critical thinking skills dimensions

• Tactical and Structural Recommendations
• Teaching Tactics that Encourage Active Learning
• Using Intellectual Standards to Assess Student Reasoning
• The Art of Redesigning Instruction
• Making Critical Thinking Intuitive
• Remodelled Lessons: K-3
• Remodelled Lessons: 4-6
• Remodelled Lessons: 6-9
• Remodelled Lessons: High School
• John Stuart Mill: On Instruction, Intellectual Development, and Disciplined Learning
• Socratic Teaching
• Introduction to Remodelling: Components of Remodels and Their Functions

Strategy List: 35 Dimensions of Critical Thought

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What Are Critical Thinking Skills and Why Are They Important?

Learn what critical thinking skills are, why they’re important, and how to develop and apply them in your workplace and everyday life.

We often use critical thinking skills without even realizing it. When you make a decision, such as which cereal to eat for breakfast, you're using critical thinking to determine the best option for you that day.

Critical thinking is like a muscle that can be exercised and built over time. It is a skill that can help propel your career to new heights. You'll be able to solve workplace issues, use trial and error to troubleshoot ideas, and more.

We'll take you through what it is and some examples so you can begin your journey in mastering this skill.

What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking is the ability to interpret, evaluate, and analyze facts and information that are available, to form a judgment or decide if something is right or wrong.

More than just being curious about the world around you, critical thinkers make connections between logical ideas to see the bigger picture. Building your critical thinking skills means being able to advocate your ideas and opinions, present them in a logical fashion, and make decisions for improvement.

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Why is critical thinking important?

Critical thinking is useful in many areas of your life, including your career. It makes you a well-rounded individual, one who has looked at all of their options and possible solutions before making a choice.

According to the University of the People in California, having critical thinking skills is important because they are [ 1 ]:

Crucial for the economy

Essential for improving language and presentation skills

Very helpful in promoting creativity

Important for self-reflection

The basis of science and democracy 

Critical thinking skills are used every day in a myriad of ways and can be applied to situations such as a CEO approaching a group project or a nurse deciding in which order to treat their patients.

Examples of common critical thinking skills

Critical thinking skills differ from individual to individual and are utilized in various ways. Examples of common critical thinking skills include:

Identification of biases: Identifying biases means knowing there are certain people or things that may have an unfair prejudice or influence on the situation at hand. Pointing out these biases helps to remove them from contention when it comes to solving the problem and allows you to see things from a different perspective.

Research: Researching details and facts allows you to be prepared when presenting your information to people. You’ll know exactly what you’re talking about due to the time you’ve spent with the subject material, and you’ll be well-spoken and know what questions to ask to gain more knowledge. When researching, always use credible sources and factual information.

Open-mindedness: Being open-minded when having a conversation or participating in a group activity is crucial to success. Dismissing someone else’s ideas before you’ve heard them will inhibit you from progressing to a solution, and will often create animosity. If you truly want to solve a problem, you need to be willing to hear everyone’s opinions and ideas if you want them to hear yours.

Analysis: Analyzing your research will lead to you having a better understanding of the things you’ve heard and read. As a true critical thinker, you’ll want to seek out the truth and get to the source of issues. It’s important to avoid taking things at face value and always dig deeper.

Problem-solving: Problem-solving is perhaps the most important skill that critical thinkers can possess. The ability to solve issues and bounce back from conflict is what helps you succeed, be a leader, and effect change. One way to properly solve problems is to first recognize there’s a problem that needs solving. By determining the issue at hand, you can then analyze it and come up with several potential solutions.

How to develop critical thinking skills

You can develop critical thinking skills every day if you approach problems in a logical manner. Here are a few ways you can start your path to improvement:

1. Ask questions.

Be inquisitive about everything. Maintain a neutral perspective and develop a natural curiosity, so you can ask questions that develop your understanding of the situation or task at hand. The more details, facts, and information you have, the better informed you are to make decisions.

2. Practice active listening.

Utilize active listening techniques, which are founded in empathy, to really listen to what the other person is saying. Critical thinking, in part, is the cognitive process of reading the situation: the words coming out of their mouth, their body language, their reactions to your own words. Then, you might paraphrase to clarify what they're saying, so both of you agree you're on the same page.

3. Develop your logic and reasoning.

This is perhaps a more abstract task that requires practice and long-term development. However, think of a schoolteacher assessing the classroom to determine how to energize the lesson. There's options such as playing a game, watching a video, or challenging the students with a reward system. Using logic, you might decide that the reward system will take up too much time and is not an immediate fix. A video is not exactly relevant at this time. So, the teacher decides to play a simple word association game.

Scenarios like this happen every day, so next time, you can be more aware of what will work and what won't. Over time, developing your logic and reasoning will strengthen your critical thinking skills.

Learn tips and tricks on how to become a better critical thinker and problem solver through online courses from notable educational institutions on Coursera. Start with Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking from Duke University or Mindware: Critical Thinking for the Information Age from the University of Michigan.

Article sources

University of the People, “ Why is Critical Thinking Important?: A Survival Guide , https://www.uopeople.edu/blog/why-is-critical-thinking-important/.” Accessed May 18, 2023.

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This content has been made available for informational purposes only. Learners are advised to conduct additional research to ensure that courses and other credentials pursued meet their personal, professional, and financial goals.

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Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is a widely accepted educational goal. Its definition is contested, but the competing definitions can be understood as differing conceptions of the same basic concept: careful thinking directed to a goal. Conceptions differ with respect to the scope of such thinking, the type of goal, the criteria and norms for thinking carefully, and the thinking components on which they focus. Its adoption as an educational goal has been recommended on the basis of respect for students’ autonomy and preparing students for success in life and for democratic citizenship. “Critical thinkers” have the dispositions and abilities that lead them to think critically when appropriate. The abilities can be identified directly; the dispositions indirectly, by considering what factors contribute to or impede exercise of the abilities. Standardized tests have been developed to assess the degree to which a person possesses such dispositions and abilities. Educational intervention has been shown experimentally to improve them, particularly when it includes dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring. Controversies have arisen over the generalizability of critical thinking across domains, over alleged bias in critical thinking theories and instruction, and over the relationship of critical thinking to other types of thinking.

2.1 Dewey’s Three Main Examples

2.2 dewey’s other examples, 2.3 further examples, 2.4 non-examples, 3. the definition of critical thinking, 4. its value, 5. the process of thinking critically, 6. components of the process, 7. contributory dispositions and abilities, 8.1 initiating dispositions, 8.2 internal dispositions, 9. critical thinking abilities, 10. required knowledge, 11. educational methods, 12.1 the generalizability of critical thinking, 12.2 bias in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, 12.3 relationship of critical thinking to other types of thinking, other internet resources, related entries.

Use of the term ‘critical thinking’ to describe an educational goal goes back to the American philosopher John Dewey (1910), who more commonly called it ‘reflective thinking’. He defined it as

active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it tends. (Dewey 1910: 6; 1933: 9)

and identified a habit of such consideration with a scientific attitude of mind. His lengthy quotations of Francis Bacon, John Locke, and John Stuart Mill indicate that he was not the first person to propose development of a scientific attitude of mind as an educational goal.

In the 1930s, many of the schools that participated in the Eight-Year Study of the Progressive Education Association (Aikin 1942) adopted critical thinking as an educational goal, for whose achievement the study’s Evaluation Staff developed tests (Smith, Tyler, & Evaluation Staff 1942). Glaser (1941) showed experimentally that it was possible to improve the critical thinking of high school students. Bloom’s influential taxonomy of cognitive educational objectives (Bloom et al. 1956) incorporated critical thinking abilities. Ennis (1962) proposed 12 aspects of critical thinking as a basis for research on the teaching and evaluation of critical thinking ability.

Since 1980, an annual international conference in California on critical thinking and educational reform has attracted tens of thousands of educators from all levels of education and from many parts of the world. Also since 1980, the state university system in California has required all undergraduate students to take a critical thinking course. Since 1983, the Association for Informal Logic and Critical Thinking has sponsored sessions in conjunction with the divisional meetings of the American Philosophical Association (APA). In 1987, the APA’s Committee on Pre-College Philosophy commissioned a consensus statement on critical thinking for purposes of educational assessment and instruction (Facione 1990a). Researchers have developed standardized tests of critical thinking abilities and dispositions; for details, see the Supplement on Assessment . Educational jurisdictions around the world now include critical thinking in guidelines for curriculum and assessment.

For details on this history, see the Supplement on History .

2. Examples and Non-Examples

Before considering the definition of critical thinking, it will be helpful to have in mind some examples of critical thinking, as well as some examples of kinds of thinking that would apparently not count as critical thinking.

Dewey (1910: 68–71; 1933: 91–94) takes as paradigms of reflective thinking three class papers of students in which they describe their thinking. The examples range from the everyday to the scientific.

Transit : “The other day, when I was down town on 16th Street, a clock caught my eye. I saw that the hands pointed to 12:20. This suggested that I had an engagement at 124th Street, at one o’clock. I reasoned that as it had taken me an hour to come down on a surface car, I should probably be twenty minutes late if I returned the same way. I might save twenty minutes by a subway express. But was there a station near? If not, I might lose more than twenty minutes in looking for one. Then I thought of the elevated, and I saw there was such a line within two blocks. But where was the station? If it were several blocks above or below the street I was on, I should lose time instead of gaining it. My mind went back to the subway express as quicker than the elevated; furthermore, I remembered that it went nearer than the elevated to the part of 124th Street I wished to reach, so that time would be saved at the end of the journey. I concluded in favor of the subway, and reached my destination by one o’clock.” (Dewey 1910: 68–69; 1933: 91–92)

Ferryboat : “Projecting nearly horizontally from the upper deck of the ferryboat on which I daily cross the river is a long white pole, having a gilded ball at its tip. It suggested a flagpole when I first saw it; its color, shape, and gilded ball agreed with this idea, and these reasons seemed to justify me in this belief. But soon difficulties presented themselves. The pole was nearly horizontal, an unusual position for a flagpole; in the next place, there was no pulley, ring, or cord by which to attach a flag; finally, there were elsewhere on the boat two vertical staffs from which flags were occasionally flown. It seemed probable that the pole was not there for flag-flying.

“I then tried to imagine all possible purposes of the pole, and to consider for which of these it was best suited: (a) Possibly it was an ornament. But as all the ferryboats and even the tugboats carried poles, this hypothesis was rejected. (b) Possibly it was the terminal of a wireless telegraph. But the same considerations made this improbable. Besides, the more natural place for such a terminal would be the highest part of the boat, on top of the pilot house. (c) Its purpose might be to point out the direction in which the boat is moving.

“In support of this conclusion, I discovered that the pole was lower than the pilot house, so that the steersman could easily see it. Moreover, the tip was enough higher than the base, so that, from the pilot’s position, it must appear to project far out in front of the boat. Moreover, the pilot being near the front of the boat, he would need some such guide as to its direction. Tugboats would also need poles for such a purpose. This hypothesis was so much more probable than the others that I accepted it. I formed the conclusion that the pole was set up for the purpose of showing the pilot the direction in which the boat pointed, to enable him to steer correctly.” (Dewey 1910: 69–70; 1933: 92–93)

Bubbles : “In washing tumblers in hot soapsuds and placing them mouth downward on a plate, bubbles appeared on the outside of the mouth of the tumblers and then went inside. Why? The presence of bubbles suggests air, which I note must come from inside the tumbler. I see that the soapy water on the plate prevents escape of the air save as it may be caught in bubbles. But why should air leave the tumbler? There was no substance entering to force it out. It must have expanded. It expands by increase of heat, or by decrease of pressure, or both. Could the air have become heated after the tumbler was taken from the hot suds? Clearly not the air that was already entangled in the water. If heated air was the cause, cold air must have entered in transferring the tumblers from the suds to the plate. I test to see if this supposition is true by taking several more tumblers out. Some I shake so as to make sure of entrapping cold air in them. Some I take out holding mouth downward in order to prevent cold air from entering. Bubbles appear on the outside of every one of the former and on none of the latter. I must be right in my inference. Air from the outside must have been expanded by the heat of the tumbler, which explains the appearance of the bubbles on the outside. But why do they then go inside? Cold contracts. The tumbler cooled and also the air inside it. Tension was removed, and hence bubbles appeared inside. To be sure of this, I test by placing a cup of ice on the tumbler while the bubbles are still forming outside. They soon reverse” (Dewey 1910: 70–71; 1933: 93–94).

Dewey (1910, 1933) sprinkles his book with other examples of critical thinking. We will refer to the following.

Weather : A man on a walk notices that it has suddenly become cool, thinks that it is probably going to rain, looks up and sees a dark cloud obscuring the sun, and quickens his steps (1910: 6–10; 1933: 9–13).

Disorder : A man finds his rooms on his return to them in disorder with his belongings thrown about, thinks at first of burglary as an explanation, then thinks of mischievous children as being an alternative explanation, then looks to see whether valuables are missing, and discovers that they are (1910: 82–83; 1933: 166–168).

Typhoid : A physician diagnosing a patient whose conspicuous symptoms suggest typhoid avoids drawing a conclusion until more data are gathered by questioning the patient and by making tests (1910: 85–86; 1933: 170).

Blur : A moving blur catches our eye in the distance, we ask ourselves whether it is a cloud of whirling dust or a tree moving its branches or a man signaling to us, we think of other traits that should be found on each of those possibilities, and we look and see if those traits are found (1910: 102, 108; 1933: 121, 133).

Suction pump : In thinking about the suction pump, the scientist first notes that it will draw water only to a maximum height of 33 feet at sea level and to a lesser maximum height at higher elevations, selects for attention the differing atmospheric pressure at these elevations, sets up experiments in which the air is removed from a vessel containing water (when suction no longer works) and in which the weight of air at various levels is calculated, compares the results of reasoning about the height to which a given weight of air will allow a suction pump to raise water with the observed maximum height at different elevations, and finally assimilates the suction pump to such apparently different phenomena as the siphon and the rising of a balloon (1910: 150–153; 1933: 195–198).

Diamond : A passenger in a car driving in a diamond lane reserved for vehicles with at least one passenger notices that the diamond marks on the pavement are far apart in some places and close together in others. Why? The driver suggests that the reason may be that the diamond marks are not needed where there is a solid double line separating the diamond lane from the adjoining lane, but are needed when there is a dotted single line permitting crossing into the diamond lane. Further observation confirms that the diamonds are close together when a dotted line separates the diamond lane from its neighbour, but otherwise far apart.

Rash : A woman suddenly develops a very itchy red rash on her throat and upper chest. She recently noticed a mark on the back of her right hand, but was not sure whether the mark was a rash or a scrape. She lies down in bed and thinks about what might be causing the rash and what to do about it. About two weeks before, she began taking blood pressure medication that contained a sulfa drug, and the pharmacist had warned her, in view of a previous allergic reaction to a medication containing a sulfa drug, to be on the alert for an allergic reaction; however, she had been taking the medication for two weeks with no such effect. The day before, she began using a new cream on her neck and upper chest; against the new cream as the cause was mark on the back of her hand, which had not been exposed to the cream. She began taking probiotics about a month before. She also recently started new eye drops, but she supposed that manufacturers of eye drops would be careful not to include allergy-causing components in the medication. The rash might be a heat rash, since she recently was sweating profusely from her upper body. Since she is about to go away on a short vacation, where she would not have access to her usual physician, she decides to keep taking the probiotics and using the new eye drops but to discontinue the blood pressure medication and to switch back to the old cream for her neck and upper chest. She forms a plan to consult her regular physician on her return about the blood pressure medication.

Candidate : Although Dewey included no examples of thinking directed at appraising the arguments of others, such thinking has come to be considered a kind of critical thinking. We find an example of such thinking in the performance task on the Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA+), which its sponsoring organization describes as

a performance-based assessment that provides a measure of an institution’s contribution to the development of critical-thinking and written communication skills of its students. (Council for Aid to Education 2017)

A sample task posted on its website requires the test-taker to write a report for public distribution evaluating a fictional candidate’s policy proposals and their supporting arguments, using supplied background documents, with a recommendation on whether to endorse the candidate.

Immediate acceptance of an idea that suggests itself as a solution to a problem (e.g., a possible explanation of an event or phenomenon, an action that seems likely to produce a desired result) is “uncritical thinking, the minimum of reflection” (Dewey 1910: 13). On-going suspension of judgment in the light of doubt about a possible solution is not critical thinking (Dewey 1910: 108). Critique driven by a dogmatically held political or religious ideology is not critical thinking; thus Paulo Freire (1968 [1970]) is using the term (e.g., at 1970: 71, 81, 100, 146) in a more politically freighted sense that includes not only reflection but also revolutionary action against oppression. Derivation of a conclusion from given data using an algorithm is not critical thinking.

What is critical thinking? There are many definitions. Ennis (2016) lists 14 philosophically oriented scholarly definitions and three dictionary definitions. Following Rawls (1971), who distinguished his conception of justice from a utilitarian conception but regarded them as rival conceptions of the same concept, Ennis maintains that the 17 definitions are different conceptions of the same concept. Rawls articulated the shared concept of justice as

a characteristic set of principles for assigning basic rights and duties and for determining… the proper distribution of the benefits and burdens of social cooperation. (Rawls 1971: 5)

Bailin et al. (1999b) claim that, if one considers what sorts of thinking an educator would take not to be critical thinking and what sorts to be critical thinking, one can conclude that educators typically understand critical thinking to have at least three features.

• It is done for the purpose of making up one’s mind about what to believe or do.
• The person engaging in the thinking is trying to fulfill standards of adequacy and accuracy appropriate to the thinking.
• The thinking fulfills the relevant standards to some threshold level.

One could sum up the core concept that involves these three features by saying that critical thinking is careful goal-directed thinking. This core concept seems to apply to all the examples of critical thinking described in the previous section. As for the non-examples, their exclusion depends on construing careful thinking as excluding jumping immediately to conclusions, suspending judgment no matter how strong the evidence, reasoning from an unquestioned ideological or religious perspective, and routinely using an algorithm to answer a question.

