memory reflection essay

Guide on How to Write a Reflection Paper with Free Tips and Example

A reflection paper is a very common type of paper among college students. Almost any subject you enroll in requires you to express your opinion on certain matters. In this article, we will explain how to write a reflection paper and provide examples and useful tips to make the essay writing process easier.

Reflection papers should have an academic tone yet be personal and subjective. In this paper, you should analyze and reflect upon how an experience, academic task, article, or lecture shaped your perception and thoughts on a subject.

Here is what you need to know about writing an effective critical reflection paper. Stick around until the end of our guide to get some useful writing tips from the writing team at EssayPro — a research paper writing service

What Is a Reflection Paper

A reflection paper is a type of paper that requires you to write your opinion on a topic, supporting it with your observations and personal experiences. As opposed to presenting your reader with the views of other academics and writers, in this essay, you get an opportunity to write your point of view—and the best part is that there is no wrong answer. It is YOUR opinion, and it is your job to express your thoughts in a manner that will be understandable and clear for all readers that will read your paper. The topic range is endless. Here are some examples: whether or not you think aliens exist, your favorite TV show, or your opinion on the outcome of WWII. You can write about pretty much anything.

There are three types of reflection paper; depending on which one you end up with, the tone you write with can be slightly different. The first type is the educational reflective paper. Here your job is to write feedback about a book, movie, or seminar you attended—in a manner that teaches the reader about it. The second is the professional paper. Usually, it is written by people who study or work in education or psychology. For example, it can be a reflection of someone’s behavior. And the last is the personal type, which explores your thoughts and feelings about an individual subject.

However, reflection paper writing will stop eventually with one very important final paper to write - your resume. This is where you will need to reflect on your entire life leading up to that moment. To learn how to list education on resume perfectly, follow the link on our dissertation writing services .

Unlock the potential of your thoughts with EssayPro . Order a reflection paper and explore a range of other academic services tailored to your needs. Dive deep into your experiences, analyze them with expert guidance, and turn your insights into an impactful reflection paper.

Free Reflection Paper Example

Now that we went over all of the essentials about a reflection paper and how to approach it, we would like to show you some examples that will definitely help you with getting started on your paper.

Reflection Paper Format

Reflection papers typically do not follow any specific format. Since it is your opinion, professors usually let you handle them in any comfortable way. It is best to write your thoughts freely, without guideline constraints. If a personal reflection paper was assigned to you, the format of your paper might depend on the criteria set by your professor. College reflection papers (also known as reflection essays) can typically range from about 400-800 words in length.

Here’s how we can suggest you format your reflection paper:

How to Start a Reflection Paper

The first thing to do when beginning to work on a reflection essay is to read your article thoroughly while taking notes. Whether you are reflecting on, for example, an activity, book/newspaper, or academic essay, you want to highlight key ideas and concepts.

You can start writing your reflection paper by summarizing the main concept of your notes to see if your essay includes all the information needed for your readers. It is helpful to add charts, diagrams, and lists to deliver your ideas to the audience in a better fashion.

After you have finished reading your article, it’s time to brainstorm. We’ve got a simple brainstorming technique for writing reflection papers. Just answer some of the basic questions below:

• How did the article affect you?
• How does this article catch the reader’s attention (or does it all)?
• Has the article changed your mind about something? If so, explain how.
• Has the article left you with any questions?
• Were there any unaddressed critical issues that didn’t appear in the article?
• Does the article relate to anything from your past reading experiences?
• Does the article agree with any of your past reading experiences?

Here are some reflection paper topic examples for you to keep in mind before preparing to write your own:

• How my views on rap music have changed over time
• My reflection and interpretation of Moby Dick by Herman Melville
• Why my theory about the size of the universe has changed over time
• How my observations for clinical psychological studies have developed in the last year

The result of your brainstorming should be a written outline of the contents of your future paper. Do not skip this step, as it will ensure that your essay will have a proper flow and appropriate organization.

Another good way to organize your ideas is to write them down in a 3-column chart or table.

Do you want your task look awesome?

If you would like your reflection paper to look professional, feel free to check out one of our articles on how to format MLA, APA or Chicago style

Writing a Reflection Paper Outline

Reflection paper should contain few key elements:

Introduction

Your introduction should specify what you’re reflecting upon. Make sure that your thesis informs your reader about your general position, or opinion, toward your subject.

• State what you are analyzing: a passage, a lecture, an academic article, an experience, etc...)
• Briefly summarize the work.
• Write a thesis statement stating how your subject has affected you.

One way you can start your thesis is to write:

Example: “After reading/experiencing (your chosen topic), I gained the knowledge of…”

Body Paragraphs

The body paragraphs should examine your ideas and experiences in context to your topic. Make sure each new body paragraph starts with a topic sentence.

Your reflection may include quotes and passages if you are writing about a book or an academic paper. They give your reader a point of reference to fully understand your feedback. Feel free to describe what you saw, what you heard, and how you felt.

Example: “I saw many people participating in our weight experiment. The atmosphere felt nervous yet inspiring. I was amazed by the excitement of the event.”

As with any conclusion, you should summarize what you’ve learned from the experience. Next, tell the reader how your newfound knowledge has affected your understanding of the subject in general. Finally, describe the feeling and overall lesson you had from the reading or experience.

There are a few good ways to conclude a reflection paper:

• Tie all the ideas from your body paragraphs together, and generalize the major insights you’ve experienced.
• Restate your thesis and summarize the content of your paper.

We have a separate blog post dedicated to writing a great conclusion. Be sure to check it out for an in-depth look at how to make a good final impression on your reader.

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How to Write a Reflection Paper: Step-by-Step Guide

Step 1: create a main theme.

After you choose your topic, write a short summary about what you have learned about your experience with that topic. Then, let readers know how you feel about your case — and be honest. Chances are that your readers will likely be able to relate to your opinion or at least the way you form your perspective, which will help them better understand your reflection.

For example: After watching a TEDx episode on Wim Hof, I was able to reevaluate my preconceived notions about the negative effects of cold exposure.

Step 2: Brainstorm Ideas and Experiences You’ve Had Related to Your Topic

You can write down specific quotes, predispositions you have, things that influenced you, or anything memorable. Be personal and explain, in simple words, how you felt.

For example: • A lot of people think that even a small amount of carbohydrates will make people gain weight • A specific moment when I struggled with an excess weight where I avoided carbohydrates entirely • The consequences of my actions that gave rise to my research • The evidence and studies of nutritional science that claim carbohydrates alone are to blame for making people obese • My new experience with having a healthy diet with a well-balanced intake of nutrients • The influence of other people’s perceptions on the harm of carbohydrates, and the role their influence has had on me • New ideas I’ve created as a result of my shift in perspective

Step 3: Analyze How and Why These Ideas and Experiences Have Affected Your Interpretation of Your Theme

Pick an idea or experience you had from the last step, and analyze it further. Then, write your reasoning for agreeing or disagreeing with it.

For example, Idea: I was raised to think that carbohydrates make people gain weight.

Analysis: Most people think that if they eat any carbohydrates, such as bread, cereal, and sugar, they will gain weight. I believe in this misconception to such a great extent that I avoided carbohydrates entirely. As a result, my blood glucose levels were very low. I needed to do a lot of research to overcome my beliefs finally. Afterward, I adopted the philosophy of “everything in moderation” as a key to a healthy lifestyle.

For example: Idea: I was brought up to think that carbohydrates make people gain weight. Analysis: Most people think that if they eat any carbohydrates, such as bread, cereal, and sugar, they will gain weight. I believe in this misconception to such a great extent that I avoided carbohydrates entirely. As a result, my blood glucose levels were very low. I needed to do a lot of my own research to finally overcome my beliefs. After, I adopted the philosophy of “everything in moderation” as a key for having a healthy lifestyle.

Step 4: Make Connections Between Your Observations, Experiences, and Opinions

Try to connect your ideas and insights to form a cohesive picture for your theme. You can also try to recognize and break down your assumptions, which you may challenge in the future.

There are some subjects for reflection papers that are most commonly written about. They include:

• Book – Start by writing some information about the author’s biography and summarize the plot—without revealing the ending to keep your readers interested. Make sure to include the names of the characters, the main themes, and any issues mentioned in the book. Finally, express your thoughts and reflect on the book itself.
• Course – Including the course name and description is a good place to start. Then, you can write about the course flow, explain why you took this course, and tell readers what you learned from it. Since it is a reflection paper, express your opinion, supporting it with examples from the course.
• Project – The structure for a reflection paper about a project has identical guidelines to that of a course. One of the things you might want to add would be the pros and cons of the course. Also, mention some changes you might want to see, and evaluate how relevant the skills you acquired are to real life.
• Interview – First, introduce the person and briefly mention the discussion. Touch on the main points, controversies, and your opinion of that person.

Writing Tips

Everyone has their style of writing a reflective essay – and that's the beauty of it; you have plenty of leeway with this type of paper – but there are still a few tips everyone should incorporate.

Before you start your piece, read some examples of other papers; they will likely help you better understand what they are and how to approach yours. When picking your subject, try to write about something unusual and memorable — it is more likely to capture your readers' attention. Never write the whole essay at once. Space out the time slots when you work on your reflection paper to at least a day apart. This will allow your brain to generate new thoughts and reflections.

• Short and Sweet – Most reflection papers are between 250 and 750 words. Don't go off on tangents. Only include relevant information.
• Clear and Concise – Make your paper as clear and concise as possible. Use a strong thesis statement so your essay can follow it with the same strength.
• Maintain the Right Tone – Use a professional and academic tone—even though the writing is personal.
• Cite Your Sources – Try to cite authoritative sources and experts to back up your personal opinions.
• Proofreading – Not only should you proofread for spelling and grammatical errors, but you should proofread to focus on your organization as well. Answer the question presented in the introduction.

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6 Tips to Writing a Solid Reflection Paper (With a Sample Essay)

A reflection paper is an essay that focuses on your personal thoughts related to an experience, topic, or behavior. It can veer toward educational as a reflection of a book you've read or something you've been studying in class. It can also take a more professional slant as you reflect on a certain profession or your experiences within that profession.

A lot of students enjoy writing this type of essay, especially if they find it easy to discuss their feelings and experiences related to a topic or profession. However, some students find this type of subjective writing to be difficult and would rather a more objective writing assignment.

Whether you're the former or the latter, for this article, we're going to look at 6 tips for writing a solid reflection paper that will help you get through the outlining and writing processes. We've also provided a sample reflection paper so you can see these tips in action.

Tip #1—Choose a topic you're passionate about

However you choose to focus your reflection paper, if you're able to choose your own topic, choose one that is highly interesting to you or that you find important. You'll find that your paper will be much easier to outline and draft if you do. There are a range of potential topics that have been used or have the potential of turning into a great reflection paper. Here are a few suggestions:

• Describe your internship experience.
• Discuss a recent book you read that changed you.
• What is "family" to you and why?
• What are some of the qualities demonstrated by your favorite employers and/or managers? What makes them your favorite?
• Discuss music that has altered your way of thinking or made you see the world from a different perspective.
• Reflect on your favorite memory of a pet or loved one.

Tip #2—Outline your reflection paper before you write

Be sure to outline your reflection paper first before you start to write. Even though this sort of essay is written as a personal reflection, you'll still need to make sure you stay on topic and organize your writing in a clear, logical way. As with other traditional essays, there should be an introduction with a thesis statement, a body, and a conclusion. Each paragraph within your body should focus on a different sub-topic within the scope of your overall topic.

Tip #3—Write in first-person singular

Write in first-person singular. Format the essay according to your teacher's instructions, using whatever citation style required. Your teacher will likely request that it is double-spaced, with 1" indentation in each margin, in 12 pt. font. Also keep in mind that most reflection papers will be around 750 words or less.

Tip #4—Avoid too much description

Avoiding adding too much description of events. This is not the kind of essay where you need to discuss a play-by-play of everything that happens. Rather, it is the kind of essay that focuses on your reflection of the topic and how you felt during these experiences.

Tip #5—Avoid colloquial expressions or slang

Avoid colloquial expressions or slang—this is still an academic assignment. Also, be sure to edit your essay thoroughly for any grammar or spelling mistakes. Since a reflection paper is written in first-person point of view, it's easy to mistake it for an informal essay and skip the editing. Regardless of the type of essay you submit to your professor, it should always be edited and error-free.

