meaningful assessment experience essay

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How Can We Make Assessments Meaningful?

I think meaningful assessments can come in many shapes and sizes. In fact, to be thoroughly engaging and to draw the best work out of the students, assessments should come in different formats.

Thankfully, with the Common Core standards exemplifying the 4Cs -- Creativity and Critical Thinking (through performance-based assessments), Collaboration, and Communication (through the use of interdisciplinary writing) -- we are looking at a more fluid future in testing formats. As long as the format itself is aligned with real-world skills, a meaningful assessment does not need to be lockstep with a particular structure any more.

When I think about my own definition of a "meaningful assessment," I think the test must meet certain requirements. The assessment must have value other than "because it's on the test." It must intend to impact the world beyond the student "self," whether it is on the school site, in the outlying community, the state, country, world, etc. Additionally, the assessment should incorporate skills that students need for their future. That is, the test must assess skills other than merely content. It must also test how eloquently the students communicate their content.

Criteria for a Meaningful Classroom Assessment

To address these requirements, I ask myself the following guided questions:

• Does the assessment involve project-based learning?
• Does it allow for student choice of topics?
• Is it inquiry based?
• Does it ask that students use some level of internet literacy to find their answers?
• Does it involve independent problem solving?
• Does it incorporate the 4Cs?
• Do the students need to communicate their knowledge via writing in some way?
• Does the final draft or project require multiple modalities (visual, oral, data, etc.) in its presentation? 

Clearly not all assessments achieve every single characteristic listed above. But in our attempt to address some of these elements, we will have made our classroom assessments so much more meaningful. It is vital that students connect with the value of their assessments. After all, if a student trusts that the assessment is meaningful and will help them later on, it helps with both their achievement and with your own classroom management.

Transparency and Why It's Important

It's important that we inform the students why a particular assessment has value. Some teachers still balk at this job, as if students should just trust that what we do in school has value to what happens outside of school. However, kids are smart. They know that bubbling with a #2 pencil is antiquated. They know that much of the content we teach them can be found through Google. But as savvy as students are, they don't know everything about communicating their content, and we owe it to them to make sure that not only are our tests aligned with skills they must know for their future, but to make sure that we've been transparent in our rationale.

So how can high-stakes assessments be meaningful to students? For one thing, high-stakes tests shouldn't be so high stakes. It's inauthentic. They should and still can be a mere snapshot of ability. Additionally, those occasional assessments need to take a back seat to the real learning and achievement going on in every day assessments observed by the teacher.

The key here, however, is to assess every day. Not in boring, multiple-choice daily quizzes, but with informal, engaging assessments that take more than just a snapshot of a student's knowledge at one moment in time.

But frankly, any assessment that sounds cool can still be made meaningless. It's how the students interact with the test that makes it meaningful. With the 4 Cs in mind, ask if the assessment allows for the following:

Creativity Are they students creating or just regurgitating? Are they being given credit for presenting something other than what was described?

Collaboration Have they spent some time working with others to formulate their thoughts, to brainstorm, or to seek feedback from peers?

Critical Thinking Are the students doing more work than the teacher in seeking out information and problem solving?

Communication Does the assessment emphasize the need to communicate the content well? Is writing involved, as well as other modalities? If asked to teach the content to other students, what methods will the student use to communicate the information and help embed it more deeply?

Rubric on Meaningful Assessments

So as an activity for myself, I created a rubric to look at whenever I was wondering if an assessment was going to be a waste of time or was going to connect with the students. (Click the chart to download the PDF.)

Another way to ensure that an assessment is meaningful, of course, is to simply ask the students what they thought. Design a survey after each major unit or assessment. Or, better yet, if you want to encourage students to really focus on the requirements on a rubric, add a row that's only for them to fill out for you. That way, the rubric's feedback is more of a give-and-take, and you get feedback on the assessment's level of meaningfulness as soon as possible.

Download the example (left) of a quick rubric I designed for a general writing assessment. I included a row that the participants could fill out that actually gave me quick feedback on how meaningful or helpful they believed the assessment was towards their own learning. As an instructor and lesson designer, I want a quick turnaround between when I assign an assessment and if I need to adjust the assessment to meet the needs of future learners. By also giving them a space to fill out, they own the rubric even more, and will pay more attention to what I fill out knowing that I gave them an opportunity to also give me feedback. It's one way the students and I can learn reciprocally.

So how do you ensure that your classroom assessments are meaningful?

Assessing Learning

Meaningful Assessment

Assessments help instructors measure student learning and allow students to discover where they are excelling and how they can improve. Low-stakes assessments give students practice with new skills without fear of failure and provide the building blocks toward higher-stakes assessments , such as projects or exams, while fostering academic integrity . Grading practices that are transparent and offer supportive, focused feedback are linked with improved student learning and promote equity across diverse learners (Elwood, 2006; Feldman, 2018).

How do assessments support the “big takeaways” of my course?

To plan your assessments, you might first think about what words or feeling you want students to associate with your course, then construct assessments that foster those types of experiences. The following video will guide you through this process, and is targeted for designing meaningful assessments in online courses, with ideas that apply to all course formats.

Meaningful assessments make the course content relevant to students because they have the following five characteristics:

1. Compelling purpose

There are clear connections between the assessment and the types of thinking, skills, and knowledge that are described in the course learning outcomes. 

Indicate which learning outcomes the assessment is measuring.

Consider how the assessment reveals student progress toward a goal, and how you will adapt instruction based on students’ performance. 

Make sure to avoid busywork and redundancy (e.g. use bi-weekly, rather than weekly, formative assessments).

2. Helps people learn from their mis-steps

Building in flexibility and feedback can reduce students’ stress and improve learning.

Allow students to revise and practice frequently, so they experience failure as part of learning. For example, give students 2-3 attempts on a quiz and keep their best score, or allow students to revise and resubmit a specific assignment.

Add pre-programmed feedback to online assignments and quizzes to highlight concepts and cue students about where to get help. 

Consider grading smaller assessments on completion/incompletion.

Use GauchoSpace and GradeScope Quiz analytics to identify patterns in assessment responses and where students need more support. Then use Light-touch feedback to send students pre-written help and encouragement.

Foster intrinsic motivation to learn by using feedback that is descriptive and curious rather than judgemental. Some examples are: What I see here is… You’ve included… It would help me better understand if you… How did you arrive at this conclusion? Why did you choose to…?

3. Structured for access and equity

You increased access and equitable outcomes among diverse learners by incorporating the following practices:

Communicate your expectations and grading criteria in the assignment instructions, or using a rubric. Share examples of high-quality work.

Use grading criteria that focuses on the specific skills being learned and less on peripheral skills such as writing and knowledge of complex vocabulary (e.g. idioms/jargon) not related to class.

Give students multiple and varied opportunities to demonstrate their learning, rather than relying predominantly on more traditional high-stakes exams.

Consider using grading contracts (6 min video) to specify the work required for different grades.

4. Authentic to students’ interests, lives, or future careers

This fosters intrinsic motivation by providing opportunities for students to take responsibility for, and use their agency in, their learning. 

Help students make connections between course content and their existing knowledge and skills.

Build in questions that help students reflect on what they’ve learned, their study habits, what they can do to get help or how they can use course skills in future careers.

Create activities where students can contribute content and questions that interest them. For example, ask students to submit articles, news, media, images, memes or other items related to the content. Use those during class.

5. Reflects the way people in your discipline think and work

You, the instructor, are a creative expert who knows what real learning and work look like in your discipline. 

Brainstorm types of assessments that allow students to show what they know about thinking/working in your discipline in an information-rich, socially-connected, digital context (e.g. making infographics or digital presentations)

How might students collaborate to learn and work in your course (e.g. using structured peer review or group work)?

How do people with careers in your industry share their ideas, beyond academic papers? (e.g. videos, blogs, websites, op-eds, social media)

Quick check: Are my assessments meaningful?

Are the connections between the assessment and the course learning goals clear to students? 

How does your assessment provide students with feedback and practice without fear of failure? 

Are my expectations clear to students? Have I given the tools that they need to succeed?

To what extent does the assessment allow students to apply ideas and skills from the course to their interests and experiences?

How well does the assessment help students demonstrate ways of thinking and communicating in the discipline?

Elwood, J. (2006). Formative assessment: Possibilities, boundaries and limitations. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 13(2), 215-232.

Feldman, J. (2018). Grading for equity: What it is, why it matters, and how it can transform schools and classrooms. Corwin Press.

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IResearchNet

Authentic Assessment

Authentic assessment in school psychology is a multifaceted approach to evaluating student learning that aligns assessment practices with real-world contexts and tasks. This article delves into the core principles and historical development of authentic assessment, emphasizing its significance in contemporary education. It explores the various types of authentic assessments, including performance-based assessments, real-world simulations, and situational assessments, shedding light on the design and implementation processes, as well as the ethical considerations involved. Furthermore, the role of school psychologists in fostering authentic assessment practices, their qualifications, collaboration with educators, and ethical responsibilities are highlighted. The article also discusses the benefits and challenges of authentic assessment, emphasizing its advantages for students and educators while addressing common hurdles. Cultural considerations, data interpretation, and reporting methods are examined within the context of authentic assessment, with insights into its application in special education and future directions and innovations in the field. This comprehensive exploration of authentic assessment provides valuable insights for educators, school psychologists, and researchers striving to enhance assessment practices and promote meaningful learning experiences.

Introduction

Definition and significance of authentic assessment.

Authentic assessment in the realm of school psychology signifies a fundamental shift in how educators and psychologists evaluate student learning and performance (Brookhart, 2013). Unlike traditional standardized tests and quizzes, authentic assessment is designed to mirror real-world situations and tasks, allowing students to demonstrate their knowledge, skills, and competencies in practical contexts (Wiggins, 1993). This section provides a comprehensive definition of authentic assessment and underscores its profound significance in modern education. Authentic assessment not only measures what students know but also how effectively they can apply their knowledge to authentic, real-life scenarios (Mueller, 2014). This approach aligns closely with the overarching goal of education: to prepare students for success in the complexities of life beyond the classroom.

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Get 10% off with 24start discount code, historical context and evolution.

The roots of authentic assessment can be traced back to the late 20th century, emerging as a response to the limitations and criticisms of traditional assessment methods (Gullickson, 1990). This subsection delves into the historical context and evolution of authentic assessment, highlighting the pioneering work of educators and psychologists who championed its development. It explores key milestones and influential thinkers who contributed to the concept’s growth and refinement over time (Wiggins, 1990). The historical perspective provides essential context for understanding the motivations behind the adoption of authentic assessment practices and how they have shaped the landscape of school psychology and education.

Key Principles and Concepts

Characteristics and features.

Authentic assessment is characterized by several key features that distinguish it from traditional assessment methods. It emphasizes real-world relevance, requiring students to apply their knowledge and skills to tasks that mirror authentic, meaningful situations (Herrington & Herrington, 2006). Such assessments often involve open-ended tasks, allowing students to demonstrate their understanding in diverse ways rather than relying solely on multiple-choice questions (Jonsson & Svingby, 2007). Additionally, authentic assessments typically have a strong connection to the content being taught, encouraging deep learning and problem-solving abilities (Mueller, 2014). These assessments often incorporate the use of rubrics, which provide explicit criteria for evaluation and offer valuable feedback to both students and educators (Arter & McTighe, 2001).

Alignment with Learning Objectives

Authentic assessments align closely with the learning objectives of a curriculum or course. They are designed to measure not only the acquisition of knowledge but also the ability to apply that knowledge in practical situations. This alignment ensures that assessments are relevant and meaningful, promoting a deeper understanding of the subject matter (Sadler, 1989). When educators create authentic assessments, they consider the broader educational goals, ensuring that students develop skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity (Wiggins, 1993). This approach connects assessment directly to the intended learning outcomes, fostering a more comprehensive and holistic educational experience (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005).

Types of Authentic Assessment

Authentic assessment encompasses various approaches, each designed to evaluate students’ knowledge and skills within a real-world context. These assessments prioritize practical application and problem-solving, allowing educators to gauge students’ abilities to transfer their knowledge and skills to practical situations.

Performance-Based Assessments

Performance-based assessments require students to demonstrate their understanding by completing tasks or projects relevant to their learning objectives (Jonsson & Svingby, 2007). Unlike traditional tests, these assessments focus on practical application. For example, in a science class, students might design and conduct experiments to illustrate their grasp of the scientific method, emphasizing critical thinking and problem-solving skills (Herrington & Herrington, 2006).

One key advantage of performance-based assessments is their ability to evaluate higher-order thinking skills, such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). By engaging in complex, real-world tasks, students must apply their knowledge to address multifaceted problems, mirroring the skills required in their future careers (Jonsson & Svingby, 2007).

Performance-based assessments also promote self-regulation and metacognition (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2011). As students plan, execute, and reflect on their performance tasks, they develop a deeper understanding of their strengths and areas for improvement. This self-awareness contributes to lifelong learning skills and personal growth (Panadero & Alonso-Tapia, 2013).

Real-World Simulations

Real-world simulations immerse students in scenarios that replicate authentic situations tied to their learning objectives. These can take various forms, such as virtual labs, clinical simulations in healthcare education, or business strategy games. By participating in realistic experiences, students acquire knowledge while developing problem-solving and decision-making skills (Sadler, 1989).

Real-world simulations offer a safe space for students to apply their theoretical knowledge (Gaba, 2007). For instance, medical students can practice diagnosing patients in virtual clinical settings, improving their clinical reasoning and decision-making abilities (Cook & Triola, 2009). Moreover, simulations can replicate challenging or rare scenarios that students might not encounter during traditional training, ensuring they are prepared for a wide range of situations (Kneebone et al., 2010).

Authentic Tasks and Situational Assessments

Authentic tasks and situational assessments require students to complete tasks mirroring real-life situations (Wiggins, 1993). Often lacking a single correct answer, these assessments encourage creative exploration and application of knowledge and skills. For example, in language arts, students might compose persuasive essays on genuine societal issues, fostering higher-order thinking and practical skill development (Wiggins, 1993).

These assessments reflect the complexity of problem-solving in the real world, where solutions may vary depending on the context (Linn & Miller, 2005). They challenge students to think critically and adapt their knowledge to novel situations, promoting deeper understanding and transferability (Gijbels et al., 2005). Additionally, by addressing authentic problems, these assessments contribute to students’ motivation and engagement (Newmann et al., 1996).

Designing and Implementing Authentic Assessments

Creating authentic assessments involves careful planning, clear criteria, and attention to ethical considerations. This section outlines the key steps in designing and implementing authentic assessments.

Creating Tasks and Criteria

Developing authentic assessment tasks begins with clearly defining learning objectives and aligning them with real-world scenarios. These tasks should reflect the complexity and diversity of challenges students may encounter beyond the classroom (Wiggins, 1993). For example, in a history class, students might analyze primary sources and construct arguments about historical events, emulating the work of historians (Wineburg, 2001).

To ensure the authenticity of the tasks, educators must establish criteria for evaluation. Rubrics are a valuable tool for articulating expectations and promoting transparency in grading (Jonsson & Svingby, 2007). Rubrics describe the characteristics of exemplary performance, helping students understand what is expected and providing educators with consistent criteria for assessment.

Ensuring Validity and Reliability

Validity and reliability are essential for any assessment. In the context of authentic assessment, validity relates to whether the assessment accurately measures what it intends to measure (Messick, 1989). To enhance validity, assessments should directly align with the learning objectives and authentically reflect the skills and knowledge students are expected to demonstrate (Wiggins, 1993).

Reliability, on the other hand, refers to the consistency of assessment results (Berk, 1986). In authentic assessment, inter-rater reliability can be a concern, as different educators might interpret student work differently. Training and calibration sessions for educators, where they collectively review and score sample student work, can enhance inter-rater reliability (Popham, 1997).

Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations in authentic assessment include fairness, transparency, and the avoidance of bias (Linn & Miller, 2005). Assessments should be designed to minimize cultural, gender, or socioeconomic bias and to accommodate students with disabilities or diverse backgrounds (Messick, 1989).

Transparency is crucial to ensure students understand the assessment process and grading criteria. Students should have access to rubrics or scoring guides before completing tasks. Additionally, educators must provide constructive feedback that guides improvement and supports the development of metacognitive skills (Panadero & Alonso-Tapia, 2013).

The Role of School Psychologists

School psychologists play a vital role in the implementation and support of authentic assessment practices. This section explores the qualifications and training required for school psychologists, their collaboration with educators, and the ethical responsibilities they uphold.

Qualifications and Training

To effectively contribute to the development and implementation of authentic assessments, school psychologists typically possess a strong educational background and specific training. They typically hold a master’s or doctoral degree in school psychology or a related field (NASP, 2020). This comprehensive training equips them with the necessary knowledge in assessment, child development, and educational psychology.

Continuing education is crucial for school psychologists to stay current with the latest assessment methodologies, technologies, and ethical standards (APA, 2017). Many school psychologists pursue certification from professional organizations, such as the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP), which sets high standards for ethical and professional practice.

Collaboration with Educators

Collaboration between school psychologists and educators is essential for the successful implementation of authentic assessments. School psychologists often serve as liaisons between educators, students, and families. They assist educators in understanding the diverse needs of students and adapting assessments to ensure inclusivity and fairness (Parrish et al., 2019).

Additionally, school psychologists can provide professional development to educators on effective assessment practices, including the development of rubrics, scoring guides, and feedback strategies. Collaborative efforts help align assessment practices with learning objectives, ensuring that authentic assessments are integrated seamlessly into the curriculum (Marzano & Kendall, 2007).

Ethical Responsibilities

School psychologists are guided by ethical principles in their assessment-related activities. They are responsible for upholding the rights of students and ensuring that assessments are conducted fairly and without bias (NASP, 2020). Ethical considerations include maintaining confidentiality, respecting cultural diversity, and adhering to the principles of informed consent (Ruble & Dalrymple, 1996).

Moreover, school psychologists should be aware of the potential impact of assessment on students’ well-being and self-esteem (Durlak et al., 2011). Ethical guidelines emphasize the importance of providing constructive feedback and supporting students’ social and emotional development throughout the assessment process.

Benefits and Challenges

Authentic assessment offers several advantages for both students and educators while presenting some notable challenges.

Advantages for Students and Educators

Authentic assessment has gained popularity in educational settings due to its potential benefits for both students and educators. These advantages contribute to a more comprehensive and meaningful learning experience:

• Enhanced Learning: One of the primary advantages of authentic assessment is its ability to foster enhanced learning. When students engage in tasks that closely mimic real-world scenarios, they are more likely to understand and retain knowledge (Sadler, 1989). This approach encourages them to apply theoretical concepts to practical situations, leading to deeper comprehension.
• Holistic Evaluation: Traditional assessments often focus on rote memorization and recall of facts. Authentic assessments, on the other hand, consider a broader range of skills and competencies. These may include problem-solving, critical thinking, creativity, communication, and collaboration (Wiggins, 1990). Consequently, educators gain a more comprehensive view of students’ abilities and can assess their readiness for real-life challenges.
• Motivation and Engagement: Authentic assessment tasks are inherently more engaging for students. When they perceive the assessment as meaningful and relevant to their lives, intrinsic motivation is likely to increase (Ryan & Deci, 2000). This heightened motivation leads to greater effort, active participation, and a genuine desire to excel academically.
• Effective Feedback: Timely and constructive feedback is an essential component of authentic assessment. Since these assessments often involve practical tasks, educators can provide specific feedback on students’ performance (Sadler, 1989). This feedback not only guides students in understanding their strengths and areas for improvement but also helps them develop a growth mindset, encouraging continuous learning.

Addressing Common Challenges

While the benefits of authentic assessment are significant, it is essential to acknowledge and address the common challenges associated with its implementation:

• Resource Intensive : Designing, implementing, and assessing authentic tasks can be resource-intensive. Educators may need to invest additional time and effort in creating authentic assessments that align with their learning objectives (Grant et al., 2019). Furthermore, students may require access to specific materials, technologies, or real-world contexts to complete these assessments effectively. Adequate planning and resource allocation are essential to mitigate these challenges.
• Subjectivity in Evaluation : Authentic assessments often involve subjective scoring since they emphasize the demonstration of skills and competencies in real-life contexts (Popham, 2008). This subjectivity can pose challenges in maintaining consistency in grading, especially when multiple educators are involved in the assessment process. It underscores the importance of clear rubrics and well-defined criteria for evaluation.
• Access to Technology : Some authentic assessments may require access to technology or specialized resources, such as software applications, labs, or equipment. In educational settings with limited access to these resources, students may face inequalities in assessment opportunities (Barton & Collins, 1993). Ensuring equitable access to technology and materials is crucial to address this challenge.
• Assessment Literacy : To fully benefit from authentic assessments, both educators and students need to develop assessment literacy. This includes understanding the purpose, criteria, and expectations associated with authentic assessments (Popham, 2008). Providing professional development opportunities for educators and guidance for students on navigating these assessments is essential.

In summary, while authentic assessments offer numerous advantages for enhancing learning and promoting meaningful assessment experiences, addressing resource requirements, subjectivity in evaluation, access to technology, and assessment literacy are essential steps in realizing their full potential in education.

Cultural Considerations in Authentic Assessment

In today’s increasingly diverse educational landscape, cultural considerations in authentic assessment play a pivotal role in ensuring fair, equitable, and inclusive evaluations for all students. This section will delve deeper into the significance of these considerations and provide a more extensive exploration of their various aspects.

Ensuring Fairness and Equity

Adapting for diverse populations.

In conclusion, cultural considerations in authentic assessment are fundamental to fostering fairness, equity, and inclusivity in education. Educators must remain culturally aware, adapt assessments to diverse populations, and create a collaborative environment where cultural diversity is celebrated. These efforts contribute to a more equitable and inclusive educational experience for all students.

Data Interpretation and Reporting in Authentic Assessment

Interpreting and reporting assessment data is a crucial phase of the authentic assessment process. This section explores the key aspects of data interpretation and effective communication of assessment results.

Analyzing Assessment Data

Communicating results.

In summary, data interpretation and reporting are integral components of authentic assessment. A holistic analysis of assessment data, clear communication of results, and involving students and families in the interpretation process contribute to a comprehensive understanding of student performance and growth. These practices support the overarching goal of authentic assessment – to improve teaching and learning.

Special Education and Authentic Assessment

Tailoring for students with disabilities.

Authentic assessments offer a promising avenue for tailoring assessments to the unique needs of students with disabilities. By allowing for flexibility in task design, presentation, and response options, these assessments can be individualized to better accommodate diverse learning profiles. This personalization helps students with disabilities demonstrate their knowledge and skills more accurately. For example, students with mobility impairments can benefit from digital assessments that enable them to use assistive technology. Furthermore, educators can adapt authentic assessments to align with the goals outlined in individualized education plans (IEPs) or 504 plans, ensuring that students with disabilities receive the necessary support and accommodations. However, it’s vital to strike a balance between tailoring assessments and maintaining the integrity of the assessment process, adhering to ethical standards, and preserving fairness.

Strategies for English Language Learners

Assessing English Language Learners (ELLs) authentically requires careful consideration of their language proficiency levels and cultural backgrounds. Authentic assessments should be culturally responsive and considerate of language barriers. Educators can employ strategies such as providing instructions in students’ native languages when possible, using visuals, incorporating real-world contexts that are familiar to ELLs, and allowing extra time for completing assessments. Additionally, educators may consider alternative forms of authentic assessment, such as performance-based tasks, where language proficiency plays a less central role. Collaborating with bilingual or English as a Second Language (ESL) specialists can be instrumental in ensuring that ELLs receive appropriate support during the assessment process. Tailored assessment accommodations, such as extended time or translation assistance, should be provided as outlined in the students’ Individualized Language Plans (ILPs) or Language Support Plans (LSPs).

Future Directions and Innovations

Emerging trends in assessment.

The landscape of authentic assessment continues to evolve with emerging trends that hold promise for enhancing its effectiveness. One notable trend is the increased emphasis on formative assessment, which provides ongoing feedback and informs instruction in real time. Formative authentic assessments, such as digital learning analytics and adaptive assessments, can offer immediate insights into student progress, enabling educators to tailor their teaching strategies more effectively. Additionally, there is a growing interest in alternative credentialing and digital badges, which recognize students’ skills and competencies acquired through authentic assessment. These credentials, often tied to specific tasks or projects, are gaining traction as a way to document and showcase a student’s abilities to potential employers or educational institutions.

Technology Integration

The integration of technology is poised to play a pivotal role in the future of authentic assessment. With the proliferation of digital tools and platforms, educators have the opportunity to create dynamic, multimedia-rich assessment tasks that closely mirror real-world scenarios. Virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) are expanding the possibilities for creating immersive, authentic assessment experiences. For example, VR simulations can be used in healthcare education to assess students’ clinical skills, providing a safe and realistic environment for practice and evaluation. Moreover, the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in scoring and feedback generation is gaining traction, offering automated and timely assessment results. However, ethical considerations surrounding data privacy and the equitable access to technology must be carefully addressed as technology integration continues to advance in the realm of authentic assessment.

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Classroom Assessment and the National Science Education Standards (2001)

Chapter: 3 assessment in the classroom, assessment in the classroom.

The primary audiences for this chapter are classroom teachers and teacher educators. The chapter offers a guiding framework to use when considering everyday assessments and then discusses the roles and responsibilities of teachers and students in improving assessment. Administrators also may be interested in the material presented in this chapter.

Assessment usually conjures up images of an end-of-unit test, a quarterly report card, a state-level examination on basic skills, or the letter grade for a final laboratory report. However, these familiar aspects of assessment do not capture the full extent or subtlety of how assessment operates every day in the classroom. The type of classroom assessment discussed in this chapter focuses upon the daily opportunities and interactions afforded to teachers and students for collecting information about student work and understandings, then uses that information to improve both teaching and learning. It is a natural part of classroom life that is a world away from formal examinations—both in spirit and in purpose.

During the school day, opportunities often arise for producing useful assessment information for teachers and students. In a class discussion, for example, remarks by some of the students may lead the teacher to believe that they do not understand the concept of energy conservation. The teacher decides that the class will revisit an earlier completed laboratory activity and, in the process, examine the connections between that activity and the discussion at hand. As groups of students conduct experiments, the teacher circulates around the room and questions individuals about the conclusions drawn from their data.

The students have an opportunity to reflect on and demonstrate their thinking. By trying to identify their sources of evidence, the teacher better understands where their difficulties arise and can alter their teaching accordingly and lead the students toward better understanding of the concept.

As another example, a planning session about future science projects in which the students work in small groups on different topic issues leads to a discussion about the criteria for judging the work quality. This type of assessment discussion, which occurs before an activity even starts, has a powerful influence on how the students conduct themselves throughout the activity and what they learn. During a kindergarten class discussion to plan a terrarium, the teacher recognizes that one of the students confuses rocks for living organisms and yet another seems unclear about the basic needs of plants. So the conversation is turned toward these topics to clarify these points. In this case, classroom teaching is reshaped immediately as a result of assessments made of the students' understanding.

Abundant assessment opportunities exist in each of these examples. Indeed, Hein and Price (1994) assert that anything a student does can be used for assessment purposes. This means there is no shortage of opportunities, assessment can occur at any time. One responsibility of the teacher is to use meaningful learning experiences as meaningful assessment experiences. Another is to select those occasions particularly rich in potential to teach something of importance about standards for high-quality work. To be effective as assessment that improves teaching and learning, the information generated from the activity must be used to inform the teacher and/or students in helping to decide what to do next. In such a view, assessment becomes virtually a continuous classroom focus, quite indistinguishable from teaching and curriculum.

The Standards convey a view of assessment and learning as two sides of the same coin and essential for all students to achieve a high level of understanding in science. To best support their students' learning, teachers are continuously engaged in ongoing assessments of the learning and teaching in their classroom. An emphasis on formative assessment—assessment that informs teaching and learning and occurs throughout an activity or unit—is incorporated into regular practice. Furthermore, teachers cultivate this integrated view of teaching, learning, and continuous assessment among their students. When formative assessment becomes an integral part of classroom practice, student achievement is enhanced (Black & Wiliam, 1998a; Crooks, 1988; Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986). However, as discussed in the previous chapter, research also indicates that this type of assessment often is not recognized as significant by teachers, principals, parents, or the general public, and is seldom articulated or featured as a priority. Box 3-1 provides definitions for “formative” and “summative,” which pertain to the two main functions that assessment can take.

The centrality of inquiry in the vision of science education advanced in the Standards provides a particularly compelling reason to take a closer look at classroom assessment, and formative assessment, in particular. If students are to do science, not solely verbalize major facts and principles, they should engage in activity that extends over several days or weeks. Their work should be less episodic and fractured than lesson-based science teaching. A different kind of assessment is necessary, one that is designed to help students get better at inquiring into the world of science (NRC, 2000). The best way to support inquiry is to obtain information about students while they are actually engaged in science investigations with a view toward helping them develop their understandings of both subject matter and procedure. The information collected by teachers and students while the students are at work can be used to guide their progress. A teacher asks questions that may help spur thinking about science concepts that are part of the investigation and may help students understand what it takes to do work that comports with high standards. At the end, the information may be collected and reviewed to form a basis for summative evaluations.

FEATURES OF FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

To help design and implement an effective and efficient classroom assessment system, we offer the

following general template for designing and integrating formative assessment into regular classroom practice.

Where are you trying to go?

Where are you now?

How can you get there?

Having posed these questions as a guide, it is important to note that no one blueprint or single best model exists for using assessment as a tool that, first and foremost, supports and facilitates student learning. Each teacher needs to develop a system that works for him or her. By making explicit desirable features of assessment, these three critical questions provide a framework for achieving powerful classroom assessment. The questions and the obtained responses are tightly interconnected and interdependent and they are not new. Based on experience, many teachers both intuitively and purposefully consider these questions every day. Attention to them is part of good teaching.

Through the vignettes and discussion that follow, we hope to make features of formative assessment more explicit and, in doing so, highlight how intimately they are connected to teaching.

There is no one best assessment system for the classroom. What works for Ms. K or Ms. R in their classrooms may not work in another. What is important is that assessment is an ongoing activity, one that relies on multiple strategies and sources for collecting information that bears on the quality of student work and that then can be used to help both the students and the teacher think more pointedly about how the quality might be improved.

In the first vignette, Ms. K is helping her students by painting the broad landscape so that they can see how their work fits into a wider context. She also reminds them of the criteria for quality work. Thus, she is helping them to develop a clear view of what they are to achieve and where they are going. At this stage, the view is usually clearer to the teacher than to the students. One of her responsibilities is to help the students understand and share the goals, which will become progressively clearer to them as the inquiry progresses.

To chart student progress, Ms. K relies on several strategies and sources: observations, conversations, journal assignments, student work, and a final presentation. These opportunities are part of the natural flow of classroom life, indistinguishable for her and for the students from collecting data, discussing findings, planning next steps, drawing conclusions, and communicating findings about the main concepts they are expected to learn. In helping her students to reach their goal, she bases her actions on multiple pieces of evidence that she gleans from activities embedded in her teaching and curriculum. She uses this information to make decisions about work time, about support she needs to provide, and about resource suggestions.