If the core of critical thinking is careful goal-directed thinking, conceptions of it can vary according to its presumed scope, its presumed goal, one’s criteria and threshold for being careful, and the thinking component on which one focuses. As to its scope, some conceptions (e.g., Dewey 1910, 1933) restrict it to constructive thinking on the basis of one’s own observations and experiments, others (e.g., Ennis 1962; Fisher & Scriven 1997; Johnson 1992) to appraisal of the products of such thinking. Ennis (1991) and Bailin et al. (1999b) take it to cover both construction and appraisal. As to its goal, some conceptions restrict it to forming a judgment (Dewey 1910, 1933; Lipman 1987; Facione 1990a). Others allow for actions as well as beliefs as the end point of a process of critical thinking (Ennis 1991; Bailin et al. 1999b). As to the criteria and threshold for being careful, definitions vary in the term used to indicate that critical thinking satisfies certain norms: “intellectually disciplined” (Scriven & Paul 1987), “reasonable” (Ennis 1991), “skillful” (Lipman 1987), “skilled” (Fisher & Scriven 1997), “careful” (Bailin & Battersby 2009). Some definitions specify these norms, referring variously to “consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” (Dewey 1910, 1933); “the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning” (Glaser 1941); “conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication” (Scriven & Paul 1987); the requirement that “it is sensitive to context, relies on criteria, and is self-correcting” (Lipman 1987); “evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations” (Facione 1990a); and “plus-minus considerations of the product in terms of appropriate standards (or criteria)” (Johnson 1992). Stanovich and Stanovich (2010) propose to ground the concept of critical thinking in the concept of rationality, which they understand as combining epistemic rationality (fitting one’s beliefs to the world) and instrumental rationality (optimizing goal fulfillment); a critical thinker, in their view, is someone with “a propensity to override suboptimal responses from the autonomous mind” (2010: 227). These variant specifications of norms for critical thinking are not necessarily incompatible with one another, and in any case presuppose the core notion of thinking carefully. As to the thinking component singled out, some definitions focus on suspension of judgment during the thinking (Dewey 1910; McPeck 1981), others on inquiry while judgment is suspended (Bailin & Battersby 2009, 2021), others on the resulting judgment (Facione 1990a), and still others on responsiveness to reasons (Siegel 1988). Kuhn (2019) takes critical thinking to be more a dialogic practice of advancing and responding to arguments than an individual ability.

In educational contexts, a definition of critical thinking is a “programmatic definition” (Scheffler 1960: 19). It expresses a practical program for achieving an educational goal. For this purpose, a one-sentence formulaic definition is much less useful than articulation of a critical thinking process, with criteria and standards for the kinds of thinking that the process may involve. The real educational goal is recognition, adoption and implementation by students of those criteria and standards. That adoption and implementation in turn consists in acquiring the knowledge, abilities and dispositions of a critical thinker.

Conceptions of critical thinking generally do not include moral integrity as part of the concept. Dewey, for example, took critical thinking to be the ultimate intellectual goal of education, but distinguished it from the development of social cooperation among school children, which he took to be the central moral goal. Ennis (1996, 2011) added to his previous list of critical thinking dispositions a group of dispositions to care about the dignity and worth of every person, which he described as a “correlative” (1996) disposition without which critical thinking would be less valuable and perhaps harmful. An educational program that aimed at developing critical thinking but not the correlative disposition to care about the dignity and worth of every person, he asserted, “would be deficient and perhaps dangerous” (Ennis 1996: 172).

Dewey thought that education for reflective thinking would be of value to both the individual and society; recognition in educational practice of the kinship to the scientific attitude of children’s native curiosity, fertile imagination and love of experimental inquiry “would make for individual happiness and the reduction of social waste” (Dewey 1910: iii). Schools participating in the Eight-Year Study took development of the habit of reflective thinking and skill in solving problems as a means to leading young people to understand, appreciate and live the democratic way of life characteristic of the United States (Aikin 1942: 17–18, 81). Harvey Siegel (1988: 55–61) has offered four considerations in support of adopting critical thinking as an educational ideal. (1) Respect for persons requires that schools and teachers honour students’ demands for reasons and explanations, deal with students honestly, and recognize the need to confront students’ independent judgment; these requirements concern the manner in which teachers treat students. (2) Education has the task of preparing children to be successful adults, a task that requires development of their self-sufficiency. (3) Education should initiate children into the rational traditions in such fields as history, science and mathematics. (4) Education should prepare children to become democratic citizens, which requires reasoned procedures and critical talents and attitudes. To supplement these considerations, Siegel (1988: 62–90) responds to two objections: the ideology objection that adoption of any educational ideal requires a prior ideological commitment and the indoctrination objection that cultivation of critical thinking cannot escape being a form of indoctrination.

Despite the diversity of our 11 examples, one can recognize a common pattern. Dewey analyzed it as consisting of five phases:

• suggestions , in which the mind leaps forward to a possible solution;
• an intellectualization of the difficulty or perplexity into a problem to be solved, a question for which the answer must be sought;
• the use of one suggestion after another as a leading idea, or hypothesis , to initiate and guide observation and other operations in collection of factual material;
• the mental elaboration of the idea or supposition as an idea or supposition ( reasoning , in the sense on which reasoning is a part, not the whole, of inference); and
• testing the hypothesis by overt or imaginative action. (Dewey 1933: 106–107; italics in original)

The process of reflective thinking consisting of these phases would be preceded by a perplexed, troubled or confused situation and followed by a cleared-up, unified, resolved situation (Dewey 1933: 106). The term ‘phases’ replaced the term ‘steps’ (Dewey 1910: 72), thus removing the earlier suggestion of an invariant sequence. Variants of the above analysis appeared in (Dewey 1916: 177) and (Dewey 1938: 101–119).

The variant formulations indicate the difficulty of giving a single logical analysis of such a varied process. The process of critical thinking may have a spiral pattern, with the problem being redefined in the light of obstacles to solving it as originally formulated. For example, the person in Transit might have concluded that getting to the appointment at the scheduled time was impossible and have reformulated the problem as that of rescheduling the appointment for a mutually convenient time. Further, defining a problem does not always follow after or lead immediately to an idea of a suggested solution. Nor should it do so, as Dewey himself recognized in describing the physician in Typhoid as avoiding any strong preference for this or that conclusion before getting further information (Dewey 1910: 85; 1933: 170). People with a hypothesis in mind, even one to which they have a very weak commitment, have a so-called “confirmation bias” (Nickerson 1998): they are likely to pay attention to evidence that confirms the hypothesis and to ignore evidence that counts against it or for some competing hypothesis. Detectives, intelligence agencies, and investigators of airplane accidents are well advised to gather relevant evidence systematically and to postpone even tentative adoption of an explanatory hypothesis until the collected evidence rules out with the appropriate degree of certainty all but one explanation. Dewey’s analysis of the critical thinking process can be faulted as well for requiring acceptance or rejection of a possible solution to a defined problem, with no allowance for deciding in the light of the available evidence to suspend judgment. Further, given the great variety of kinds of problems for which reflection is appropriate, there is likely to be variation in its component events. Perhaps the best way to conceptualize the critical thinking process is as a checklist whose component events can occur in a variety of orders, selectively, and more than once. These component events might include (1) noticing a difficulty, (2) defining the problem, (3) dividing the problem into manageable sub-problems, (4) formulating a variety of possible solutions to the problem or sub-problem, (5) determining what evidence is relevant to deciding among possible solutions to the problem or sub-problem, (6) devising a plan of systematic observation or experiment that will uncover the relevant evidence, (7) carrying out the plan of systematic observation or experimentation, (8) noting the results of the systematic observation or experiment, (9) gathering relevant testimony and information from others, (10) judging the credibility of testimony and information gathered from others, (11) drawing conclusions from gathered evidence and accepted testimony, and (12) accepting a solution that the evidence adequately supports (cf. Hitchcock 2017: 485).

Checklist conceptions of the process of critical thinking are open to the objection that they are too mechanical and procedural to fit the multi-dimensional and emotionally charged issues for which critical thinking is urgently needed (Paul 1984). For such issues, a more dialectical process is advocated, in which competing relevant world views are identified, their implications explored, and some sort of creative synthesis attempted.

If one considers the critical thinking process illustrated by the 11 examples, one can identify distinct kinds of mental acts and mental states that form part of it. To distinguish, label and briefly characterize these components is a useful preliminary to identifying abilities, skills, dispositions, attitudes, habits and the like that contribute causally to thinking critically. Identifying such abilities and habits is in turn a useful preliminary to setting educational goals. Setting the goals is in its turn a useful preliminary to designing strategies for helping learners to achieve the goals and to designing ways of measuring the extent to which learners have done so. Such measures provide both feedback to learners on their achievement and a basis for experimental research on the effectiveness of various strategies for educating people to think critically. Let us begin, then, by distinguishing the kinds of mental acts and mental events that can occur in a critical thinking process.

• Observing : One notices something in one’s immediate environment (sudden cooling of temperature in Weather , bubbles forming outside a glass and then going inside in Bubbles , a moving blur in the distance in Blur , a rash in Rash ). Or one notes the results of an experiment or systematic observation (valuables missing in Disorder , no suction without air pressure in Suction pump )
• Feeling : One feels puzzled or uncertain about something (how to get to an appointment on time in Transit , why the diamonds vary in spacing in Diamond ). One wants to resolve this perplexity. One feels satisfaction once one has worked out an answer (to take the subway express in Transit , diamonds closer when needed as a warning in Diamond ).
• Wondering : One formulates a question to be addressed (why bubbles form outside a tumbler taken from hot water in Bubbles , how suction pumps work in Suction pump , what caused the rash in Rash ).
• Imagining : One thinks of possible answers (bus or subway or elevated in Transit , flagpole or ornament or wireless communication aid or direction indicator in Ferryboat , allergic reaction or heat rash in Rash ).
• Inferring : One works out what would be the case if a possible answer were assumed (valuables missing if there has been a burglary in Disorder , earlier start to the rash if it is an allergic reaction to a sulfa drug in Rash ). Or one draws a conclusion once sufficient relevant evidence is gathered (take the subway in Transit , burglary in Disorder , discontinue blood pressure medication and new cream in Rash ).
• Knowledge : One uses stored knowledge of the subject-matter to generate possible answers or to infer what would be expected on the assumption of a particular answer (knowledge of a city’s public transit system in Transit , of the requirements for a flagpole in Ferryboat , of Boyle’s law in Bubbles , of allergic reactions in Rash ).
• Experimenting : One designs and carries out an experiment or a systematic observation to find out whether the results deduced from a possible answer will occur (looking at the location of the flagpole in relation to the pilot’s position in Ferryboat , putting an ice cube on top of a tumbler taken from hot water in Bubbles , measuring the height to which a suction pump will draw water at different elevations in Suction pump , noticing the spacing of diamonds when movement to or from a diamond lane is allowed in Diamond ).
• Consulting : One finds a source of information, gets the information from the source, and makes a judgment on whether to accept it. None of our 11 examples include searching for sources of information. In this respect they are unrepresentative, since most people nowadays have almost instant access to information relevant to answering any question, including many of those illustrated by the examples. However, Candidate includes the activities of extracting information from sources and evaluating its credibility.
• Identifying and analyzing arguments : One notices an argument and works out its structure and content as a preliminary to evaluating its strength. This activity is central to Candidate . It is an important part of a critical thinking process in which one surveys arguments for various positions on an issue.
• Judging : One makes a judgment on the basis of accumulated evidence and reasoning, such as the judgment in Ferryboat that the purpose of the pole is to provide direction to the pilot.
• Deciding : One makes a decision on what to do or on what policy to adopt, as in the decision in Transit to take the subway.

By definition, a person who does something voluntarily is both willing and able to do that thing at that time. Both the willingness and the ability contribute causally to the person’s action, in the sense that the voluntary action would not occur if either (or both) of these were lacking. For example, suppose that one is standing with one’s arms at one’s sides and one voluntarily lifts one’s right arm to an extended horizontal position. One would not do so if one were unable to lift one’s arm, if for example one’s right side was paralyzed as the result of a stroke. Nor would one do so if one were unwilling to lift one’s arm, if for example one were participating in a street demonstration at which a white supremacist was urging the crowd to lift their right arm in a Nazi salute and one were unwilling to express support in this way for the racist Nazi ideology. The same analysis applies to a voluntary mental process of thinking critically. It requires both willingness and ability to think critically, including willingness and ability to perform each of the mental acts that compose the process and to coordinate those acts in a sequence that is directed at resolving the initiating perplexity.

Consider willingness first. We can identify causal contributors to willingness to think critically by considering factors that would cause a person who was able to think critically about an issue nevertheless not to do so (Hamby 2014). For each factor, the opposite condition thus contributes causally to willingness to think critically on a particular occasion. For example, people who habitually jump to conclusions without considering alternatives will not think critically about issues that arise, even if they have the required abilities. The contrary condition of willingness to suspend judgment is thus a causal contributor to thinking critically.

Now consider ability. In contrast to the ability to move one’s arm, which can be completely absent because a stroke has left the arm paralyzed, the ability to think critically is a developed ability, whose absence is not a complete absence of ability to think but absence of ability to think well. We can identify the ability to think well directly, in terms of the norms and standards for good thinking. In general, to be able do well the thinking activities that can be components of a critical thinking process, one needs to know the concepts and principles that characterize their good performance, to recognize in particular cases that the concepts and principles apply, and to apply them. The knowledge, recognition and application may be procedural rather than declarative. It may be domain-specific rather than widely applicable, and in either case may need subject-matter knowledge, sometimes of a deep kind.

Reflections of the sort illustrated by the previous two paragraphs have led scholars to identify the knowledge, abilities and dispositions of a “critical thinker”, i.e., someone who thinks critically whenever it is appropriate to do so. We turn now to these three types of causal contributors to thinking critically. We start with dispositions, since arguably these are the most powerful contributors to being a critical thinker, can be fostered at an early stage of a child’s development, and are susceptible to general improvement (Glaser 1941: 175)

8. Critical Thinking Dispositions

Educational researchers use the term ‘dispositions’ broadly for the habits of mind and attitudes that contribute causally to being a critical thinker. Some writers (e.g., Paul & Elder 2006; Hamby 2014; Bailin & Battersby 2016a) propose to use the term ‘virtues’ for this dimension of a critical thinker. The virtues in question, although they are virtues of character, concern the person’s ways of thinking rather than the person’s ways of behaving towards others. They are not moral virtues but intellectual virtues, of the sort articulated by Zagzebski (1996) and discussed by Turri, Alfano, and Greco (2017).

On a realistic conception, thinking dispositions or intellectual virtues are real properties of thinkers. They are general tendencies, propensities, or inclinations to think in particular ways in particular circumstances, and can be genuinely explanatory (Siegel 1999). Sceptics argue that there is no evidence for a specific mental basis for the habits of mind that contribute to thinking critically, and that it is pedagogically misleading to posit such a basis (Bailin et al. 1999a). Whatever their status, critical thinking dispositions need motivation for their initial formation in a child—motivation that may be external or internal. As children develop, the force of habit will gradually become important in sustaining the disposition (Nieto & Valenzuela 2012). Mere force of habit, however, is unlikely to sustain critical thinking dispositions. Critical thinkers must value and enjoy using their knowledge and abilities to think things through for themselves. They must be committed to, and lovers of, inquiry.

A person may have a critical thinking disposition with respect to only some kinds of issues. For example, one could be open-minded about scientific issues but not about religious issues. Similarly, one could be confident in one’s ability to reason about the theological implications of the existence of evil in the world but not in one’s ability to reason about the best design for a guided ballistic missile.

Facione (1990a: 25) divides “affective dispositions” of critical thinking into approaches to life and living in general and approaches to specific issues, questions or problems. Adapting this distinction, one can usefully divide critical thinking dispositions into initiating dispositions (those that contribute causally to starting to think critically about an issue) and internal dispositions (those that contribute causally to doing a good job of thinking critically once one has started). The two categories are not mutually exclusive. For example, open-mindedness, in the sense of willingness to consider alternative points of view to one’s own, is both an initiating and an internal disposition.

Using the strategy of considering factors that would block people with the ability to think critically from doing so, we can identify as initiating dispositions for thinking critically attentiveness, a habit of inquiry, self-confidence, courage, open-mindedness, willingness to suspend judgment, trust in reason, wanting evidence for one’s beliefs, and seeking the truth. We consider briefly what each of these dispositions amounts to, in each case citing sources that acknowledge them.

• Attentiveness : One will not think critically if one fails to recognize an issue that needs to be thought through. For example, the pedestrian in Weather would not have looked up if he had not noticed that the air was suddenly cooler. To be a critical thinker, then, one needs to be habitually attentive to one’s surroundings, noticing not only what one senses but also sources of perplexity in messages received and in one’s own beliefs and attitudes (Facione 1990a: 25; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001).
• Habit of inquiry : Inquiry is effortful, and one needs an internal push to engage in it. For example, the student in Bubbles could easily have stopped at idle wondering about the cause of the bubbles rather than reasoning to a hypothesis, then designing and executing an experiment to test it. Thus willingness to think critically needs mental energy and initiative. What can supply that energy? Love of inquiry, or perhaps just a habit of inquiry. Hamby (2015) has argued that willingness to inquire is the central critical thinking virtue, one that encompasses all the others. It is recognized as a critical thinking disposition by Dewey (1910: 29; 1933: 35), Glaser (1941: 5), Ennis (1987: 12; 1991: 8), Facione (1990a: 25), Bailin et al. (1999b: 294), Halpern (1998: 452), and Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo (2001).
• Self-confidence : Lack of confidence in one’s abilities can block critical thinking. For example, if the woman in Rash lacked confidence in her ability to figure things out for herself, she might just have assumed that the rash on her chest was the allergic reaction to her medication against which the pharmacist had warned her. Thus willingness to think critically requires confidence in one’s ability to inquire (Facione 1990a: 25; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001).
• Courage : Fear of thinking for oneself can stop one from doing it. Thus willingness to think critically requires intellectual courage (Paul & Elder 2006: 16).
• Open-mindedness : A dogmatic attitude will impede thinking critically. For example, a person who adheres rigidly to a “pro-choice” position on the issue of the legal status of induced abortion is likely to be unwilling to consider seriously the issue of when in its development an unborn child acquires a moral right to life. Thus willingness to think critically requires open-mindedness, in the sense of a willingness to examine questions to which one already accepts an answer but which further evidence or reasoning might cause one to answer differently (Dewey 1933; Facione 1990a; Ennis 1991; Bailin et al. 1999b; Halpern 1998, Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001). Paul (1981) emphasizes open-mindedness about alternative world-views, and recommends a dialectical approach to integrating such views as central to what he calls “strong sense” critical thinking. In three studies, Haran, Ritov, & Mellers (2013) found that actively open-minded thinking, including “the tendency to weigh new evidence against a favored belief, to spend sufficient time on a problem before giving up, and to consider carefully the opinions of others in forming one’s own”, led study participants to acquire information and thus to make accurate estimations.
• Willingness to suspend judgment : Premature closure on an initial solution will block critical thinking. Thus willingness to think critically requires a willingness to suspend judgment while alternatives are explored (Facione 1990a; Ennis 1991; Halpern 1998).
• Trust in reason : Since distrust in the processes of reasoned inquiry will dissuade one from engaging in it, trust in them is an initiating critical thinking disposition (Facione 1990a, 25; Bailin et al. 1999b: 294; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001; Paul & Elder 2006). In reaction to an allegedly exclusive emphasis on reason in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, Thayer-Bacon (2000) argues that intuition, imagination, and emotion have important roles to play in an adequate conception of critical thinking that she calls “constructive thinking”. From her point of view, critical thinking requires trust not only in reason but also in intuition, imagination, and emotion.
• Seeking the truth : If one does not care about the truth but is content to stick with one’s initial bias on an issue, then one will not think critically about it. Seeking the truth is thus an initiating critical thinking disposition (Bailin et al. 1999b: 294; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001). A disposition to seek the truth is implicit in more specific critical thinking dispositions, such as trying to be well-informed, considering seriously points of view other than one’s own, looking for alternatives, suspending judgment when the evidence is insufficient, and adopting a position when the evidence supporting it is sufficient.