Tip #6—Critical reflection goes deeper

If your assignment asks you to write a critical reflection paper, it is asking for your observations and evaluations regarding an experience. You'll need to provide an in-depth analysis of the subject and your experience with it in an academic context. You might also provide a summary, if the critical reflection paper is about a book or article you've read.

Sample reflection paper

My student teaching experience with the Master's in Education program has been a great learning opportunity. Although I was nervous at first, it didn't take long to apply lessons I have been learning in my academic program to real-world skills such as classroom management, lesson planning, and instruction.

During my first week of student teaching, I was assigned a mentor who had been teaching middle school grades for over 12 years. She assured me that middle school is one of the most difficult grades to teach and that there is a high turnover rate of teachers, which worried me. However, once the week got started and I began to meet the students, my fears abated. These young people were funny, inquisitive, and eager to begin reading the assigned book, Lord of the Flies —especially after we started with a group project scenario that included kids being stranded on an island without adults.

The first few weeks of applying classroom management skills I had read about in my Master's program were a definite learning experience. I had read enough about adolescent development to know that they were not yet at the age where they were able to control all of their impulses, so there were moments when some would yell out an answer or speak without raising their hand first. So, at my mentor's suggestion, I worked with the students to create their own classroom rules that everyone would agree to abide by. Since they played a role in coming up with these rules, I believe it helped them take more personal responsibility in following them.

When we finished that initial group project, I began to see how tasks such as lesson planning—and plans that have to be turned in to the administration weekly—can easily become overwhelming if not worked out on the front-end of the semester. My mentor explained that most seasoned teachers will work on their lesson plans over the summer, using the proper state curriculum, to have them ready with the school year begins. Having scrambled to get my lesson planning done in time during the first few weeks, I saw the value in this and agreed with her that summertime preparation makes the most logical sense. When the school year gets started, it's really a whirlwind of activities, professional development and other events that make it really difficult to find the time to plan lessons.

Once the semester got well underway and I had lesson planning worked out with as little stress as possible, I was able to focus more on instructional time, which I found to be incredibly exciting. I began to see how incorporating multiple learning styles into my lesson, including visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning styles, helped the students stay more actively engaged in the discussion. They also enjoyed it when I showed them short video clips of the movie versions of the books we were reading, as well as the free-write sessions where they were able to write a scene and perform it with their classmates.

Finally, my student teaching experience taught me that above all else, I have truly found my "calling" in teaching. Every day was something new and there was never a dull moment—not when you're teaching a group of 30 teenagers! This lack of boredom and the things I learned from the students are two of the most positive things for me that resulted from the experience, and I can't wait to have my own classroom in the fall when the school year begins again.

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Memory Writing Prompts: Dive into Reflective Narratives

My name is Debbie, and I am passionate about developing a love for the written word and planting a seed that will grow into a powerful voice that can inspire many.

What are Memory Writing Prompts?

How memory writing prompts can deepen reflective narratives, the benefits of engaging with memory writing prompts, how to use memory writing prompts to spark reflective writing, memory writing prompts for reflective writing, examples of memory writing prompts to get started, tips for crafting compelling reflective narratives using memory writing prompts, enhancing self-reflection through regular memory writing practice, frequently asked questions, in conclusion.

Memory writing prompts are thought-provoking cues designed to help you access and explore the depths of your memories. As human beings, our minds store a vast amount of experiences and emotions that shape who we are. These prompts serve as triggers, sparking our recollection and allowing us to delve into our past.

Whether you’re looking to preserve cherished moments, ignite your creativity, or simply explore your own personal narrative, memory writing prompts can be a valuable tool. They can help you unlock forgotten memories, unearth details long lost, and provide a space for self-reflection.

• Memory writing prompts encourage introspection and self-discovery.
• They offer an opportunity to explore personal anecdotes, moments of growth, or life-changing events.
• Using these prompts can enhance storytelling abilities and writing skills, allowing you to express yourself more vividly on paper.

So, whenever you feel stuck or want to embark on a journey through your own memories, try out these prompts. They can take various forms, ranging from questions about significant individuals in your life to nostalgic descriptions of special places. Let your memories flow and allow your writing to capture the essence of your experiences.

Memory writing prompts offer a powerful tool to enhance the depth and richness of your reflective narratives. By tapping into personal memories and experiences, these prompts encourage you to delve into the nuances of life, adding layers of authenticity and emotional connection to your writing. Whether you are a seasoned writer or just starting to explore the art of storytelling, memory prompts can ignite your creativity and bring your narratives to life.

One of the key benefits of using memory prompts is their ability to activate vivid details and sensory imagery. By prompting you to recall specific moments or emotions from your past, these prompts help you re-engage with your memories on a deeper level. As you write about these experiences, you naturally begin to incorporate sensory language, painting a more vivid picture for your readers. This not only creates a more engaging narrative but also allows your audience to better connect with your story on an emotional level.

Furthermore, memory prompts provide a framework for introspection and self-reflection. Through intentional writing exercises, you can explore the meaning and significance of past events, gaining new insights and understanding. When you revisit your memories and connect them to your current thoughts and emotions, you invite a deeper level of self-awareness and personal growth. Additionally, the act of writing about your memories can offer catharsis and healing, allowing you to process and make sense of challenging or transformative experiences.

Incorporating memory writing prompts into your writing practice can be a transformative experience. By accessing your personal memories and infusing them into your narratives, you can enrich your storytelling, uncover new perspectives, and foster self-growth. So, grab your pen, choose a memory prompt, and prepare to embark on a captivating journey of self-discovery through reflective narratives.

Memory writing prompts offer an incredible opportunity to unlock a treasure trove of forgotten memories and enrich our lives in numerous ways. Whether you’re seeking therapeutic benefits or a creative outlet, engaging with these prompts can bring about positive changes in your overall well-being. Here are some of the key advantages of incorporating memory writing prompts into your daily routine:

• Self-reflection and personal growth: Writing about our memories is a powerful tool for self-reflection. It allows us to revisit past experiences, analyze them from a new perspective, and gain insights into our own personal growth. Reflecting on our memories helps us better understand our emotions, behaviors, and thought processes.
• Preservation of personal history: Our memories make up the fabric of who we are. By engaging with memory writing prompts, we can capture our life stories, preserving them for future generations. These written accounts provide a valuable legacy that helps our loved ones understand the depth and richness of our lives.
• Improved mental well-being: Writing about memories has therapeutic benefits, aiding in the processing of emotions and stress reduction. Engaging with writing prompts can be cathartic, allowing us to release pent-up feelings and gain a sense of closure. Additionally, writing stimulates our cognitive functions, improving memory recall and overall mental acuity.

Incorporating memory writing prompts into your daily routine can be an enlightening and fulfilling experience. By delving into your past, you can uncover hidden facets of your identity, gain new perspectives, and find solace in revisiting long-forgotten experiences. So grab a pen, find a quiet space, and let the power of memory writing prompts guide you on a transformative journey of self-discovery and reflection!

Reflective writing allows us to explore our memories, thoughts, and experiences in a meaningful way. It enables us to gain insights, process emotions, and gain a deeper understanding of ourselves. Memory writing prompts can be a powerful tool to ignite this reflective process. Here are some tips on how to effectively use memory writing prompts to spark your reflective writing:

• Select meaningful prompts: Choose memory writing prompts that resonate with you personally. Whether it’s a specific event, a significant person, or a place that holds special memories, pick prompts that evoke emotions and offer opportunities for self-reflection.
• Create a safe and comfortable writing space: Find a quiet place where you can write without distractions. Make sure you have a comfortable chair, good lighting, and all the tools you need to jot down your thoughts. Creating a cozy and relaxed writing environment can help you delve deeper into your reflections.
• Set aside dedicated time: Reflective writing requires time and focus. Dedicate a specific time slot each day or week to engage in this practice. Whether it’s early morning when your mind is fresh or before bed when you can unwind, find a time that works best for you, and stick to it.

By using memory writing prompts, we embark on a journey of self-discovery, enabling us to gain insights, find closure, and even heal emotional wounds. Reflective writing serves as a medium to express ourselves, understand our experiences better, and ultimately grow as individuals. So, grab your pen and paper, or open up a blank document, and let your memories guide you towards a deeper level of self-reflection and understanding.

Memory writing is a powerful tool that helps us revisit our past experiences and create a meaningful narrative. If you’re looking to get started with memory writing, here are some unique and creative prompts to spark your imagination:

• A Childhood Adventure: Recall an exciting adventure from your childhood. Describe the sights, sounds, and emotions you experienced during this memorable moment.
• A Special Relationship: Write about a person who has had a significant impact on your life. Share anecdotes, experiences, and lessons learned from this unique relationship.
• A Place of Solitude: Take yourself back to a place where you found peace and tranquility. Describe the setting, the sensations it evoked, and the emotions you felt in that moment.

Furthermore, you can explore writing prompts like:

• A Life-Changing Decision: Reflect on a decision that altered the course of your life. Explain the factors that influenced your choice and how it has shaped you into the person you are today.
• A Hilarious Mishap: Recount a funny incident from your life that still brings a smile to your face. Share the details, the unexpected twists, and the comedic value of this unforgettable event.
• A Lesson from Nature: Connect with the natural world and recount a moment where you learned a valuable lesson from the elements around you. Describe the setting, the lesson learned, and how it impacted your perspective.

These prompts are meant to ignite your memory and unlock a treasure trove of stories within. Remember, every memory holds significance, no matter how small or insignificant it may seem at first glance. Happy writing!

Reflective narratives can be powerful tools for self-reflection and personal growth. By using memory writing prompts, you can tap into your past experiences and delve deep into cherished memories or significant events. Here are some tips to help you craft compelling narratives that will captivate your readers and evoke genuine emotions:

1. Identify a memorable prompt: The first step is to choose a memory writing prompt that resonates with you. It could be a specific question about a significant milestone, a challenging moment, or a joyful memory. Select a prompt that sparks your interest and ignites your passion to explore further.

2. Bring your memory to life: Once you’ve selected a memory prompt, it’s time to immerse your readers in the experience. Use descriptive language to paint a vivid picture and engage their senses. You want your readers to feel like they are present in the moment with you. Be specific and precise in your descriptions, focusing on sights, sounds, smells, and even the way you felt physically and emotionally.

3. Reflect on the significance: A compelling reflective narrative goes beyond simply recounting an event; it dives into the deeper meaning behind it. Take the time to reflect on how this memory has impacted your life, changed your perspective, or influenced your decisions. Share your insights and lessons learned, allowing your readers to connect with your personal growth journey.

4. Be honest and vulnerable: Authenticity is key when crafting reflective narratives. Don’t shy away from sharing your true emotions and vulnerabilities. Being open and honest will create a genuine connection with your readers, making your narrative more relatable and impactful.

5. Structure your narrative: Organize your narrative in a logical and coherent manner. Consider using an introduction to set the stage and to capture your readers’ attention. Use paragraphs to separate different aspects of your memory, and utilize transitions to guide your readers smoothly from one idea to the next. Finally, wrap up your narrative with a meaningful conclusion that leaves a lasting impression on your audience.

By following these tips and infusing your reflective narrative with your unique voice, you can create a compelling piece that not only sheds light on your past but also resonates with others, sparking their own introspection and personal growth. Embrace the power of memory writing prompts and let your narratives take your readers on a transformative journey.

Self-reflection is a powerful practice that allows us to understand ourselves better, learn from past experiences, and make positive changes in our lives. One effective way to enhance self-reflection is through regular memory writing practice. By engaging in this simple yet profound exercise, we can delve deeper into our thoughts, emotions, and memories, gaining valuable insights along the way.

A regular memory writing practice involves setting aside dedicated time each day or week to write about significant events, experiences, or moments that have impacted us. This could range from personal milestones and achievements to challenging situations and lessons learned. The act of writing not only serves as an outlet for self-expression, but it also helps us organize our thoughts and reflect on our past with clarity.