Ms. R also uses assessment in

strategic and productive ways. She frames an assessment task in a way that will engage students to learn as they prepare for the final presentation and concert. Peer-design reviews, conversations, and other assessments were built into the activity of designing and building instruments so that students could draw from these to inform their design and construction of instruments. She provides the students with prompts and elements that should be included in their presentations so that the students will be clear on what is required. She has clear guidelines about the quality and depth of responses in terms of how students will demonstrate their understandings and skills.

The usefulness of assessment does not stop at teachers collecting information in the course of their teaching and providing feedback. Like Ms. K and Ms. R, they plan and structure specific assessment events, such as individual conferences with students, occasions for the students to write about a topic, design reviews, observations of students at work, presentations of work, and initiating whole-class discussion of what they have learned so far. These are just some of the many assessment activities and methods available to teachers and students. In these same scenarios, teachers could also have integrated the use of additional written assessments—including selected response, short answer, essay, lab reports, homework problems, among others —into their teaching in ways that would generate rich assessment opportunities.

Throughout this text, we have attempted to avoid technical terms whenever possible. When we do use them, we try to offer a definition or use it in a context where its meaning makes sense. Box 3-2 provides operational definitions of several terms you will find in the assessment literature.

Now, consider the assessment in the two vignettes in light of the following three guiding questions: Where are you trying to go? Where are you now? How can you get there?

WHERE ARE YOU TRYING TO GO?

Clear criteria.

The goals articulated in the Standards arise from their emphasis on the active nature of science and their stress on the range of activities that encompass what it means to do science and to understand both specific concepts and the subject area as a whole. Thus, the Standards advocate going beyond the coverage of basic facts to include skills and thought processes, such as the ability to ask questions, to construct and test explanations of phenomena, to communicate ideas, to work with data and use evidence to support arguments, to apply knowledge to new situations and new questions, to problem solve and make decisions, and to understand history and nature of scientific knowledge (NRC, 1996). To best assist students in their science learning, assessment should attend to these many facets of learning, including content understanding, application, processes, and reasoning.

In his book on classroom assessment for teachers, Stiggins (2001) writes,

The quality of any assessment depends first and foremost on the clarity and appropriateness of our definitions of the achievement target to be assessed...We cannot assess academic achievement effectively if we do not know and understand what that valued target is. (p. 19)

As Stiggins states, it is important that teachers have clear performance criteria in mind before they assess student work and responses. Ms. R's guidelines included attention to both: she expected her students to demonstrate an understanding of concepts of sound, such as causes of pitch, as well as the nature of technology. Before the students engaged in the assessment, Ms. R had outlined how she would evaluate the student responses in each area.

Clarity about the overall goals is only a first step. Given that goals are clear, the teacher has to help the students achieve greater clarity. This usually entails identification of somewhat discrete stages that will help the students to understand what is required to move toward the goal. These intermediate steps often emerge as the study progresses, often in lesson design and planning but also on the spot in the classroom as information about the students' levels of understanding become clearer, new special interests become apparent, or unexpected learning difficulties arise. This

complex, pedagogical challenge is heightened because the goals that embody the standards and the related criteria need to be understood by all students.

One of the goals of the Standards is for all students to become independent lifelong learners. The standards emphasize the integral role that regular self-assessment plays in achieving this goal. The document states:

Students need the opportunity to evaluate and reflect on their own scientific understanding and ability. Before students can do this, they need to understand the goals for learning science. The ability to self-assess understanding is an essential tool for self-directed learning. (p. 88)

Sadler (1989) emphasizes the importance of student understanding of what constitutes quality work, “The indispensable condition for improvement is that the student comes to hold a concept of quality roughly equivalent to that held by the teacher...” (p. 121). Yet, conveying to students the standards and criteria for good work is one of the most difficult aspects of involving them in their own assessment. Again, teachers can use various ways to help students develop and cultivate these insights. Following the example of Ms. K's class in the first vignette, students and teachers can become engaged in a substantive, assessment conversation about what is a good presentation, such as a good lab investigation or a good reading summary while engaging students in the development process of assessment rubrics. Another starting point for these conversations could be a discussion about exemplary pieces of work, where students need to think about and share the characteristics of the piece of work that makes it “good.”

In the first vignette, Ms. K facilitates frequent conversations with her class about what constitutes good work. Although these discussions occur at the beginning of the project period, she regularly and deliberately cycles back to issues of expectations and quality to increase their depth of understanding as they get more involved in their projects. In discussions of an exemplary piece of work, she encourages the students to become as specific as possible. Over time, the students begin to help refine some of the criteria by which they will be evaluated. Such a process not only helps to make the criteria more useful; it increases their ownership of the standards by which judgments will be made about their work. For her third graders, Ms. R provides guidelines for planning and presenting their instruments and introduces questions for the students to address as they engage in their work.

WHERE ARE YOU NOW?

Once they have clearly determined where they want to go, teachers and

students need to find out where students currently stand in relation to the goals. Of course, the process is not quite so linear. It is not unusual for the goals to change somewhat as the students and teachers get more involved in the study.

Variety Is Essential

Ms. K's and Ms R's classrooms demonstrate the many ways assessment information can be obtained. In the first scenario, conferences with students allow Ms. K to ask questions, hear specifics of project activity, and probe student reasoning and thought processes. She can get a sense of how and where the individuals are making contributions to their group 's work and help to ensure that they share the work at hand, including development of an understanding of the underlying processes and content addressed by the activity. The information she learns as a result of these conferences will guide decisions on time allocation, pace, resources, and learning activities that she can help provide. After observations and listening to students discuss instruments, Ms. R made the judgment that her students were ready to continue with the activity. The journals prepared by Ms. K's students and the individual reflections of Ms. R's provided the teachers with an indication of their understanding of the scientific concepts they were working with, and thereby allowed them to gain new and different insights into their respective students' work. The entries also provided the teachers with a mechanism, though not the only one, to gain some insight into the individual student's thinking, understanding, and ability to apply knowledge. In Ms. K's class, the journal writing was regular enough that the teacher's comments and questions posed in response to the entries could guide the students as they revisit previous work and move on to related activities and reflections.

Through such varied activities, the teachers in the vignettes are able to see how the students make sense of the data, the context into which they place the data, as well as the opportunity to evaluate and then assist the students on the ability to articulate their understandings and opinions in a written format or by incorporating understandings into a design. As they walk around the room, listening, observing, and interacting with students, both teachers take advantage of the data they collect.

Any single assessment is not likely to be comprehensive enough to provide high-quality information in all the important areas so that a student or teacher can make use of the data. Ms. K, for example, would not use the student conferences to obtain all the information she needs about student comprehension and involvement. She gets different information from reading student journals. In the individual reflections, Ms. R can get additional data to complement or

reinforce the information obtained by observing students as they engage in the activity or by talking with them.

Questioning

The occasions to sit with, converse with, question, and listen to the students gave Ms. K and Ms. R the opportunities to employ powerful questioning strategies as an assessment tool. When teachers ask salient open-ended questions and allow for an appropriate window or wait time (Rowe, 1974)—they can spur student thinking and be privy to valuable information gained from the response. Questions do not need to occur solely in whole-group discussion. The strategy can occur one-on-one as the teacher circulates around the room. Effective questioning that elicits quality responses is not easy. In addition to optimal wait-time, it requires a solid understanding of the subject matter, attentive consideration of each student's remarks, as well as skillful crafting of further leading questions. In the vignette, Ms. K needed to be aware of the existence and causes of algal blooms in order to ask questions that may lead her students down productive paths in exploring them.

Examination of Student Work

The close examination of student work also is invaluable, and teachers do it all the time. When looking at work, it is important to ask critical questions, such as “For what does this provide evidence? ” “What do they mean by this response?” “What other opportunities did the child have to demonstrate knowledge or skills?” “What future experience may help to promote further development? ” “What response am I expecting?” “What are the criteria for good work?” “What are the criteria for gauging competency?” These are just a few of the questions that can spur useful analysis. Continued and careful consideration of student work can enlighten both teacher and student.

Form to Match Purpose

Like Ms. K and Ms. R in the vignettes, teachers are not concerned with just one dimension of learning. To plan teaching and to meet their students' needs, they need to recognize if a student understands a particular concept but demonstrates difficulty in applying it in a personal investigation or if a student does not comprehend fundamental ideas underlying the concept. Specific information regarding the sources of confusions can be useful in planning activities or in initiating a conversation between students and the teacher. An array of strategies and forms of assessment to address the goals that the student and teacher have established allows students multiple opportunities to demonstrate their understandings.

This is important if we hope to support all students. Darling-Hammond (1994) comments, “if assessment is to be used to open up as many opportunities as possible to as many students as possible, it must address a wide range of talents, a variety of life experiences, and multiple ways of knowing” (p. 17).

A comprehensive understanding of science requires more than knowledge of scientific information and skills. The Standards articulate the breadth and depth of what it means to know and be able to do in science at different grade levels. To help ensure that assessment addresses and supports a broader view of science understanding, it can be helpful to consider the different dimensions that comprise knowledge in science. Some aspects of science knowledge are highlighted in Box 3-3 .

With knowledge of the student's strengths, a teacher can help ensure that any particular assessment allows the student to demonstrate understanding and can assess whether information would be better gathered in a different format to allow for that opportunity to express thinking in different ways. For instance, Ms. K collects her assessment data from a variety of places, including discussions, conversations, conferences, observations, journals and written work, in addition to providing useful information, relying on a variety of sources and using a variety of formats so as not to privilege any one way of knowing. The conferences she sets up and the conversations that ensue give her opportunities to probe understandings and confusions and reach students that may not be as articulate when it comes to written work.

Thus the form that assessment takes is significant. The form and content of assessment should be consistent with the intended purpose. Underlying this guideline is the technical notion of validity. Technical features are discussed later in this chapter. Validity centers on whether the assessment is measuring or capturing what it is intended to measure or capture. If content understanding is the goal, it is necessary to design an appropriate assessment that would tap into that dimension of their understanding. If the ability to design an investigation is the goal, it is necessary to provide the opportunity for a student to demonstrate her ability to do such an activity. Validity is not, then, an inherent property of an individual assessment; rather, the interpretations drawn from the data and the subsequent actions that ensue are either valid or invalid. Choices for the form of the assessments are extensive and should be guided by the goals set for student learning. To find the direction for best use of the assessment data, a teacher or student gathers data in the course classroom activity by asking questions, such as “What does this information tell me?” and “How can I use it to further learning and improve teaching? ” and “What other types of data should I be looking for to help me make sense of this information?”

From Stiggins' (2001) book, Student-Involved Classroom Assessment, Figure 3-1 offers questions to consider when designing, selecting, or implementing an assessment. After first advising teachers to set clear and appropriate targets—or learning and performance goals—and convey these targets to their students, he stresses the importance of selecting appropriate methods and of taking care to avoid invalidity and bias.

FIGURE 3-1 Considerations for designing, selecting, implementing assessment.

SOURCE: Stiggins (2001).

Subject-Matter Goals

Effective formative assessment must be informed by theories to ensure that it elicits the important goals of science, including a student 's current understanding and procedural capability. The elements of curriculum goals and methods of instruction come together, for part of the instructor's task is to frame subgoals that are effective in guiding progress towards curriculum goals. However, this can only be done in light of the teacher's beliefs about how best to help students to learn. This introduces learning theory in addition to assessment, but in formative assessment these are very closely intertwined. Thus there has to be a conceptual analysis of the subject goals, which also is complemented by analysis of the cognitive capacities of the learners. Examples of issues that might arise are the choice between concrete but limited instances of an idea and abstract but universal presentations, the decision about whether to use daily experience or second-hand evidence, the complexity of the patterns of reasoning required in any particular approach, and research evidence about common misconceptions that hinder the progress of students in understanding particular concepts. (For additional information on these theoretical underpinnings, see NRC, 1999a.)

Here again, depth in a teacher's subject-matter knowledge is essential. When teaching the concept of force in his high school class, Jim Minstrell is aware that although students use terms like “push” and “pull” to describe “force,” the understandings they have for these terms and for the concept of force differs from those shared by scientists (Minstrell, 1992). Specifically, students often believe that a push or a pull—or a force—must be due to an active, or causal, agent. With this in mind, Minstrell carefully designs his instruction, including his questions and student experiences, to help them challenge their notions as they move towards a better understanding of the scientific phenomena and explanations involved with force. After spending time discussing and drawing the forces involved as an object is dropped to the floor, he plans questions and activities to help cultivate student understandings of more passive actions of forces so they understand that the conceptual notion of force applies to both active and passive actions and objects. His class discusses the forces involved with an object resting on a table, including the reasonableness of a table exerting an upward force. They go over other situations that would help them decide what is happening in terms of force,

such as discussing the forces involved as the same object sits in the student's hand, hangs from a spring, and as the object is pushed off the edge of the table. Throughout the unit, the teacher listens carefully to his students' responses and explanations. Without an understanding of both student learning and the science involved, upon hearing the proper terms from his students, he may have proceeded with his unit with the impression that the students shared a scientific understanding of force (for a class transcript and analysis by the teacher, see Minstrell, 1992).

Nature and Form of Feedback

The data produced from the variety of assessments illustrated in the vignettes are not only useful for the teachers but also as essential tools in helping students to realize where they stand in relation to their goals. Thus for the students, the journals with the teacher 's comments added, serve as a repository for one form of feedback so they can maintain a continuing record of their work and progress. It is important to emphasize that assigning grades on a student' s work does not help them to grasp what it takes on their part to understand something more accurately or deeply. Comments on a student 's work that indicate specific actions to close the gap between the student's current understanding and the desired goal provide crucial help if the student takes them seriously. There is well-researched evidence that grades on student work do not help learning in the way that specific comments do. The same research shows that students generally look only at the grades and take little notice of the comments if provided (Butler, 1987). The opportunity that Ms. R's students had to design, build, and then rebuild instruments based on their trials gives them a chance to make good use of feedback to improve their piece of work.

Providing information to students is not solely a cognitive exchange. It is intertwined with issues of affect, motivation, self-esteem, self-attribution, self-concept, self-efficacy, and one's beliefs about the nature of learning. From many studies in this area (Butler, 1988; Butler & Neuman, 1995; Cameron & Pierce, 1994; Kluger & deNisi, 1996), a further generalization emerges. This is the distinction between feedback that emphasizes learning goals and the associated targets and feedback that focuses on self-esteem, often linked to the giving of grades and other reward and punishment schemes. Upon comparison of feedback in experimental studies, it is the feedback about learning goals that shows better learning gains. Feedback of the self-esteem type (trying to make the student feel better, irrespective of the quality of the work) leads less successful students to attribute their shortcomings to lack of ability. The

corollary for these students is that there is little point in trying or hoping for better.

The way in which information is provided is therefore a delicate matter. Grades, and even undue praise, can reinforce expectations of failure and lead to reluctance to invest effort. Yet this culture is deeply embedded in American schools and is hard to change. This fact highlights the importance of the nature and form of the information provided to students. Thus, priority should be given to providing students with information that they can use to reach desired learning goals (Ames, 1992; Butler, 1988; Dweck, 1986).

Timing of Assessment

In helping teachers and students establish where students stand in relation to learning goals, assessment activities are not only useful during and at the end of a unit of teaching, they also can be valuable at the start of a piece of work. Suitably open and nontechnical questions or activities can stimulate students to express how much they already know and understand about a topic. This may be particularly important when the students come from a variety of backgrounds, with some having studied aspects of the topic before, either independently or with other teachers in different schools. Such assessment can both stimulate the thinking of the students and inform the teacher of the existing ideas and vocabularies from which the teaching has to start and on which it has to build.