Some of the initiating dispositions, such as open-mindedness and willingness to suspend judgment, are also internal critical thinking dispositions, in the sense of mental habits or attitudes that contribute causally to doing a good job of critical thinking once one starts the process. But there are many other internal critical thinking dispositions. Some of them are parasitic on one’s conception of good thinking. For example, it is constitutive of good thinking about an issue to formulate the issue clearly and to maintain focus on it. For this purpose, one needs not only the corresponding ability but also the corresponding disposition. Ennis (1991: 8) describes it as the disposition “to determine and maintain focus on the conclusion or question”, Facione (1990a: 25) as “clarity in stating the question or concern”. Other internal dispositions are motivators to continue or adjust the critical thinking process, such as willingness to persist in a complex task and willingness to abandon nonproductive strategies in an attempt to self-correct (Halpern 1998: 452). For a list of identified internal critical thinking dispositions, see the Supplement on Internal Critical Thinking Dispositions .

Some theorists postulate skills, i.e., acquired abilities, as operative in critical thinking. It is not obvious, however, that a good mental act is the exercise of a generic acquired skill. Inferring an expected time of arrival, as in Transit , has some generic components but also uses non-generic subject-matter knowledge. Bailin et al. (1999a) argue against viewing critical thinking skills as generic and discrete, on the ground that skilled performance at a critical thinking task cannot be separated from knowledge of concepts and from domain-specific principles of good thinking. Talk of skills, they concede, is unproblematic if it means merely that a person with critical thinking skills is capable of intelligent performance.

Despite such scepticism, theorists of critical thinking have listed as general contributors to critical thinking what they variously call abilities (Glaser 1941; Ennis 1962, 1991), skills (Facione 1990a; Halpern 1998) or competencies (Fisher & Scriven 1997). Amalgamating these lists would produce a confusing and chaotic cornucopia of more than 50 possible educational objectives, with only partial overlap among them. It makes sense instead to try to understand the reasons for the multiplicity and diversity, and to make a selection according to one’s own reasons for singling out abilities to be developed in a critical thinking curriculum. Two reasons for diversity among lists of critical thinking abilities are the underlying conception of critical thinking and the envisaged educational level. Appraisal-only conceptions, for example, involve a different suite of abilities than constructive-only conceptions. Some lists, such as those in (Glaser 1941), are put forward as educational objectives for secondary school students, whereas others are proposed as objectives for college students (e.g., Facione 1990a).

The abilities described in the remaining paragraphs of this section emerge from reflection on the general abilities needed to do well the thinking activities identified in section 6 as components of the critical thinking process described in section 5 . The derivation of each collection of abilities is accompanied by citation of sources that list such abilities and of standardized tests that claim to test them.

Observational abilities : Careful and accurate observation sometimes requires specialist expertise and practice, as in the case of observing birds and observing accident scenes. However, there are general abilities of noticing what one’s senses are picking up from one’s environment and of being able to articulate clearly and accurately to oneself and others what one has observed. It helps in exercising them to be able to recognize and take into account factors that make one’s observation less trustworthy, such as prior framing of the situation, inadequate time, deficient senses, poor observation conditions, and the like. It helps as well to be skilled at taking steps to make one’s observation more trustworthy, such as moving closer to get a better look, measuring something three times and taking the average, and checking what one thinks one is observing with someone else who is in a good position to observe it. It also helps to be skilled at recognizing respects in which one’s report of one’s observation involves inference rather than direct observation, so that one can then consider whether the inference is justified. These abilities come into play as well when one thinks about whether and with what degree of confidence to accept an observation report, for example in the study of history or in a criminal investigation or in assessing news reports. Observational abilities show up in some lists of critical thinking abilities (Ennis 1962: 90; Facione 1990a: 16; Ennis 1991: 9). There are items testing a person’s ability to judge the credibility of observation reports in the Cornell Critical Thinking Tests, Levels X and Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005). Norris and King (1983, 1985, 1990a, 1990b) is a test of ability to appraise observation reports.

Emotional abilities : The emotions that drive a critical thinking process are perplexity or puzzlement, a wish to resolve it, and satisfaction at achieving the desired resolution. Children experience these emotions at an early age, without being trained to do so. Education that takes critical thinking as a goal needs only to channel these emotions and to make sure not to stifle them. Collaborative critical thinking benefits from ability to recognize one’s own and others’ emotional commitments and reactions.

Questioning abilities : A critical thinking process needs transformation of an inchoate sense of perplexity into a clear question. Formulating a question well requires not building in questionable assumptions, not prejudging the issue, and using language that in context is unambiguous and precise enough (Ennis 1962: 97; 1991: 9).

Imaginative abilities : Thinking directed at finding the correct causal explanation of a general phenomenon or particular event requires an ability to imagine possible explanations. Thinking about what policy or plan of action to adopt requires generation of options and consideration of possible consequences of each option. Domain knowledge is required for such creative activity, but a general ability to imagine alternatives is helpful and can be nurtured so as to become easier, quicker, more extensive, and deeper (Dewey 1910: 34–39; 1933: 40–47). Facione (1990a) and Halpern (1998) include the ability to imagine alternatives as a critical thinking ability.

Inferential abilities : The ability to draw conclusions from given information, and to recognize with what degree of certainty one’s own or others’ conclusions follow, is universally recognized as a general critical thinking ability. All 11 examples in section 2 of this article include inferences, some from hypotheses or options (as in Transit , Ferryboat and Disorder ), others from something observed (as in Weather and Rash ). None of these inferences is formally valid. Rather, they are licensed by general, sometimes qualified substantive rules of inference (Toulmin 1958) that rest on domain knowledge—that a bus trip takes about the same time in each direction, that the terminal of a wireless telegraph would be located on the highest possible place, that sudden cooling is often followed by rain, that an allergic reaction to a sulfa drug generally shows up soon after one starts taking it. It is a matter of controversy to what extent the specialized ability to deduce conclusions from premisses using formal rules of inference is needed for critical thinking. Dewey (1933) locates logical forms in setting out the products of reflection rather than in the process of reflection. Ennis (1981a), on the other hand, maintains that a liberally-educated person should have the following abilities: to translate natural-language statements into statements using the standard logical operators, to use appropriately the language of necessary and sufficient conditions, to deal with argument forms and arguments containing symbols, to determine whether in virtue of an argument’s form its conclusion follows necessarily from its premisses, to reason with logically complex propositions, and to apply the rules and procedures of deductive logic. Inferential abilities are recognized as critical thinking abilities by Glaser (1941: 6), Facione (1990a: 9), Ennis (1991: 9), Fisher & Scriven (1997: 99, 111), and Halpern (1998: 452). Items testing inferential abilities constitute two of the five subtests of the Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (Watson & Glaser 1980a, 1980b, 1994), two of the four sections in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005), three of the seven sections in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005), 11 of the 34 items on Forms A and B of the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione 1990b, 1992), and a high but variable proportion of the 25 selected-response questions in the Collegiate Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017).

Experimenting abilities : Knowing how to design and execute an experiment is important not just in scientific research but also in everyday life, as in Rash . Dewey devoted a whole chapter of his How We Think (1910: 145–156; 1933: 190–202) to the superiority of experimentation over observation in advancing knowledge. Experimenting abilities come into play at one remove in appraising reports of scientific studies. Skill in designing and executing experiments includes the acknowledged abilities to appraise evidence (Glaser 1941: 6), to carry out experiments and to apply appropriate statistical inference techniques (Facione 1990a: 9), to judge inductions to an explanatory hypothesis (Ennis 1991: 9), and to recognize the need for an adequately large sample size (Halpern 1998). The Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005) includes four items (out of 52) on experimental design. The Collegiate Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017) makes room for appraisal of study design in both its performance task and its selected-response questions.

Consulting abilities : Skill at consulting sources of information comes into play when one seeks information to help resolve a problem, as in Candidate . Ability to find and appraise information includes ability to gather and marshal pertinent information (Glaser 1941: 6), to judge whether a statement made by an alleged authority is acceptable (Ennis 1962: 84), to plan a search for desired information (Facione 1990a: 9), and to judge the credibility of a source (Ennis 1991: 9). Ability to judge the credibility of statements is tested by 24 items (out of 76) in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005) and by four items (out of 52) in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005). The College Learning Assessment’s performance task requires evaluation of whether information in documents is credible or unreliable (Council for Aid to Education 2017).

Argument analysis abilities : The ability to identify and analyze arguments contributes to the process of surveying arguments on an issue in order to form one’s own reasoned judgment, as in Candidate . The ability to detect and analyze arguments is recognized as a critical thinking skill by Facione (1990a: 7–8), Ennis (1991: 9) and Halpern (1998). Five items (out of 34) on the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione 1990b, 1992) test skill at argument analysis. The College Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017) incorporates argument analysis in its selected-response tests of critical reading and evaluation and of critiquing an argument.

Judging skills and deciding skills : Skill at judging and deciding is skill at recognizing what judgment or decision the available evidence and argument supports, and with what degree of confidence. It is thus a component of the inferential skills already discussed.

Lists and tests of critical thinking abilities often include two more abilities: identifying assumptions and constructing and evaluating definitions.

In addition to dispositions and abilities, critical thinking needs knowledge: of critical thinking concepts, of critical thinking principles, and of the subject-matter of the thinking.

We can derive a short list of concepts whose understanding contributes to critical thinking from the critical thinking abilities described in the preceding section. Observational abilities require an understanding of the difference between observation and inference. Questioning abilities require an understanding of the concepts of ambiguity and vagueness. Inferential abilities require an understanding of the difference between conclusive and defeasible inference (traditionally, between deduction and induction), as well as of the difference between necessary and sufficient conditions. Experimenting abilities require an understanding of the concepts of hypothesis, null hypothesis, assumption and prediction, as well as of the concept of statistical significance and of its difference from importance. They also require an understanding of the difference between an experiment and an observational study, and in particular of the difference between a randomized controlled trial, a prospective correlational study and a retrospective (case-control) study. Argument analysis abilities require an understanding of the concepts of argument, premiss, assumption, conclusion and counter-consideration. Additional critical thinking concepts are proposed by Bailin et al. (1999b: 293), Fisher & Scriven (1997: 105–106), Black (2012), and Blair (2021).

According to Glaser (1941: 25), ability to think critically requires knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning. If we review the list of abilities in the preceding section, however, we can see that some of them can be acquired and exercised merely through practice, possibly guided in an educational setting, followed by feedback. Searching intelligently for a causal explanation of some phenomenon or event requires that one consider a full range of possible causal contributors, but it seems more important that one implements this principle in one’s practice than that one is able to articulate it. What is important is “operational knowledge” of the standards and principles of good thinking (Bailin et al. 1999b: 291–293). But the development of such critical thinking abilities as designing an experiment or constructing an operational definition can benefit from learning their underlying theory. Further, explicit knowledge of quirks of human thinking seems useful as a cautionary guide. Human memory is not just fallible about details, as people learn from their own experiences of misremembering, but is so malleable that a detailed, clear and vivid recollection of an event can be a total fabrication (Loftus 2017). People seek or interpret evidence in ways that are partial to their existing beliefs and expectations, often unconscious of their “confirmation bias” (Nickerson 1998). Not only are people subject to this and other cognitive biases (Kahneman 2011), of which they are typically unaware, but it may be counter-productive for one to make oneself aware of them and try consciously to counteract them or to counteract social biases such as racial or sexual stereotypes (Kenyon & Beaulac 2014). It is helpful to be aware of these facts and of the superior effectiveness of blocking the operation of biases—for example, by making an immediate record of one’s observations, refraining from forming a preliminary explanatory hypothesis, blind refereeing, double-blind randomized trials, and blind grading of students’ work. It is also helpful to be aware of the prevalence of “noise” (unwanted unsystematic variability of judgments), of how to detect noise (through a noise audit), and of how to reduce noise: make accuracy the goal, think statistically, break a process of arriving at a judgment into independent tasks, resist premature intuitions, in a group get independent judgments first, favour comparative judgments and scales (Kahneman, Sibony, & Sunstein 2021). It is helpful as well to be aware of the concept of “bounded rationality” in decision-making and of the related distinction between “satisficing” and optimizing (Simon 1956; Gigerenzer 2001).

Critical thinking about an issue requires substantive knowledge of the domain to which the issue belongs. Critical thinking abilities are not a magic elixir that can be applied to any issue whatever by somebody who has no knowledge of the facts relevant to exploring that issue. For example, the student in Bubbles needed to know that gases do not penetrate solid objects like a glass, that air expands when heated, that the volume of an enclosed gas varies directly with its temperature and inversely with its pressure, and that hot objects will spontaneously cool down to the ambient temperature of their surroundings unless kept hot by insulation or a source of heat. Critical thinkers thus need a rich fund of subject-matter knowledge relevant to the variety of situations they encounter. This fact is recognized in the inclusion among critical thinking dispositions of a concern to become and remain generally well informed.

Experimental educational interventions, with control groups, have shown that education can improve critical thinking skills and dispositions, as measured by standardized tests. For information about these tests, see the Supplement on Assessment .

What educational methods are most effective at developing the dispositions, abilities and knowledge of a critical thinker? In a comprehensive meta-analysis of experimental and quasi-experimental studies of strategies for teaching students to think critically, Abrami et al. (2015) found that dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring each increased the effectiveness of the educational intervention, and that they were most effective when combined. They also found that in these studies a combination of separate instruction in critical thinking with subject-matter instruction in which students are encouraged to think critically was more effective than either by itself. However, the difference was not statistically significant; that is, it might have arisen by chance.

Most of these studies lack the longitudinal follow-up required to determine whether the observed differential improvements in critical thinking abilities or dispositions continue over time, for example until high school or college graduation. For details on studies of methods of developing critical thinking skills and dispositions, see the Supplement on Educational Methods .

12. Controversies

Scholars have denied the generalizability of critical thinking abilities across subject domains, have alleged bias in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, and have investigated the relationship of critical thinking to other kinds of thinking.

McPeck (1981) attacked the thinking skills movement of the 1970s, including the critical thinking movement. He argued that there are no general thinking skills, since thinking is always thinking about some subject-matter. It is futile, he claimed, for schools and colleges to teach thinking as if it were a separate subject. Rather, teachers should lead their pupils to become autonomous thinkers by teaching school subjects in a way that brings out their cognitive structure and that encourages and rewards discussion and argument. As some of his critics (e.g., Paul 1985; Siegel 1985) pointed out, McPeck’s central argument needs elaboration, since it has obvious counter-examples in writing and speaking, for which (up to a certain level of complexity) there are teachable general abilities even though they are always about some subject-matter. To make his argument convincing, McPeck needs to explain how thinking differs from writing and speaking in a way that does not permit useful abstraction of its components from the subject-matters with which it deals. He has not done so. Nevertheless, his position that the dispositions and abilities of a critical thinker are best developed in the context of subject-matter instruction is shared by many theorists of critical thinking, including Dewey (1910, 1933), Glaser (1941), Passmore (1980), Weinstein (1990), Bailin et al. (1999b), and Willingham (2019).

McPeck’s challenge prompted reflection on the extent to which critical thinking is subject-specific. McPeck argued for a strong subject-specificity thesis, according to which it is a conceptual truth that all critical thinking abilities are specific to a subject. (He did not however extend his subject-specificity thesis to critical thinking dispositions. In particular, he took the disposition to suspend judgment in situations of cognitive dissonance to be a general disposition.) Conceptual subject-specificity is subject to obvious counter-examples, such as the general ability to recognize confusion of necessary and sufficient conditions. A more modest thesis, also endorsed by McPeck, is epistemological subject-specificity, according to which the norms of good thinking vary from one field to another. Epistemological subject-specificity clearly holds to a certain extent; for example, the principles in accordance with which one solves a differential equation are quite different from the principles in accordance with which one determines whether a painting is a genuine Picasso. But the thesis suffers, as Ennis (1989) points out, from vagueness of the concept of a field or subject and from the obvious existence of inter-field principles, however broadly the concept of a field is construed. For example, the principles of hypothetico-deductive reasoning hold for all the varied fields in which such reasoning occurs. A third kind of subject-specificity is empirical subject-specificity, according to which as a matter of empirically observable fact a person with the abilities and dispositions of a critical thinker in one area of investigation will not necessarily have them in another area of investigation.

The thesis of empirical subject-specificity raises the general problem of transfer. If critical thinking abilities and dispositions have to be developed independently in each school subject, how are they of any use in dealing with the problems of everyday life and the political and social issues of contemporary society, most of which do not fit into the framework of a traditional school subject? Proponents of empirical subject-specificity tend to argue that transfer is more likely to occur if there is critical thinking instruction in a variety of domains, with explicit attention to dispositions and abilities that cut across domains. But evidence for this claim is scanty. There is a need for well-designed empirical studies that investigate the conditions that make transfer more likely.