So how can regular memory writing practice enhance self-reflection? Here are a few key ways:

• Increased self-awareness: Through the process of writing about our memories, we become more aware of our emotions, reactions, and thought patterns. This heightened self-awareness allows us to identify behavioral patterns, triggers, and areas where personal growth is needed.
• Deepened understanding: By revisiting past experiences and examining them from various angles, we gain a deeper understanding of ourselves and the events that have shaped us. Writing helps us process complex emotions, analyze our actions, and discover underlying motivations, enabling personal development and growth.
• Enhanced problem-solving: Memory writing practice enables us to evaluate past challenges and the strategies used to overcome them. By reflecting on our decision-making and problem-solving processes, we can identify effective approaches and avoid repeating mistakes in the future.

Q: What are memory writing prompts? A: Memory writing prompts are thought-provoking questions or prompts that encourage you to reflect on past experiences and memories. They serve as inspiration for writing reflective narratives that allow you to explore and capture the depth of your memories.

Q: How do memory writing prompts work? A: Memory writing prompts work by triggering memories and emotions related to a specific moment or event. By asking questions that recall details or evoke certain feelings, these prompts help you tap into your memory bank and produce more honest and vivid narratives.

Q: Why should I use memory writing prompts? A: Memory writing prompts can be highly beneficial for numerous reasons. Firstly, they provide an opportunity for self-reflection and personal growth. Engaging with memories in writing allows you to better understand your experiences, learn from them, and gain new insights. Additionally, memory writing prompts can inspire creativity, improve writing skills , and serve as a therapeutic practice for your mental well-being.

Q: Who can benefit from using memory writing prompts? A: Anyone can benefit from using memory writing prompts. Whether you’re an aspiring writer looking to enhance your storytelling abilities, an individual seeking self-reflection and personal growth, or simply someone wanting to explore your memories in a meaningful way, memory writing prompts offer an accessible and effective tool.

Q: How can I use memory writing prompts effectively? A: To use memory writing prompts effectively, find a quiet and comfortable space where you feel inspired. Select a prompt that resonates with you or choose one randomly. Allow yourself to dive into your memories, recalling specific details and sensations associated with the prompt. Write freely and without judgment, letting the words flow as you explore the depth of your memory. Finally, read and reflect on what you’ve written, capturing any new insights or emotions that arise.

Q: Are there any tips for finding the right memory writing prompts? A: Absolutely! When looking for memory writing prompts, consider choosing prompts that are personal to you. Prompts related to significant life events, transformative moments, or emotionally charged experiences tend to evoke deeper reflections. Additionally, you can find memory writing prompts in books, online resources, or even create your own based on specific themes or time periods in your life.

Q: Can memory writing prompts be used for therapeutic purposes? A: Yes, memory writing prompts can indeed be used as a therapeutic practice. Engaging with memories and writing about them can help process emotions, heal past wounds , and reduce stress or anxiety. The act of reflection and storytelling can provide a sense of relief and offer an avenue for personal growth and self-discovery.

Q: Are memory writing prompts only for professional writers? A: Not at all! Memory writing prompts are not limited to professional writers. These prompts are for anyone looking to explore their memories, express themselves through writing, or engage in self-reflection. In fact, memory writing prompts can be particularly helpful for novice writers as they offer a structured starting point and guidance for crafting a compelling narrative.

Q: Can memory writing prompts be beneficial for preserving family histories? A: Definitely! Memory writing prompts serve as excellent tools for preserving family histories. By encouraging individuals to recall and document their past experiences, these prompts can help capture important family stories, traditions, and memories that might otherwise be lost over time. They enable future generations to connect with their roots and understand their family’s history on a deeper level.

Q: Where can I find memory writing prompts? A: You can find memory writing prompts in various places. Many books, both fiction and nonfiction, include prompts for self-reflection. Numerous websites and blogs also provide an array of memory writing prompts suited to different topics and styles. You can even create your own prompts inspired by specific memories or experiences, making the process more personalized and meaningful to you.

In conclusion, memory writing prompts offer a powerful tool for exploring our past and sharing our experiences through reflective narratives.

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How Memory Works

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

Memory is a continually unfolding process. Initial details of an experience take shape in memory; the brain’s representation of that information then changes over time. With subsequent reactivations, the memory grows stronger or fainter and takes on different characteristics. Memories reflect real-world experience, but with varying levels of fidelity to that original experience.

The degree to which the memories we form are accurate or easily recalled depends on a variety of factors, from the psychological conditions in which information is first translated into memory to the manner in which we seek—or are unwittingly prompted—to conjure details from the past.

On This Page

• How Memories Are Made
• How Memories Are Stored in the Brain
• How We Recall Memories
• False and Distorted Memories

The creation of a memory requires a conversion of a select amount of the information one perceives into more permanent form. A subset of that memory will be secured in long-term storage, accessible for future use. Many factors during and after the creation of a memory influence what (and how much) gets preserved.

Memory serves many purposes, from allowing us to revisit and learn from past experiences to storing knowledge about the world and how things work. More broadly, a major function of memory in humans and other animals is to help ensure that our behavior fits the present situation and that we can adjust it based on experience.

Encoding is the first stage of memory. It is the process by which the details of a person’s experience are converted into a form that can be stored in the brain. People are more likely to encode details of what they are paying attention to and details that are personally significant.

Retention, or storage, is the stage in which information is preserved in memory following its initial encoding. These stored memories are incomplete : Some of the information that is encoded during an experience fades during retention, sometimes quickly, while other details remain. A related term, memory consolidation , refers to the neurobiological process of long-term memory formation.

Sleep facilitates the retention of memories, though why exactly this is the case is not fully understood. Research has found that people tend to show better memory performance if they sleep after a phase of studying rather than staying awake. Researchers have proposed that sleep supports memory consolidation in the brain, though other explanations include tha t sleep aids retention by eliminating interference from memories that would be formed while awake.

While memories are usually described in terms of mental concepts, such as single packages of personal experience or specific facts, they are ultimately reducible to the workings and characteristics of the ever-firing cells of the brain. Scientists have narrowed down regions of the brain that are key to memory and developed an increasingly detailed understanding of the material form of these mental phenomena.

The hippocampus and other parts of the medial temporal lobe are critical for many forms of memory, though various other parts of the brain play roles as well. These include areas of the more recently evolved cerebral cortex, the outermost layer of the brain, as well as deep-seated structures such as the basal ganglia. The amygdala is important for memory as well, including the integration of emotional responses into memory. The extent to which different brain regions are involved in memory depends on the type of memory.

Memory involves changes to the brain’s neural networks. Neurons in the brain are connected by synapses, which are bound together by chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) to form larger networks. Memory storage is thought to involve changes in the strength of these connections in the areas of the brain that have been linked to memory. 

A memory engram , or memory trace, is a term for the set of changes in the brain on which a memory is based. These are thought to include changes at the level of the synapses that connect brain cells. Research suggests an engram is not located in one specific location in the brain, but in multiple, interconnected locations. Engram cells are groups of cells that support a memory: They are activated and altered during learning and reactivated during remembering.

After memories are stored in the brain, they must be retrieved in order to be useful. While we may or may not be consciously aware that information is being summoned from storage at any given moment, this stage of memory is constantly unfolding—and the very act of remembering changes how memories are subsequently filed away.

Retrieval is the stage of memory in which the information saved in memory is recalled, whether consciously or unconsciously. It follows the stages of encoding and storage. Retrieval includes both intentional remembering, as when one thinks back to a previous experience or tries to put a name to a face, and more passive recall, as when the meanings of well-known words or the notes of a song come effortlessly to mind.

A retrieval cue is a stimulus that initiates remembering. Retrieval cues can be external, such as an image, text, a scent, or some other stimulus that relates to the memory. They can also be internal, such as a thought or sensation that is relevant to the memory. Cues can be encountered inadvertently or deliberately sought in the process of deliberately trying to remember something.

Multiple factors influence why we remember what we do. Emotionally charged memories tend to be relatively easy to recall. So is information that has been retrieved from memory many times, through studying, carrying out a routine, or some other form of repetition. And the “encoding specificity principle” holds that one is more likely to recall a memory when there is greater similarity between a retrieval cue (such as an image or sound in the present) and the conditions in which the memory was initially formed.

After a memory is retrieved, it is thought to undergo a process called reconsolidation , during which its representation in the brain can change based on input at the time of remembering. This capacity for memories to be reformed after retrieval has been explored as a potential element of psychotherapeutic interventions (for dampening the intensity of threatening memories, for example).

“Flashbulb memories” are what psychologists have called memories of one’s personal experience of significant and emotionally intense events, such as the 9/11 attacks and other highly distinctive occurrences. These memories may seem especially vivid and reliable even if the accuracy of the remembered details diminishes over time.

Priming is what happens when being exposed to one stimulus (such as a word) affects how a person responds to another, related one. For example, if someone is shown a list of words that includes nurse , he may be more likely to subsequently fill out the word stem nu____ with that word. Measures of priming can be used to demonstrate implicit memory, or memory that does not involve conscious recollection.

Memories have to be reconstructed in order to be used, and the piecing-together of details leaves plenty of room for inaccuracies—and even outright falsehoods—to contaminate the record. These errors reflect a memory system that is built to craft a useful account of past experience, not a perfect one. (For more, see False Memories .)

Memories may be rendered less accurate based on conditions when they are first formed, such as how much attention is paid during the experience. And the malleability of memories over time means internal and external factors can introduce errors. These may include a person’s knowledge and expectations about the world (used to fill in the blanks of a memory) and misleading suggestions by other people about what occurred.

False memories can be as simple as concluding that you were shown a word that you actually weren’t , but it may also include believing you experienced a dramatic event that you didn’t. People may produce such false recollections by unwittingly drawing on the details of actual, related experiences, or in some cases, as a response to another person’s detailed suggestions (perhaps involving some true details) about an imaginary event that is purported to be real.

It probably depends on the kind of memory. Minor manipulations like convincing people they saw a word that they did not see seem to be fairly easy to do. Getting people to conclude they had an experience (like spilling punch at a wedding) that was in fact made up  seems to require more work—including, in one study, a couple of conversations and encouragement to think more about the “memory”—and may fully succeed only for a minority of people. Still, researchers who have investigated the implanting of false memories argue that in some cases, enough outside suggestion could result in the creation of false or distorted memories that have serious legal consequences.

Déjà vu, a French phrase that translates to “already seen,” is the sense of having seen or experienced something before, even though one is in fact encountering it for the first time. While the cause is not fully understood, one explanation for why déjà vu happens is that there is some resemblance between a current experience and a previous one, but the previous experience is not readily identified in the moment. Others have suggested that déjà vu may result from new information somehow being passed straight to long-term memory, or from the spontaneous activation of a part of the brain called the rhinal cortex, involved in the sense of familiarity.

A woman at my gym walks on the treadmill backwards; sometimes quickly, sometimes slowly. After months of watching her and wondering when she might fall, I asked her about it.

Personal Perspective: We are thrilled by even the least coincidental of stories, but do they shape our lives with meaning? Or are they meaningless, random connections?

Without thinking, we often punish fear in small ways—by scolding, humiliating, or trivializing. Instead, teach fear management gradually and methodically in people and animals.

Convincing evidence from plants, flatworms, slime molds, and our own bodies suggests that neurons may not be the only cells that "think."

A new study reveals the importance of idle periods for long-term memory formation.

Research shows that even our closest primate relatives struggle to learn sequences. Could sequential memory differentiate us from the rest of the animal world?

Having a good memory is definitely an asset in life, particularly as people get older. New research on emotions and forgetting shows how a good mood can build that asset.

Would you like to improve recall, emotional control, and productivity? Learn how to think about working memory differently and apply four key strategies for improving it.

Eyewitness testimony is known to be unreliable. New research suggests that it's even worse when a witness is also the victim.

For those burdened by their past, relief can be found not in the science of memory but in the recognition of our ability to shape the very nature of our personal histories.

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Understanding what emotional intelligence looks like and the steps needed to improve it could light a path to a more emotionally adept world.

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The Cognitive Philosophy of Reflection

• Original Research
• Open access
• Published: 12 September 2020
• Volume 87 , pages 2219–2242, ( 2022 )

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• Andreas Stephens   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5684-3355 1 &
• Trond A. Tjøstheim 1  

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Hilary Kornblith argues that many traditional philosophical accounts involve problematic views of reflection (understood as second-order mental states). According to Kornblith, reflection does not add reliability, which makes it unfit to underlie a separate form of knowledge. We show that a broader understanding of reflection, encompassing Type 2 processes, working memory, and episodic long-term memory, can provide philosophy with elucidating input that a restricted view misses. We further argue that reflection in fact often does add reliability, through generalizability, flexibility, and creativity that is helpful in newly encountered situations, even if the restricted sense of both reflection and knowledge is accepted. And so, a division of knowledge into one reflexive (animal) form and one reflective form remains a plausible, and possibly fruitful, option.