Formative Assessment in Scientific Experimentation—An Example

The following example from the Lawrence Hall of Science assessment handbook (Barber et al., 1995) demonstrates how assessment mechanisms can enrich science investigations and provide the teacher with useful information. In this illustration, students are challenged to design and conduct two experiments to determine which of three reactants —baking soda, calcium chloride, and a phenol red solution (phenol red and water)—when mixed together produces heat. The students already have completed an activity in which they mixed all three substances. The students are expected to refer to their observations and the results of that first activity. Box 3-4 illustrates a data sheet used by the students for the assessment activity, which provides prompts to record their experimental design and observations. Through this investigation, the teacher would be able to assess students' abilities to do the following:

Design a controlled experiment in which only one ingredient is omit-

ted, so there is ONLY one difference between the preliminary reaction and the comparison reaction.

Design experiments that will provide information to help determine which reactants are necessary to produce the heat in this reaction.

Record their experiments, results, and conclusions using chemical notation as appropriate.

Use experiment results and reasoning skills to draw conclusions about what causes heat. (p. 152)

These students were able to arrive at some part of what would be a correct conclusion, though the degree to which the students used logical reasoning, or supported their conclusions with data, varied widely. Many came up with a correct solution but featured a noncontrol, inadequate experimental design. In addition, the recording of results and observations was accomplished with varying degrees of clarity. Their responses, and the language they use to describe and explain observations and phenomena, suggest varying levels of understanding of the chemical and physical changes underlying the reactions. Because the assessment was designed primarily to tap scientific investigation and experimentation skills and understandings, other assessments, including perhaps follow-up questions, would be required to make inferences about their level of conceptual under-

standing in the chemical and physical processes involved with these reactions.

With close examination of the student work produced in this activity, teachers were able to gain insight into abilities, skills, and understandings on which they then could provide feedback to the student. It also provided the teacher with information for additional lessons and activities on chemical and physical reactions. Box 3-5 , Box 3-6 , Box 3-7 , Box 3-8 through Box 3-9 offer samples of this type of student work along with teacher commentary.

Creating Opportunities

Ongoing, formative assessment does not solely rely on a small-group activity structure as in the vignettes. In a whole-class discussion, teachers can create opportunities to listen carefully to student responses as they reflect on their work, an activity, or an opportunity to read aloud. In many classrooms, for example, teachers ask students to summarize the day's lesson, highlighting what sense they made of what they did. This type of format allows the teacher to hear what the students are learning from the activity and offers other students the opportunity of learning about connections that they might not have made.

In one East Palo Alto, California, classroom, the teacher asked two students at the beginning of the class to be ready to summarize their activity at the end. The class had been studying DNA and had spent the class hour constructing a DNA model with colored paper representing different nucleotide bases. In their summary, the students discussed the pairing of nucleotide bases and held up their model to show how adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine. Although they could identify the parts of the model and discuss the importance of “fit,” they did not connect the representative pieces to a nitrogen base, sugar, and a phosphate group. When probed, they could identify deoxyribose and the phosphate group by color, but they were not able to discuss what roles these subunits played in a DNA helix. After hearing their remarks, the teacher realized that they needed help relating the generalizations from the model to an actual strand of DNA, the phenomenon they were modeling. Regardless of the format —individual, small group, whole class, project-based, written, or discussion—teachers have the opportunity to build in meaningful assessment. These opportunities should be considered in curriculum design.

Cultivating Student Involvement in Assessment

Student participation becomes a key component of successful assessment strategies at every step: clarifying the target and purpose of assessment, discussing the assessment methods, deliberating about standards for quality work, reflecting on the work. Sharing assessment with students does not mean that teachers transfer all responsibility to the student but rather that assessment is shaped and refined from day to day just as teaching is. For student self- and peer-assessment to be incorporated into regular practice requires cultivation and integration into daily classroom discourse, but the results can be well worth the effort. Black and Wiliam (1998a) assert, “...self-assessment by the students is not an interesting option or luxury; it has to be seen as essential” (p. 55). The student is the one who must take action to “close” the gap between what they know and what is expected (Sadler, 1989). A teacher can facilitate this process by providing opportunities for participation and multiple points of entry, but students actually have to take the necessary action.

In the opening vignette, students in Ms. K's class are drawing on a range of data sources, including their own and classmates' projects, library research, and interviews with local experts. In preparation for presentations, the students are encouraged to make the connection of the small-scale study they do with plant fertilizer to the larger local system. Opportunities for revisions and regular discussions of what is good work help to clarify criteria as well as strengthen connections and analysis, thus improving learning. Class discussions around journal reflections provide important data for teachers about student learning and also allow students to hear connections others have made.

For this transition to occur, peerand self-assessment must be integrated into the student's ways of thinking. Such a shift in the concept of assessment cannot simply be imposed, any more than any new concept can be understood without the student becoming an active participant in the learning. Reflection is a learned skill. Thus, the teacher faces the task of helping the student relate the desired ability to his or her current ideas about assessing one's self and others and how it can affect learning. How do students now make judgments about their own work and that of others? How accurate are these judgments? How might they be improved? Such discussions are advanced immeasurably through the examination of actual student work—initially perhaps by the examination of the anonymous work of students who are not members of the class.

Involving students in their own and peer assessment also helps teachers share the responsibility of figuring out where each student is in relation to the goals or target and also in developing a useful plan to help students bridge the gap. In addition to helping students learn how to learn, there are pedagogical payoffs when students begin to improve their ability to peerand self-assess. Collecting and utiliz-

ing student data for every student in the classroom is made much easier with a classroom of people assisting in the same task. With a clearer vision of peer- and self-assessment and adequate time, teachers can get this help from their students and in the process help them to improve the quality of their own work.

Although there is no one way to develop peer- and self-assessment habits in students, successful methods will involve students in all aspects of the assessment process, not solely the grading after an exercise is completed. If students are expected to effectively participate in the process, they then need to be clear on the target and the criteria for good work, to assess their own efforts in the light of the criteria, and to share responsibility in taking action in the light of feedback. One method that has proved successful has been to ask students to label their work with red, yellow, or green dots. Red symbolizes the student's view that he or she lacks understanding, green that he or she has confidence, and yellow that there appear to be some difficulties and the student is not sure about the quality of the response. These icons convey the same general meaning of traffic lights and are so labeled in the class. This simple method has proved to be surprisingly useful with the colored dots serving to convey at a glance, between student and teacher and between students and their peers, who has problems, where the main problems lie, which students can help one another, and so on. The traffic-light icons can play another important role, in that they help to make explicit the “big” concepts and ideas of a unit.

With a teacher's help, much useful work in student groups can start from assessment tasks: each member of a group can comment on another's homework, or one another's tests, and then discuss and defend the basis for their decisions. Such discussions inevitably highlight the criteria for quality. The teacher can help to guide the discussions, especially during the times in which students have difficulty helping one another. Peers can discuss strengths and areas of weakness after projects and presentations. Much of the success of peer- and selfassessment hinges on a classroom culture where assessment is viewed as a way to help improve work and where students accept the responsibility for learning—that of their own and of others in their community.

HOW CAN YOU GET THERE?

Much as Ms. K and Ms. R do in the snapshots of their respective classes, captured in the vignettes, teachers continually make decisions about both the teaching and the learning going on in their classrooms. They make curricular decisions and decide on experiences they think can help further students' understandings.

They decide when and how to introduce and approach a concept and determine an appropriate pace. They continually monitor levels of interest and engagement in curricular activity. They attend to the individual student, the small group, and the class as a whole. If data are collected and used to inform the teacher and student, assessment can play a significant role in all the decisions a teacher makes about what actions to take next. A focus on assessment cuts across multiple standards areas. Box 3-10 shows how teaching standards seek to extend the purview of the teacher.

The teacher is able to see whether students are struggling with an activity or concept, whether they have developed fundamental understandings, whether they need to revisit a particular idea or need more practice to develop particular skills. Teachers need to understand the principles of sound assessment and apply those principles as a matter of daily routine practice.

With the knowledge gained from assessment data, a teacher can make choices. Thus, assessment serves not only as a guide to teaching methods but also to selecting and improving curriculum to better match the interests and needs of the students. According to the Assessment Standards (NRC, 1996), planning curricula is one of the primary uses of assessment data. Teachers can use assessment data to make judgments about

the developmental appropriateness of the science content,

student interest in the content,

the effectiveness of activities in producing the desired learning outcome,

the effectiveness of the selected examples, and

the understanding and abilities students must have to benefit from the selected activities and examples. (p. 87)

Thus assessment data can be used immediately, as Ms. K does when she alters upcoming plans, and Ms. R does when she decides her students are ready to move on to the next stage of activity. The data also are useful when the teachers cover the material again the following year.

Assessment Should Be Consistent with Pedagogy

For the data to be useful in guiding instructional decisions, the assessment methods should be consistent with the desired pedagogy. Thus, assessment takes into consideration process as well as outcomes and products and the instruction and activities that lead to those ends. Only if assessments in science classrooms can more closely approximate the vision of science education teaching and learning can they inform the teacher's work in trying to implement the emphasis in the Standards on students actively doing science.

Use of Assessment Data

The extent to which any assessment data inform teaching and influence learning depends in a large part on use. Assessment-generated data do little good in the head of the teacher, in the grade book, or by failing to inform future decisions, such as selecting curricula, planning class time or having conversations with students. Teachers must use it to adapt their teaching to meet the needs of their students. In other words, just as teaching shapes assessment, assessment shapes teaching. The success of formative assessment hinges in large part on how the information is put to use.

With rich assessment data, a teacher can begin to develop possible explanations about what the difficulties might be for the student. If some pedagogical approach did not work the first time, is it likely to be more effective when repeated? Or, is some new approach required? Might other resources be provided? Setting subgoals is another strategy that is often effective. The student is encouraged to take smaller steps toward learning a particular concept or skill.

Peer instruction is another approach that can sometimes work in helping students reach a learning or performance target. If a teacher notices that one student seems to understand (for example, by displaying a green “traffic light”) while another does not, the one who understands might help the one who does not. Students occasionally can assist one another because they themselves may have overcome a similar difficulty. Most all teachers use this technique from time to time during class discussion when they encourage the entire group to help a student who clearly is having difficulty. The same principle can operate with just two students working cooperatively when one may have just figured out the desired response and can explain it to

the other. Ms. R brought in sixth graders to assist her third graders while they made instruments. Even though help was provided to handle materials and supplies, the older students also could have been more vocal in the design and construction of the instruments.

Assessment Data Management

Although teachers make assessments all the time, it is important that they develop a system for gathering data about student understanding and progress. This way, no child is overlooked and teachers can be sure that they focus on what they think are the most important learning goals and outcomes. The specific system certainly can vary, depending on a teacher's experience and preferences in gathering such information.

Relying on memory can be difficult with more than 150 students, with many activities, interactions, and observations and over the course of many months before summative evaluations call for the use of such information. One teacher might carry a clipboard while circulating around the room to record comments and observations. Each student has an index card on which to write questions or request an opportunity to speak with the teacher rather than to interrupt. Each day, the teacher observes a handful of students at work but this does not prevent the recording of information from conversations overheard in the room. This method of collecting data not only helps to organize the teaching but also serves as pertinent information when talking with parents and students. In a review of the relevant research in this area, Fuchs and Fuchs (1986) reported that student achievement gains were significantly larger (twice the effect size) when teachers used a regular and systematic method for recording and interpreting assessment data and providing feedback as compared to when they made spontaneous decisions.

In addition to making good use of the data, keeping good records of day-to-day assessments also is important for summative purposes. When meeting with parents or students, it is helpful to have notes of concrete examples and situations to help convey a point. Good records also can serve to address issues of accountability, a topic that will be discussed in the next chapter.

THE EQUITY PRINCIPLE

The Standards were written with the belief that all students should be expected to strive for and to achieve high standards. According to the Standards, in addition to being developmentally appropriate, “assessment tasks must be set in a variety of contexts, be engaging to students with different interests and experiences, and must not assume the perspective

or experience of a particular gender, racial or ethnic group” (p. 86). The corresponding principle in classroom assessment is clear: Assessment is equitable and fair, supporting all students in their quest for high standards.

Equity issues are difficult to grapple with and arise at all levels of the education system and in all components of any program. All participants—teachers, students, administrators, curriculum developers, parents—are called upon to share the belief that all students can learn, and this premise needs to infuse all aspects of classroom life. Focusing on equity in classroom assessment is one part of the challenge.

For years, assessment has been used to sort and place students in such a way that all students do not have access to quality science programs (Darling-Hammond, 1994; Oakes, 1985, 1990). Depending on the form assessment takes and how the ensuing data are used, assessment can be a lever for high-quality science education for all rather than an obstacle. In research conducted by White and Frederiksen (1998) where students engaged in peer- and selfassessment strategies, traditionally low-attaining students demonstrated the most notable improvement.

Frequent and immediate feedback to students based on careful attention to daily activity—including student work, observations, participation in conversations and discussions—can provide teachers and students with valuable information. If this information is used in a manner that informs students about standards for improvement and how to attain them, it also can help support all students to achieve their potential.

Assessing students engaged in meaningful activities can promote equity in several other respects as well. For one, teachers can help create a setting where assessmentrelated activities engage students in experiences that help them synthesize information, integrate experiences, reflect on learning, and make broader connections. Through their regular journal reflections, the students in Ms. K's class reflected on their learning, making connections between their particular project and the local ecosystem. Assessments and assessment-related conversations can help make explicit to all students standards of quality work, make clearer the connections among seemingly unrelated content, concepts, and skills, and provide a scaffold for ongoing student self-assessment (Cole et al., 1999). Misunderstandings of the task or the context, misconceptions about the nature of the task, or difficulties with the language used, can be brought to light and dealt with, often by students helping one another.

Some people believe that the different roles a teacher plays with respect to assessment perpetuates

inequitable treatment. In any personal relationship, few of us succeed in treating all of our acquaintances with equal consideration. We may be predisposed by their color, their gender, the way they talk, their social class, whether they respond to us in a warm or in a distant way, and much more. All teachers face such issues as they respond to their students as individuals. Formative assessment requires a close and often personal response. A student's answer to a question may seem strange or not well thought out. Sometimes such reactions may be justified, but sometimes they are prejudgments that may be unfair to the student. In particular, if a student is treated dismissively, then sees another student making a similar response treated with respect, he may be unlikely to try again. So the first and hardest part of treating students equitably is to try to treat all students with the same respect and seriousness. In particular, the idea that everyone has a fixed IQ, that some are bright and some are not, and there is nothing one can do about it, can be very destructive of the kind of interaction necessary between teacher and student to advance learning. If a teacher really thinks in this way, it is highly probable that such an attitude will be conveyed, directly or indirectly, to the student. In the case of one pigeonholed as less “intelligent, ” the student might believe that this is a true judgment and therefore stop trying.

A different problem that leads to inequity in teaching is associated with problems of “disclosure,” the technical label for the challenge of assuring that a student understands the context in which a question is framed and interprets the demand of the question in the way that the teacher intended. Some of these problems are associated with the language of a question or task. For example, both vocabulary and oral style differ among children so the teacher may communicate far more effectively with students from one socioeconomic or ethnic background than with those from another background. Many class questions or homework tasks are set in what are assumed to be realistic settings, often on the assumption that this will be more accessible than one set in abstract. One student's familiar setting, for example, a holiday drive in a car, may be uncommon for another family that cannot afford a car, or even a holiday. Ironically, some research has shown that questions set in “everyday” settings open up wider differences in response between students in advantaged compared with disadvantaged backgrounds than the same questions set in abstract contexts (Cooper & Dunne, 2000).

These problems of “disclosure,” and the broader problems of bias in testing have been studied from many aspects in relation to summative tests, especially where these are developed

and scored externally from the school. Although such external tests are not subject to the risks of bias at a personal, one-on-one level, this advantage may be offset because a teacher might see that a student does not understand a question and can rephrase to overcome the obstacle, the external grader or machine cannot.