It is common ground in debates about the generality or subject-specificity of critical thinking dispositions and abilities that critical thinking about any topic requires background knowledge about the topic. For example, the most sophisticated understanding of the principles of hypothetico-deductive reasoning is of no help unless accompanied by some knowledge of what might be plausible explanations of some phenomenon under investigation.

Critics have objected to bias in the theory, pedagogy and practice of critical thinking. Commentators (e.g., Alston 1995; Ennis 1998) have noted that anyone who takes a position has a bias in the neutral sense of being inclined in one direction rather than others. The critics, however, are objecting to bias in the pejorative sense of an unjustified favoring of certain ways of knowing over others, frequently alleging that the unjustly favoured ways are those of a dominant sex or culture (Bailin 1995). These ways favour:

• reinforcement of egocentric and sociocentric biases over dialectical engagement with opposing world-views (Paul 1981, 1984; Warren 1998)
• distancing from the object of inquiry over closeness to it (Martin 1992; Thayer-Bacon 1992)
• indifference to the situation of others over care for them (Martin 1992)
• orientation to thought over orientation to action (Martin 1992)
• being reasonable over caring to understand people’s ideas (Thayer-Bacon 1993)
• being neutral and objective over being embodied and situated (Thayer-Bacon 1995a)
• doubting over believing (Thayer-Bacon 1995b)
• reason over emotion, imagination and intuition (Thayer-Bacon 2000)
• solitary thinking over collaborative thinking (Thayer-Bacon 2000)
• written and spoken assignments over other forms of expression (Alston 2001)
• attention to written and spoken communications over attention to human problems (Alston 2001)
• winning debates in the public sphere over making and understanding meaning (Alston 2001)

A common thread in this smorgasbord of accusations is dissatisfaction with focusing on the logical analysis and evaluation of reasoning and arguments. While these authors acknowledge that such analysis and evaluation is part of critical thinking and should be part of its conceptualization and pedagogy, they insist that it is only a part. Paul (1981), for example, bemoans the tendency of atomistic teaching of methods of analyzing and evaluating arguments to turn students into more able sophists, adept at finding fault with positions and arguments with which they disagree but even more entrenched in the egocentric and sociocentric biases with which they began. Martin (1992) and Thayer-Bacon (1992) cite with approval the self-reported intimacy with their subject-matter of leading researchers in biology and medicine, an intimacy that conflicts with the distancing allegedly recommended in standard conceptions and pedagogy of critical thinking. Thayer-Bacon (2000) contrasts the embodied and socially embedded learning of her elementary school students in a Montessori school, who used their imagination, intuition and emotions as well as their reason, with conceptions of critical thinking as

thinking that is used to critique arguments, offer justifications, and make judgments about what are the good reasons, or the right answers. (Thayer-Bacon 2000: 127–128)

Alston (2001) reports that her students in a women’s studies class were able to see the flaws in the Cinderella myth that pervades much romantic fiction but in their own romantic relationships still acted as if all failures were the woman’s fault and still accepted the notions of love at first sight and living happily ever after. Students, she writes, should

be able to connect their intellectual critique to a more affective, somatic, and ethical account of making risky choices that have sexist, racist, classist, familial, sexual, or other consequences for themselves and those both near and far… critical thinking that reads arguments, texts, or practices merely on the surface without connections to feeling/desiring/doing or action lacks an ethical depth that should infuse the difference between mere cognitive activity and something we want to call critical thinking. (Alston 2001: 34)

Some critics portray such biases as unfair to women. Thayer-Bacon (1992), for example, has charged modern critical thinking theory with being sexist, on the ground that it separates the self from the object and causes one to lose touch with one’s inner voice, and thus stigmatizes women, who (she asserts) link self to object and listen to their inner voice. Her charge does not imply that women as a group are on average less able than men to analyze and evaluate arguments. Facione (1990c) found no difference by sex in performance on his California Critical Thinking Skills Test. Kuhn (1991: 280–281) found no difference by sex in either the disposition or the competence to engage in argumentative thinking.

The critics propose a variety of remedies for the biases that they allege. In general, they do not propose to eliminate or downplay critical thinking as an educational goal. Rather, they propose to conceptualize critical thinking differently and to change its pedagogy accordingly. Their pedagogical proposals arise logically from their objections. They can be summarized as follows:

• Focus on argument networks with dialectical exchanges reflecting contesting points of view rather than on atomic arguments, so as to develop “strong sense” critical thinking that transcends egocentric and sociocentric biases (Paul 1981, 1984).
• Foster closeness to the subject-matter and feeling connected to others in order to inform a humane democracy (Martin 1992).
• Develop “constructive thinking” as a social activity in a community of physically embodied and socially embedded inquirers with personal voices who value not only reason but also imagination, intuition and emotion (Thayer-Bacon 2000).
• In developing critical thinking in school subjects, treat as important neither skills nor dispositions but opening worlds of meaning (Alston 2001).
• Attend to the development of critical thinking dispositions as well as skills, and adopt the “critical pedagogy” practised and advocated by Freire (1968 [1970]) and hooks (1994) (Dalgleish, Girard, & Davies 2017).

A common thread in these proposals is treatment of critical thinking as a social, interactive, personally engaged activity like that of a quilting bee or a barn-raising (Thayer-Bacon 2000) rather than as an individual, solitary, distanced activity symbolized by Rodin’s The Thinker . One can get a vivid description of education with the former type of goal from the writings of bell hooks (1994, 2010). Critical thinking for her is open-minded dialectical exchange across opposing standpoints and from multiple perspectives, a conception similar to Paul’s “strong sense” critical thinking (Paul 1981). She abandons the structure of domination in the traditional classroom. In an introductory course on black women writers, for example, she assigns students to write an autobiographical paragraph about an early racial memory, then to read it aloud as the others listen, thus affirming the uniqueness and value of each voice and creating a communal awareness of the diversity of the group’s experiences (hooks 1994: 84). Her “engaged pedagogy” is thus similar to the “freedom under guidance” implemented in John Dewey’s Laboratory School of Chicago in the late 1890s and early 1900s. It incorporates the dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring that Abrami (2015) found to be most effective in improving critical thinking skills and dispositions.

What is the relationship of critical thinking to problem solving, decision-making, higher-order thinking, creative thinking, and other recognized types of thinking? One’s answer to this question obviously depends on how one defines the terms used in the question. If critical thinking is conceived broadly to cover any careful thinking about any topic for any purpose, then problem solving and decision making will be kinds of critical thinking, if they are done carefully. Historically, ‘critical thinking’ and ‘problem solving’ were two names for the same thing. If critical thinking is conceived more narrowly as consisting solely of appraisal of intellectual products, then it will be disjoint with problem solving and decision making, which are constructive.

Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives used the phrase “intellectual abilities and skills” for what had been labeled “critical thinking” by some, “reflective thinking” by Dewey and others, and “problem solving” by still others (Bloom et al. 1956: 38). Thus, the so-called “higher-order thinking skills” at the taxonomy’s top levels of analysis, synthesis and evaluation are just critical thinking skills, although they do not come with general criteria for their assessment (Ennis 1981b). The revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson et al. 2001) likewise treats critical thinking as cutting across those types of cognitive process that involve more than remembering (Anderson et al. 2001: 269–270). For details, see the Supplement on History .

As to creative thinking, it overlaps with critical thinking (Bailin 1987, 1988). Thinking about the explanation of some phenomenon or event, as in Ferryboat , requires creative imagination in constructing plausible explanatory hypotheses. Likewise, thinking about a policy question, as in Candidate , requires creativity in coming up with options. Conversely, creativity in any field needs to be balanced by critical appraisal of the draft painting or novel or mathematical theory.

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• Stanovich Keith E., Richard F. West, and Maggie E. Toplak, 2011, “Intelligence and Rationality”, in Robert J. Sternberg and Scott Barry Kaufman (eds.), Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 3rd edition, pp. 784–826. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511977244.040
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• Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework

Critical thinking is that mode of thinking – about any subject, content, or problem — in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them. (Paul and Elder, 2001). The Paul-Elder framework has three components:

• The elements of thought (reasoning)
• The  intellectual standards that should be applied to the elements of reasoning
• The intellectual traits associated with a cultivated critical thinker that result from the consistent and disciplined application of the intellectual standards to the elements of thought

According to Paul and Elder (1997), there are two essential dimensions of thinking that students need to master in order to learn how to upgrade their thinking. They need to be able to identify the "parts" of their thinking, and they need to be able to assess their use of these parts of thinking.

Elements of Thought (reasoning)

The "parts" or elements of thinking are as follows:

• All reasoning has a purpose
• All reasoning is an attempt to figure something out, to settle some question, to solve some problem
• All reasoning is based on assumptions
• All reasoning is done from some point of view
• All reasoning is based on data, information and evidence
• All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by, concepts and ideas
• All reasoning contains inferences or interpretations by which we draw conclusions and give meaning to data
• All reasoning leads somewhere or has implications and consequences

Universal Intellectual Standards

The intellectual standards that are to these elements are used to determine the quality of reasoning. Good critical thinking requires having a command of these standards. According to Paul and Elder (1997 ,2006), the ultimate goal is for the standards of reasoning to become infused in all thinking so as to become the guide to better and better reasoning. The intellectual standards include:

Intellectual Traits

Consistent application of the standards of thinking to the elements of thinking result in the development of intellectual traits of:

• Intellectual Humility
• Intellectual Courage
• Intellectual Empathy
• Intellectual Autonomy
• Intellectual Integrity
• Intellectual Perseverance
• Confidence in Reason
• Fair-mindedness

Characteristics of a Well-Cultivated Critical Thinker

Habitual utilization of the intellectual traits produce a well-cultivated critical thinker who is able to:

• Raise vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely
• Gather and assess relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively
• Come to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards;
• Think open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and
• Communicate effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems

Paul, R. and Elder, L. (2010). The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools. Dillon Beach: Foundation for Critical Thinking Press.

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“Critical thinking relies on content, because you can't navigate masses of information if you have nothing to navigate to.” -Dr. Kathy Hirsh-Pasek, Professor of Psychology, Temple University

One of the most sought-after skills in nearly every workplace is critical thinking (Doyle, 2018, October 30). But what is critical thinking, exactly? Better yet … what does it take to think critically? To some, it is the ability to analyze information objectively and make a reasoned judgment; for others, it simply involves thinking “outside-the-box”. Either way, to think critically is to possess the unique ability to think reflectively and independently in order to make thoughtful decisions (Figliuolo, 2016, August 2). In other words, critical thinking is not just the accumulation of facts and knowledge; rather, it’s a process of approaching whatever is on your mind in order to come up with the best possible conclusion (Patel, 2018, October 24). Figure 1 illustrates the critical thinking process.

Figure 1. Critical thinking process

Three Essential Skills

To think critically, it begins with three essential skills:

• linking ideas,
• structuring arguments, and
• recognizing incongruences.

In order for you to become a better critical thinker, each of the three skills needs to be practiced and applied accordingly. The first skill, linking ideas, involves finding connections between seemly unrelatable, even irrelevant ideas, thoughts, etc. The second skill involves creating structured practical, relevant, and sound arguments. Lastly, to recognize incongruences is to find the real truth by being able to find holes in a theory or argument (MindValley, n.d.).

Food for Thought “No problem can withstand the assault of sustained thinking.” -Voltaire, French philosopher

Six Low-Level Questions

Once you have the three essential skills down, then you can ask yourself six low-level questions that you can use in nearly any situation (TeachThought Staff, 2018, July 29):

• What’s happening? Here, you will need to establish the basics and begin forming questions.
• Why is it important? Ask yourself why the situation at hand is or is not significant.
• What don’t I see? Ask yourself whether or not there is any important information you might be missing.
• How do I know? Ponder on not only how you know what you think you know, but how that thought process was generated.
• Who is saying it? Identify the speaker and their position on the situation, then consider how that position could be influencing that person’s thinking.
• What else? What if? Think of anything else you be considering when making your decision. In addition, ponder the repercussions of what you’ve considered that might change/alter the outcome of your decision.

Food for Thought “Learn to use your brain power. Critical thinking is the key to creative problem solving in business.” -Richard Branson, Entrepreneur

In order to better understand higher-level critical thinking, it helps to be familiar with Bloom’s Taxonomy, a classification of educational objectives and skills that educators establish for their students. In Bloom’s Taxonomy, there are three overarching domains known as KSA: (a) Knowledge [cognitive], (b) Skills [psychomotor], and (c) Attitudes [affective]. This taxonomy of learning behaviors is referred to as “the goals of the learning process.” In other words, after a period of learning, the student will have acquired a new knowledge, skill and/or attitude (Bloom et al., 1956). In this resource, we will focus on the Knowledge (cognitive) domain. According to Bloom et al. (1956), the cognitive domain involves the development of intellectual skills. There are six major categories of the cognitive process (Figure 2), beginning with the development with the simplest skills (e.g., remembering basic facts and concepts), through a learning of procedural patterns and concepts that facilitate the development of intellectual abilities, before eventually moving to the highest, most complex skills (e.g., creation of new or original ideas).

Figure 2. Bloom's Taxonomy

• To further explain, the first level of Bloom’s Taxonomy involves remembering specific information. This includes recalling basic vocabulary, dates, and math facts.
• Moving up the taxonomy, understanding is demonstrated by a student’s ability to comprehend, organize, compare and to verbalize main concepts. At this level, questions require the ability to understand meaning, not just basic facts. For example, a study might be asked to explain the difference between apples and oranges.
• The third level, application, is being able to actually use the new knowledge. Within this level, questions often require the student taking what s/he just learned, then applying it in a different way. For example, the student may be asked to take a list of food items, then select four items to make a healthy breakfast.
• The next level, analysis, involves breaking down information into different parts for a more thorough examination. Here, questions require proven facts (evidence) to support the answer. For example, the student is asked to compare and contrast Republicans to Democrats with regard to their views on supporting or repealing the Affordable Care Act.
• Evaluation, the fifth level, is the ability to make judgments about information by presenting and defending one’s own opinions. It is important to note that at this level, questions don’t necessarily have a right (or wrong) answer. For example, a student may be asked how s/he would handle observing a friend who cheated on a final exam.
• The top of the taxonomy involves the synthesis of new information and compiling it in new ways. It is at this level where more abstract, creative, “outside-the-box” thinking comes into play. For example, a student may be asked to design and construct a robot that can walk a certain distance.

While the first three levels of the taxonomy are important to solidify core knowledge, it is within the last three levels – analysis, evaluation, and creativity – that require critical thinking skills. (Anderson et al., 2001).

Practice Activity

In a study by Gottfried and Shearer (2016, May 26), the authors stated that 62% of adults get their news from social networking sites. In fact, the results show that 70% of Reddit users, 66% of Facebook users, and 59% of Twitter users get their news from one or more of these platforms. According to the study, among these three social networking sites, Facebook had the greatest reach with 67% of American adults using the platform. This suggests that the two-thirds of adults who use Facebook to get their news, which amount to 44% of the general population. Unfortunately, social media platforms don’t go through the stringent review process to which most major news outlets are required in order to be in compliance with Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations. Therefore, information can be shared publicly without “fact-checking” to make sure that what’s being shared is truly accurate. With this in mind, one can’t help but ask: What’s the truth versus what isn’t? Better yet … what’s real news and what’s fake?

Your task involves the use of Bloom’s Taxonomy to decipher “fake news” from real news. Using the eight-step infographic on the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) website (https://www.ifla.org/publications/node/11174) as a guide, review the following news stories to determine which are real and which are fake. Explain your rationale.

1. Strasbourg market attacker ‘pledged allegiance to ISIS’ – source.

2. Lawmakers in California propose a new law called the “Check Your Oxygen Privilege Act”.

3. Four AI-controlled robots kill 29 scientists in Japan.

4. North Korea says it will not denuclearize until the US eliminates ‘nuclear threat’.

5. Two men found living underneath the Calico Mine Ride at Knott’s Berry Farm.

6. Scientists find a brain circuit that could explain seasonal depression.

7. Amazon customer receives 1,700 audio files of a stranger who used Alexa.

8. NFL fines Pittsburgh Steelers $1M each for skipping National Anthem.

9. FBI raids CDC for data on vaccines and autism.

10. Only 60 of 1,566 churches in Houston opened to help Hurricane Harvey victims.

References:

Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A., Mayer, R. E., Pintrich, P. R., Raths, J., & Wittrock, M.C. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York, NY: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon. Bloom, B. (Ed.), Englehart, M., Furst, E., Hill, W., & Krathwohl, D. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives, Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York, NY: McCay. Doyle, A. (2018, October 30). Critical thinking definition, skills, and examples. Retrieved from https://www.thebalancecareers.com/critical-thinking-definition-with-examples-2063745 Figliuolo, M. (2016, August 2). Critical thinking. Retrieved from https://www.lynda.com/Business-Skills-tutorials/Critical-Thinking/424116-2.html Gottfried, J., & Shearer, E. (2016, May 26). News use across social media platforms 2016. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from http://www.journalism.org/2016/05/26/news-use-across-social-media-platforms-2016/ MindValley. (n.d.). How to solve the biggest problems with critical thinking exercises [blog]. Retrieved from https://blog.mindvalley.com/critical-thinking-exercises/# Patel, D. (2018, October 24). 16 characteristics of critical thinkers. Retrieved from https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/321660 TeachThought Staff. (2018, July 29). 6 critical thinking questions for any situation. Retrieved from https://www.teachthought.com/critical-thinking/6-critical-thinking-questions-situation/

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What predicts students’ critical thinking disposition? A comparison of the roles of classroom and family environments

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• Volume 25 , pages 565–580, ( 2022 )

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In learning environments research, limited attention has been paid to the effects of the family environment on student thinking. This study constructed a five-dimension survey of the family environment, based on previous studies of the classroom learning environment, and used it to compare the effects of the family environment and the classroom learning environment associated with an interdisciplinary course (i.e., Liberal Studies) on the critical thinking disposition of 2189 secondary students in Hong Kong. Stepwise regression revealed that: the overall effects of the classroom learning environment of Liberal Studies on critical thinking disposition were greater than those of the family environment; the content-oriented dimensions of both environments were stronger predictors of critical thinking disposition than the relationship-oriented dimensions of both environments; and the effect of the dimension of challenging task on critical thinking disposition was stronger than that of other pedagogy-oriented dimensions. Also the means of all dimensions of the family environment were significantly lower than those of the corresponding dimensions of the classroom learning environment. It is suggested that more effort should be made to enhance both classroom learning environment and family environment to generate convergent forces to efficiently cultivate students’ critical thinking.