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1 Introduction

Throughout the history of Western philosophy, reflection has been considered an especially important human ability. Its role has long been prominent and can still be found at the center of theories by contemporary scholars such as, for example, BonJour ( 1985 , 1998 ), Chisholm ( 1989 ), and Sosa ( 2007 , 2009 ). Accordingly, a lot of effort has been invested in the inquiry of its role for thinking, knowledge, and justification. Common traditional positions have included that reflection is necessary in order to guarantee that an agent’s knowledge is acceptable and certain, that her epistemic duty is fulfilled, that her knowledge is accessible, and that faulty beliefs due to inferential errors are avoided (see, e.g., Pappas 2017 ; see also Bortolotti 2011 ).

But in contrast to the above-described positions, Hilary Kornblith in his book On reflection ( 2012 ) points out that the common interpretation of reflection is problematic since reflection actually cannot provide that which many believe it can. Indeed much relevant research seems to indicate that rather than providing trustworthy knowledge, reflection can be quite unreliable. Numerous psychological studies, seemingly, show how human reflection often fails due to, for example, various biases (see, e.g., Stanovich and West 2000 ; Kahneman 2011 ). With this in mind, the importance of reflection, and its role for human thinking, knowledge, and justification, should arguably be deemphasized.

This leaves us at an interesting junction. On the one hand, reflection seems to underlie the very essence of human greatness and is commonly seen as a particularly important phenomenon. On the other hand, empirical evidence seems to support Kornblith’s view and suggest that reflection only brings a false sense of certainty.

We recognize that inquiries are affected by the inquirer’s stance (approach, commitments), which makes it important to briefly clarify our own. In line with Kornblith (see, e.g., 1993 , 2002 , 2012 ), we heed a naturalistic stance where philosophy needs to take relevant scientific results into account whenever such results are available. Accordingly, we accept both ontological and (cooperative) methodological naturalism, where natural phenomena and relevant scientific results are seen as more important than language or intuitions (see, e.g., Papineau 2016 ; Rysiew 2017 ; Cellucci 2017 ). We claim, as does Kornblith, that such a stance can offer philosophy new insights that are crucial for keeping the field relevant as well as for dissolving old problems.

In short, we believe that Kornblith’s discussion of reflection is problematic due to its too-narrow understanding of what reflection brings to the table. Given this position, our aim in this article is to investigate reflection more broadly by examining relevant psychological constructs and their neural underpinnings. By stepwise investigating reflection on multiple levels of analysis, a synthesizing understanding of reflection that is biologically plausible can arguably be reached (see, e.g., Hassabis et al. 2017 ). This allows us to triangulate essential features of the natural phenomenon that Kornblith downplays or ignores (Horst 2016 ). We will, however, also argue that even if we accept a restricted view of reflection as ‘second-order mental states,’ as well as Kornblith’s insistence on that reliability is the only epistemic value to consider, reflection, in fact, often does offer the subject added reliability. Importantly, this would leave the division of knowledge into a reflexive (animal) form and a reflective form a plausible option.

This article comprises five sections. In Sect.  2 , we outline and discuss Kornblith’s account of reflection. In Sect.  3 , we investigate how reflection can be further elucidated by cognitive psychology, also outlining the neural correlates of reflection. In Sect.  4 , we then explore philosophical consequences of the reached position pertaining to reliability and knowledge. Finally, in Sect.  5 , we offer some concluding remarks.

2 Kornblith on Reflection

Kornblith ( 2012 ) argues that most traditional philosophers have valued reflection too highly due to faulty understandings of what it involves. And this overestimation has, in his view, led them to suggest, or even demand, that reflection is necessary when, in fact, such a view is wrong. Traditional philosophers, on Kornblith’s view, tend to call on reflection when problems are recognized at a first-order level. Second-order reflection is then supposed to provide a solution by removing unreliability. This, however, according to Kornblith, is problematic since neither first-order processes nor second-order reflective scrutiny are entirely reliable. Kornblith argues that his points concerning reflection are generalizable and relevant for discussions of knowledge, reasoning, freedom of the will, and normativity. In this article we will focus on his discussion of knowledge.

Importantly, Kornblith addresses reflection specifically seen as consisting in ‘second-order mental states.’ He further considers reliability as being the only important criteria for belief acquisition processes (Kornblith 2012 , p. 34). Kornblith then attacks the traditional view from two angles. Firstly, he argues that a reliance on reflection leads to an infinite regress and that reflection thus cannot provide the sought after reliability for first-order problems. Secondly, he argues that empirical evidence indeed indicates that the processes involved in reflection often are unreliable. Both these arguments, which will be presented more fully in the following subsections, according to Kornblith shows that reflection fails to be relevant for knowledge.

2.1 Infinite Regress

As a first argument against the traditional view, Kornblith claims that demands for reflection lead to an infinite regress since it continuously would require demands of ever higher-level reflections. Footnote 1

According to Kornblith, knowledge, in its paradigmatic formulation, is commonly held to require justified true belief. And, as pointed out by Kornblith, according to many theoreticians, justification involves reflection on the epistemic status of one’s beliefs. It is then only reflection that can guarantee the right epistemic status to one’s beliefs. An omission to reflect would result in beliefs that cannot be considered knowledge.

We regard this a reasonable estimate of the common-sense view, although it arguably involves an implicit internalist view of knowledge. Indeed, Kornblith starts his discussion by presenting the famous ‘Norman the clairvoyant’ case by BonJour ( 1985 ). In short, BonJour (an internalist) argues that an agent needs active reflection, that makes her epistemically responsible, for knowledge. This is presented, by BonJour, as an argument against reliabilism (a form of externalism) that views knowledge as involving reliably produced true beliefs, hinging on the external connection between the agent and the world.

Now, Kornblith, who is an outspoken reliabilist (see, e.g., Kornblith 2002 ) argues that if an agent is to meet BonJour’s requirements and reflect on her beliefs, the reached beliefs would themselves, in turn, need to be justified by higher-order reflection, leading to an infinite regress (Kornblith 2012 , pp. 12–13).

If one accepts Kornblith’s strict understanding of reflection as second-order mental states and knowledge as being dependent on reliability, this indeed seems to be the forced conclusion.

2.2 Empirical Evidence Against the Reliability of Reflection

As a second argument against the traditional view, Kornblith claims that a wide range of empirical evidence shows that reflection often is unreliable. Reflective scrutiny does then most often not succeed in making us able to more reliably judge our first-order beliefs, but seems to make subjects more confident when in fact this is not motivated (Kornblith 2012 , pp. 3, 25). This would indicate that it is not a tenable option to accept the aforementioned infinite regress as an inevitability and claim that having some reflective scrutiny at least is better than having none.

Sidestepping the merely logical matter of things, a large amount of empirical evidence seemingly does support Kornblith’s interpretation where reflection is best seen as only bringing a false sense of certainty to the table. In defense of his position Kornblith presents, and interprets, several empirical findings that cohere with his account. Notably, he acknowledges the tentative nature of such findings and theorizing (Kornblith 2012 , p. 136). It is also important to point out that Kornblith does not claim that reflection is useless, rather he argues that reflection might be useful if a more realistic account of it is accepted.

Kornblith focuses on cognitive psychology and the influential dual process theory. Briefly put, reflection figures distinctly in this framework, which partitions the mental into two forms. The first form (the old mind, System 1, or Type 1) is considered to be intuitive, automatic, non-conscious, and implicit, whereas the second form (the new mind, System 2, or Type 2) is reflective, controlled, conscious, and explicit. Footnote 2 On this account, the first form generate fast reflexive responses, which the second form sometimes reflectively inhibits (Tversky and Kahneman 1974 , 1983 ; Sloman 1996 ; Barrett et al. 2004 ; Kahneman 2011 ; Evans 2007 , 2008 ; Samuels 2009 ; Lizardo et al. 2016 ; Bago and De Neys 2017 ).

We consider Kornblith’s choice to focus on dual process theory reasonable since that framework is canonical and directly addresses aspects of cognition that are highly relevant for understanding reflection and knowledge, being supported ‘… by a wide range of converging experimental, psychometric, and neuroscientific methods’ (Evans and Stanovich 2013 , p. 224). But, we want to point out that many interpretations of dual process theory exist, addressing, for example, types, systems or modes. This said, most interpretations of dual process theory can, arguably, be integrated into a common format which makes it fruitful to explore dual process theory as a, more or less, unified field although this should be done with care (Smith and DeCoster 2000 , p. 110; Evans 2003 , p. 458). Moreover, it should be mentioned that there are researchers critical of dual process theory, where critics have pointed out both faults and alternative interpretations (see, e.g., Gigerenzer and Regier 1996 ; Keren and Schul 2009 ; Kruglanski et al. 2003 ; Osman 2004 ; Kruglanski and Gigerenzer 2011 ). The force of these lines of critique, though, hinge on which specific form of dual process theory they attack, and, for example, Evans and Stanovich ( 2013 ) in our view convincingly counters a number of the more common ones.

Importantly, if dual process theory, more generally, is not accepted as a provider of valid empirical input, Kornblith’s argument would indeed be severely stifled. However, our main point here does not involve questioning dual process theory per se. Rather we claim that Kornblith’s interpretation of cognitive psychological theorizing and evidence is problematic since it too narrowly only focuses on dual process theory. To remain a plausible option, Kornblith’s restricted position needs to be developed in a pluralist direction that investigates the many important roles reflection fills for how a subject (organism) acts in her (its) environment (see, e.g., Shah and Vavova 2014 ). We will in the following Sect.  3 explore what such an account of reflection involves and how it can offer philosophy elucidating input.

2.3 Reflection as Decoupled from Knowledge

Taken together, Kornblith’s arguments, indeed, seem to capture essential problems with the traditional positions that he criticises; it is, it seems, deeply questionable whether reflection can solve the problems often assumed that it can. And since reflection, indeed, does take such a center stage in much philosophical discussion, Kornblith’s focus is highly relevant. Kornblith interprets the reached position as indicating that theoreticians ought to abandon any false hopes regarding what reflection can provide (Kornblith 2012 , p. 7).

Kornblith discusses how Sosa’s ( 1991 ; see also 2007 ; 2009 ) distinction between ‘animal knowledge’ and ‘reflective knowledge’ can offer a way out of the infinite regress. On this account, animal knowledge governs direct responses to one’s sensory impacts, whereas reflective knowledge governs a wider understanding of one’s responses and how they came about (Sosa 1991 , p. 240). Animal knowledge is then more or less what externalist theories focus on, and reflective knowledge is what internalist theories focus on. Kornblith claims that this distinction, indeed, would resolve the issue of an infinite regress. Nonetheless he continues to argue that the reflective knowledge of the bisection does not add anything extra that is superior to ‘mere’ animal knowledge. Kornblith discusses, and rejects, the possibility that what reflective knowledge adds is increased reliability, which is also what Sosa argues (Kornblith 2012 , pp. 16–17; Sosa 1991 , p. 240). Since Kornblith considers reliability crucial for knowledge he then rejects a division of knowledge, even though he acknowledges that reflection might fill some other important role(s) (Kornblith 2012 , pp. 19–20).

Yet, even if we accept the restricted view of reflection as second-order mental states, and accept that reliability is of sole importance (something we believe indicates a rather strong externalist position), then if it turned out that reflective processes do add to a subject’s reliability, this would, on Kornblith’s own account, rebut the infinite regress and make reflection eligible as underlying a distinct form of knowledge.