Some people caution against complications associated with the multiple roles that teachers play in assessment, including that of both judge and jury. They see this subjectivity as a threat to the validity of the assessment. They point to a study that examined the effects of expectations on human judgment (Rosenthal & Jacobsen, 1968). Teachers were provided contrived information that a handful of students showed exceptional promise, when in actuality they were no different from the others. When questioned several months later about those students ' progress, the teacher reported that they excelled and progressed more than their classmates. One of the basic claims made by the researchers in this study was that the teacher fulfilled the “exceptional-promise ” expectation. In efforts to try to overcome or at least abate inherent bias that results in inequitable treatment, teachers, and all those working with students, need to be examined and keep a check on the bias that enters into their own questioning, thinking, and responses.

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

To some, issues of validity and reliability are at the heart of assessment discussions. Although these considerations come into play most often in connection with large-scale assessment activities, technical issues are important to consider for all assessments including those that occur each day in the classroom (American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement and Education, 1999). Though principles stay the same, operationally they mean and look different for formative and summative purposes of assessment.

Issues of validity center on whether an assessment is measuring or capturing what is intended for measure or capture. Validity has many dimensions, three of which include content validity, construct validity, and instructional validity. Content validity concerns the degree to which an assessment measures the intended content area. Construct validity refers to the degree to which an assessment measures the intended construct or ability. For example, the Standards outline the abilities and understandings necessary to do scientific inquiry. For an assessment to make valid claims about a student' s ability to conduct inquiry, the assessment would need to assess the range or abilities and understandings comprised in the construct of inquiry.

Finally, an assessment has instructional validity if the content matches what was actually taught. Questions concerning these different forms of validity need to be addressed independently, although they are often related. Messick (1989) offers another perspective on validity. His definition begins with an examination of the uses of an assessment and from there derives the technical requirements. Validity, as he defines it, is “an integrated evaluative judgment of the degree to which empirical evidence and theoretical rationales support the adequacy and appropriateness of inferences and actions based on test scores or other modes of assessment” [italics added] (p. 13). Thus, validity in his view is a property of consequences and use rather than of the actual assessment. Messick 's (1994) use of validity stresses the importance of weighing social consequences: “Test validity and social values are intertwined and that evaluation of intended and unintended consequences of any testing is integral to the validations of test, interpretation and use” (p. 19). Validity, he argued, needs evidentiary grounding, including evidence of what happens as a result. Moss (1996) urges that actions taken based on interpretation of assessment data and that consequences of those actions be considered as evidence to warrant validity.

Attention to issues of validity is important in the type of ongoing classroom assessment discussed thus far in this chapter. It is important to keep in mind the guideline that says that assessments should match purpose. When gathering data, teachers and students need to consider if the information accurately represents what they wish to summarize, corresponds with subject matter taught, and reflects any unintended social consequences that result from the assessment. Invalid formative assessment can lead to the wrong corrective action, or to neglect action where it is needed. Issues relating to validity are discussed further in Chapter 4 .

Reliability refers to generalizability across tasks. Usually, it is a necessary but not complete requirement for validity. Moss (1996) makes a case that reliability is not a necessity for classroom assessment. She argues for the value of classroom teachers' special contextualized knowledge and the integrative interpretations they can make. Research literature acknowledges that over time, in the context of numerous performances, concerns of replicability and generalizability become less of an issue (Linn & Burton, 1994; Messick, 1994). Messick states that dropping reliability as a prerequisite for validity may be “feasible in assessment for instructional improvement occurring frequently throughout the course of teaching or in appraisals of extensive portfolios ” (p. 15).

For formative assessments, constraints on reliability are handled differently though still important to consider (Wiliam & Black, 1996). If assessment takes place all the time, a teacher can elicit information that suggests that a previous assessment and judgment was not representative of performance. Teachers are in the position of being able to sample student performance repeatedly over time, thus permitting assessment-based judgments to be adjusted and evolve over a long period of time, leading to confident conclusions.

Teachers, however, must remain open to continually challenging and revising their previously held judgments about student performance. Research suggests that teachers often look for evidence that affirms their own performance (Airasian, 1991) and do not easily modify judgments on individual student achievement (Goldman, 1996; Rosenbaum, 1980).

Although teachers do have a “special-observer” perspective from which they have access to information not generated by way of a test, consideration of technical criteria should remind teachers that careful documentation and systematic observation of all students is necessary to achieve an equitable classroom environment. Assessment data should be “triangulated,” or drawn from multiple sources, to reduce the possible bias that may be introduced by any one particular method of obtaining and interpreting evidence.

Thinking in Terms of the Classroom

Thus far, this chapter has provided a menu of strategies and principles for teachers to consider when designing and implementing a classroom assessment system organized around the goals of improved student work. As noted previously, no one system or collection of strategies will serve all teachers. When choosing among the many available assessment approaches, the following general selection guidelines may be of use. For one, assessments should be aligned with curricular goals, and should be consistent with pedagogy. Because a single piece of work or performance will not capture the complete story of student understanding, assessments should draw from a variety of sources. On a related note, students should be provided with multiple opportunities to demonstrate understanding, performance, or current thinking. Assessments can be most powerful when students are involved in the process, not solely as responders or reactors. Also when designing and selecting assessment, a teacher should consider his or her personal style. Lastly, assessments should be feasible. With large class sizes and competing priorities, some teachers may find it impractical to employ certain practices.

Although any classroom activity can be modified to also serve as an assessment, the data must be fed

back into teaching and learning for the assessment to be effective. To the extent that a teacher's decisions and judgments are informed by the information they glean from their students—for example, through observations, class discussions, conversations, written comments, reflections, journals, tests, quizzes, and presentations—teachers can base decisions on understandings of their students and significantly support their learning.

Unfortunately, there are often competing needs and demands on teachers. Teachers have little choice but to juggle the different purposes of assessment in effort to create some coherent system that can best satisfy the different, and often competing, assessment aims. Because they are stretched thin with resources and time, teachers need support in helping them realize the potential of this type of assessment. We turn to this challenge in Chapter 5 and Chapter 6 .

To be effective as assessment that improves teaching and learning, the information generated from the activity must be used in such a way as to inform the teacher and/or her students in helping decide what to do next.

It is important for teachers to have clear performance criteria in mind before they assess student work and responses. These should be conveyed to students.

Form and content of assessment should be consistent with the intended purpose.

Student participation becomes a key component of successful assessment strategies at every step. If students are expected to effectively participate in the process, then they need to be clear on the target and the criteria for good work, to assess their own efforts in light of the criteria, and to share responsibility in taking action in light of feedback.

Assessments should be equitable and fair, supporting all students in their quest for high standards. Thus, technical issues are important to consider for all assessments, including those that occur each day in the classroom.

The National Science Education Standards address not only what students should learn about science but also how their learning should be assessed. How do we know what they know?

This accompanying volume to the Standards focuses on a key kind of assessment: the evaluation that occurs regularly in the classroom, by the teacher and his or her students as interacting participants. As students conduct experiments, for example, the teacher circulates around the room and asks individuals about their findings, using the feedback to adjust lessons plans and take other actions to boost learning.

Focusing on the teacher as the primary player in assessment, the book offers assessment guidelines and explores how they can be adapted to the individual classroom. It features examples, definitions, illustrative vignettes, and practical suggestions to help teachers obtain the greatest benefit from this daily evaluation and tailoring process. The volume discusses how classroom assessment differs from conventional testing and grading-and how it fits into the larger, comprehensive assessment system.

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Backward design: How can meaningful assessment empower students?

One way instructors can improve student learning outcomes, as well as assessment and teaching strategies, is to view student learning and curriculum through the lens of Bloom’s Taxonomy.

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Backward design, according to the Glossary of Education Reform , is “a process that educators use to design learning experiences and instructional techniques to achieve specific learning goals.” Coined by Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe, this approach is also called Understanding by Design (UbD). This approach to curricular planning emphasizes outcomes and assessment as foundational to content and instruction planning.

As educators, we strive to create meaningful learning experiences for all types of learners that lead to deep understanding and mastery for our students. One approach that can greatly enhance curriculum planning and instructional design is by using the backward design framework. In this blog, we will explore what backward design entails, provide an example to illustrate its implementation, and outline the steps involved in this powerful approach.

Traditionally, educators often design the curriculum with a focus on the content and instructional strategies first. They may know the learning goals they want to achieve, but they begin with things like important scholars in the field or seminal concepts and how they want to present that information to their students via their teaching. This process has sometimes been called a forward design process.

In a backward design or backwards mapping model, educators start their curricular planning process by first identifying the intended learning objectives of a unit or course. In a “backward” manner, the learning objectives then inform and determine assessment, and then educators decide content (such as scholarship and concepts) and instruction. As Danielle Leboff puts it: “With this clear target in place, educators are better equipped to teach. In turn, students have a clearer understanding of expectations. Backward design provides a relevant context for students as they engage in learning activities. It enables students to envision a focused pathway to success.”

The goal of backward design, then, is to ensure what is taught and how it is taught is directly tied to the assessments and together, they help students learn what they are expected to learn.

As mentioned above, backward design is an instructional design framework that starts with the end goal in mind. This approach ensures that every component of the curriculum is purposefully designed to facilitate student achievement of the desired learning objectives.

When Wiggins and McTighe developed Understanding by Design in 1998, they looked at backward design and detailed their UbD approach on seven key tenets:

• Learning is enhanced when teachers think purposefully about curricular planning. The UbD framework helps this process without offering a rigid process or prescriptive recipe.
• The UbD framework helps focus curriculum and teaching on the development and deepening of student understanding and transfer of learning (i.e., the ability to effectively use content knowledge and skill).
• Understanding is revealed when students autonomously make sense of and transfer their learning through authentic performance. Six facets of understanding—the capacity to explain, interpret, apply, shift perspective, empathize, and self-assess—can serve as indicators of understanding.
• Effective curriculum is planned backward from long-term, desired results through a three-stage design process (Desired Results, Evidence, and Learning Plan). This process helps avoid the common problems of treating the textbook as the curriculum rather than a resource, and activity-oriented teaching in which no clear priorities and purposes are apparent.
• Teachers are coaches of understanding, not mere purveyors of content knowledge, skill, or activity. They focus on ensuring that learning happens, not just teaching (and assuming that what was taught was learned); they always aim and check for successful meaning making and transfer by the learner.
• Regularly reviewing units and curriculum against design standards enhances curricular quality and effectiveness, and provides engaging and professional discussions.
• The UbD framework reflects a continual improvement approach to student achievement and teacher craft. The results of our designs— student performance—inform needed adjustments in curriculum as well as instruction so that student learning is maximized.

Educators may choose to offer many formative assessment opportunities along the way, in order to check for understanding. A backward design template may be helpful for educators as they begin planning a unit with a UbD framework.

According to the Wiggins and McTighe model, the backward design model establishes course curriculum through three stages.

Start by clearly defining the learning outcomes or objectives that you want your students to achieve. These should be specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound ( SMART ).

Decide on the assessment methods that will provide evidence of student learning. This can include tests, projects, presentations, or portfolios. Align the assessments with the desired results to ensure they accurately measure student mastery of the identified objectives.

Once the desired results and assessments are established, focus on designing the learning experiences that will help students achieve the desired outcomes. Select instructional strategies, resources, and activities that align with the objectives and engage students in meaningful learning.

Often teachers will follow up these three stages with notes on “Supporting skills and knowledge” and “Assessment and reflection” to wholly round out the lesson plan. But either way, it’s clear to see that by starting with the end in mind, educators can ensure that every aspect of their instruction supports the desired learning outcomes. Embracing backward design empowers teachers to facilitate deep understanding and meaningful learning experiences for their students, ultimately leading to improved educational outcomes.

Effective curriculum planning is crucial for all subject areas and instructors. It can be challenging, however, to pivot a curriculum planning session if a faculty or learning team has not utilized backward design before. Time and budget constraints often prevent a program from trying new frameworks such as this, so we asked ChatGPT to create a backward design lesson for us. In our query, we requested a backward design specifically tailored to an English composition class, highlighting meaningful learning experiences to foster students' writing proficiency. Below is the outcome (with some human input and editing, of course):

Stage 1: Identify the desired learning outcome

• Instructors should clearly define the learning objective: "Students will be able to construct a well-organized argumentative essay with effective use of evidence and persuasive techniques."
• It is also meaningful to explain the practical significance of this skill in various academic disciplines and real-life contexts, such as a lawyer preparing a defense in court or a politician presenting a new idea to their constituents.

Stage 2: Determine acceptable assessments and evidence of learning

• Educators need to describe the assessment method: "Students will submit an argumentative essay on a given topic, demonstrating their ability to present a clear thesis, support it with evidence, and employ persuasive techniques." With the help of rubrics , instructors should discuss the criteria for successful completion, including logical structure, coherence, evidence integration, and persuasive strategies.

Stage 3: Plan the instructional strategies and learning activities

• Instructors can introduce the elements of argumentative writing, such as thesis statements, supporting evidence, counter arguments, and persuasive techniques. It’s beneficial to provide interactive examples and model essays to illustrate effective argumentation and use of evidence. Draft Coach is an excellent tool to use at this stage, as it offers students real-time writing feedback on grammar, punctuation, and citation.
• From there, facilitated class discussions and small-group activities will allow students to analyze and evaluate argumentative texts and share their perspectives. Students can engage in writing exercises and peer feedback sessions to refine their own arguments and writing skills. PeerMark™ is a great way to structure peer review sessions, with the option to choose whether the submissions are anonymous or attributed.

Supporting skills and knowledge

• It can be helpful to identify prerequisite skills and knowledge required for successful argumentative writing, so some instructors may choose to review foundational concepts, including critical thinking, logical reasoning, research skills, and effective use of sources.
• The Source Credibility Pack , developed by our Turnitin team of veteran educators, offers resources that support students’ ability to critically analyze components of a source in order to determine whether it is a valid, trustworthy, and reliable source of information for the intended purpose. Instructors can use this pack to guide students through the process of locating and incorporating credible sources into their writing.

Closure and Application

• Instructors can summarize the key elements of constructing an argumentative essay with effective use of evidence and persuasive techniques and again, connect the lesson to authentic, real-world applications, emphasizing the relevance of persuasive writing in various fields and contexts.
• Authentic learning and authentic assessment both enhance student acquisition of new skills and knowledge because the learning connects directly to situations in real life. Educators can assign an independent writing assignment, allowing students to apply their newly acquired skills and demonstrate their understanding.

Assessment and reflection

• Instructors can collect and assess students' argumentative essays to evaluate their understanding and progress toward the learning objective. It’s imperative to provide constructive feedback, highlighting areas of strength and areas for improvement in their arguments, evidence use, and persuasive techniques.
• Using QuickMarks and Voice Comments in Turnitin Feedback Studio allows educators to easily and effectively provide personalized feedback on every paper. Within the feedback, it’s helpful to encourage students to reflect on their writing process, identifying successful strategies and areas where they faced challenges, perhaps even employing “Where to Next?” pointers.

Starting with the desired learning outcome and designing assessments and instructional strategies to support that objective, instructors empower students to construct well-organized, persuasive essays. Through interactive activities, peer collaboration, and real-world connections, it’s clear that this approach equips students with the essential skills to communicate effectively and make their voices heard.

And beyond the humanities, backward design can be applied to a variety of subjects, including STEM courses; the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) offers several examples from MIT subjects. Additionally, Sarah Kesty offers four ways students can use backward planning in their own lives , boosting their execution function skills and applying this concept to their academic and personal growth.