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Wan, Z.H. What predicts students’ critical thinking disposition? A comparison of the roles of classroom and family environments. Learning Environ Res 25 , 565–580 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-021-09381-y

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• How to apply critical thinking in learning

Sometimes your university classes might feel like a maze of information. Consider critical thinking skills like a map that can lead the way.

Why do we need critical thinking?  

Critical thinking is a type of thinking that requires continuous questioning, exploring answers, and making judgments. Critical thinking can help you: 

• analyze information to comprehend more thoroughly
• approach problems systematically, identify root causes, and explore potential solutions 
• make informed decisions by weighing various perspectives 
• promote intellectual curiosity and self-reflection, leading to continuous learning, innovation, and personal development 

What is the process of critical thinking? 

1. understand  .

Critical thinking starts with understanding the content that you are learning.

This step involves clarifying the logic and interrelations of the content by actively engaging with the materials (e.g., text, articles, and research papers). You can take notes, highlight key points, and make connections with prior knowledge to help you engage.

Ask yourself these questions to help you build your understanding:  

• What is the structure?
• What is the main idea of the content?  
• What is the evidence that supports any arguments?
• What is the conclusion?

2. Analyze  

You need to assess the credibility, validity, and relevance of the information presented in the content. Consider the authors’ biases and potential limitations in the evidence. 

Ask yourself questions in terms of why and how:

• What is the supporting evidence?  
• Why do they use it as evidence?   
• How does the data present support the conclusions?  
• What method was used? Was it appropriate?  

 3.  Evaluate   

After analyzing the data and evidence you collected, make your evaluation of the evidence, results, and conclusions made in the content.

Consider the weaknesses and strengths of the ideas presented in the content to make informed decisions or suggest alternative solutions:

• What is the gap between the evidence and the conclusion?  
• What is my position on the subject?  
• What other approaches can I use?  

When do you apply critical thinking and how can you improve these skills?   

1. reading academic texts, articles, and research papers.

• analyze arguments
• assess the credibility and validity of evidence
• consider potential biases presented
• question the assumptions, methodologies, and the way they generate conclusions

2. Writing essays and theses

• demonstrate your understanding of the information, logic of evidence, and position on the topic
• include evidence or examples to support your ideas
• make your standing points clear by presenting information and providing reasons to support your arguments
• address potential counterarguments or opposing viewpoints
• explain why your perspective is more compelling than the opposing viewpoints

3. Attending lectures

• understand the content by previewing, active listening , and taking notes
• analyze your lecturer’s viewpoints by seeking whether sufficient data and resources are provided
• think about whether the ideas presented by the lecturer align with your values and beliefs
• talk about other perspectives with peers in discussions

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The four dimensions of critical thinking.

• Open access
• Published: 14 September 2022

Adaptation and validation of a critical thinking scale to measure the 3D critical thinking ability of EFL readers

• Moloud Mohammadi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7848-1869 1 ,
• Gholam-Reza Abbasian   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1507-1736 2 &
• Masood Siyyari 1  

Language Testing in Asia volume  12 , Article number:  24 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Thinking has always been an integral part of human life, and it can be said that whenever humanity has been thinking, it has been practicing a kind of criticizing the issues around. This is the concept of critical thinking that enhances the ability of individuals to identify problems and find solutions. Most previous research has focused on only one aspect of critical thinking that is critical thinking skills, while two other dimensions of criticality and critical pedagogy should have also been included. In order to assure of the validity of the instrument designed by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach, under review), it was first adapted and then SEM modeling was used. Examination of the results of factor analysis and modeling of SEM showed that the model satisfied the fit indices ( χ 2 /df, CFI, TLI, RMSEA), and all the factor loads are greater than 0.4 which represent that the items are defined properly. This research suggested a SEM modeling of critical thinking skills, composed of six factors measured by twenty-two indices. The results of the PLS-SEM CFA represented that it is a valid structural model to measure a critical thinking of EFL readers at three levels.

Introduction

Recent research on reading has represented that, although it is generally established as the first skill in language learners, it is a complex cognitive activity for individuals to perform well in learning and obtaining sufficient information from the target community (Shang, 2010 ). According to Krathwohl ( 2002 ), the cognitive domain is divided into two parts: first is the knowledge (including real, theoretical, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge) and then the cognitive process (including recalling, comprehending, applying, examining, evaluating, and creating). In defining this skill, Chamot ( 2004 ) holds that reading is the process of activating language-acquired knowledge and skills to access information and transfer them. Swallow ( 2016 ) looks at it as a three-dimensional construct including content, perception, and understanding through thinking, metacognition, and meaning construction (Gear, 2006 ).

According to Rashel and Kinya ( 2021 ), the focus of education in this competitive period of time is on higher-level thinking skills (including critical thinking) rather than low-level thinking skills, and research into measuring critical thinking skills is growing. In the eyes of Ennis ( 2011 ), critical thinking ability is defined as clear and rational thinking that includes engaging in reflective and independent thinking. Moon ( 2008 ) and Willingham ( 2007 ) emphasized that the development of critical thinking in individuals is the goal of higher education and can be recognized as the primary goal of learning. Paul and Elder ( 2002 ), in describing a critical thinker, stated that in the eyes of such a person, all four skills of reading, writing, speaking, and listening are methods of skilled higher-order thinking. Such a person, while reading the text, finds it a representation of the author’s thinking and therefore tries to align with his point of view. In this regard, Din ( 2020 ) emphasizes that since a critical thinker has the ability to understand beyond the content of a text, they tend to react to the content being studied. Moreover, the tendency towards implementing critical thinking programs in the English language teaching context has increased as well (Heidari, 2020 ; Liu & Stapleton, 2014 ).

Beside the theory-wise investigations, there are a couple of studies with practical direction. Some research has examined the role of critical thinking in learning a language (e.g., Akyuz & Samsa, 2009 ; Willingham, 2007 ), others focused on the thinking strategies used by language learners in improving reading skills (Shang, 2010 ) or the relationship between critical thinking and language learning strategies (Nikopour et al., 2011 ). A few studies confirmed the relationship between critical thinking ability and reading comprehension (e.g., Eftekhary & Besharati Kalayeh, 2014 ). In such area, a limited number of studies have relied on the participation of the academic community (Hawkins, 2012 ; Hosseini et al., 2012 ), and this study is also innovative in this respect. It can be inferred that in most of these studies, critical thinking is limited to the use of definite basic skills (compare and contrast, conclusion, inferencing, etc.). According to Facione ( 1990 ) and Rashel and Kinya ( 2021 ), most research on this topic has focused on general critical thinking skills (but not expertise), although these skills have been of interest for years. But, is it enough to just use these skills to understand a content? Is critical thinking summarized in terms of several sub-skills? Where and how is the role and impression of society reflected in critical thinking or critical reading? Does learning these sub-skills alone indicate the internalization of critical thinking and reading in individuals? These key questions have been left intact mainly due to a lack of specific and valid instrument, as a rationale behind this very study.

The novel point in the present study is that, despite the existence of the one-dimensional attitude towards critical thinking (Facione, 1992 ; Kember et al., 2000 ), it tries to highlight the concept of a three-dimensional critical thinking in academic context and in this regard developed a tool for measuring its subscales (and not just individual skills). Such a tool can measure the real needs of the next generation with evidence of real-life multifaceted critical thinking issues. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the validity of the questionnaire developed for assessing three-dimensional critical thinking skills in EFL readers. Moreover, the application of the partial least squares method (PLS-SEM) in the development and validation of the proposed model has also made this research innovative. The objectives of this study were (1) to assess the validity of the items introduced in the questionnaire, (2) to investigate the relationship between and among the identified components, and (3) to determine the validity and reliability of the questionnaire designed to assess three-dimensional critical thinking skills in EFL readers. The contribution of this article in the literature is to illustrate the importance of critical thinking both in personal and sociocultural aspects, to evaluate and validate the tool that was developed to measure the components of three-dimensional critical thinking (proposed by the same researchers), to provide the model fit indices for factor analysis, and to adapt the instrument to the conditions of English language readers. Therefore, an attempt was made to briefly introduce the components of the proposed model, and then to discuss the validation method of the developed instrument to measure these components, and finally to report the validation results of the introduced instrument. The pedagogical implications of this study include the following: using the presented concepts in research centers to identify and introduce the method of teaching and developing each of the sub-skills of critical thinking in different societies; identifying differences in instructional approaches for each of the sub-skills; applying both concepts (i.e., three-dimensional critical thinking and reading) in other areas and assessing the generalizability of findings; and reviewing the previous literature by looking at all three dimensions introduced and evaluated in order to identify their strengths and weaknesses in this regard.

Literature review

Today that critical thinking is more prominent in language teaching than ever (Li, 2016 ; Van Laar et al., 2017 ), there is a wealth of research on the need and importance of fostering such thinking in language classrooms (Zhao et al., 2016 ), representing that developing such thinking facilitates the language acquisition (Wang & Henderson, 2014 ; Wu et al., 2013 ), and equips learners with such self-criticism that it develops analytical and reflective view of themselves and their environment in learners (Moghadam et al., 2021 ). Brookfield ( 2019 ), Dekker ( 2020 ), Haji Maibodi and Fahim ( 2012 ), and Zou and Lee ( 2021 ) acknowledged that teachers who emphasize the education and application of critical thinking increase awareness and understanding of socio-cultural concepts in learners. In this regard, Crenshaw et al. ( 2011 ) stated that encouraging language learners to participate actively in thinking activities is essential, and McGregor ( 2007 ) and Rezaei et al. ( 2011 ) emphasized that engaging teachers and language learners in thinking and reflecting on the views and assumptions presented in a text are among the essential steps in the development of critical thinking in individuals. Rezaei et al. ( 2011 ) acknowledged that learners’ participation in critical thinking processes during teaching is done through asking questions and providing answers, discussing topics, asking for explaining or elaborating on opinions, and so on. They also emphasized the need to provide teachers with accurate and comprehensive knowledge of critical thinking before attending such classes. In addition, Tehrani and Razali ( 2018 ) and (Li, 2016 ) have suggested that critical thinking training should begin at early ages and in the natural process of learning the target language. However, despite the importance and emphasis on its development, little progress has been made in its application and integration in education (Li, 2011 ; Pica, 2000 ), whose reasons, according to Lin et al. ( 2016 ) can be found in its challenging-widespread nature and ambiguous details of its components.

The traditional definitions of critical thinking by philosophers do not necessarily assist individuals to become a critical citizen/being. However, the core characteristics of critical thinking introduced in these definitions remain fundamental to what is meant by critical thinking on (Bali, 2015 ; Davies, 2015 ; Davies & Barnett, 2015 ; Renatovna & Renatovna, 2021 ; Widyastuti, 2018 ; Wilson, 2016 ). Considering critical thinking as a very pivotal learning skill, the acquisition of related skills in the traditional attitude was limited to practices of certain types of skills such as inferencing, reasoning, and analyzing (Davies, 2015 ). He emphasizes that one of the weaknesses of the traditional sense of critical thinking, which is crystallized in the critical thinking movement, is the lack of formation of the important component of action. This is worth mentioning that paying less attention to the topics related to critical thinking in higher education may result in a lack of having a proper and well-defined practical (and even theoretical) instruction, and as it was mentioned by Paulsen ( 2015 ), little advancement can be formed if critical thinking remains vague.

A model of critical thinking in higher education is suggested by Davies ( 2015 ) in which the basic focus is on critical rationality and critical character of individuals. He presumes six distinct dimensions for critical thinking including critical argumentation, critical judgment, critical dispositions, critical actions, critical social relations, and critical creativity or critical being. Each of these dimensions plays a significant role in the comprehensive model of critical thinking (Davies, 2015 ; Davies & Barnett, 2015 ).

There are many well-developed models of critical thinking which might be called “philosophical” models of critical thinking. These models might be dispersed on a continuum from the taxonomy of pedagogical objectives (e.g., Airasian et al., 2001 ; Bloom, 1956 ) to the APA Delphi Report and Paul-Elder models (e.g., Paul & Elder, 2002 ; Sadler, 2010 ) and also to the model of critical thinking by Ennis ( 1991 ) according to which the main emphasis is on cognitive decision-making. However, Davies ( 2015 ) represented that these models are utilized mostly in the case of educating for critical thinking in which the main goal is providing learners with activities based on which they can improve their basic judgment and decision-making ability, while critical thinking is a multidimensional concept containing both personal and social aspects. In endorsing and supporting the use of the term multidimensional in relation to the concept of critical thinking, some of the existing challenges can be mentioned. Lun et al. ( 2010 ) and Manalo and Sheppard ( 2016 ) stated that a specific level of language proficiency is expected to accomplish such thinking. Similarly, Peng ( 2014 ) stated that for students, language deficiency is one of the main reasons of cognitive barriers that prevents them from practicing critical thinking. Explaining the other challenges, Liang and Fung ( 2020 ) and Merrifield ( 2018 ) stated that the subject of culture is effective in applying and practicing such thinking. For example, factors such as a significant decline in the quality and quantity of social interactions and intense attention to the social status of an individual in a group (Suryantari, 2018 ), some considerate social standards explicitly in eastern setting (Bag & Gürsoy, 2021 ), socio-cultural factors (Imperio et al., 2020 ; Shpeizer, 2018 ), fear of being ridiculed during expressing an opinion (Tumasang, 2021 ), epistemic belief in the certainty of knowledge (Kahsay, 2019 ), the emphasis on teacher-centered language classes (Fahim & Ahmadian, 2012 ; Hemmati & Azizmalayeri, 2022 ; Khorasani & Farimani, 2010 ), or weakness in CT experiences due to the lack of inductive education in Iranian context (Birjandi et al., 2018 ), reduce the natural learning ability of developing such skill as well as the power of induction—especially in adults (Dornyei, 2010 ). Therefore, the subject of language learning, whether in a foreign or a second language context, complicates the issue of cultivating critical thinking in such a way that its development cannot be limited to learning a few individual skills. In this regard, Davies and Barnett ( 2015 ) attempted to bring together a set of perspectives, thus identified three broad perspectives on critical thinking in the literature. These perspectives are often opposed to each other, while overlapping and significantly merging with each other (Frykholm, 2020 ; Ledman, 2019 ; Shpeizer, 2018 ; Wilson, 2016 ; Wilson & Howitt, 2018 ). Shpeizer ( 2018 ) also emphasized that this mutual influence and the lack of transparency in the boundaries of each of the three areas have made the concept of critical thinking confusing and perhaps daunting for English teachers.

In addition, understanding the nature and dimensions of critical thinking in order to evaluate it is also of crucial importance. Assessing an individuals’ critical thinking requires a measuring instrument that can precisely and perfectly determine the true conditions. From the result of the literacy study, one can find some instruments to measure critical thinking skills and abilities of students each with their specific perspectives, definitions of criteria, and priorities. Among these instruments are California Critical Thinking Skill Test (CCTST) by Facione ( 1992 ); Critical Thinking Questionnaire by Kember et al. ( 2000 ); Ricketts ( 2003 ) questionnaire; Critical Reading Scale by Zhou et al. ( 2015 ); and Critical Thinking Inventory by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ). The designed questionnaire by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ), unlike previous tools, addresses all the three dimensions of critical thinking (i.e., individual skills, criticality, and critical pedagogy).

Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ), getting insights from Davies ( 2015 ) and Davies and Barnett ( 2015 ), represent that critical thinking is composed of both personal critical thinking skills, and those skills gained at the criticality level and critical pedagogy level. The levels, movements, and skills of each of the levels introduced in their study are presented in the figure below.

As shown in Fig. 1 , as one moves from the center to the outside (the surface), the stages of critical thinking development appear, according to which this process begins with the development of individual critical thinking skills, the criticality movement, and then the critical pedagogy movement. This figure includes the XY plane (page drown on x and y diagrams), indicating the measurement subscales; YZ plane (page drown on y and z diagrams) represents individual and socio-cultural dimensions; and the XZ plane (page drown on the x and z diagrams) is different movements.

The model of critical thinking movements, skills and abilities, and assessing criteria extracted from Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review )

The model represents that in order to improve critical thinking in a person, it is necessary to consider both individual and socio-cultural aspects. In this figure, the X-Z page represents various dimensions of critical thinking, the Y-Z page represents cognitive-developmental skills, and the X-Y page shows sub-skills of each layer (i.e., assessing criteria in this study). Aspects and skills of the three-dimensional critical thinking which were previously introduced by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ) are briefly explained in Table 1 .

Critical thinking and criticality are the most interwoven concepts with language skills acquisition in general and processing and development of reading skills in particular. And of course, developing skills related to each of these two movements requires critical pedagogy. According to Haji Maibodi ( 2014 ), reading comprehension refers to the ability to construct meaning through thinking, before, during, and after reading the text, as well as integrating the information presented in the text with one’s prior knowledge. She also stated that different types of texts with different levels of difficulty and various topics are available to people to be encouraged to read and thus gain new knowledge and strengthen their reading skills. As people go through this process, they realize that in order to understand the texts they read as much as possible, they have to use thinking skills (Haji Maibodi, 2014 ), and this thinking takes different forms and the implementation of each and requires skills that are called critical thinking skills. Haji Maibodi ( 2014 ) also emphasized that practical teaching of reading comprehension requires the development of the ability to understand, analyze, and recognize various components of a text.

Reading is viewed as the most crucial academic skill for foreign language learners which can facilitate their professional progression, social success, and personal development. Reading skill is defined by Berardo ( 2006 ) as a dynamic and complex phenomenon and is considered as a source of gaining language input since it is a receptive skill based on which there should be an interaction among the author of the text, his/her message, and the reader in order to comprehend it. Therefore, in order to read, comprehend, and respond to a written content, the reader is expected to have some certain skills and abilities including reading to grasp the message of each line and paragraph, reading to find the existing relationship between the paragraphs, understanding the basic message of the author, and finding the most appropriate answer to the idea of the writer (Berardo, 2006 ). According to Berardo ( 2006 ), stages of reading require readers to apply a higher order of thinking called “critical reading” by Bloom ( 1956 ). According to Hall and Piazza ( 2008 ), critical reading skill is still one of the skills which helps learners gain success in academic courses whilst it is still vague to many teachers and they usually fail to develop such skill in their students. They represent that if students lack the skill to analyze and challenge written content in the classroom environment, then they will face many problems in understanding and questioning their living environment and society.