Kornblith accepts this possibility but emphatically denies that this is the case:

We have examined a number of alternative motivations, and found that these motivations as well cannot bear the weight of the tempting distinction. It seems that there really is no ground at all for drawing a distinction between unreflective knowledge and something better, knowledge which involves reflection. (Kornblith 2012 , p. 40)

We will in Sect.  4 specifically address how reflection can add reliability, even if the narrow account of it as only involving second-order mental states is accepted. This can be done by providing the subject with an opportunity to remember previous experiences and internally reflect on them in order to find patterns in them and then adjusting ensuing behaviors in accordance with the found patterns. In doing so the subject gains generalizability, flexibility, and creativity that is helpful in newly encountered situations. Therefore, a division of knowledge into one reflexive (animal) form and one reflective form remains a plausible, and possibly fruitful, option (see, e.g., Perrine 2014 ; Shah and Vavova 2014 ; Smithies 2016 ). So, although Kornblith ( 2012 , pp. 16, 19) discusses how an allowance of two forms of knowledge could be seen as arbitrary and might risk leading to that infinitely many multiple forms must be allowed, we will below present a discussion that instead argues that two forms are biologically plausible.

But before we do this, we will next explore what a biologically plausible broader account of reflection involves and how it can offer philosophy elucidating input.

3 A Broader Understanding of Reflection

In this section, we follow Kornblith in focusing on cognitive psychology but, importantly, strive to stepwise develop a deeper multi-level investigation into reflection and its underlying processes that go beyond Kornblith’s sole focus on dual process theory. This account, which also encompasses memory systems and neural correlates, offers a broader understanding of reflection that is not restricted to only involve second-order mental states. It is our belief that this account can provide philosophy with elucidating input that Kornblith’s restricted focus misses.

In Fig.  1 we present a schematic illustration of how influential models from three levels of analysis cohere with each other, and how they relate to reflection. Although this is not an exhaustive account, we aim to substantiate this interdisciplinary approximation in the following discussion:

Schematic illustration of relations between cognitive models, on different levels of analysis, and their relation to reflection. Four perspectives are represented: epistemology (dotted square); psychology level 2 (top row); psychology level 1 (middle row); neuroscience (bottom row). Boxes indicate model categories. Arrows indicate functional relationships

We now move to a description of how reflection is understood in cognitive psychology and find that a broader interpretation than the one Kornblith presents is motivated.

3.1 Reflection in Cognitive Psychology

In the dual process theory-literature, which is Kornblith’s specific focus, reflection tends to be explicitly highlighted as an important phenomenon (see, e.g., Carruthers 2009 ; Mercier and Sperber 2009 ; Stanovich 2009 ; Evans and Stanovich 2013 ). According to dual process theory, reflection is considered to involve many specific functions linked to Type 2 processes (Evans 2008 , p. 257). These complex functions encompass, for example, internal linguistics sequences or ‘sentences of inner speech’ (Frankish 2009 , pp. 11–12; see also Carruthers 2009 , p. 118), the ability to connect mental images to language, comprehend visual semantics, as well as visual manipulation (visual management) (Frankish 2010 , p. 921; Carruthers 2009 , p. 112). Moreover, from the perspective of dual process theory, the reflective mind is considered to include decision making, mental simulation, goal-adoption, belief-fixation, the ability for making comparisons, reasoning, metacognition in the form of second-order mental states, as well as hypothetical thinking (Evans and Stanovich 2013 ). Furthermore, recollection and the binding of information are dependent on reflection. It is crucial for a sense of time and to make out specific events (Yonelinas 2013 , p. 2). In addition, Type 2 processes are linked to explicit rule learning (Evans 2008 , pp. 257, 261, 267).

Even though human agents might not always be as in control as they believe themselves to be, these functions of reflection are important for their self-awareness and sense of agency. All these abilities are thus plausible to see as comprising a first outline.

There is a line of critique arguing that cognition is better seen as a continuum of processes than as two distinct ones (see, e.g., Osman 2004 ). This has some intuitive plausibility, however, by highlighting the difference of various forms of dual process theories this issue can, arguably, be circumvented. As Evans and Stanovich ( 2013 , p. 229) point out, there are indeed modes of processing (‘cognitive styles applied in Type 2 processing’) that can vary on a continuum. Specific Type 2 reflections can thus be performed in a variety of different manners. But, what most dual process theories try to point out is that there are two distinct types of cognitive processes, where Type 2 processes stand out as being flexible and linked to reflection. And so, ‘[c]ontinuous variation in both cognitive ability and thinking dispositions can determine the probability that a response primed by Type 1 processing will be expressed—but the continuous variation in this probability in no way invalidates the discrete distinction between Type 1 and Type 2 processing’ (Evans and Stanovich 2013 , pp. 229–230).

So, even though there are pending issues concerning how we should view reflection from the perspective of cognitive psychology, we consider it initially plausible to link reflection to Type 2 processes. To reiterate, rather than viewing reflection as problematic, dual process theory indicates that it underlies several important cognitive functions such as internal linguistics sequences or ‘inner speech,’ visual semantic comprehension, visual manipulation, and mental simulation (visual management for short), decision making, goal-adoption, belief-fixation, reasoning, metacognition in the form of second-order mental states, hypothetical thinking, self-awareness, and our sense of agency.

To broaden our understanding of reflection and Type 2 processes we continue by focusing on a second, ‘lower,’ cognitive psychological level of analysis where the human memory systems are seen as consisting of many interconnected functional processes that encode, store, retrieve, and manage information. On this level, an influential division is made between long-term memory (LTM) and working memory (WM), where LTM can store information over a lifetime whereas WM governs active information handling (see, e.g., Repovš and Baddeley 2006 ). Footnote 3

LTM is commonly partitioned into an implicit (non-declarative, non-conscious) system and an explicit (declarative, conscious) system. The non-declarative system is thought to govern automatic actions, whereas the declarative system is thought to govern abstracted knowledge about the world and autobiographical remembrance. In Tulving’s (see, e.g., 1972 , 1985 , 2002 , 2005 ) canonical and very influential three-part model of LTM, involving procedural, semantic and episodic memory, procedural memory governs perceptual and motor skills, semantic memory governs conceptual and categorical knowledge, whereas episodic memory governs remembrance of events (Tulving 1985 , p. 2). According to Tulving ‘… procedural memory entails semantic memory as a specialized subcategory, and… semantic memory, in turn, entails episodic memory as a specialized subcategory.’ (Tulving 1985 , pp. 2–3, italics in original).

Regarding WM, various models have been proposed although a very influential multi-component ‘standard model’ presents it as consisting of four parts: the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, the central executive, and the episodic buffer (Baddeley and Hitch 1974 ; Baddeley 2000 , 2007 ; Repovš and Baddeley 2006 ; D’Esposito and Postle 2015 ; Chai et al. 2018 ). In short, the phonological loop controls auditory information, the visuospatial sketchpad controls visual and spatial information, the central executive controls attention and decisions, whereas the episodic buffer binds together information from different domains, working as a link to (episodic) LTM. Footnote 4

Since it is through WM we actively handle information (see, e.g., Miller 1956 ; Cowan 2001 ) we argue that it is this system—on this level of analysis—which is primarily involved in Type 2 processes and reflection (Evans 2008 ). To substantiate this claim we show below how WM coheres with reflection as well as to the various previously mentioned features of Type 2 processes.

The phonological loop includes the articulatory network and the sensorimotor interface (Hickok and Poeppel 2007 ). It is thought to consist of a phonological store that can hold acoustic information for a couple of seconds, and an articulatory rehearsal process governing subvocalization by which verbal information is kept in memory. Apart from auditory information and speech, information needs to be re-coded through articulatory rehearsal before it can enter the phonological store. Accordingly, the phonological loop connects WM to language, and thus coheres with internal linguistics sequences and inner speech (Repovš and Baddeley 2006 , p. 7).

The visuospatial sketchpad consists of two separate subsystems governing visual and spatial information respectively. It is crucially connected to how we perceive the world. Interestingly, we rely on a quite small amount of information from the surrounding world—since it tends to be stable, offering us a continuing ‘external memory.’ However, this bottom-up information also relies on top-down predictions when being interpreted into meaningful percepts (see, e.g., Friston 2010 ; Hohwy 2013 ; but see Firestone and Scholl 2016 for a recent challenge). The visuospatial sketchpad thus coheres with previously mentioned visual management abilities (Repovš and Baddeley 2006 , pp. 8, 12).

The central executive is thought to be a form of control system for the other parts of WM (Rottschy et al. 2012 , Sect.  1 ). By controlling attention, it governs how we prioritise, choose, and execute tasks. It is also involved in all information-manipulation (Repovš and Baddeley 2006 , p. 14), composing reasoning as well as decision making and planning. But although being a central hub within WM, the central executive nonetheless has a limited degree of attention (see, e.g., Miller 1956 ; Cowan 2001 ). This means that the central executive coheres with abilities such as decision making, goal-adoption, belief-fixation, reasoning, metacognition in the form of second-order mental states, and hypothetical thinking.

The episodic buffer works as an interface between WM and LTM systems (Repovš and Baddeley 2006 , p. 15). More specifically, it relates information between the central executive and episodic LTM ‘… forming a limited-capacity system for the ultrashort-term, intermediate storage of incoming sensory information’ (Rottschy et al. 2012 , Sect.  1 ). Through a store of limited capacity, it integrates information from the other components of WM into episodes. In doing so the episodic buffer is involved in creating conscious awareness. The episodic buffer binds recollected information, connecting to episodic LTM, which composes explicit rule learning (Strange et al. 2001 , p. 1045). This interface thus processes and stores multi-dimensional representations (Rudner and Rönnberg 2008 , p. 21). By doing so it helps to create a unitary experience, which is central for our self-awareness, sense of agency, and first-person phenomenological experience:

Measures of working memory capacity have been shown to be predictive of performance in a wide variety of cognitive tasks… and highly correlated with fluid intelligence… It is the engagement of this system specifically that… has [been] emphasized in the definition of Type 2 processing and which underlies many of its typically observed correlates: that it is slow, sequential, and correlated with measures of general intelligence. [It] has also [been] suggested that Type 2 thinking enables uniquely human facilities, such as hypothetical thinking, mental simulation, and consequential decision making. (Evans and Stanovich 2013 , p. 235)

In summary, we have shown that WM governs our internal linguistics sequences and connects to language (the phonological loop), our visual management (the visuospatial sketchpad), our attention, information-manipulation, reasoning, metacognition in the form of second-order mental states, and decision making (the central executive), as well as binds recollected information (the episodic buffer and episodic LTM). In view of the above discussion, we, therefore, claim that Type 2 processes and WM (also relying on episodic LTM) plausibly cohere with reflection.

3.2 Neural Correlates

By exploring the neural underpinnings of reflection, we in this subsection substantiate and ground our understanding of reflection in cognitive neuroscience. We argue that cognitive neuroscience is a suitable level at which to stop for our purposes, as this level provides information about plausible functionality of neural populations. Notably, such information can be effectively mapped to neural network architectures in a computer.

From the neuroscientific perspective, bottom-up perceptive pathways can be disassociated from top-down feedback pathways. The bottom-up pathways are activated by sensory stimuli, tending to align with statistical regularities in the sensorium by various process-signal amplifications (Pozo and Goda 2010 ). Collectively these processes contribute to the formation of distinctive receptive fields in the sensory cortices. The sensory streams are associated and bound together in association areas, which make up concept-like complexes that are presented to frontal populations involved in executive control (Tanaka 1996 ; Tsunoda et al. 2001 ; Caporale and Dan 2008 ; Magee and Johnston 1997 ; Ralph et al. 2010 ).

These frontal networks project back into the sensory pathways, which afford modulation of the perceptive streams via excitation and inhibition. This is the filter of attention, where certain aspects are turned down while others are amplified. Although the particulars of this process are still not fully known, there are indications that such top-down amplification is necessary to realize fine detail from a coarser bottom-up signal (Ahissar and Hochstein 2004 ).

Focusing on WM, it is closely associated with the processes and pathways of selective attention and executive control (Awh et al. 2006 ). Information may flow from the exterior world via the senses, or it may come from LTM.

The act of reflecting is, as described above concerning the phonological loop, often associated with internal linguistic sequences—internal monologues (Alderson-Day and Fernyhough 2015 ). An internal monologue involves both the production of speech as well as its interpretation. The former is realized by the posterior inferior temporal gyrus, premotor cortex, and the anterior insula, making up the articulatory network, along with the sensorimotor interface consisting of the sylvian parietal-temporal area (Hickok and Poeppel 2007 ). Interpretation, on the other hand, is realized by populations in the posterior middle temporal gyrus and posterior inferotemporal gyrus, making up the lexical interface (Kemmerer 2014 ). Semantic and grammatical aspects are integrated by the combinatorial network found predominantly in the lateral anterior temporal lobe. Together these pathways mediate understanding of conceptual content of speech. In short, this suggests that the articulatory network (posterior inferior temporal gyrus, premotor cortex, anterior insula), and the sensorimotor interface (sylvian parietal-temporal area) cohere with the phonological loop.

