank you very much.

Thank you for the information.

The content of the motivation theories are well explained and its has been of great help to me . Thank you for making it that easy for easy understanding.

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Motivation Theories - Introduction

Added on   2020-12-09

   Added on  2020-12-09

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