In a backward design model, educators focus on operationalizing learning goals, objectives, and outcomes. Operationalizing learning outcomes means figuring out how an outcome statement or expectation plays out in the real world. For example, what does having strong communication skills look like in a professional setting? Operationalizing learning goals and objectives helps the educators realize and articulate what students really must be able to do or demonstrate in applicable contexts. It means laying out the steps and expectations involved and demystifying expectations. The outcomes don’t remain an abstract concept differently interpreted by each educator. The operationalizing of the outcomes helps educators identify clear and relevant skills, knowledge, attitudes, habits, and/or behavior that they want to see in their students.

Operationalizing the outcomes also helps build consensus among educators regarding what is important for students to learn and what is ancillary. It helps them align their own differing expectations. They must now collectively agree on what a student should learn and be able to demonstrate. Thus, backward design helps educators better plan their teaching so that it is effective and also helps them better scaffold the curriculum in their program or course for greater student learning and success.

Once the operationalizing of outcomes is done, the next step is to determine how to assess the outcomes. This focus on assessment is step two of the backward design/UbD process. Backward design prompts authentic assessments—i.e., assessments that reflect real world scenarios and situations. These authentic assessments capture student grasp of the operationalized outcomes and objectives. Knowing how they are going to evaluate their students helps educators recognize what their students need to be taught to perform well on those assessments. It reduces implicit biases in assessment design .

The third and final step in backward design is deciding the content and instruction. The content should now focus on what students should know and be able to do and how to help them learn it because the assessment is now a known and well-designed entity. The outcomes and assessments dictate content and instruction rather than the other way around. The content and instruction become more specific, tailored, and relevant for students to achieve the intended outcomes.

In all curriculum designing, assessment plays an important role. However, in backward design, there are some important assessment design expectations that should be kept in mind. First, summative assessments must be strongly aligned with the operationalized outcomes and should be able to capture them adequately. Next, they should be authentic and relevant to real-world contexts. Finally, they must play a central role in informing teaching strategies and content covered so that students are well prepared and can be successful in demonstrating their learning via the summative assessments.

Additionally, in backward design, formative assessment plays a very important role in the instruction and scaffolding of content. Formative assessments help instructors and students monitor and address student learning outcomes in an ongoing manner so that student learning needs can be gleaned, and gaps can be closed. Integral to backward design, these formative assessments give educators insight into how well their teaching methods are helping students achieve learning goals.

Educators can use this feedback to iterate, adapt, and pivot teaching practices to better serve students’ needs and support their achievement of learning outcomes. Formative assessments can take many forms but basically give students and educators actionable feedback. Ongoing assessments and feedback can help students understand their own achievement, strengths, performance, and challenge areas so that they achieve proficiency across the desired learning goals and objectives.

With backward design, teaching methods, content, and assessments are inherently aligned with learning objectives and standards. This creates coherent, consistent learning experiences for students. From the start, educators make sure students know what they are expected to learn and how they are expected to demonstrate it. Every activity supports learning outcome achievement.

Because backward design bases teaching practices on helping students achieve intended learning outcomes, the expectations become very explicit and aligned, and as a result, students’ grasp of concepts and ideas can improve. The relevance and applicability of what they are learning increases exponentially. A cohesive, backward-designed curriculum can amplify students’ learning of the content against the desired outcomes. It catalyzes their success because they practice skills to demonstrate their learning in their assessments. Learning becomes transparent and because it is aligned, this curricular design process makes learning and performance easier and more intuitive for the student.

Overall, the backward design model is meant to work as a curricular planning process that begins from the ends educators want to achieve—i.e., the goals, outcomes, and objectives they want to see our students gain. It requires educators to come together and collaborate to build a program curriculum as they get on the same page during the backward design process and level-set expectations. Designing real-world, authentic assessments helps truly capture whether students have gained the intended learning. These assessments help ensure that the instruction and content is cohesive and precise for students.

Remember, backward design is not a linear process but rather an iterative one. Regular reflection, assessment, and adjustment are key to its successful implementation. By embracing this approach, teachers can make a significant impact on student learning and create a classroom environment that fosters growth, curiosity, and success.

As Jennifer Gonzalez puts it: “Using a process like backward design helps us get better at making these decisions. By making this approach part of our regular practice, we’ll be able to look back on a day, a week, or a year of teaching and say with a lot more certainty that when they were under our care, our students learned.”

All Things Assessment

Nicole M. Dimich

Nicole M. Dimich works with elementary and secondary educators in presentations, trainings, and consultations that address today’s most critical issues all in the spirit of facilitating improved support of student learning.

Simply Deep: Designing Authentic Assessments that are Meaningful and Relevant

By Nicole M. Dimich February 18, 2019

“Being able to recall scientific concepts, identify historical events, or memorize mathematics facts and algorithms, while acutely impressive, is no longer sufficient to prepare students for the challenging world they will face. Identifying characters, theme, and symbolism used to be the focus of education, and it was enough. In the past, learners would occasionally have opportunities to collaborate, communicate, critically think, and creatively problem solve, but that was the means , not the end. After engaging in dialogue, problem solving, or analysis, learners would typically take a multiple-choice test or an essay prompt would ask them to recall details or themes discussed in class. As critical competencies shift to be the end rather than the means , recalling facts is not nearly as important as being able to find the content, critically evaluate its value and credibility, apply it appropriately in different contexts, or put new ideas together to generate something interesting and original. Content is not obsolete; rather, the memorization (and recall) of it is. More than ever it is essential for educators to provide more meaningful tasks so learners tap into rich content while demonstrating the critical competencies through application” (Erkens, Schimmer, Vagle, 2019, p. 6).

This new reality requires a different way of thinking about how and what we assess.

There are moments when students are deeply engaged in classroom instruction, and then it comes time for an “assessment” and the engagement stops as “test day” suddenly occurs. Methods of assessment are supposed to capture the level of the intended learning. Assessment is evidence of learning, and it takes on many forms. Assessment can be observations based on a set of criteria or descriptions such as during a collaborative activity, a Socratic seminar, a conversation, an interview, a verbal presentation; it might take the form of a product such as a blog, an essay, a video—the list goes on. A test is only one way to capture a level of learning and is not always the most accurate. When considering what learners are facing in their future, they must experience a wide variety of assessment methods that ask them to engage in meaningful and relevant way s to be prepared for our constantly changing society.

Meaningful and Relevant Assessment Tasks

Meaningful and relevant assessment tasks involve a different way of design. Meaningful tasks assess the critical competencies, or 21st century skills , along with the content in varying contexts. Relevant tasks tap into a compelling and interesting aspect of the content to pose a task that is challenging and fascinating. Relevant tasks may also connect to students’ interests, realities, and their latest passions (e.g. bottle flipping, teen stress). Meaningful and relevant tasks ask students to use competencies such as critical thinking, collaboration, communication, social competence, or creative problem-solving to do one or more of the following:

• Research, dialogue, and explore emerging issues
• Pose solutions or offer perspectives on school or local community issues
• Pose solutions or offer perspectives on global issues
• Communicate ideas, information, or insights to an audience outside of the classroom
• Collaborate with students in other places around the world or with experts knowledgeable about the focus of study
• Collaborate with organizations or businesses to seek multiple perspectives on a topic
• Put existing ideas together to generate new ideas or knowledge
• Design new and innovate pieces to make the world better or contribute something to the world

Design Components of Meaningful and Relevant Tasks

To implement this new vision for authentic assessment, consider the following design components.

Time is often identified as the biggest concern when engaging in authentic assessment. Both the time it takes students to engage in a meaningful authentic assessment as well as the time to score and grade larger tasks.

However, these tasks can be as simple as 15 to 30 minutes , during which students—individually or in a small group—solve a problem that has multiple solutions; analyze and interpret a graph that shows the increase in stress among teens; or even discuss two cartoons that show opposite perspectives of an issue.

A longer task may take one to three class periods . These tasks may involve solving a problem with two or more solutions and creating a video that explains the process. That video may become a resource for other students attempting to learn to solve problems. A longer, more involved task might also include studying the cause of teen stress by looking at multiple sources, discussing potential solutions and generating some ways to support students in school.

Finally, a comprehensive task may take one to six weeks or longer . These tasks often identify a local or global issues and ask students to learn essential outcomes (standards/competencies) through reading, studying, talking, and producing solutions to some of these issues. Students may tackle distracted driving and develop a full campaign to reduce dangerous driving behaviors in teens. Younger students may study the benefits and challenges of owning a pet and raise awareness and/or money to advocate for a pet issue they uncover.

Timing is important and ensuring that the task is manageable and relevant within the time frame allotted will ensure a meaningful student and teacher experience. Trying to tackle too much can lead to surface level work.

It is essential that what is intended to be learned be the foundation of any task and lead to the best method of assessment.

First, determine the standards and critical competencies to be achieved. Second, write student friendly outcomes. Choose, revise, or design rubrics or learning progressions to monitor progress and evaluate levels of achievement. These rubric or learning progression descriptions will be the basis of observations, feedback, and final evaluations. Students need to know the criteria and learning outcomes before they begin. They may help further define and construct the meaning of this criteria, but in the design of these, teachers and teacher teams determine the starting place.

The best methods for assessing critical competencies are observation and self-assessment. Creating products such as websites, infographics, blogs, emails, essays, presentations, videos are also useful methods of assessment when assessing both competencies and content. Finally, peer assessment can offer a useful perspective on the qualities of the interactions and products when there is deep understanding of the criteria.

Assessment Design Resources

The table below captures a few highlights of the design elements to consider when designing authentic assessments.

Authentic Assessment Duration and Method

Templates can help guide this new way of designing. Consider the Grade 7 example linked below in designing your own authentic assessment task.

• Grade 7 Social Studies Example (based on British Columbia’s Core Competencies and Curriculum)
• Blank Template to Use for Planning

References:

Erkens, C., Schimmer, T., Vagle, N.D. (2019). Growing tomorrow’s citizens in today’s classroom: Assessing seven critical competencies . Solution Tree Press, Bloomington, IN.

Very useful post! Appropriate opportunities for assessment allow for continuous learning.

February 20th, 2019 - 4:48pm

Excellent post. I am a future educator and I find this content really resonates with me. When I was a student, I always thought the assessments I was taking from my professors were insufficient in measuring my learning. It involved a lot of memorizing, such as in enumeration tests. It was all about what I remember, not what I understand. I much prefer essays, but the teacher would argue that it takes to long to check. Additionally, the other students prefer the traditional multiple choice or true or false types of test because it takes less effort on their part, which is totally opposite of what happens with me.

So I have a question, in a class where different people prefer different assessment types, which do you give? Do you do a one-size-fits-all kind of evaluation, or are you going to tailor according to the individual?

March 12th, 2019 - 4:15am

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Digging Deep into Purpose and Importance of Reflective Essay

Reflection writing is a powerful tool for students and professionals as they offer a unique opportunity for self-exploration, growth, and understanding. This guide on the importance and purpose of  reflective essays  aims to change your perception of writing and shed light on the many benefits of incorporating reflection into your life. With our amazing  paper help  resources and expert guidance, you can master the art of reflective essay writing and unlock your full potential.

Table of Contents

What is a Reflective Essay?

A reflective essay is a type of writing that allows the author to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences in a structured and analytical manner. This form of writing encourages critical thinking and personal growth by examining the author’s experiences, thoughts, actions, and reactions. 

Reflective essays often focus on personal development, learning experiences, or the impact of specific events on the author’s life. However, reflection writing is also used for  college essays  or other forms of academic writing.

Types of Reflection Writing

Reflection essays come in various forms, each with its unique focus and purpose. In this note, we will delve into five types of reflective writing;

Personal Reflective Writing

Professional reflection, academic reflective essay, creative reflection.

• Social or Cultural Reflection Writing

Understanding these different approaches will enable you to choose the most suitable reflection essay type for your needs and make your writing more coherent, insightful and trustworthy.

Journaling, manifestation dairies, and written meditations are common ideas. But would you believe these are all forms and branches of personal reflection writing?

Personal reflection essays explore what you’re going through, emotionally, mentally, and provide insights. These could be about their learning, inner conflicts, resolutions and growth.

This type of reflective writing allows individuals to examine their values, beliefs, and actions, fostering self-awareness and personal development. 

Personal reflection essays may focus on topics such as significant life events, personal challenges, or the impact of relationships on one’s identity and growth.

Professional reflection writing is common in academic or workplace settings. They involve analyzing personal and professional skills and challenges and identifying areas for improvement. 

This reflection essay encourages individuals to examine their professional experiences, decisions, and outcomes, fostering critical thinking and problem-solving skills. 

Professional reflection essays may focus on workplace conflicts, leadership experiences, or developing specific professional competencies.

As a  college paper writing service  platform, we know that most students are intimidated by reflective essay writing. In an academic setting, the reflection essay blurs the lines between informal and formal writing. 

You might be assigned an essay account of your experience with an event, but you’ll still need to follow strict rules of academic writing, i.e., formatting or  organizing a paper . 

Academic reflective writing involves analyzing and evaluating academic materials, such as readings, lectures, or research projects, and connecting them to personal experiences or broader concepts. 

It encourages students to engage with course content on a deeper level, fostering a better understanding of the material and its relevance to their lives and future careers.

For example:

You can be assigned to write a reflection essay on  modernism in literature . You’d have to write your thoughts and observations about this era. Still, you must follow the rules like citation, proper referencing, and contextual analysis of the ideas presented in that era. 

Creative reflection essays are often utilized in artistic or creative fields, allowing individuals to examine their creative process, inspirations, and outcomes. 

This reflective writing fosters self-awareness, critical thinking, and artistic growth, enabling individuals to explore their creative motivations, challenges, and successes. 

Creative reflection essays may focus on topics such as the development of a specific artistic project, the influence of personal experiences on one’s creative work, or the role of collaboration in the creative process.

Social or Cultural Reflection

These reflection essays focus on exploring and understanding social or cultural phenomena. It involves analyzing personal experiences, observations, or interactions with others and reflecting on their significance and broader societal implications. 

Social or cultural reflection essays encourage individuals to engage with the world around them, fostering empathy, critical thinking, and a deeper understanding of social and cultural issues. 

These essays may focus on topics such as the impact of social media on interpersonal relationships, the role of cultural identity in shaping one’s worldview, or the challenges of navigating diverse social environments.

Students must grasp all of these forms of reflective essay writing. Understanding the different types of reflective writing and their unique purposes is required for crafting effective reflection essays.

By selecting the most appropriate reflection essay type for your needs, you can create a coherent, understandable, and persuasive piece of writing that fosters personal and professional growth.

Reflective writing offers a valuable opportunity for self-exploration, critical thinking, and meaningful learning, whether you are exploring your personal experiences, professional challenges, academic materials, creative endeavors, or social and cultural phenomena.

 What is the Purpose of Reflective Essay Writing?

The amazing thing about reflective essay writing is that, although we have discussed its few meaningful purposes, there’s still a long list to cover. 

These numerous goals are particularly for students dealing with academic stress and professionals experiencing work-related challenges. Here are 8 key purposes of reflective paper writing. 

• Self-awareness : Reflective essays help individuals develop a deeper understanding of themselves, their values, beliefs, and emotions.
• Critical thinking : It encourages the examination of one’s thoughts and experiences, fostering the development of critical thinking skills.
• Personal growth : Reflection writing enables individuals to learn from their experiences, identify areas for improvement, and set goals for personal development.
• Problem-solving : Reflection essay writing can help identify the root causes of problems and generate potential solutions.
• Emotional processing : Writing about emotional experiences can help individuals process and cope with their feelings.
• Learning from mistakes : Reflection writing encourages individuals to examine their failures, learn from them, and develop resilience.
• Enhancing communication skills : Reflective writing helps improve written communication skills and promotes effective self-expression.
• Empathy development:  The reflective essays can foster empathy by encouraging individuals to consider the perspectives and experiences of others.