Although there are indications that all sensory modalities are available to WM (vision and audition: Baddeley and Hitch 1974 ; Baddeley 1986 ; tactility: Katus et al. 2012 ; proprioception: Smyth et al. 1988 ; olfaction: Zelano et al. 2009 ; somatosensation: Zhou and Fuster 1996 ), humans, as a species, are to a large degree reliant on vision in order to navigate and interact with the world (D’Ardenne et al. 2012 ; Brewer et al. 2011 ; Mason et al. 2007 ). The visuospatial sketchpad handles the visual and spatial information we encounter, which can be broken down into a number of sub-functions (Repovš and Baddeley 2006 ). For example, there appears to be a dissociation between purely visual representation, and representation of space as such (Constantinidis and Wang 2004 ). Spatial WM may be representing space generally, for visual, auditory, or other stimuli, and appears to be mediated by a network involving the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, superior temporal cortex, posterior parietal cortex, and the lateral intraparietal lobe (Constantinidis and Wang 2004 ). These sites are lateral. On the medial side, the anterior cingulate cortex, posterior cingulate and retrosplenial cortices, and the parahippocampal cortex are involved (Constantinidis and Wang 2004 ). Parietal areas generally mediate integration of sensory streams, while the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is usually thought to be responsible for maintaining and storing representations (though see Mackey et al. 2016 for a challenge to this in humans). Visual representations in particular also make use of networks in the occipital lobe (see, e.g., Schurgin 2018 ). These areas thus together cohere with the visuospatial sketchpad.

The most important cortical area for executive function, or cognitive control, appears to be the frontal cortex. A recent review by Badre and Nee ( 2018 ) identifies several regions within frontal cortices that mediate central executive control functionality of varying concreteness. In general, more abstract control is found in rostral areas, while concreteness increases caudally, closer to sensory cortices. Thus, the frontal eye fields and the premotor and motor cortices handle concrete sensory-motor control (Badre and Nee 2018 ). Contextual control is found more rostrally in the dorsal- and ventral anterior (pre) premotor areas, also including the inferior frontal junction area (Badre and Nee 2018 ). More rostrally still are areas that handle control of context-independent schemas. These include the mid-dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and the rostrolateral prefrontal cortex (Badre and Nee 2018 ). In this context, schemas may be thought of as a kind of mental structures that organize classes of percepts and their relationships (Bartlett 1932 ). These, and other areas such as the frontostriatal circuits, brainstem, and superior parietal cortex cohere with the central executive.

As mentioned, the episodic buffer functions as a mediator between many memory systems, especially between the central executive and episodic LTM (Baddeley et al. 2010 ). When retrieval is needed for planning and executive control, the episodic buffer helps integrate relevant information (Strange et al. 2001 , p. 1045; Rudner and Rönnberg 2008 ). Although the exact role and underpinnings of the episodic buffer remain unclear, particularly the parietal lobe and the left anterior hippocampus is thought to play a crucial role, in how this temporary storage, with a limited capacity, merge information (Berlingeri et al. 2008 ; Baddeley et al. 2010 ). This is enabled by a capacity for multi-dimensional coding, giving the episodic buffer a central role for conscious awareness, as well as for immediate- and episodic recall. Episodic memory is a broad concept, integrating sensory streams along with a sense of space, place, and time, but also a sense of agency. In the brain, this means that diverse and widespread networks are recruited to encode and reconstruct episodes. One of the most important networks is thought to be the hippocampus. Coarsely, it is responsible for spatiotemporal aspects of memory organization, as well as for relations between memories (Eichenbaum 2018 ). Also involved is the parahippocampal gyrus which more specifically processes aspects of place (Eichenbaum 2018 ). The ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the angular gyrus process self-referential aspects, and the feeling of agency respectively (Dede and Smith 2018 ). The middle temporal gyrus is thought to handle semantic aspects of episodes (Dede and Smith 2018 ). Included in episodic memory networks are neural populations related to attention. The retrosplenial and posterior cingulate cortices are involved in reducing attention and engaging the default network, which can reconstruct episodes. The ventrolateral prefrontal cortex is also thought to be able to break established attentional patterns to direct attention to other salient events (Corbetta and Shulman 2002 ; Eriksson et al. 2015 ). Similar mechanisms to manipulation of chunks may make up the affordance of mental time-travel and mental simulation, which appear to rely on recalling sequences from LTM and somehow parameterizing them. The hippocampus, in particular, appears to be involved with this, but likely in concert with prefrontal populations (Hassabis et al. 2007 ). Information from LTM route via the default network (Brewer et al. 2011 ; Mason et al. 2007 ). Specifically, there are indications that the fusiform gyrus, the inferior temporal and parahippocampal gyri, as well as the left posterior insula, are activated above baseline when gating of LTM is in effect (Brewer et al. 2011 ).

In this subsection, we have investigated the neural underpinnings of reflection and WM. Although the various parts of WM are interconnected, working in parallel with LTM and numerous other systems, a number of specific brain areas pertaining to selective attention and executive control do stand out. The articulatory network (posterior inferior temporal gyrus, premotor cortex, anterior insula), and the sensorimotor interface (sylvian parietal-temporal area) coheres with the phonological loop. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, superior temporal cortex, posterior parietal cortex, lateral intraparietal lobe, anterior cingulate cortex, posterior cingulate, retrosplenial cortices, and the parahippocampal cortex, as well as the occipital lobe, coheres with the visuospatial sketchpad. The frontal and prefrontal cortex, the premotor and motor cortices, also involving frontostriatal circuits, brainstem, and superior parietal cortex coheres with the central executive. The parietal lobe and the (left anterior) hippocampus coheres with the episodic buffer. And, the prefrontal, ventral fronto-temporal, medial temporal, retrosplenial, and posterior cingulate cortices, the parahippocampal, angular, middle temporal, the fusiform, and inferior temporal gyrus, as well as the left posterior insula and the hippocampus coheres with episodic LTM. Footnote 5 In short, the processes and pathways of selective attention and executive control cohere with WM and so Type 2 processes and reflection (Awh et al. 2006 ).

The reached position is thus that reflection involves Type 2 processes, WM and episodic LTM, as well as attentional and executive neural pathways. Reflection can thus be differentiated from Type 1 processes, procedural and semantic LTM, as well as perceptual, motor, and associative neural pathways. Footnote 6

We want to point out that even though this partitioning is well-established, highlighting an essential feature of human cognition, both reflexive and reflective processes involve complex intertwined bottom-up and top-down signals that work together. In the following Sect.  4 , we will try to elaborate on this interaction.

3.3 Interpreting, Operationalizing and Measuring Reflection

Above, psychological constructs and their neural underpinnings, on multiple levels of analysis, have shown the natural phenomenon reflection to be multifaceted and complex, involving much more than just second-order mental states. This broader understanding of reflection thus provides input that more narrow accounts risk to miss. It is a dual understanding of cognition that emerges, which seemingly ought to influence our view of what a plausible account of knowledge should consist in.

But Kornblith questions the philosophical relevance of psychological findings and theories on the matter of reflection generally. He argues that there is an important difference between how ‘reflection’ is used in psychology and how it is used in philosophy (Kornblith 2012 , pp. 141–142):

While System 2 is often the source of second-order belief, not all of the beliefs produced by System 2 are second-order, and thus when psychologists speak of System 2 as involved in reflection, their use of that term better accords with everyday usage, which allows that we may reflect on various features of the world around us and not just on features of our mental life, than it does with the technical usage here which ties reflection to second-order states. (Kornblith 2012 , p. 140)

Here Kornblith points out that he uses reflection in a technical sense. Accordingly, he accepts that Type 2 processes (System 2) involve other aspects, but considers that the only philosophically relevant aspect is the link to second-order mental states. From a cooperative methodological naturalistic perspective philosophers should look to science for answers rather than make up their own based on intuition, which makes it questionable to restrict scientific input in this manner. And as we have shown above, a broader interpretation is motivated. However, if the traditional view that Kornblith wants to counter demands that reflection is restricted to one of its aspects—second-order mental states—it might be necessary to do so for argument’s sake. It is then only the empirical evidence specifically addressing metacognitive second-order mental states that should be considered.

But Kornblith goes further. According to Kornblith, psychological theorists ‘mean to say nothing more [with the term reflection] than that the kind of thought characteristic of System 2 is conscious’ (Kornblith 2012 , p. 141). Reflection should then be understood as ‘nothing more than’ conscious reasoning in System 2 (Type 2 processes)—also involving non-conscious processes from System 1 (Type 1 processes). But we consider this interpretation to be insufficient and problematic. It is one thing to restrict one’s focus (to second-order mental states)—against the scientific usage found in cognitive psychology. However, in claiming that cognitive psychologists (or even only dual process theorists) mean nothing more than ‘consciousness’ when they speak of reflection, we believe Kornblith is in the wrong.

Contrary to Kornblith’s interpretation, cognitive psychologists point out how ‘the reflective mind’ governs our thinking dispositions, having a number of important specific roles, where ‘reasoning and decision making sometimes requires both (a) an override of the default intuition and (b) its replacement by effective Type 2, reflective reasoning.’ (Evans and Stanovich 2013 , p. 236). Rather than indicating ‘nothing more’ than consciousness, reflection can be seen to encompass many particular states in human cognition, but importantly second-order mental states about one’s own thoughts is a focal point where ‘[c]onclusions accepted for a reason are not intuitive but are, we will say, “reflective”… and the mental act of accepting a reflective conclusion through an examination of the reasons one has to do so is an act of reflection’ (Mercier and Sperber 2009 , p. 12).

Currently, a common way of operationalizing reflection in the context of cognitive psychology research is by means of the ‘cognitive reflection test’ (CRT) (see, e.g., Frederick 2005 ; Campitelli and Labollita 2010 ; Toplak, West, and Stanovich 2011 ; Vandekerckhove et al. 2014 ; Gronchi et al. 2016 ). The idea of this experimental test is to measure the disposition or ability of a subject to resist the first answer that comes to mind when posed with a set of questions. These questions are deliberately posed in a way to yield different answers if the subject uses quick intuitions, or if they deliberate and reflect. Here is a common example: A bat and a ball cost $1.10. The bat costs $1.00 more than the ball. How much does the ball cost?

The intuitive, quick answer is that the ball costs 10 cents. The correct answer, however, is 5 cents. The original CRT consists only of three questions, including the one posed above and two similar ones, and subjects are given the following instruction: Below are several problems that vary in difficulty. Try to answer as many as you can . The measure consists in counting the number of correct answers. Having said that, the test is usually not presented alone, but as part of a larger questionnaire where time and risk preferences are asked for. Perhaps unsurprisingly, studies using the CRT show a correlation between correct answers and reduced temporal discounting (Fredrick 2005 ). In other words, people that tend to answer correctly tend also to be more patient than those who go with the intuitive answer.

This is all very well, but what does it tell us about the epistemic value of reflection? First of all, it indicates that reflexive, or first-order beliefs may not always be reliable since there is a tendency for the brain to jump to conclusions when effort is involved in making an inference. Second, in the cases pertinent to the CRT, reflection is limited to second-order; i.e., there is no infinite regress. Thirdly, it implies that in many cases truth checking may have to be done with external support, e.g., with pen and paper. The point of this is only that representing symbols in the environment saves on mental energy as it were, since the symbols no longer have to be kept stable in the mind. This makes it less likely that energy saving processes get activated, which again can yield inaccurate conclusions.

In a sense, this can be interpreted as lending weight to Kornblith’s criticism of reflection; it can be unreliable. However, importantly so can reflexive processes. The CRT supports that trains of thought can indeed be unreliable since the brain is prone to be miserly with its resources, and this can lead to inaccurate conclusions. But it appears that at least some of these limitations can be overcome by cognitive offloading onto the external world. Hence the process of second-order thought understood as truth checking intuitions can add reliability and epistemic value.