Wallace ( 2003 ) and Sweet ( 1993 ) approach the critical reader as an active reader who is able to ask questions, to recognize, analyze, and confirm evidences; to detect the truth; to understand tone, bias, and persuasion; and to judge them throughout the reading process. Khonamri and Karimabadi ( 2015 ) state that in order to have an effective reading, readers should have the ability to read with their critical eyes, i.e., they have to read and evaluate a text for its intentions and the reasons behind it, that is the ability to think critically.

Critical reading, as the key player in the development of core language skills, involves activities such as reasoning, questioning, evaluation, comparison, and inference (e.g., Adalı, 2010 ; Adalı, 2011 ; Söylemez, 2015 ). Regarding critical reading, Nemat Tabrizi and Akhavan Saber ( 2016 ) emphasized that this skill plays an important role in the formation of democratic societies since it makes people decide what they accept as reality, only after reviewing, analyzing, and comparing the content presented with their knowledge and values of their internal-external worlds.

Instrument validation

Measurement validation in the eyes of Zumbo ( 2005 ) is a continuous process in which evidence is collected to support the appropriateness, significance, and usefulness of the inferences derived from scores obtained from a sample. He also emphasizes that the method and process of validation is important in the construction and evaluation of tools related to social sciences, behavioral, health, and humanities, since without the implementation of this process, any conclusions or inferences from the obtained scores are meaningless.

Many have argued that in the contemporary view, the main purpose is to extend the conceptual framework and power of the traditional vision towards validity (Johnson & Plake, 1998 ; Kane, 2001 ; Messick, 1989 ; Messick, 1995 ), according to which validity is not one of the characteristics of measuring tools anymore, but the characteristics of inferences made on scores that can be examined in the form of a continuum (valid/invalid dual is no longer considered). In this view, construct validity is the only and the most important feature in validation, and there are only different sources of evidence to prove the validity of inferences. Zumbo ( 2005 ) stated that the calculation of validity using statistical methods such as correlation is not acceptable, and it is necessary to provide a detailed theory and support for it, including analysis of covariance matrices between experimental data and covariance structure model. From the study of previous research, it can be seen that the two categories of models are introduced as key for validation, which are confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), which has a lengthy and rich history in research (for example, Byrne, 1998 ; Byrne, 2001 ; Kaplan, 2000 ) and Multiple Indicators Multiple Causes (MIMIC) that have been generalized to linear structural equation models by integrating structural equation modeling and item response theory (Ullman, 2001 ). The multidimensional and hierarchical representation of the skills needed for critical thinking at each level is primarily based on theoretical reasoning (by Davies, 2015 ; Davies & Barnett, 2015 ; Frykholm, 2020 ; Ledman, 2019 ; Shpeizer, 2018 ), as mentioned in the previous paragraphs.

Accordingly, this study was an attempt to adapt and assure of the validity of the questionnaire proposed by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ) in order to measure criteria introduced in Fig. 1 , XY plane (see Appendix A for the validated version). A review of previous studies showed that previous research has only examined individual skills and examined various subskills in this area. None of the studies have provided a comprehensive scale, consisting of both individual and socio-cultural factors, and the validation of a common scale for measuring the set of factors. Regarding this, the present study assessed the three-level scale of critical thinking and validates the proposed model. In this study, a measurement and structural model according to the previous literature and the method of factor analysis is proposed. This research is innovative because it uses the partial least squares method (PLS-SEM) and various software to validate the proposed model. The PLS method relies on a series of consecutive ordinary least square (OLS) regressions; thus, it eliminates the necessity of having a normal distribution of observations. OLS indicates the compatibility of the partial least squares method with small samples and is suitable for the conditions of this research (Farahani, 2010 ). On the other hand, given that PLS assumes that all blocks are linear combinations of their reagents, common problems such as nonlinear solutions and uncertainty of the factors that occur in covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM) techniques do not occur (Pirouz, 2006 ). Researchers aimed to answer the following question:

RQ. To what extent is the newly developed rating description a valid measure of critically thinkers’ reading ability?

Methodology

In this study, an attempt was made to validate the three-dimensional critical thinking instrument developed by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ) to assess critical thinking in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) readers (Tables 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , and 6 ).

Participants

In order to answer the research question, 89 Iranian EFL under-graduate students (age range 18 to 35) were selected for the development and validation of a reading skill-oriented critical thinker measurement instrument. The participants were members of intact classes (with the aim of involving individuals with diverse abilities), and the homogeneity of the classes was also assessed via Preliminary English Test (PET score above 147). Due to the fact that the participants cooperated with the researchers during different phases of the study, the implementation steps were introduced to them, ethical approval was given, participants were assured of not publishing personal opinions to the third person/parties, and the final results were communicated to them.

Instruments

Critical thinking inventory: The CTI, by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ), contains 59 items of 5-point Likert type to measure the factors of argumentation (15 items), judgment (5 items), disposition (9 items), criticality (12 items), social cognition (9 items), and creativity (9 items number) in 50 min. The minimum score of the questionnaire is 59 and the maximum is 295, and the participants were asked to respond within 60 min. The CR and AVE were reported in the work as 0.97 and 0.687 (see Table 7 ).

Preliminary English Test (PET): This test was used to select groups of participants who have similar language proficiency. It is an official intermediate English language test (designed by Cambridge ESOL examinations) with the maximum achievable score of 170. This test includes sections of reading (five parts, thirty-five items, scoring range of 0–35), writing (three parts, seven items, scoring range of 0–15), listening (four parts and twenty-five items, scoring range of 0–25), and speaking (four parts of face-to-face interview questions, scoring range of 0–25). Two raters were asked to assess the test to be assured of interrater consistency of scores. The intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) test was run to determine if there was an agreement between raters’ judgment on the scores. A high degree of reliability was found between the scores ( F (88, 88)= 146.08, p < .000) with the average measure ICC of .982).

Initially, the written informed consent was obtained from the participants. Then, PET test was used to ensure the homogeneity of the participants and those with similar performance were selected for this study. Next, participants were asked to respond questions to assess CTI validity. After collecting data, the relationships between the elements, skills, and concepts introduced in the questionnaire (see Table 1 ) were assessed. For this purpose, the validity testing of the model was conducted through CFA method of evaluating and comparing alternative models: CFA of the measurement model (first-order model) and CFA of the structural model (second-order model). In this study, in order to increase statistical power, researchers tried to use predictor variables (i.e., AWC, QAR, classic instructions), considering less operating levels for continuous variables, utilizing continuous variables instead of polarizing or grouping them, defining focused hypothesis tests, crossing the extracted factors, etc., which are described in Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ). The scale validation in this study included a PLS-SEM analysis technique due to the abnormal distribution of the data gathered (Afthanorhan, 2013 ) and the model validation included the following tests:

Analysis of the convergent validity

Test of discriminatory validity

Test of construct validity.

Data analysis

After collecting the data of the designed inventory in SPSS, the collected data related to the validity of the questionnaire were transferred to SmartPLS software to validate the proposed model through model validation techniques (FIT, GFI, RMR, etc.), SEM, CR, and AVE estimation. The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical issues and privacy restrictions.

In order to find the answer to the research question, a CFA-based approach was used as an MTMM technique to estimate the validity of the designed instrument (Bentler, 2000 ; Byrne, 2006 ; Koch et al., 2018 ). For this purpose, different types of validity of the developed inventory were evaluated.

Internal validity

Face validity: Face validity depends on the judgment of the constructor of the test and was approved according to the Advisor’s opinion.

Content validity: Various aspects of the structure are examined. Content validity was confirmed by the Advisor.

Criterion-related validity (both concurrent validity and predictive validity): In order to appraise the predictive validity, this instrument should be evaluated over a long period of time, for example, once at the beginning of the undergraduate course and then, again at the end of the fourth year, and then compare its performance in predicting the results with current results. To measure concurrent validity, it is necessary to examine this tool in a completely different content and on a completely different group of learners (at the same time).

Construct validity: The category is focused on the structure of the questionnaire. In order to measure the next three criteria, Smart PLS software was used.

Convergent validity: Estimation of CR and AVE

Discriminate (Divergent) validity: Confirmatory factor analysis ( t value)

Construct validity: Model validation (SRMR)

In examining the introduced validity criteria, the results of (a) checking the suitability of factor loads, (b) investigating structural equation model, and (c) estimating Goodness of Fit were investigated as follows:

At the beginning, in order to investigate the effect of items and factor loads in measuring the desired structure, the model parameters and their significance were calculated (Fig. 2 ).

Measurement model test

It is observed that all factor loads are more than 0.4 and are significant. Therefore, the studied items have a significant effect on the measurement of the structure (Table 2 ).

The model parameter table accurately shows that the p value and t value measures are respectively, less than .001 and more than 1.96, representing a good value. In the following table, the measures of the overall hypothetical fitted model (i.e., goodness-of-fit indicators) are calculated (Table 3 ).

According to the results, both GFI and AGFI value are more than 0.80; RMR values are close to .00; X 2 /df ratios are less than 5; and RMSEA estimates are less than 0.08 indicating reasonable errors for approximation in the society. Therefore, all indicators are in the desired range, so the results of the model are trusted and valid and can be used, in general. It should be noted that variables with less than three items cannot be fitted and accurate calculation of their indicators are not possible. In the following, the results of detailed analysis of the model and determination of validity indicators are presented.

Next, the data analysis algorithm in Smart PLS software is displayed. In this algorithm, after model formation and confirmatory factor analysis, it is the time to examine the structural model in three areas:

Measurement model test: To evaluate the validity and reliability of each structure, the AVE (average variance extracted) and CR (composite reliability) are calculated, respectively (Table 4 ).

Therefore, according to the results, the validity criterion is more than 0.4 and the reliability criterion for this structure is close to 0.7, so it can be said that in terms of convergent validity criteria, all structures are in the desired range (Fig. 3 ).

Structural equation modeling: The results of confirmatory factor analysis of the model represented that:

Structural equation modeling results

It can be seen that all items have a significant effect ( p <0.001) on the structure. This shows that the items related to each structure measure the desired structure well (Table 5 ).

The estimation of the model parameters represents that p values are lower than .001, and t values are greater than 1.96, meaning that the path is significant at the .05 level, meaning that its estimated path parameter has a significant effect on the structure (Ullman, 2001 ). This shows that the items related to each variable measure the desired structure well.

Goodness of fit: For the purpose of conducting confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), as an MTMM technique to assess divergent validity of the model, goodness-of-fit indices were estimated as follows (Table 6 ):

According to the obtained indicators, it can be seen that AGFI is greater than 0.80, x2/df ratio is less than 3, RMSEA value is less than .08, and CFI is greater than .95 which means that there is a great satisfactory fit. All in all, this can be concluded that the indicators are in the desired range and the results of the model are reliable. Finally, the results of confirmatory factor analysis confirm the relationships and structure of the model, investigating the validity and reliability of the structure (Table 7 ):

Investigation of the significance of covariance relations also shows that all covariance relationships between structures have a p value less than the error level of 0.05, and the relationships are significant. The advantage of composite reliability over Cronbach’s alpha is that the reliability of structures is not computed definitely; rather, it is obtained through evaluating the correlation of existing structures with each other. In this method, indicators that have a higher factor load are more important. Therefore, both criteria are used to better measure the reliability of this type of models. Moreover, the common measure for creating convergent validity at the structural level is the mean extracted variance (AVE). This criterion is defined as the equivalent to the share of a structure. Acceptable values for CR is over .70, and the excellent value for AVE is over .50.

Considering that the second generation of structural equation modeling is based on the variance approach, and in order to ensure the values of covariance and provide a complete report, the covariance relationships in this model were also examined and the results were reported (Table 8 ).

As it turns out, all covariance relationships between structures have a p value less than the 0.05 error level and a t value greater than 1.96, meaning that the relationships between latent variables are meaningful.

Campbell and Fiske ( 1959 ) and Langer et al. ( 2010 ) stated that CFA is an analysis for construct validity. Putting the results observed in steps 2 and 3 together, it can be concluded that all the three absolute fitness indices, parsimony fit indices, and incremental fit indices have desirable values in the model, and this theoretical model is consistent with its experimental model, and therefore, the divergent validity of this structure is confirmed. The results of calculating the reliability of the inventory were also presented in “instrumentation” section. Therefore, combining the results of covariance analysis and the three-level analyses, it can be seen that this questionnaire is valid and reliable.

Since there is little agreement on the nature and dimensions of the term critical thinking (Facione et al., 2000 ; Frykholm, 2020 ), the researchers of this study decided to provide a comprehensive picture of its various dimensions and develop a valid tool for its measurement. Frykholm ( 2020 ) believes that no educator has proposed a comprehensive definition and model of critical thinking, and it can be said that most previous studies have focused only on a few limited skills of critical thinking. However, the results of the interviews in the first phase of this study (Mohammadi et al., Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach, under review ) clearly showed that the socio-cultural dimensions—if not more—are as important as the individual skills dimension. And by approaching the proposed model of the present study to the model of Davies ( 2015 ) and Ledman ( 2019 ), it can be inferred that the comprehensive model is well suited to the set of skills, judgments, and activities (especially for investigating and questioning tasks of receptive skills) as well as expressing desires or attitudes (expressing ideas, creativity, analysis, and other productive skills). In review, the main objectives of this study were to investigate the validity of items and components of the model and also the validity of the tool designed by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ) to assess three dimensional critical thinking in EFL readers based on which the following results were identified.

Examining the values obtained from the data, it was observed that the data distribution was not normal. Therefore, in order to assess the validity of this tool, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and PLS-SEM was used in SmartPLS software because this method is suitable for abnormal data (Hair et al., 2014 ) and makes it possible to examine complex models with multiple exogenous and endogenous constructs as well as index variables (Hair Jr. et al., 2010 ; Hair et al., 2014 ; Hair et al., 2019 ). The study of structural equation modeling and covariance relationships and also model evaluation indices clearly showed that the components were selected correctly, the relationships between the components of the model were defined properly and the questionnaire items were well designed, and in this way, the study has reached its objectives.

The six-factor and twenty-two items scale that was proposed by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ) has been validated using a hybrid technique mainly due to the existence of abnormally distributed data. Results indicated that the PSL-SEM CFA represented the best fit to the proposed model, in terms of factor loadings. The findings of the first phase of this study indicated the existence of validity between the factors introduced in the three-level model of critical thinking. From the results obtained in this phase, it can be seen that focusing on all the skills and abilities introduced (i.e., argumentation, judgment, disposition, action, social cognition, and creativity) is important in developing critical thinking in English readers.

Discussing the elements of the first movement, a comparison on the criteria was introduced in this study with the ones mentioned in Kaewpet ( 2018 ); this can be said that the same measures were mentioned by EFL learners. Focusing on factors of judgements, the elements of buck-passing and vigilance were extracted which were also mentioned by Mann et al. ( 1997 ). They also referred to hypervigilance and defensive avoidance which were not mentioned by EFL learners. The last skill of the first movement was disposition which was assessed based on innovativeness, maturity, and engagement as introduced by Ricketts ( 2003 ).

In the second movement of developing critical thinking, it was referred to criticality which was mentioned by learners in terms of habitual action, understanding, reflection, and critical reflection. These factors were also used by Kember et al. ( 2000 ). The findings of this section, contrary to the view of Shpeizer ( 2018 ), in which the two concepts introduced in the first and second movements were considered the same without considerable distinctions, clearly showed that the second movement involves the development of critical actions (and the introduced sub-actions) in individuals, while the first movement does not focus on the development of action skills in individuals. The findings of this study also confirm the views of Wilson and Howitt ( 2018 ) based on which they acknowledged that critical thinking in this movement is self-centered and manifests itself in the form of introspection, self-adjusting, and metacognition. The set of abilities acquired at this stage will make a person a prosperous learner, specialist, and scholar, while the first movement focuses on the application of rational-argumentative thinking in the form of training methods and with the aim of improving exactness, proficiency, and creativeness in individuals. Similarly, Ledman ( 2019 ) considers this dimension as disciplinary criticality based on which the thinking tools and habits of mind promote epistemological structures.

And the third movement in this study, namely critical pedagogy movement, was composed of the two layers of social cognition and creativity. The first layer was assessed based on factors such as social competence, literacy, cultural competence, and extraversion. The findings of this section are very similar to Pishghadam et al. ( 2011 ) criteria in which factors of social competence, social solidarity, literacy, cultural competence, and extraversion were introduced as basic criteria in measuring social cognition. But these findings are in contrast with criteria introduced by Pishvaei and Kasaian ( 2013 ) among which are tenets of monolingualism, monoculturalism, native-speakerism, native teacher, native-like pronunciation, and authenticity of native-designed materials quantitatively. Reasons for such a difference may include the nature of the classes, the objectives of the courses, and the interlocutors/participants. These findings are consistent with the works of Davies ( 2015 ) and Davies and Barnett ( 2015 ) who predicted that critical thinking is not only limited to individual critical thinking skills but also other dimensions such as socio-cultural dimensions and critical pedagogy should also be considered. The last layer was creativity which was assessed based on factors of fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration which were also mentioned by O’Neil et al. ( 1992 ) and Abedi ( 2002 ).