Why Is Reflection Essay Important for Students?

Reflection writing is a crucial aspect of a student’s academic journey. Here are several reasons why reflection writing is essential for students:

Promotes Self-Awareness

Self-awareness in a student involves recognizing their academic learning style, studying habits, strengths, and weaknesses. Reflective Writing plays a crucial role in building self-awareness in students. 

Most students struggle with consulting adults or peers with issues like processing information, retaining knowledge, and solving problems effectively. They have a hard time coming to terms with certain values, beliefs, goals, and emotions. 

And an even harder time in exploring and creating their identities. Practicing reflective thought writing enables students to make informed decisions, set realistic goals, and develop healthy relationships. 

Self-aware students take ownership of their learning and personal development, seeking feedback, reflecting on experiences, and adapting their approaches. Thus, reflective essay writing contributes to effective communication, collaboration, and navigating challenges.

Develops Critical Thinking Skills

Reflective writing develops critical thinking skills in students by prompting them to analyze and evaluate their thoughts, experiences, and perspectives. 

It encourages questioning assumptions, considering alternative viewpoints, and making informed judgments. Students practice higher-order thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation through reflection. 

They learn to articulate their ideas clearly and support them with evidence. Overall, reflective writing plays a crucial role in fostering critical thinking by promoting deep thinking, evaluation of evidence, and effective communication of thoughts.

Practical Academic Stress Dealing

Reflective writing induces practical academic stress dealing in students by improving self-expression, facilitating self-composition, promoting goal-setting and problem-solving, enhancing writing skills, and fulfilling academic requirements. These benefits empower students to navigate their academic challenges more effectively and succeed in their studies.

• Improves self-expression : Reflection writing helps students enhance their written communication skills and promotes effective self-expression, which is vital for academic success and personal growth.
• Self-composition:  Reflective writing allows students to compose their thoughts and ideas in a structured and coherent manner. It encourages them to organize their reflections, leading to clearer and more articulate writing.
• Setting better goals:  Engaging in reflective writing prompts students to set better academic goals. It helps them assess their strengths and weaknesses, identify areas for improvement, and establish realistic objectives for their studies.
• Problem-solving : Reflective writing encourages students to analyze academic challenges and develop strategies to overcome them. It fosters critical thinking and problem-solving skills, enabling students to tackle obstacles and find effective solutions.
• Organized and better-polished writing skills : Regular practice of reflective writing hones students’ writing skills. It enhances their ability to structure their thoughts, use appropriate language, and present coherent arguments, leading to more organized and polished writing.
• Fulfills academic requirements : Reflective essays are often assigned as part of the coursework, and students need to write them to meet academic requirements. Developing reflection writing skills ensures students can effectively complete these assignments while meeting the expectations of their instructors.

Navigating Life Transitions 

Students often face significant life transitions, such as moving away from home or choosing a career path. Reflection essay writing can help them process these changes, identify their goals, and make informed decisions. 

By engaging in reflective writing, students can explore their thoughts, emotions, and experiences related to the transitions they are facing. This process allows them to gain clarity, understand their values and aspirations, and evaluate different options. 

Reflective writing is a valuable tool for self-reflection and self-discovery, empowering students to navigate life’s transitions with a deeper understanding of themselves and their desired path forward.

Addresses Emotional and Mental Conflicts 

Students may experience emotional or  mental conflicts  due to various factors, such as relationships, academic pressure, or personal issues. Reflection writing provides an opportunity to explore and resolve these conflicts, promoting mental well-being. 

By engaging in reflective writing, students can express and process their emotions, gain insights into their turmoil’s underlying causes, and develop coping and problem-solving strategies. It offers a safe and therapeutic outlet for self-expression, self-reflection, and self-care. 

Reflective essay writing empowers students to navigate their emotional and mental challenges, fostering resilience, self-awareness, and overall psychological well-being.

Balancing Work and Studies 

Many students juggle work and studies simultaneously. Reflection writing can help them assess their time management and prioritization skills, identify areas for improvement, and develop strategies to maintain a healthy work-study balance.

Encourages Empathy Development

Reflective essays can foster empathy by encouraging students to consider the perspectives and experiences of others, an essential skill for building strong relationships and navigating diverse social environments.

Reflection Essay Writing Format

Reflection essays require a structured approach to ensure coherence and clarity in presenting one’s thoughts, emotions, and experiences. This detailed tutorial will provide an overview of the reflection essay writing format and offer instructions on how to apply APA and  MLA formatting to your reflection essay.

A well-structured reflection essay typically includes the following elements:

• Introduction : Provide an overview of the topic or experience you will be reflecting on and briefly explain its significance.
• Description : Describe the experience or event in detail, including relevant facts, feelings, and observations.
• Analysis : Examine your thoughts, emotions, and reactions to the experience, and consider the factors that influenced your response.
• Evaluation : Assess the impact of the experience on your personal growth, learning, or development and discuss any lessons learned.
• Conclusion : Summarize your reflections, reiterate the significance of the experience, and discuss any future implications or goals.

APA Formatting for Reflection Essays

The American Psychological Association ( APA ) formatting style is commonly used in social sciences and education. Here are the key formatting instructions for a reflection essay in  APA  style:

• Title Page : Include a title page with the title of your essay, your name, and the name of your institution, all centered and double-spaced.
• Running Head : Include a running head on the top-left corner of each page, consisting of a shortened version of your essay title (in capital letters) and the page number.
• Font and Spacing : Use a 12-point, Times New Roman font with double-spacing throughout the essay.
• Margins : Set 1-inch margins on all sides of the page.
• Headings : Use headings to organize your essay, with level one headings centered and bold, level two headings flush left and bold, and level three headings flush left, bold, and italicized.
• Citations :  If you refer to any external sources, use in-text citations with the author’s last name and the publication year in parentheses.
• Reference List : Include a reference list at the end of your essay, with a centered and bold “References” heading, and list all cited sources in alphabetical order by the author’s last name.

MLA Formatting for Reflection Essays

The Modern Language Association (MLA) formatting style is commonly used in humanities and liberal arts. Here are the key formatting instructions for a reflection essay in MLA style:

• Header :  Include a header on the top-right corner of each page, consisting of your last name and the page number.
• Title :  Center the title of your essay at the top of the first page, using standard capitalization. Do not underline, italicize, or place the title in quotation marks.
• Indentation : Indent the first line of each paragraph by 0.5 inches.
• Citations :  If you refer to any external sources, use in-text citations with the author’s last name and the page number in parentheses.
• Works Cited : Include a Works Cited page at the end of your essay, with a centered “Works Cited” heading, and list all cited sources in alphabetical order by the author’s last name.

Topics for Reflection Essays

Reflective essay topics can vary widely, depending on the individual’s experiences, interests, and goals. Some examples of reflective essay topics include:

• A significant personal experience and its impact on your life.
• A challenging academic or professional situation and the lessons learned.
• A personal or professional failure and how it has shaped your development.
• A meaningful relationship or encounter with someone who has influenced your perspective.
• A volunteer or community service experience and its effect on your values or beliefs.
• A time when you faced a moral or ethical dilemma and how you resolved it.
• A personal or professional goal and the steps taken to achieve it.
• A cultural or travel experience that broadened your understanding of the world.

Examples of Reflective Essay

Our writers have written numerous examples of reflective essays here are some of them. 

Reflection Essay Example 1

A Poetic Turnaround: How an Online Assignment Platform Reshaped My Perception

Reflection Paper Example 2 

A Day Among Colors and Canvas: Art Exhibition at School 

Reflection Writing Example 3 

Spinning the Semester Around: Witnessing a Friend Succeeding in Their Academic Battles 

Reflective essay writing can polish your being in many ways. By understanding the purpose and importance of reflective essays, as well as mastering the format and selecting meaningful topics, you can transform your writing and unlock the full potential of self-reflection. For additional help, you can avail of our top-of-the-line writing service and confidently pursue your goals, knowing you have the best support for securing impressive grades.

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How to Write Stanford’s “Something Meaningful” Essay

This article was written based on the information and opinions presented by Jonathan Patin Sauls in a CollegeVine livestream. You can watch the full livestream for more info.

What’s Covered:

Understanding the prompt, crafting your approach.

Stanford’s third supplemental essay asks the applicant to write about something that is meaningful to them and why. When attacking this prompt, student responses can vary widely in terms of the topics that they choose to discuss. Before you dive into your essay, it’s important to really understand the prompt and ensure that you can answer it in its entirety.

You can approach this prompt in a number of ways, but regardless of what you choose to write about, it’s important to remember that the prompt has three parts. First, you need to identify the thing. Next, you needt to demonstrate the fact that it’s meaningful to you. And finally, you have to express the why . 

While it is important to address each of the three components of the prompt, the why should make up the bulk of your response. This should be the most personal part of the essay and tell Stanford more about who you are and how you align with their culture.

Deviate from the Traditional Approach

Many students tend to answer this prompt with a traditional argumentative essay. But rather than trying to make someone agree with your point-of-view, consider approaching this a little bit differently. Ultimately, your essay should persuade your reader but not about why your important “thing” should matter to them. Instead the essay should demonstrate the topic’s personal meaning to you using the experiences you describe and your personal reflections as proof. So don’t be afraid to get a bit personal!

One great thing about this prompt is Stanford doesn’t add qualifiers to the question as some other prompts do. This means that you have full ownership over what you’d like to write about, whether it’s a place, an object, really anything you want it to be. So make sure that what you choose to write about does truly have meaning to you and again that you’re really showing your reader why it matters.

Highlight You Personal Values

As you begin to write your initial draft, be prepared to interpret the prompt in a really personal way. Again, this is only the first draft. Give yourself enough time to really explore that topic in a draft and then set it aside. As you revise, begin paring down and polishing those initial ideas you wrote. You’ve only got 250 words so reflect and revise until your response answers the essay comprehensively. 

During this phase, you’ll also want to consider what your response is telling your reader about you, both on the surface and at a deeper level. On the surface, your essay may be telling your reader about one thing that has meaning for you, but it’s also telling them about your values and how you think about and relate to the world around you. Did you demonstrate courage or perseverance? Maybe it shows you’re not afraid to try new things. Really reflect on the underlying message you’d like to share with your reader and how (and if) your writing gives them insight about you as a potential member of the campus community. 

Looking for more insight as you apply to Stanford? Check out The Ultimate Guide to Applying to Stanford for more stats and admission tips as you begin your application. 

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The Most Meaningful Experience of My High School Years

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Defining Moments: Exploring the ‘Significant Experience’ Essay Prompt

In the span of our lives, we sometimes experience events that forever change who we are and turn us into something new well-being. These turning points have the power to alter us by shedding light on our core values, assumptions, and goals.

The “significant experience” essay prompts, a typical writing assignment that tests our ability to go into the depths of our personal story and portray the significance of a specific event or encounter, is a potent tool to capture and reflect on these deep events.

In this blog, let’s discover the essay prompt’s true meaning, “significant experience.” We will examine how you can write significant experience , some application essay ideas , and the approaches to successfully completing it.

Whether you are a student assigned to write a college entrance essay or a person seeking self-reflection, this blog will offer you insightful tips to help you negotiate the complexities of this essay prompt.

Let’s begin, but first, get to know about defining moments.

What are Defining Moments?

Defining moments are significant occasions or encounters that can form and define a person, group of people, culture, or even an entire era. These events leave a lasting impression, changing a person’s life path, forming identities, or determining the course of bigger entities.

Positive or bad defining moments can happen on a variety of scales. A life-changing decision, such as selecting a professional path, getting married, or taking on a significant challenge, might be a defining event on a personal level. Determining moments for organisations might include significant strategic choices, ground-breaking inventions, or significant failures that result in dramatic change.

These defining moments are important because they frequently exhibit traits of tenacity, character, and ideals. They push people or things to make decisions, take chances, and face their own strengths and flaws. Defining moments may put one’s determination to the test, requiring reflection and development. They can also operate as catalysts for individual or group development, bringing about changes in perspective, priorities, and course of action.

Additionally, pivotal events might have an impact beyond the people or organisations directly engaged. They have the power to motivate people, launch social movements, or alter the course of history, politics, or culture. Defined moments can leave a lasting imprint and contribute to communal awareness by influencing narratives and changing views.

Unveiling the Purpose of the ‘Significant Experience’ Essay Prompt

The “significant experience” essay prompt is among the application essay ideas given to students, particularly those seeking scholarships or college. This essay prompt is meant to inspire people to think about and share a particular experience that has profoundly impacted their life and shaped their personal development, beliefs, or objectives.

The essay prompt seeks to accomplish the following goals:

# Self-reflection

The prompt promotes contemplation and self-awareness by letting people dive into a memorable event. People are prompted to reflect in depth on their history and the occasions that have moulded them, promoting a deeper knowledge of their ideals, virtues, and flaws.

# Personal Development

The essay prompt challenges people to specify and explain how their major experience has influenced their personal development. It gives people a chance to show off their capacity to overcome obstacles, adapt to novel situations, and exhibit perseverance.

# Communication Abilities

Strong communication abilities are necessary when you write significant experience in your college entrance essay. Individuals can get practise speaking properly, structuring their ideas, and presenting them in a logical and interesting way by responding to the question.

# Character and Values Demonstration

The essay prompts allow a student to show who they are and what they stand for. People can demonstrate their integrity, compassion, tenacity, or other qualities that make them who they are by talking about the effects of a significant experience.

# Differentiating Oneself

The noteworthy experience essay prompt gives people an opportunity to stand out from other applicants in competitive situations like college or scholarship applications . It enables applicants to offer distinctive experiences and viewpoints, showcasing their distinctiveness and possible value to a given group or organisation.

Also read: Overcoming Obstacles: Using The ‘Challenge You’ve Faced’ Essay Prompt To Your Advantage

Effective Strategies for Crafting an Effective Essay

Planning carefully, reflecting deeply, and writing well is necessary to create a successful essay, especially one that responds to a “significant experience” challenge. Here are some tips to assist you in writing an engaging and effective essay:

• Think of the Experience: Take some time to seriously consider your big event and how it has affected your life. Think about the feelings, difficulties, and lessons you’ve learnt. Ask yourself why it was important and how it influenced your development, principles, or goals.
• Create a Main Theme: Decide on a main idea or statement that best captures the spirit of your memorable event. Your essay’s central subject will act as its compass and aid in giving it cohesion and focus. It could involve fortitude, sympathy, internal change, or any other pertinent quality.
• Create a Captivating Introduction: Your essay should begin with a strong introduction that captures the reader’s interest. You can utilise anecdotes, challenging questions, or evocative descriptions to create the scene and entice the reader into your tale. Indicate the experience’s importance and its main subject in clear terms.
• Give Context: Give the reader adequate background information to enable them to comprehend the setting of your noteworthy event. Give details about the situation’s surroundings, participants, and any other pertinent information.
• Craft a Compelling Story: Create an engaging tale by structuring your essay as a narrative and inviting the reader to share your memorable experience. Use dialogue, sensory elements, and descriptive language to make the tale come to life. Show, not tell, how the event has affected your life.
• Showcase Its Significance: After you’ve described the incident, consider its relevance and the lessons you learnt from it. Describe how it has affected your beliefs, objectives, or worldview. Reflections should be sincere and self-reflective.
• Highlight Your Personal Growth: Showcase your progress by emphasising how the noteworthy event has helped you grow personally. Talk about the difficulties you encountered, the steps you took to overcome them, and the abilities or traits you acquired as a result.
• Build a Link with the Future: Link your meaningful experience to your hopes and goals for the future. Describe how your future decisions, activities, or contributions to your community or field of interest will be impacted by the lessons you have learned and the values you have gained.
• Make Your Words and Examples Vivid: Making your essay memorable requires the use of vivid language, striking imagery, and precise examples. This makes your tale more relatable and powerful, and it also helps to interest the reader.
• Proofread Your Essay: After writing the first draft, edit and revise your essay. Verify your writing for grammatical, punctuation, and clarity faults. Make sure your essay makes sense and that you can clearly explain your thoughts.