We have looked to cognitive psychology and gained a multi-level understanding of reflection going beyond second-order mental states, which has enabled a more informed interpretation. While this indicates the advantage of a broader understanding of reflection, we will in the next section grant the more restrictive view of reflection and knowledge. It will however be shown that even on such an account, a division of knowledge into a reflexive and a reflective form remains a plausible option.

4 The Plausibility of Two Forms of Knowledge

As shown in the previous section, reflection fills many important roles, but most crucially for our discussion we will in this section discuss how it adds reliability—even restrictively understood as ‘second-order mental states,’ which from a scientific perspective involves a view of reflection as consisting purley of metacognition. In accordance with Kornblith’s own argument, a division of knowledge into one reflexive (animal) form and one reflective form thus remains a plausible option.

4.1 Reflection can Add Reliability

Reflection in fact does add reliability since a pure reliance on reflexive processes would in many cases be costly because observations risk being too context-specific (see, e.g., Smithies 2016 ). To test each encounter purely on the merits of current observational stimuli could even lead to disaster. The ability to run multiple test-scenarios, amounting to second-order mental states about previous trials, in one’s head has great survival benefits. Agents can use reflection to generalize and abstract away non-essential information thereby gaining an overarching understanding and knowledge. A sole focus on reflexive processes thus risks to only allow specific context-dependent knowledge of specific cases. Reflection, seen as second-order mental processes (metacognition), adds generalizability, flexibility, and creativity that is helpful in newly encountered situations, and this, in turn, adds reliability (see, e.g., Olsson 2017a ).

The bottom-up pathways that originate in sensory neurons can automatically associate with each other and with behaviour. By being exposed to a variety of stimuli, they can generalize in their own way and do limited extrapolations based on similarities, and on trial and error. These pathways have evolved to support survival and procreation, and are hence usually able to do an admirable job if left to their own devices. The limitation of the bottom-up pathways is in their context-specificity. If there is no outward similarity for the senses to latch on to, no behaviour will match. This can result in arbitrary and inappropriate behaviour, fearful behaviour and withdrawal from the situation, or anxiety and no behaviour at all. This is where top-down pathways, second-order mental states, and reflective behaviour comes in. Away from the situation, in a calm and safe place, sensory sequences can be recalled and be played back. Different alternative behaviours can be simulated and evaluated, amounting to thinking about one’s thinking or second-order mentals tates, so as to hopefully cope better with similar situations in the future.

The top-down pathways, governing second-order mental states, can inhibit particularities in the sensory streams and hence discover common patterns in them. Particularities of instances of a category are often represented by higher frequency information, while commonalities tend to be represented by lower frequency information (Wiskott and Sejnowski 2002 ). In general, however, instance particularity is not limited to high frequencies, and full generalization requires an ability to inhibit any kind of property representation, be it shape, sound, or smell. Inhibition carries a burden of effort though (Dixon and Christoff 2012 ), and humans have learned to use external representations such as drawings to aid in abstract pattern identification and to reduce cognitive load (Risko and Gilbert 2016 ).

Reflection also affords the extraction of patterns from one context, and the re-concretization of those patterns into different contexts, using imagination to fill in required and appropriate detail. This can save a tremendous amount of energy that would otherwise be needed to arrive at the same behaviour in each specific context via trial and error. To be sure, large differences between the constructed scenario and the actual one may occur. And to an extent, the success of such an enterprise depends on the quality of the second-order models that are employed. That is, how well an agent understands the contexts in question. If both source- and target contexts are understood, re-concretization has a good chance of being successful, otherwise, the probability remains low. Even if the projected behaviour fails, a plan can still be made to gather information in the given context such that correct behaviour can be learned.

Crucially, during the reflective phase, information from cultural sources can be integrated to change behaviour. Human beings can communicate and exchange experience and knowledge, and through writing and reading that experience can be communicated across larger distances and over longer time spans. By means of writing, knowledge about the world can also accumulate over time affording later generations better cognitive methods and tools than previous ones. Such information integration is not possible purely by bottom-up experience of concrete situations, even if direct situational information is more accurate than that generated by means of reflection.

So, reflection, even if solely understood as second-order mental states (or metacognition), can add reliability through added flexibility and generalizability for the agent. In the next section, we will go into more depth about the contrast between reflective and reflexive knowledge from the perspective of feedback control.

4.2 Reflective and Reflexive Knowledge

Since it has been shown that reflection can add reliability, Kornblith’s account can be evaluated anew. He agrees that if this is the case, the infinite regress (from Sect.  2.1 ) can be avoided. And this would leave the option of dividing knowledge into two forms, one reflexive (animal) and one reflective. In this subsection we elaborate on this possibility.

Even though the body (including the central nervous system with the brain) forms essentially a unified system under feedback control, it is nevertheless governed by distinct reflexive and reflective pathways (Pezzulo and Cisek 2016 ; see also, e.g., Friston 2009 , 2010 ; Hohwy 2013 ). Top-down pathways continuously predict activity of bottom-up sensory pathways, while prediction errors make their way upwards in the hierarchy until they can be adjusted for by activating effectors. Here ‘effector’ is used as a broad term for processes that bind together and affect other processes, including, for example, low-level hormonal upregulation, reflexive motor actions initiated by spinal cord networks, as well as behaviour guided by high-level plans such as walking to a store to buy food, or even applying to college to get an education. So, albeit that human cognition and knowledge involve several complex intertwined capabilities, they are plausibly partitioned into a reflexive and a reflective form. Footnote 7

Reflection can be interpreted as willful manipulations of WM content using such metaphorical effectors. This process can be applied to question and check the validity of spontaneous intuitions. Take the example from the CRT mentioned above, where the question is what the price of the baseball is given that both the bat and ball cost $1.10, and the bat costs $1 more than the ball. The spontaneous first-order thought is that the ball costs 10 cents. What reflection can do is to check more thoroughly if this is indeed the case. By laboriously setting up an algebraic equation and doing the math step by step, the original intuition can be scrutinized. In this case it was wrong; the mathematics yield the answer 5 cents. As long as this second-order process is trusted, as is usually the case with arithmetics, there is no need for further verification. Footnote 8

Summing up, we claim that Kornblith is correct when he points out that traditional philosophical investigations often do not do justice to the natural phenomenon of reflection. Indeed, folk-psychological notions of reflection ought not to be allowed to take precedence or override scientifically grounded understandings of the natural phenomenon. But the reached conclusion is that philosophy needs to accept a pluralistic account of reflection and knowledge that acknowledges both reflexive and reflective processes that each provide specific information relevant for knowledge (see, e.g., Plotkin 1993 ; Alston 2005 ; Olsson 2017b ). Moreover, Kornblith’s own interpretation of reflection is problematic, even given his own demarcations and demands. Importantly, there is a link between reflection and reliability making two forms of knowledge a plausible option—one reflexive (animal knowledge) and one reflective.

5 Concluding Remarks

We have shown that a better understanding of reflection is possible by looking at how it actually works. We have therefore moved away from a traditional stance focusing on language, concepts, certainty, and truth. Instead, we have adopted a naturalistic stance, in line with Kornblith, focusing on natural phenomena, scientific results, and plausibility. In accordance with this stance, we have explored how reflection coheres with the psychological constructs Type 2, WM, and episodic LTM, as well as to attentional and executive neural pathways. Importantly, reflection has been shown to fill a number of important functions: our inner dialogues, visual management, attention, information-manipulation, reasoning, decision making, metacognition, sense of agency, self-awareness, first-person phenomenology, remembrance, and awareness, motivating a pluralist account.

But we have also argued that this, more fine-grained, understanding of reflection, also acknowledging the influence and role of reflexive processes, does tie reflection to reliability by providing generalizability, flexibility, and creativity that is helpful in newly encountered situations. This indicates that the possibility to divide knowledge into a reflexive form and a reflective form is a plausible option, contrary to Kornblith’s view.

This same point plays out somewhat differently depending on which area of philosophy one is paying attention to, but we will, as aforementioned, here focus on knowledge.

Kornblith uses the terminology ‘System 1’ and ‘System 2’ whereas, for example, Evans and Stanovich ( 2013 , p. 226) argue against such a usage to the benefit of the ‘Type 1’ and ‘Type 2’ nomenclature.

This interpretation follows a development from previous traditional theories and models that placed a more passive short-term memory (STM) in the role now commonly ascribed to an active WM.

There are alternative interpretations that, for example, argue that WM is best viewed as being a part of LTM (see, e.g., Ericsson and Kintsch 1995 ) or as an emergent property of numerous combinations of underlying ‘possible subsystems’ (see, e.g., Postle 2006 ), where ‘… working memory may simply be a property that emerges from a nervous system that is capable of representing many different kinds of information, and that is endowed with flexibly deployable attention.’ (Postle 2006 , p. 29). However, in line with for example Repovš and Baddeley ( 2006 ), we regard the empirical findings as providing a strong case for the standard model. Even so, we do acknowledge that it might have to be revised in a more fine-grained direction in light of coming findings, where feasible examples of such revisions might include, not only auditory- and visual-, but more subsystems based on all our different senses in WM.

Research on the cerebellum indicates that it plays a vital role not only in fine motor behaviour, but also in the automation of mental processes. According to Ito ( 2008 ), the cerebellum has two principal modi of operation: as a forward model, and as an inverse model. The former implies that the cerebellum can learn to generate and hence simulate sensory signals. The latter means that the cerebellum can learn to control, for example, muscles in the motor system, but may also be interpreted as to involve populations of excitatory and inhibitory neurons that affect contents of WM. Thus, the cerebellum can learn to perform volitional operations in WM automatically. Common examples of this is mental calculation, and certain kinds of planning (Ito 2008 ). This can be interpreted as the cerebellum being necessary for higher order thought, or being able to automate sequences of thought into building blocks that can be used for more complex problem solving or planning. Further aspects could, for example, include the function of glial cells in signal delay and the function of protein synthesis in regulating density of receptors or neurotransmitter reuptake mechanisms.

Importantly, semantic memory is connected to both procedural and episodic memory although we will regard it as closer tied to reflexive generalized processes and thus not view it as directly involved in reflection (see, e.g., Binder and Desai 2011 ; Yee, Chrysikou, and Thompson-Schill 2014 ).

This also holds true, to various degrees, for all mammals, and many other organisms (see, e.g., Allen and Fortin 2013 ; Carruthers 2013 ).

Interestingly, the scientific process can be seen as an example of a kind of infinite regress, since there is seldom a 100% sure probability of experimental validity, and 100% validity can never in practice be reached. But experimental results can converge, which means that further experimentation becomes less urgent. Hence the regress, and the reflection, can be halted.

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Acknowledgements

We want to thank Peter Gärdenfors, Martin L. Jönsson, Christian Balkenius, Maximilian Roszko, Asger Kirkeby-Hinrup, Erik J. Olsson, and Ingar Brinck for sharing their vast knowledge concerning this topic. We also want to thank participants at the Research Seminar in Theoretical Philosophy and the PhD Seminar in Philosophy at Lund University, and our anonymous reviewers for comments.

Open access funding provided by Lund University. The authors gratefully acknowledges support from Makarna Ingeniör Lars Henrik Fornanders fond and Stiftelsen Elisabeth Rausings minnesfond: forskning.

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Stephens, A., Tjøstheim, T.A. The Cognitive Philosophy of Reflection. Erkenn 87 , 2219–2242 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10670-020-00299-0

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How to Write a Memoir Essay

October 12, 2023

What is a Memoir Essay?

A memoir essay is a form of autobiographical writing that focuses on a specific aspect of the author’s life. Unlike a traditional autobiography, which typically covers the author’s entire life, a memoir essay hones in on a particular event, time period, or theme. It is a deeply personal and reflective piece that allows the writer to delve into their memories, thoughts, and emotions surrounding their chosen subject.

In a memoir essay, the author aims to not only recount the events that took place but also provide insight into the impact and meaning of those experiences. It is a unique opportunity for self-discovery and exploration, while also offering readers a glimpse into the author’s world. The beauty of a memoir essay lies in its ability to weave together personal anecdotes, vivid descriptions, and introspective reflections to create a compelling narrative.