Discussing this movement, the introduced elements of this dimension confirmed the orientations taken by Davies ( 2015 ), Davies and Barnett ( 2015 ), Rahimi and Asadi Sajed ( 2014 ), and Shpeizer ( 2018 ) based on which critical pedagogy have impact on critical thinking. According to Shpeizer ( 2018 ), the fundamental difference between the two schools of critical thinking discourse and the critical pedagogy is in the contrast between the sociocultural as well as political and moral tendencies in this school and the apparent neutral tendencies of the school of critical thinking. According to Shpeizer ( 2018 ) and Freire ( 1993 ), in the former, it is not possible to intercept epistemology and politics, and if there is a critical approach, then people’s awareness of power relations and structural inequalities of the societies will be aroused. Shpeizer ( 2018 ) adds that, advocates of critical thinking believe that this approach is incompatible, inconsistent, and hazardous since it initially creates uncertain assumptions about a society and thus diverts us from the path of truth-seeking and enlightenment required by a critical thinker. And perhaps the main reason for the slow and one-dimensional movement of critical thinking during all the years can be found in this point. According to Shpeizer ( 2018 ) and Rahimi and Asadi Sajed ( 2014 ), the proponents of critical pedagogy development argue that since social, political, and educational structures in different societies hitherto run in an inequitable and oppressive manner, disregarding such conditions (which undoubtedly construct the lives and thoughts of individuals) makes objective critical development—and consequently, the progress of community members and communities—impossible. They emphasized that to develop critical pedagogy, it is not possible to teach rational and critical thinking skills and tendencies in individuals without regard to other dimensions such as awareness of cultural, political, and religious. The findings are also in line with Ledman ( 2019 ), who states that moral education (the name chosen for the third dimension) emphasizes the need to develop the capacity for moral thinking and judgment independent of official orders and requirements. Finally, by matching the findings of this study with the study of Davies ( 2015 ) and Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ), it can be concluded that critical thinking can be defined in three complementary layers; critical thinking skills, criticality, and critical pedagogy. And the more one strives to become more capable in thinking critically, the more s/he moves from gaining initial-personal skills (critical thinker) to socio-cultural skills (critical being).

Regarding the methodology of the study, as explained, due to the fact that the distribution of data obtained from the questionnaire was not normal, the PLS-SEM method was used as a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) technique. The validation of the model used in this study is based on theoretical and experimental concepts developed in the previous study (Mohammadi et al., Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach, under review ). The model validity test was performed in the framework of SEM approach of CFA based on which the investigation of the first degree model (same as the measurement model), and the second degree model (same as the structural model) was conducted. Examination of the absolute values of skewness and Kurtosis as well as data distribution showed that the distribution was not normal; therefore, PLS-SEM confirmatory factor analysis was performed to determine the structural validity of the scale (Mâtă et al., 2020 ). In addition, the modeling approach is suitable for complex models with multiple endogenous and exogenous index structures and variables (Hair et al., 2014 ). Also, due to the fact that the sample size in this study is more than the minimum recommended value (i.e. 50), so the most appropriate method for model analysis was considered (Mâtă et al., 2020 ).

The results of this study provided the next implications: this study investigated a framework of assessing EFL readers who has critical thinking in the three main streams of individual skills, critical pedagogy, and criticality. The results showed that in each of these three main streams, there are criteria that can be used to assess learners’ abilities; Students were interviewed in different phases of the study and offered a variety of views not only on their attitudes toward critical thinking, but also on their perceptions of teaching instructions and the strengths and weaknesses of each, which can provide insights towards designing and implementing critical thinking training sessions; a review of previous literature on three-dimensional critical thinking provided a comprehensive overview of its strengths and weaknesses, as well as the supporters and opponents and finally, the findings of this study were a true validation of the studies confirming the views of all those who agree with the three-dimensional approach to critical thinking under any heading; using the presented concepts in research-academic institutions to identify the most suitable training methods of each of the sub-skills of critical thinking in different societies is very helpful. Given that this study was conducted only in the field of English language and in the university context, its application in other educational spaces and for people with different academic backgrounds and identifying differences in the application of various instructions for each of the sub-skills will be very effective. It is possible to apply both concepts (i.e., three-dimensional critical thinking and reading) in other areas to assess the generalizability of findings. An interesting finding was that in some cases, students engaged in group discussions sometimes returned to their first language, which could be a consequence of poor language proficiency. In such circumstances, Lun et al. ( 2010 ) have suggested that in order to promote critical thinking, the emphasis on language processing should be reduced or, on the recommendation of Ko ( 2013 ), teachers should first describe the task in order to prepare students and initialize the analysis and then ask them to complete it. The validity of the criterion proposed in the previous study (Mohammadi et al., Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach, under review ) was evaluated through structural equation modeling, which is a new method and has a very limited history in language studies. This study showed that the method can be used to evaluate path analysis/regression, repeated measures analysis/latent changes modeling, and confirmatory factor analysis.

This study was designed and conducted to confirm the subscales introduced by Mohammadi et al. (Characterization and Development of Critically-thinker EFL Readers’ Reading Ability: Asynchronous Webbased Collaborative vs. Question-Answer-Relationship Instructional Approach,  under review ) in determining the critical thinking ability in three different layers (i.e., individual critical thinking skills, criticality, and critical pedagogy) through assessing the validity of the proposed questionnaire. The model studied in this study well confirmed the relationship between the factors identified in previous studies and the proposed model with six scales and twenty-two subscales showed a good fit representing that argumentation, judgment, disposition, action, social cognition, and creativity are proper components for measuring three-level critical thinking in language learners.

The results of assessing the validity of CTI through CFA represented that all the three absolute fitness indices, parsimony fit indices, and incremental fit indices have desirable values in the model, and the proposed model is consistent with its experimental model; meaning that the divergent validity of the structure is confirmed. Therefore, combining the results of covariance analysis, the three-level analyses, and the reliability calculations, it can be seen that the questionnaire is valid and reliable. This represents that a critical thinker EFL reader is an individual with the ability to make argumentation (i.e., to find relevance, provide reasoning, recognize language use, comprehend the text’s organization, and distinguish author’s voice), to make judgement (i.e., to pass the buck and vigilant), to provide dispositions (i.e., to innovate, be mature, and engage in doing activities), to act (i.e., to form habitual actions, to understand, to be reflective, and to have critical reflection towards issues), to have social cognition (i.e., to have social competence, literacy, cultural competence, and be extrovert), and to be creative (i.e., to be able to elaborate, be flexible, have fluency, and propose original ideas).

Future research can introduce the extent and manner of internalization of the introduced skills and the effectiveness of different internalization methods. In addition, it should be noted that in this study, the views of language learners were examined. It is necessary to examine the introduced criteria also from the point of view of teachers and administrators in order to answer questions such as the following: Are teachers’ perceptions different from students? If so, what are the differences? What are the effective strategies in teaching these criteria? This type of research can also determine whether students, teachers, and planners have the same understanding of the concepts as well as the strategies used in the classroom. And whether their understanding of the criteria introduced in the first language is the same as in the second language? Moreover, due to the distribution of the gathered data in this study, the factor analysis method with partial least squares (PLS) approach was used. Subsequent researchers can use other analysis programs, such as LISREL or AMOS, for structural analysis relying on larger communities.

Finally, it is necessary to mention that the generalization of the results of this study to other fields and research communities is not possible due to the limited number of participants and its specific field, and it is recommended that first the necessary research efforts be made to apply this scale in different educational fields and societies in order to have more strength and generalizability.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical issues and privacy restrictions, but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Three dimensional

Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index

American Philosophical Association

Argumentation

Average variance extracted

Covariance-based structural equation modeling

Confirmatory factor analysis

Comparative Fit Index

Composite reliability

Critical thinking inventory

Cultural competence

English as a Foreign Language

Goodness of Fit Index

Multiple indicators multiple causes

Ordinary least square

Preliminary English Test

Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Modeling Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Reflective thinking

Root mean squared residual

Root mean square error of approximation

Structural equation modeling

Social cognition

Social competence

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

Standardized root mean squared residual

Tucker-Lewis Index

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Mohammadi, M., Abbasian, GR. & Siyyari, M. Adaptation and validation of a critical thinking scale to measure the 3D critical thinking ability of EFL readers. Lang Test Asia 12 , 24 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-022-00173-6

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A Reflection on World Futures Day 2024: NIOSH Efforts to Help Build a Better Tomorrow

Future Day was first celebrated worldwide on March 1, 2012 as a forward-looking reflection on all the possibilities the future holds for humanity. 1 Just two years later, the global think tank Millennium Project helped expand the unofficial holiday into what is now recognized as World Futures Day. 2 World Futures Day is structured as an open, free-of-charge, all-day event where internationally-recognized futurists, foresight leaders, and members of the public voluntarily come together from across the world to talk about the challenges, opportunities, and responsibilities the future holds for its global citizens. ,3

The 11 th annual World Futures Day kicked off March 1, 2024 under the theme of “Building a Better Tomorrow.” 4 The virtual conversation began on Zoom at noon local time in New Zealand and traveled west to a new time zone every hour until concluding 24 hours later in Hawaii. Because World Futures Day operates under Chatham House Rule , the identities and affiliations of the contributing participants cannot be disclosed. 5

Key themes from the rich World Futures Day discussions about the future held in the Eastern, Central, and Mountain time zones of North America are summarized below. Examples of NIOSH efforts to advance occupational safety and health (OSH) research and practice in each important thematic area are also highlighted.

Theme #1: Technology

Technological advances, including automation, artificial intelligence, machine learning, wearables, the Internet of Things, the seemingly limitless potential of new software applications, and other emerging technologies will continue to change and evolve. New challenges and concerns around data privacy (the ability of individuals to control their personal information), data sovereignty (the laws and regulations around how data are generated, stored, and analyzed), and data ethics (the moral obligations related to collecting, protecting, and using information) may also emerge. It will be important to understand and keep pace with these changes.

NIOSH Efforts Related to Technology: For years, NIOSH has maintained active research programs in the areas of Direct Reading and Sensor Technologies , Occupational Robotics , and Nanotechnology . To help work from these and other relevant programs reach a wide audience, a number of NIOSH Science Blogs address technology , artificial intelligence , nanotechnology , robotics , sensors , and other wearable technologies . NIOSH has also included several aspects of technology—including technological job displacement, artificial intelligence, robotics, and work-related technologies—as priorities in its Future of Work Initiative (FOW) and FOW Research Agenda , which serve as guiding frameworks for research and practice activities. 6,7 In addition, NIOSH has engaged in mentorship opportunities to build capacity in data ethics and technoethics within the public health community. 8

Theme #2: Life Skills Development

As we look to “build a better tomorrow” for new generations, it will be important to consider ways to build important life skills into education experiences so children may seamlessly integrate the skills as they enter adulthood.

NIOSH Efforts Related to Life Skills Development: NIOSH has a longstanding history of research on young workers. In 2013, the Institute launched the Safe Skilled Ready Workforce (SSRW) Program to create and evaluate training programs that provide foundational OSH competencies for young workers . 9 Youth@Work–Talking Safety is an evidence-based, free-of-charge OSH curriculum designed to help prepare young people to be actively aware of work-related risks and participate in promoting safe and healthy workplaces. Today, the NIOSH SSRW Program has expanded to provide similar training for contingent workers and workers with intellectual and developmental disabilities.

Theme #3: Critical Futures Thinking

Remaining in a ‘post-something’ mindset, where we are always reacting to what has already happened, may eventually become very problematic. It is important to identify and speak proactively and affirmatively about our preferred visions for the present and the future. With the rise of advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence, it is also important to encourage and foster critical and problem-based thinking. This includes accepting that the future is not a fixed and unchangeable endpoint that we are moving towards. Instead, it is recognizing that there are many possibilities for what the future may be, and different groups of people may experience the future differently. Exactly how the future will unfold for us depends in large part on the decisions we make now and actions we start taking today.

NIOSH Efforts Related to Critical Futures Thinking: In 2021, NIOSH established a Strategic Foresight Initiative to help broaden the Institute’s view of the future and increase our futures readiness. Strategic foresight is an action-oriented discipline that helps us look at the future through a more proactive lens. The practice of foresight involves systematically gathering evidence about the future, combining that evidence to create multiple possible futures, extracting the implications from those futures, and using the insights gained to inform present-day strategic decisions an action plans. 10 To date, researchers from NIOSH have applied strategic foresight methods to explore the research and service implications of four possible futures for OSH . 11 They also adopted a foresight approach to investigate how to prepare the OSH workforce for future disruptions like the COVID-19 pandemic. 12

The three themes highlighted above were not the only key points raised during the 24 hours of World Futures Day. When available, additional results from the broader discussion will be linked to this blog. Similarly, the examples of NIOSH work shared above are just some ways our research and practice efforts align with topics that have been identified as important to “building a better tomorrow.” Let’s not wait until World Futures Day 2025 to talk about the future again, though. NIOSH wants to hear from you now! What key factors do you think will influence the future, especially when it comes to work-related safety and health? What else might the OSH community start doing today to help “build a better tomorrow” for US workers?

Jessica MK Streit, MS, PhD, CHES® is Deputy Director of the Office of Research Integration at NIOSH.

1 Saenz, A. (2012, Mar). Happy Future Day! March 1 st , 2012 Marks the Start of this Soon to be Great Tradition. Celebrate Change! https://singularityhub.com/2012/03/01/happy-future-day-march-1st-2012-marks-the-start-of-this-soon-to-be-great-tradition-celebrate-change/

2 Di Berardo, M. (2022). The World Future Day Method: A 24-hour round-the-world global discussion. World Futures Review. 14 (2-4), 165-179. DOI: 10.1177/19467567221090539

3 Di Berardo, M., Di Zio, S., & Fontanella, L. (2023). World Futures Day 2022: A mixed method approach to identify topics of a global futures agenda. Futures, 154 , 103244. DOI: 10.1016/j.futures.2023.103244

4 De Berardo, M. (2024, Feb). Join the Global Conversation on Building a Better Tomorrow. https://www.millennium-project.org/world-futures-day-2024-march-1/

5 Chatham House. (n.d.). Chatham House Rule. https://www.chathamhouse.org/about-us/chatham-house-rule

6 Tamers, SL, Streit, J, Pana-Cryan, R, Ray, T, Syron, L, Flynn, MA, …, Howard, J. (2020). Envisioning the future of work to safeguard the safety, health, and well-being of the workforce: A perspective from the CDC’s National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 63 (12), 1063=1084. DOI: 10.1002/ajim.23183.

7 NIOSH (2021). The NIOSH future of work initiative research agenda. By Tamers S, Pana-Cryan R, Ruff T, Streit J, Flynn M, Childress A, Chang CC, Novicki E, Ray T, Fosbroke D, Geraci C. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2022-105. DOI: 10.26616/NIOSHPUB2022105.

8 Tisdale-Pardi, J. (2022, Aug). Students Making Their Mark at NIOSH. NIOSH Science Blog. https://blogs.cdc.gov/niosh-science-blog/2022/08/25/interns/

9 Okun, AH, Guerin, RJ, & Schulte, PA. (2016). Foundational workplace safety and health competencies for the emerging workforce. Journal of Safety Research, 59 , 43-51. DOI: 10.1016/j.jsr.2016.09.004

10 Streit, JMK, Felknor, SA, Edwards, NT, & Howard, J. (2021). Leveraging strategic foresight to advance worker safety, health, and well-being. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18, 8477. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18168477

11 Felknor SA, Streit JMK, Edwards NT, Howard J. Four Futures for Occupational Safety and Health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023;20(5):4333. doi: 10.3390/ijerph20054333.

12 Streit JMK, Felknor SA, Edwards NT, Caruso DL, Howard J. (2024) Preparing the occupational safety and health workforce for future disruptions. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 67(1), 55-72. DOI: 10.1002/ajim.23548.

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How Do Critical Thinking Ability and Critical Thinking Disposition Relate to the Mental Health of University Students?

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The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Theories of psychotherapy suggest that human mental problems associate with deficiencies in critical thinking. However, it currently remains unclear whether both critical thinking skill and critical thinking disposition relate to individual differences in mental health. This study explored whether and how the critical thinking ability and critical thinking disposition of university students associate with individual differences in mental health in considering impulsivity that has been revealed to be closely related to both critical thinking and mental health. Regression and structural equation modeling analyses based on a Chinese university student sample ( N = 314, 198 females, M age = 18.65) revealed that critical thinking skill and disposition explained a unique variance of mental health after controlling for impulsivity. Furthermore, the relationship between critical thinking and mental health was mediated by motor impulsivity (acting on the spur of the moment) and non-planning impulsivity (making decisions without careful forethought). These findings provide a preliminary account of how human critical thinking associate with mental health. Practically, developing mental health promotion programs for university students is suggested to pay special attention to cultivating their critical thinking dispositions and enhancing their control over impulsive behavior.

Introduction

Although there is no consistent definition of critical thinking (CT), it is usually described as “purposeful, self-regulatory judgment that results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanations of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations that judgment is based upon” (Facione, 1990 , p. 2). This suggests that CT is a combination of skills and dispositions. The skill aspect mainly refers to higher-order cognitive skills such as inference, analysis, and evaluation, while the disposition aspect represents one's consistent motivation and willingness to use CT skills (Dwyer, 2017 ). An increasing number of studies have indicated that CT plays crucial roles in the activities of university students such as their academic performance (e.g., Ghanizadeh, 2017 ; Ren et al., 2020 ), professional work (e.g., Barry et al., 2020 ), and even the ability to cope with life events (e.g., Butler et al., 2017 ). An area that has received less attention is how critical thinking relates to impulsivity and mental health. This study aimed to clarify the relationship between CT (which included both CT skill and CT disposition), impulsivity, and mental health among university students.

Relationship Between Critical Thinking and Mental Health

Associating critical thinking with mental health is not without reason, since theories of psychotherapy have long stressed a linkage between mental problems and dysfunctional thinking (Gilbert, 2003 ; Gambrill, 2005 ; Cuijpers, 2019 ). Proponents of cognitive behavioral therapy suggest that the interpretation by people of a situation affects their emotional, behavioral, and physiological reactions. Those with mental problems are inclined to bias or heuristic thinking and are more likely to misinterpret neutral or even positive situations (Hollon and Beck, 2013 ). Therefore, a main goal of cognitive behavioral therapy is to overcome biased thinking and change maladaptive beliefs via cognitive modification skills such as objective understanding of one's cognitive distortions, analyzing evidence for and against one's automatic thinking, or testing the effect of an alternative way of thinking. Achieving these therapeutic goals requires the involvement of critical thinking, such as the willingness and ability to critically analyze one's thoughts and evaluate evidence and arguments independently of one's prior beliefs. In addition to theoretical underpinnings, characteristics of university students also suggest a relationship between CT and mental health. University students are a risky population in terms of mental health. They face many normative transitions (e.g., social and romantic relationships, important exams, financial pressures), which are stressful (Duffy et al., 2019 ). In particular, the risk increases when students experience academic failure (Lee et al., 2008 ; Mamun et al., 2021 ). Hong et al. ( 2010 ) found that the stress in Chinese college students was primarily related to academic, personal, and negative life events. However, university students are also a population with many resources to work on. Critical thinking can be considered one of the important resources that students are able to use (Stupple et al., 2017 ). Both CT skills and CT disposition are valuable qualities for college students to possess (Facione, 1990 ). There is evidence showing that students with a higher level of CT are more successful in terms of academic performance (Ghanizadeh, 2017 ; Ren et al., 2020 ), and that they are better at coping with stressful events (Butler et al., 2017 ). This suggests that that students with higher CT are less likely to suffer from mental problems.