It’s important to remember that your essay should be real and honest, allowing for the expression of your viewpoint and voice. By using these techniques, you can write an essay that conveys the importance of your experience and leaves the reader with a lasting impression.

Also Read: The Value Of The Right Advice In College Admissions: Guiding Your Path To Success

Examples and Inspiration

Let’s take a look at examples of some significant essay prompts related to application essay ideas that can you consider for practising:

Example 1: Overcoming My Fear of Public Speaking

I experienced a debilitating fear of speaking in public during my high school years. Every time I had to present a project or speak in front of my classmates, my hands would sweat profusely, my heart would race, and my words would get jumbled up. However, I knew that confronting this fear was crucial for my personal growth and future success.

To tackle my fear, I enrolled in a public speaking course and made a commitment to work through it. I finally conquered my fear through constant practice, preparation, and determination, delivering polished and confident presentations. The experience taught me the importance of stepping out of my comfort zone and the value of hard work.

Key Takeaways:

• Conquering one’s fears can lead to self-improvement and personal growth.
• Hard work and dedication can yield great results.

Example 2: Finding My Passion for Community Service

While in college, I was constantly searching for opportunities to make a difference in the community. Then, I stumbled upon a local non-profit organization whose mission was to assist underprivileged youth. After signing up to volunteer, I was immediately struck by the children’s joy and enthusiasm, and I knew right then that community service was my passion.

Over time, I became more involved with the organization and even started my own initiative to raise funds and awareness for their cause. Through this experience, I learned the power of community service and how helping others can bring meaning and fulfilment to one’s life.

• Finding one’s passion and purpose is crucial for personal fulfilment.
• Assisting others brings happiness to both the helper and the beneficiaries.

Example 3: Getting through Adversity

Unexpected difficulties and barriers might come along in life, and how we respond to them shapes who we are. In my instance, I had to step up and assume additional obligations due to a challenging family circumstance. Initially, I felt overwhelmed and unsure, but I knew I had to get the courage to keep going. I was able to conquer these obstacles with courage and dedication, coming out stronger and more resilient than before. This incident taught me the value of tenacity and the necessity of depending on our inner strength while facing challenges.

Key conclusions

• We can be defined by how we respond to hardship.
• The importance of tenacity and inner fortitude.

Summing It Up

To sum up, the “significant experience” essay prompts offer a potent forum for people to consider and discuss the pivotal events that have affected their life. Through this introspective practice, one develops self-awareness, clarity of purpose, and a better comprehension of their values and ambitions. These pieces promote self-improvement, resiliency, and the cultivation of a growth mindset. People can engage with others, arouse empathy, and create lasting connections by creating fascinating tales around these important experiences. Accepting the chance to think back on our defining experiences gives us the ability to draw lessons from the past, appreciate the present, and sculpt a future that is in line with our true selves.

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Here is an example of a college essay question that demands you discuss challenges and how you overcame them:

“Describe a significant hardship or obstacle you have faced in your life. How did you confront and overcome it? What did you learn from this experience, and how has it shaped you as an individual?”

  Essay Answer:

I can clearly remember the heartbreaking day my family learned of my father’s cancer diagnosis. We were surprised and terrified as the word resonated across the space. Our lives were abruptly flipped upside down, and the difficulties we encountered felt insurmountable. But this struggle turned into a turning point that put my fortitude to the test, gave me priceless life lessons, and helped me become the person I am today.

I had to stand strong for my family while we dealt with my father’s illness. I assumed obligations that were above my years, helping with housework, scheduling appointments, and offering emotional support. It was difficult to juggle my academic obligations with my newly acquired duties, but I refused to let my situation define who I was. I turned to my passion for studying for comfort, utilising it as a way to manage my emotions and keep things in perspective.

A mindset change was necessary to overcome this adversity. I chose to concentrate on our happy and grateful times rather than dwell on the bad. I came to understand how crucial it is to treasure each special moment and look for the positive aspects of even the most trying circumstances. With this new perspective, I was able to develop resilience because I approached each obstacle with tenacity and a firm conviction that we could conquer it.

My father’s sickness taught me the value of compassion and empathy. Seeing his fortitude and bravery in the face of suffering motivated me to be compassionate to those going through similar struggles. I started a support group at my school to offer a secure environment for kids going through various difficulties. My grasp of the human experience has grown due to this event, and I now desire to guide people through their own difficulties.

The journey we went on together as a family taught me the importance of harmony and unwavering love. In the course of supporting one another through the highs and lows of the treatment process, we developed an unbreakable friendship. My mother became my pillar of strength, exhibiting unflinching fortitude and giving me the conviction that love and support could overcome even the most difficult challenges.

This struggle has completely changed who I am. I’ve come out with a greater capacity for empathy, a fortitude that helps me move ahead, and a profound understanding of how fleeting life is. Additionally, having personally seen the positive effects of caring and committed professionals on the lives of patients and their families has strengthened my desire to pursue a career in healthcare.

This well-written essay answer shows how the student encountered a huge challenge, overcame it with tenacity and persistence, gained important lessons, and was moulded by the encounter. It demonstrates the growth and development that resulted from conquering the challenge by incorporating personal tales, thoughts, and a link to future objectives. When replying to a similar prompt, keep in mind that your essay should reflect your individual experiences and writing style.

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20.7 Evaluation: Evaluating Self-Reflection

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Articulate how genre conventions for structure, tone, and mechanics vary.
• Evaluate a written work for critical language awareness, clarity and coherence, and rhetorical choices.

As you know, one of the most important aspects of improving as a writer is the ability to evaluate yourself and your writing. Certainly, writing assignments help you, but it is important to learn this kind of evaluation for yourself and work to improve. Moreover, as you deconstruct your writing, you will recognize some aspects that carry over to other courses and disciplines, thus demonstrating the universality of writing. Use this rubric to help you plan, write, or review your reflective essay.

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Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/writing-guide/pages/1-unit-introduction

• Authors: Michelle Bachelor Robinson, Maria Jerskey, featuring Toby Fulwiler
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• Publication date: Dec 21, 2021
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• Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/writing-guide/pages/1-unit-introduction
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AMCAS Most Meaningful Experience: What You To Need To Know for 2021

• Cracking Med School Admissions Team

Out of all your AMCAS work and activities, you can choose 3 activities as your most meaningful experiences. You have an extra 1325 characters to write about your most meaningful activities. Many applicants are uncertain how to approach these additional remarks and simply treat them as extended activity descriptions. However, making the most out of your AMCAS “most meaningful experience essays” requires deliberate choice of experiences, thoughtful reflection, and a particular style of writing. To this end, we have created this blog post in order to help you best select your most meaningful experiences and write about them effectively. We also analyze an actual most meaningful essay from a previously successful applicant!

In this blog post, we’ll help you decide and write STRONG AMCAS “most meaningful experience” descriptions:

• How to choose your most meaningful experiences 
• 5 AMCAS most meaningful activities description tips
• AMCAS Most Meaningful Essay Example
• FAQs – AMCAS meaningful experiences

OUr Students Were Accepted at These Medical Schools the Past 2 Years!

How to choose an AMCAS most meaningful experience

How many characters is the most meaningful experience on the amcas .

You can write up to 1325 characters for 3 most meaningful experiences on the AMCAS. Your most meaningful experiences should be experiences which had a significant impact on your personal growth, development, and aspirations within medicine.

For many applicants, which experiences to designate as “most meaningful” will be immediately obvious, and the question is merely how to write about them. But for others, choosing which experiences were “most meaningful” can be difficult. Look at our 2 most meaningful description examples below from our former medical school applicants! 

We recommend asking the following in selecting your most meaningful activities: 

• Which of your qualities are you most proud of and what activities have allowed you to demonstrate them? 
• Which activities were you involved with for the longest period of time? Amount of hours? 
• Did you assume leadership roles in any activities you were involved with? 
• Which activities have helped you answer “why medicine”? 
• Are there any activities with descriptions which you would want to expand on? 
• Are there any activities you were involved with that are unique or unusual? 
• Do any of your activities seem heavily related to your personal background or themes of your application?

For inspiration, use our Cracking Med School Admissions AMCAS Workbook to brainstorm important experiences and stories from all your extracurricular activities. Think back on which experiences have allowed you to develop and/or demonstrate your passions. Ultimately, the best “most meaningful” essays will be about experiences you feel truly passionate about!

FREE AMCAS Work & Activities Workbook

Use this workbook to write STELLAR AMCAS descriptions. This section is as important as your personal statement.

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5 Important Tips for your AMCAS Most Meaningful Experience Essays

Most meaningful activity amcas tip #1: tell a story.

As with most written components of your application, your most meaningful remarks should “show not tell.” This is especially relevant for your most meaningful experiences as you already had 700-characters to describe the activity and what you did in a more literal manner. As such, readers will expect more emphasis on reflection, what you learned, and why the experience was meaningful to you. The best way to do this is to share a short anecdote that highlights positive traits about you while demonstrating how the experience had an impact on you. See our AMCAS most meaningful experience example essay below! 

Key Tip: Highlight experiences and stories that you have NOT used in your personal statement.

Most Meaningful Activity AMCAS Tip #2: Differentiate yourself

Many medical school applicants will have some sort of experience in clinical volunteering, community service, research, teaching, and leadership. Therefore, in writing about your most meaningful experiences, focus on things you did that were unique or different. Not all pre-meds will have a unique background or path in life, but everyone has his or her own perspectives and stories to bring to the table. Ask yourself if anyone else’s name could be associated with your most meaningful essay without significantly changing its message. If so, re-write your essay so that it is true and specific to your experiences.

For example, applicants can write about how volunteering in the hospital taught them empathy and compassion. But only YOU can speak to a specific patient you met while volunteering and how your conversation with the patient affected you.

Most Meaningful Activity AMCAS Tip #3: Continue to highlight your passions and overall narrative

Think about how an admissions committee member might summarize your application in a 2-minute “elevator” pitch based on your personal statement and activity descriptions thus far. Structure your most meaningful remarks around this theme to maintain a consistent narrative. For example, if your application is heavily focused on translating research findings at the bench into new clinical treatments for cancer patients, your most meaningful remarks should probably focus on your research experiences and/or work with cancer patients, as well as your motivations for working toward this goal. 

Key Tip: Keep in mind that your most meaningful activities do not have to be clinically related. It is more important that the activity reveals something unique about you and is something you truly feel excited writing about. Many students choose to designate non-clinical experiences as their most meaningful activities with great success.

Most Meaningful Activity AMCAS Tip #4: Focus on impact

What did you accomplish and why was it significant? For example, if you held a leadership position in a student organization, talk about changes you made as a leader and how those changes positively benefited the group. Think about this as another form of “show not tell”: you are showing readers that you are an effective leader indirectly through your accomplishments and the impact that you had on others rather than outright telling them. If you are able to, quantify impact (X dollars raised, Y number of people affected) and be as specific as possible!

Most Meaningful Activity AMCAS Tip #5: Connect to the future

Your “most meaningful” reflections should inform readers about what type of physician you want to become and how the experience contributed to your aspirations. For example, if you write about research that you published or presented, talk about what type of research you want to do as a physician and how your experiences doing research before medical school gave you relevant skills toward that goal. This gives readers a better idea of the significance of your experience by directly making the connection for them.

AMCAS Most Meaningful Experience: Examples and Analyses

AMCAS most meaningful activity example #1:  This applicant chose to write about his neuroscience research lab experience in university. 

In the 700 character description, this applicant wrote what research question he was studying. He talked about the research skills and techniques he learned. In the 1325-character most meaningful description below, the applicant complemented his research by writing more of a reflection and how he wants to integrate research into his future career. 

AMCAS Most Meaningful Experience Example

AMCAS Most Meaningful Activity – Neuroscience Research

Science is a conversation and conclusions drawn from it may impact policy and patient care. For example, if opioid administration may sensitize fear learning, should patients receive opioids following physical trauma? The potential of translational research to inform answers to these questions inspired my interest in academic medicine. At the same time, truth is found through debate, and our findings were only one piece of a larger puzzle. I recall presenting our findings at a national conference and defending them against other neuroscientists whose studies had produced different results. As such, I have realized that conflict and disagreement are the main drivers of scientific progress.

My time in XYZ Lab also helped me develop valuable career skills. Familiarity with neuroscience has been academically enriching, but more valuable is my honed ability to communicate results to others and challenge my hypotheses by testing theory with experimentation. My familiarity with animal models will allow me to interpret and apply pre-clinical findings to inform clinical trials. In addition, creating and presenting posters to the general public, I have realized that persuading others involves more than just data—people are more convinced when you can convey results in context as part of a larger narrative.

Why is this a strong “most meaningful” essay? 

• The applicant reflects on the advancement of scientific research and its importance to medicine. As a reader, you learn that the reader has put a lot of thought about the intersection of public policy and medicine. 
• The writer connects the skills she learned and explains why it will be valuable for his career.
• The writer “sells herself” by talking about posters he presented. 

AMCAS most meaningful activity example #2: This applicant chose to write about his work in the emergency room. You can see both the 700 character AMCAS activity description and the 1325 character AMCAS most meaningful essay.

Why is this a strong “most meaningful” essay:

• The writer comes off as reflective and thoughtful about the work he is involved with. For example, he notes the role of “narrative” in convincing others about scientific findings. 
• The writer shares an anecdote at an academic conference presenting his scientific poster to show his understanding of the scientific process. Note how the anecdote itself only takes up one sentence, but gives you an idea of who the writer is and their beliefs. 
• The writer explicitly connects the experience with his future career goals in “academic medicine” and relevant skills for that career. 
• The writer highlights impact through his accomplishments, such as “creating and presenting posters” at a “national conference.”

FAQs - AMCAS Most Meaningful Activities

Q: how many characters are the most meaningful activities .

In addition to the 700-character limit allotted for every activity, activities designated as “most meaningful” receive an additional 1325-characters (essay is listed separately under “Most Meaningful Experience Remarks”). This is roughly 200 words, or one paragraph.

Q: Do you have to have 3 most meaningful experiences on the AMCAS? 

While having 3 most meaningful experiences is by no means required, we recommend students take full advantage of opportunities to strengthen their application. Think about the activities you have already written about. Is there an alternative perspective you could highlight? An anecdote you could share? Did this experience shape your future aspirations? Use the extra characters to address these questions and convince an admissions committee to admit you to their medical school class! 

Q: What if I only list 2 most meaningful AMCAS activities?

We do not recommend this. It is a lost opportunity to showcase your strengths and interests for becoming a physician. 

Q: Do my most meaningful experiences have to be clinical experiences? What about shadowing? 

Your most meaningful experiences do not have to be clinical! Many successful applicants designate non-clinical activities as their most meaningful experiences. However, we do recommend having at least one of your most meaningful experiences be related to medicine, and even relating non-clinical experiences to your career aspirations as a physician. Look at our example AMCAS activity description and AMCAS most meaningful activity essay above. 

Q: Can I include shadowing as a most meaningful AMCAS activity? 

Yes, you can include shadowing as a meaningful activity. But most of the time, our Cracking Med School Admissions team finds that shadowing is not a strong activity. While shadowing can be educational and valuable for many pre-meds, we do not recommend designating it as a most meaningful experience due to its passive nature. For your most meaningful experiences, try to focus on activities in which you actively did something and made a difference for others!

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