Writing a memoir essay can be both challenging and rewarding. It requires careful selection of memories, thoughtful introspection, and skillful storytelling. The process allows the writer to make sense of their past, gain a deeper understanding of themselves, and share their unique story with others.

Choosing a Topic for Your Memoir Essay

Selecting the right topic is crucial to write a good memoir essay. It sets the foundation for what you will explore and reveal in your personal narrative. When choosing a topic, it’s essential to reflect on your significant life experiences and consider what stories or themes hold the most meaning for you.

One approach is to think about moments or events that have had a profound impact on your life. Consider times of triumph or adversity, moments of exploration or self-discovery, relationships that have shaped you, or challenges you have overcome. These experiences can provide a rich foundation for your memoir essay.

Another option is to focus on a specific theme or aspect of your life. You might explore topics such as identity, family dynamics, cultural heritage, career milestones, or personal beliefs. By centering your essay around a theme, you can weave together various memories and reflections to create a cohesive narrative.

It’s also important to consider your target audience. Who do you want to connect with through your memoir essay? Understanding your audience’s interests and experiences can help you choose a topic that will resonate with them.

Ultimately, the topic should be one that excites you and allows for introspection and self-discovery. Choose a topic that ignites your passion and offers a story worth sharing.

Possible Memoir Essay Topics

• Childhood Memories
• Family Dynamics
• Life-altering Events
• Overcoming Societal Expectations
• Love and Loss
• Self-discovery and Transformation
• Lessons from Nature
• Journey from Darkness to Light
• Triumphing Over Adversities
• Life’s Defining Moments

Outlining the Structure of Your Memoir Essay

Writing a memoir essay allows you to share your personal experiences, reflections, and insights with others. However, before you start pouring your thoughts onto the page, it’s essential to outline the structure of your essay. This not only provides a clear roadmap for your writing but also helps you maintain a cohesive and engaging narrative.

First, consider the opening. Begin with a captivating introduction that hooks the reader and establishes the theme or central message of your memoir. This is your chance to grab their attention and set the tone for the rest of the essay.

Next, move on to the body paragraphs. Divide your essay into sections that chronologically or thematically explore different aspects of your life or experiences. Use vivid descriptions, anecdotes, and dialogue to bring your memories to life. It’s crucial to maintain a logical flow and transition smoothly between different ideas or events.

As you approach the conclusion, summarize the key points you’ve discussed and reflect on the significance of your experiences. What lessons have you learned? How have you grown or changed as a result? Wrap up your memoir essay by leaving the reader with a memorable takeaway or a thought-provoking question.

Remember, the structure of your memoir essay should support your storytelling and allow for a genuine and authentic exploration of your experiences. By outlining your essay’s structure, you’ll have a solid foundation to create a compelling and impactful memoir that resonates with your readers.

How to Write an Introduction for Your Memoir Essay

The introduction of your memoir essay sets the stage for your story and captivates your readers from the very beginning. It is your opportunity to grab their attention, establish the tone, and introduce the central theme of your memoir.

To create a compelling introduction, consider starting with a hook that intrigues your readers. This can be a surprising fact, a thought-provoking question, or a vivid description that immediately draws them in. Your goal is to make them curious and interested in what you have to say.

Next, provide a brief overview of what your memoir essay will explore. Give your readers a glimpse into the key experiences or aspects of your life that you will be sharing. However, avoid giving away too much detail. Leave room for anticipation and curiosity to keep them engaged.

Additionally, consider how you want to establish the tone of your memoir. Will it be reflective, humorous, or nostalgic? Choose your words and phrasing carefully to convey the right emotions and set the right atmosphere for your story.

Finally, end your introduction with a clear and concise thesis statement. This statement should express the central theme or message that your memoir will convey. It serves as a roadmap for your essay and guides your readers in understanding the purpose and significance of your memoir.

By crafting a strong and captivating introduction for your memoir essay, you will draw readers in and make them eager to dive into the rich and personal journey that awaits them.

Write the Main Body of Your Memoir Essay

When developing the main body of your memoir essay, it’s essential to structure your thoughts and experiences in a clear and engaging manner. Here are some tips to help you effectively organize and develop the main body of your essay:

• Chronological Structure: Consider organizing your memoir essay in chronological order, following the sequence of events as they occurred in your life. This allows for a natural flow and a clear timeline that helps readers understand your personal journey.
• Thematic Structure: Alternatively, you can focus on specific themes or lessons that emerged from your experiences. This approach allows for a more focused exploration of different aspects of your life, even if they did not occur in a linear order.
• Use Vivid Details: Use sensory details, descriptive language, and engaging storytelling techniques to bring your memories to life. Transport your readers to the settings, evoke emotions, and create a vivid picture of the events and people in your life.
• Show, Don’t Tell: Instead of simply stating facts, show your readers the experiences through engaging storytelling. Use dialogue, scenes, and anecdotes to make your memoir more dynamic and immersive.
• Reflections and Insights: Share your reflections on the events and experiences in your memoir. Offer deeper insights, lessons learned, and personal growth that came from these moments. Invite readers to reflect on their own lives and connect with your journey.

By organizing your main body in a logical and engaging manner, using vivid details, and offering thoughtful reflections, you can write a compelling memoir essay that captivates your readers and leaves a lasting impact.

Reflecting on Lessons Learned in Your Memoir Essay

One of the powerful aspects of a memoir essay is the opportunity to reflect on the lessons learned from your personal experiences. These reflections provide deeper insights and meaning to your story, leaving a lasting impact on your readers. Here are some tips for effectively reflecting on lessons learned in your memoir essay:

• Summarize Key Points: In the conclusion of your essay, summarize the key events and experiences you have shared throughout your memoir. Briefly remind readers of the significant moments that shaped your journey.
• Identify Core Themes: Reflect on the core themes and messages that emerged from your experiences. What did you learn about resilience, love, identity, or perseverance? Identify the overarching lessons that you want to convey.
• Offer Personal Insights: Share your personal insights and reflections on how these lessons have influenced your life. Were there specific turning points or moments of epiphany? How have these experiences shaped your beliefs, values, or actions?
• Connect to the Reader: Make your reflections relatable to your readers. Explore how the lessons you learned can resonate with their own lives and experiences. This allows them to connect with your story on a deeper level.
• Offer a Call to Action: Encourage readers to reflect on their own lives and consider how the lessons from your memoir can apply to their own journeys. Pose thought-provoking questions or suggest actions they can take to apply these insights.

By reflecting on the lessons learned in your memoir essay, you give your readers a chance to contemplate their own lives and find inspiration in your personal growth. These reflections add depth and impact to your storytelling, making your memoir essay truly memorable.

Crafting a Strong Conclusion for Your Memoir Essay

The conclusion of your memoir essay is your final opportunity to leave a lasting impression on your readers. It is where you tie together the threads of your story and offer a sense of closure and reflection. Here are some tips to help you craft a strong conclusion for your memoir essay:

• Summarize the Journey: Remind your readers of the key moments and experiences you shared throughout your essay. Briefly summarize the significant events and emotions that shaped your personal journey.
• Revisit the Central Theme: Reiterate the central theme or message of your memoir. Emphasize the lessons learned, personal growth, or insights gained from your experiences. This helps reinforce the purpose and impact of your story.
• Reflect on Transformation: Reflect on how you have transformed as a result of the events and experiences you shared. Share the growth, self-discovery, or newfound perspectives that have shaped your life.
• Leave a Lasting Impression: Use powerful and evocative language to leave a lasting impact on your readers. Craft a memorable phrase or thought that lingers in their minds even after they finish reading your essay.
• Offer a Call to Action or Reflection: Encourage your readers to take action or reflect on their own lives. Pose thought-provoking questions, suggest further exploration, or challenge them to apply the lessons from your memoir to their own experiences.

By crafting a strong conclusion, you ensure that your memoir essay resonates with your readers long after they have finished reading it. It leaves them with a sense of closure, inspiration, and a deeper understanding of the transformative power of personal storytelling.

Editing and Proofreading Your Memoir Essay

Editing and proofreading are crucial steps in the writing process that can greatly enhance the quality and impact of your memoir essay. Here are some tips to help you effectively edit and proofread your work:

• Take a Break: After completing your initial draft, take a break before starting the editing process. This allows you to approach your essay with fresh eyes and a clear mind.
• Review for Structure and Flow: Read through your essay to ensure it has a logical structure and flows smoothly. Check that your paragraphs and sections transition seamlessly, guiding readers through your story.
• Trim and Refine: Eliminate any unnecessary or repetitive information. Trim down long sentences and paragraphs to make your writing concise and impactful. Consider the pacing and ensure that each word contributes to the overall story.
• Check for Clarity and Consistency: Ensure that your ideas and thoughts are expressed clearly. Identify any confusing or vague passages and revise them to improve clarity. Check for consistency in tense, tone, and voice throughout your essay.
• Proofread for Errors: Carefully proofread your essay for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. Pay attention to common mistakes such as subject-verb agreement, verb tenses, and punctuation marks. Consider using spell-checking tools or having someone else review your work for an objective perspective.
• Seek Feedback: Share your memoir essay with a trusted friend, family member, or writing partner. Their feedback can provide valuable insights and help you identify areas for improvement.

By dedicating time to edit and proofread your memoir essay, you ensure that it is polished, coherent, and error-free. These final touches enhance the reader’s experience and allow your story to shine.

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“How Reliable Is Your Memory?” by Elizabeth Loftus Essay

Dr. Loftus concluded her presentation with a statement, “Memory, like liberty, is a fragile thing” because it illustrates the nature of our memories best. Unlike a common belief that memory is like an archive where different happy and sad moments are kept intact and retrieved on request, in reality, it is in the process of constant recreation. Memories are not solid pieces of information stored in our brains.

Conversely, the mind is a soft and malleable thing, which means that its creations – opinions, beliefs, and perceptions –adapt to external factors and can be easily influenced. Considering that memories can be implanted, modified, and negated by others, they are indeed very fragile. The same goes for liberty and, as examples provided by Dr. Loftus in her talk demonstrated, false memories created when people are fed with suggestive information caused many innocent persons throughout history to be accused of crimes they never committed.

Besides the revelation of serious social and legal implications of such a phenomenon as false memories, the part of the talk that interested me most was devoted to the effects of certain types of physiotherapy, including hypnosis and technics with the use of imagination, on patients’ perceptions of self. While therapy is meant to help people solve problems, it turns out that it may create them instead. What is more surprising is that patients start to cherish their implanted memories as an integral part of their identities.

Regardless of how disturbing and sorrowful it may be, and even when pointed out that this certain memory is false, a person may be unable to let it go. I think that in order to change this situation and minimize the negative impacts of false memories on human lives, people should shift from a simplified view of memory and develop a more realistic and evidence-based one.

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IvyPanda. (2021, June 13). "How Reliable Is Your Memory?" by Elizabeth Loftus. https://ivypanda.com/essays/how-reliable-is-your-memory-by-elizabeth-loftus/

""How Reliable Is Your Memory?" by Elizabeth Loftus." IvyPanda , 13 June 2021, ivypanda.com/essays/how-reliable-is-your-memory-by-elizabeth-loftus/.

IvyPanda . (2021) '"How Reliable Is Your Memory?" by Elizabeth Loftus'. 13 June.

IvyPanda . 2021. ""How Reliable Is Your Memory?" by Elizabeth Loftus." June 13, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/how-reliable-is-your-memory-by-elizabeth-loftus/.

1. IvyPanda . ""How Reliable Is Your Memory?" by Elizabeth Loftus." June 13, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/how-reliable-is-your-memory-by-elizabeth-loftus/.

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IvyPanda . ""How Reliable Is Your Memory?" by Elizabeth Loftus." June 13, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/how-reliable-is-your-memory-by-elizabeth-loftus/.

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Home — Essay Samples — Life — Moment — A Memory That I Will Never Forget

A Memory that I Will Never Forget

• Categories: Moment Personal Life

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Words: 625 |

Published: Sep 16, 2023

Words: 625 | Page: 1 | 4 min read

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The setting, the journey, the encounter.

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Home / Essay Samples / Life / Childhood Memories / Reminding Myself About the Past: Unforgettable Childhood Memories

Reminding Myself About the Past: Unforgettable Childhood Memories

• Category: Life
• Topic: Childhood Memories , Personal Experience

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