Empirical research has reported an association between CT and mental health among college students (Suliman and Halabi, 2007 ; Kargar et al., 2013 ; Yoshinori and Marcus, 2013 ; Chen and Hwang, 2020 ; Ugwuozor et al., 2021 ). Most of these studies focused on the relationship between CT disposition and mental health. For example, Suliman and Halabi ( 2007 ) reported that the CT disposition of nursing students was positively correlated with their self-esteem, but was negatively correlated with their state anxiety. There is also a research study demonstrating that CT disposition influenced the intensity of worry in college students either by increasing their responsibility to continue thinking or by enhancing the detached awareness of negative thoughts (Yoshinori and Marcus, 2013 ). Regarding the relationship between CT ability and mental health, although there has been no direct evidence, there were educational programs examining the effect of teaching CT skills on the mental health of adolescents (Kargar et al., 2013 ). The results showed that teaching CT skills decreased somatic symptoms, anxiety, depression, and insomnia in adolescents. Another recent CT skill intervention also found a significant reduction in mental stress among university students, suggesting an association between CT skills and mental health (Ugwuozor et al., 2021 ).

The above research provides preliminary evidence in favor of the relationship between CT and mental health, in line with theories of CT and psychotherapy. However, previous studies have focused solely on the disposition aspect of CT, and its link with mental health. The ability aspect of CT has been largely overlooked in examining its relationship with mental health. Moreover, although the link between CT and mental health has been reported, it remains unknown how CT (including skill and disposition) is associated with mental health.

Impulsivity as a Potential Mediator Between Critical Thinking and Mental Health

One important factor suggested by previous research in accounting for the relationship between CT and mental health is impulsivity. Impulsivity is recognized as a pattern of action without regard to consequences. Patton et al. ( 1995 ) proposed that impulsivity is a multi-faceted construct that consists of three behavioral factors, namely, non-planning impulsiveness, referring to making a decision without careful forethought; motor impulsiveness, referring to acting on the spur of the moment; and attentional impulsiveness, referring to one's inability to focus on the task at hand. Impulsivity is prominent in clinical problems associated with psychiatric disorders (Fortgang et al., 2016 ). A number of mental problems are associated with increased impulsivity that is likely to aggravate clinical illnesses (Leclair et al., 2020 ). Moreover, a lack of CT is correlated with poor impulse control (Franco et al., 2017 ). Applications of CT may reduce impulsive behaviors caused by heuristic and biased thinking when one makes a decision (West et al., 2008 ). For example, Gregory ( 1991 ) suggested that CT skills enhance the ability of children to anticipate the health or safety consequences of a decision. Given this, those with high levels of CT are expected to take a rigorous attitude about the consequences of actions and are less likely to engage in impulsive behaviors, which may place them at a low risk of suffering mental problems. To the knowledge of the authors, no study has empirically tested whether impulsivity accounts for the relationship between CT and mental health.

This study examined whether CT skill and disposition are related to the mental health of university students; and if yes, how the relationship works. First, we examined the simultaneous effects of CT ability and CT disposition on mental health. Second, we further tested whether impulsivity mediated the effects of CT on mental health. To achieve the goals, we collected data on CT ability, CT disposition, mental health, and impulsivity from a sample of university students. The results are expected to shed light on the mechanism of the association between CT and mental health.

Participants and Procedure

A total of 314 university students (116 men) with an average age of 18.65 years ( SD = 0.67) participated in this study. They were recruited by advertisements from a local university in central China and majoring in statistics and mathematical finance. The study protocol was approved by the Human Subjects Review Committee of the Huazhong University of Science and Technology. Each participant signed a written informed consent describing the study purpose, procedure, and right of free. All the measures were administered in a computer room. The participants were tested in groups of 20–30 by two research assistants. The researchers and research assistants had no formal connections with the participants. The testing included two sections with an interval of 10 min, so that the participants had an opportunity to take a break. In the first section, the participants completed the syllogistic reasoning problems with belief bias (SRPBB), the Chinese version of the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCSTS-CV), and the Chinese Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CCTDI), respectively. In the second session, they completed the Barrett Impulsivity Scale (BIS-11), Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21), and University Personality Inventory (UPI) in the given order.

Measures of Critical Thinking Ability

The Chinese version of the California Critical Thinking Skills Test was employed to measure CT skills (Lin, 2018 ). The CCTST is currently the most cited tool for measuring CT skills and includes analysis, assessment, deduction, inductive reasoning, and inference reasoning. The Chinese version included 34 multiple choice items. The dependent variable was the number of correctly answered items. The internal consistency (Cronbach's α) of the CCTST is 0.56 (Jacobs, 1995 ). The test–retest reliability of CCTST-CV is 0.63 ( p < 0.01) (Luo and Yang, 2002 ), and correlations between scores of the subscales and the total score are larger than 0.5 (Lin, 2018 ), supporting the construct validity of the scale. In this study among the university students, the internal consistency (Cronbach's α) of the CCTST-CV was 0.5.

The second critical thinking test employed in this study was adapted from the belief bias paradigm (Li et al., 2021 ). This task paradigm measures the ability to evaluate evidence and arguments independently of one's prior beliefs (West et al., 2008 ), which is a strongly emphasized skill in CT literature. The current test included 20 syllogistic reasoning problems in which the logical conclusion was inconsistent with one's prior knowledge (e.g., “Premise 1: All fruits are sweet. Premise 2: Bananas are not sweet. Conclusion: Bananas are not fruits.” valid conclusion). In addition, four non-conflict items were included as the neutral condition in order to avoid a habitual response from the participants. They were instructed to suppose that all the premises are true and to decide whether the conclusion logically follows from the given premises. The measure showed good internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.83) in a Chinese sample (Li et al., 2021 ). In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach's α) of the SRPBB was 0.94.

Measures of Critical Thinking Disposition

The Chinese Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory was employed to measure CT disposition (Peng et al., 2004 ). This scale has been developed in line with the conceptual framework of the California critical thinking disposition inventory. We measured five CT dispositions: truth-seeking (one's objectivity with findings even if this requires changing one's preconceived opinions, e.g., a person inclined toward being truth-seeking might disagree with “I believe what I want to believe.”), inquisitiveness (one's intellectual curiosity. e.g., “No matter what the topic, I am eager to know more about it”), analyticity (the tendency to use reasoning and evidence to solve problems, e.g., “It bothers me when people rely on weak arguments to defend good ideas”), systematically (the disposition of being organized and orderly in inquiry, e.g., “I always focus on the question before I attempt to answer it”), and CT self-confidence (the trust one places in one's own reasoning processes, e.g., “I appreciate my ability to think precisely”). Each disposition aspect contained 10 items, which the participants rated on a 6-point Likert-type scale. This measure has shown high internal consistency (overall Cronbach's α = 0.9) (Peng et al., 2004 ). In this study, the CCTDI scale was assessed at Cronbach's α = 0.89, indicating good reliability.

Measure of Impulsivity

The well-known Barrett Impulsivity Scale (Patton et al., 1995 ) was employed to assess three facets of impulsivity: non-planning impulsivity (e.g., “I plan tasks carefully”); motor impulsivity (e.g., “I act on the spur of the moment”); attentional impulsivity (e.g., “I concentrate easily”). The scale includes 30 statements, and each statement is rated on a 5-point scale. The subscales of non-planning impulsivity and attentional impulsivity were reversely scored. The BIS-11 has good internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.81, Velotti et al., 2016 ). This study showed that the Cronbach's α of the BIS-11 was 0.83.

Measures of Mental Health

The Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 was used to assess mental health problems such as depression (e.g., “I feel that life is meaningless”), anxiety (e.g., “I find myself getting agitated”), and stress (e.g., “I find it difficult to relax”). Each dimension included seven items, which the participants were asked to rate on a 4-point scale. The Chinese version of the DASS-21 has displayed a satisfactory factor structure and internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.92, Wang et al., 2016 ). In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach's α) of the DASS-21 was 0.94.

The University Personality Inventory that has been commonly used to screen for mental problems of college students (Yoshida et al., 1998 ) was also used for measuring mental health. The 56 symptom-items assessed whether an individual has experienced the described symptom during the past year (e.g., “a lack of interest in anything”). The UPI showed good internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.92) in a Chinese sample (Zhang et al., 2015 ). This study showed that the Cronbach's α of the UPI was 0.85.

Statistical Analyses

We first performed analyses to detect outliers. Any observation exceeding three standard deviations from the means was replaced with a value that was three standard deviations. This procedure affected no more than 5‰ of observations. Hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to determine the extent to which facets of critical thinking were related to mental health. In addition, structural equation modeling with Amos 22.0 was performed to assess the latent relationship between CT, impulsivity, and mental health.

Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Correlations

Table 1 presents descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations of all the variables. CT disposition such as truth-seeking, systematicity, self-confidence, and inquisitiveness was significantly correlated with DASS-21 and UPI, but neither CCTST-CV nor SRPBB was related to DASS-21 and UPI. Subscales of BIS-11 were positively correlated with DASS-21 and UPI, but were negatively associated with CT dispositions.

Descriptive results and correlations between all measured variables ( N = 314).

Regression Analyses

Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to examine the effects of CT skill and disposition on mental health. Before conducting the analyses, scores in DASS-21 and UPI were reversed so that high scores reflected high levels of mental health. Table 2 presents the results of hierarchical regression. In model 1, the sum of the Z-score of DASS-21 and UPI served as the dependent variable. Scores in the CT ability tests and scores in the five dimensions of CCTDI served as predictors. CT skill and disposition explained 13% of the variance in mental health. CT skills did not significantly predict mental health. Two dimensions of dispositions (truth seeking and systematicity) exerted significantly positive effects on mental health. Model 2 examined whether CT predicted mental health after controlling for impulsivity. The model containing only impulsivity scores (see model-2 step 1 in Table 2 ) explained 15% of the variance in mental health. Non-planning impulsivity and motor impulsivity showed significantly negative effects on mental health. The CT variables on the second step explained a significantly unique variance (6%) of CT (see model-2 step 2). This suggests that CT skill and disposition together explained the unique variance in mental health after controlling for impulsivity. 1

Hierarchical regression models predicting mental health from critical thinking skills, critical thinking dispositions, and impulsivity ( N = 314).

CCTST-CV, The Chinese version of the California Critical Thinking Skills Test; SRPBB, Syllogistic Reasoning Problems with Belief Bias .

Structural equation modeling was performed to examine whether impulsivity mediated the relationship between CT disposition (CT ability was not included since it did not significantly predict mental health) and mental health. Since the regression results showed that only motor impulsivity and non-planning impulsivity significantly predicted mental health, we examined two mediation models with either motor impulsivity or non-planning impulsivity as the hypothesized mediator. The item scores in the motor impulsivity subscale were randomly divided into two indicators of motor impulsivity, as were the scores in the non-planning subscale. Scores of DASS-21 and UPI served as indicators of mental health and dimensions of CCTDI as indicators of CT disposition. In addition, a bootstrapping procedure with 5,000 resamples was established to test for direct and indirect effects. Amos 22.0 was used for the above analyses.

The mediation model that included motor impulsivity (see Figure 1 ) showed an acceptable fit, χ ( 23 ) 2 = 64.71, RMSEA = 0.076, CFI = 0.96, GFI = 0.96, NNFI = 0.93, SRMR = 0.073. Mediation analyses indicated that the 95% boot confidence intervals of the indirect effect and the direct effect were (0.07, 0.26) and (−0.08, 0.32), respectively. As Hayes ( 2009 ) indicates, an effect is significant if zero is not between the lower and upper bounds in the 95% confidence interval. Accordingly, the indirect effect between CT disposition and mental health was significant, while the direct effect was not significant. Thus, motor impulsivity completely mediated the relationship between CT disposition and mental health.

Illustration of the mediation model: Motor impulsivity as mediator variable between critical thinking dispositions and mental health. CTD-l = Truth seeking; CTD-2 = Analyticity; CTD-3 = Systematically; CTD-4 = Self-confidence; CTD-5 = Inquisitiveness. MI-I and MI-2 were sub-scores of motor impulsivity. Solid line represents significant links and dotted line non-significant links. ** p < 0.01.

The mediation model, which included non-planning impulsivity (see Figure 2 ), also showed an acceptable fit to the data, χ ( 23 ) 2 = 52.75, RMSEA = 0.064, CFI = 0.97, GFI = 0.97, NNFI = 0.95, SRMR = 0.06. The 95% boot confidence intervals of the indirect effect and the direct effect were (0.05, 0.33) and (−0.04, 0.38), respectively, indicating that non-planning impulsivity completely mediated the relationship between CT disposition and mental health.

Illustration of the mediation model: Non-planning impulsivity asmediator variable between critical thinking dispositions and mental health. CTD-l = Truth seeking; CTD-2 = Analyticity; CTD-3 = Systematically; CTD-4 = Self-confidence; CTD-5 = Inquisitiveness. NI-I and NI-2 were sub-scores of Non-planning impulsivity. Solid line represents significant links and dotted line non-significant links. ** p < 0.01.

This study examined how critical thinking skill and disposition are related to mental health. Theories of psychotherapy suggest that human mental problems are in part due to a lack of CT. However, empirical evidence for the hypothesized relationship between CT and mental health is relatively scarce. This study explored whether and how CT ability and disposition are associated with mental health. The results, based on a university student sample, indicated that CT skill and disposition explained a unique variance in mental health. Furthermore, the effect of CT disposition on mental health was mediated by motor impulsivity and non-planning impulsivity. The finding that CT exerted a significant effect on mental health was in accordance with previous studies reporting negative correlations between CT disposition and mental disorders such as anxiety (Suliman and Halabi, 2007 ). One reason lies in the assumption that CT disposition is usually referred to as personality traits or habits of mind that are a remarkable predictor of mental health (e.g., Benzi et al., 2019 ). This study further found that of the five CT dispositions, only truth-seeking and systematicity were associated with individual differences in mental health. This was not surprising, since the truth-seeking items mainly assess one's inclination to crave for the best knowledge in a given context and to reflect more about additional facts, reasons, or opinions, even if this requires changing one's mind about certain issues. The systematicity items target one's disposition to approach problems in an orderly and focused way. Individuals with high levels of truth-seeking and systematicity are more likely to adopt a comprehensive, reflective, and controlled way of thinking, which is what cognitive therapy aims to achieve by shifting from an automatic mode of processing to a more reflective and controlled mode.

Another important finding was that motor impulsivity and non-planning impulsivity mediated the effect of CT disposition on mental health. The reason may be that people lacking CT have less willingness to enter into a systematically analyzing process or deliberative decision-making process, resulting in more frequently rash behaviors or unplanned actions without regard for consequences (Billieux et al., 2010 ; Franco et al., 2017 ). Such responses can potentially have tangible negative consequences (e.g., conflict, aggression, addiction) that may lead to social maladjustment that is regarded as a symptom of mental illness. On the contrary, critical thinkers have a sense of deliberativeness and consider alternate consequences before acting, and this thinking-before-acting mode would logically lead to a decrease in impulsivity, which then decreases the likelihood of problematic behaviors and negative moods.

It should be noted that although the raw correlation between attentional impulsivity and mental health was significant, regression analyses with the three dimensions of impulsivity as predictors showed that attentional impulsivity no longer exerted a significant effect on mental effect after controlling for the other impulsivity dimensions. The insignificance of this effect suggests that the significant raw correlation between attentional impulsivity and mental health was due to the variance it shared with the other impulsivity dimensions (especially with the non-planning dimension, which showed a moderately high correlation with attentional impulsivity, r = 0.67).

Some limitations of this study need to be mentioned. First, the sample involved in this study is considered as a limited sample pool, since all the participants are university students enrolled in statistics and mathematical finance, limiting the generalization of the findings. Future studies are recommended to recruit a more representative sample of university students. A study on generalization to a clinical sample is also recommended. Second, as this study was cross-sectional in nature, caution must be taken in interpreting the findings as causal. Further studies using longitudinal, controlled designs are needed to assess the effectiveness of CT intervention on mental health.

In spite of the limitations mentioned above, the findings of this study have some implications for research and practice intervention. The result that CT contributed to individual differences in mental health provides empirical support for the theory of cognitive behavioral therapy, which focuses on changing irrational thoughts. The mediating role of impulsivity between CT and mental health gives a preliminary account of the mechanism of how CT is associated with mental health. Practically, although there is evidence that CT disposition of students improves because of teaching or training interventions (e.g., Profetto-Mcgrath, 2005 ; Sanja and Krstivoje, 2015 ; Chan, 2019 ), the results showing that two CT disposition dimensions, namely, truth-seeking and systematicity, are related to mental health further suggest that special attention should be paid to cultivating these specific CT dispositions so as to enhance the control of students over impulsive behaviors in their mental health promotions.

Conclusions

This study revealed that two CT dispositions, truth-seeking and systematicity, were associated with individual differences in mental health. Furthermore, the relationship between critical thinking and mental health was mediated by motor impulsivity and non-planning impulsivity. These findings provide a preliminary account of how human critical thinking is associated with mental health. Practically, developing mental health promotion programs for university students is suggested to pay special attention to cultivating their critical thinking dispositions (especially truth-seeking and systematicity) and enhancing the control of individuals over impulsive behaviors.

Data Availability Statement

Ethics statement.

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by HUST Critical Thinking Research Center (Grant No. 2018CT012). The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

XR designed the study and revised the manuscript. ZL collected data and wrote the manuscript. SL assisted in analyzing the data. SS assisted in re-drafting and editing the manuscript. All the authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

1 We re-analyzed the data by controlling for age and gender of the participants in the regression analyses. The results were virtually the same as those reported in the study.

Funding. This work was supported by the Social Science Foundation of China (grant number: BBA200034).

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