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000200010271662400

Read the Chapter on mythinkinglab.com

Listen to the Chapter Audio on mythinkinglab.com

After training

for every conceivable contingency, the unexpected

happened. Initially, the challenge was simply to figure

out what the problem was. If it could be correctly

identified, then there might be some slim chance of

survival. If not, the outcome could be tragic.

Watch the Video on mythinkinglab.com

As you watch the

video clip at www.mythinkinglab.com, keep in mind

that you are seeing a dramatic reenactment. The actors,

music, camera angles, staging, props, and lighting

all contribute to our overall experience. That said,

this portrayal of individual and group problem solving

is highly consistent with the research on human

cognition and decision making. i The clip dramatizes

a group of people engaged in thinking critically together

about one thing: What could the problem be

Their approach is to apply their reasoning skills to the

best of their ability. But, more than only their thinking

skills, their mental habits of being analytical, focused,

and systematic enabled them to apply those skills

well during the moment of crisis. We suggest that you

watch the brief video prior to reading the summary

analysis of Apollo 13.

CHAPTER

Skilled and

Eager to

Think

QHOW can I cultivate positive

critical thinking habits of mind

WHAT questions can I ask to

engage my critical thinking

skills

WHAT are induction and

deduction, and how do they

differ

HOW can I best use this book

to develop my critical thinking

02

19

000200010271662400

Chapter 02 20

Positive Critical Thinking

Habits of Mind

The Apollo 13 sequence opens with the staff at Mission Control

in Houston and the three-person crew of Apollo 13 well

into the boredom of routine housekeeping. Suddenly, the crew

of Apollo 13 hears a loud banging noise and their small, fragile

craft starts gyrating wildly. The startled look on Tom Hanks’s

face in the video reenactment is priceless. A full fifteen seconds

elapses before he speaks. During that time his critical

thinking is in overdrive. He is trying to interpret what has just

happened. His mind has to make sense of the entirely unexpected

and unfamiliar experience. He neither dismisses nor

ignores the new information that presents itself. His attention

moves between checking the craft’s instrument panel and

attending to the sounds and motions of the spacecraft itself.

He focuses his mind, forms a cautious but accurate interpretation,

and with the disciplined self-control we expect of a welltrained

professional, he informs Mission Control in Houston,

Texas that they most definitely have a problem! ii

At first, the astronauts in the spacecraft and the technicians

at Mission Control call out information from their desk monitors

and the spacecraft’s instrument displays. They crave information

from all sources. They know they must share what

they are learning with each other as quickly as they can in the

hope that someone will be able to make sense out of things.

They do not yet know which piece of information may be the

clue to their life-or-death problem, but they have the discipline

of mind to want to know everything that might be relevant.

And they have the confidence in their collective critical thinking

skills to believe that this approach offers their best hope to

identify the true problem.

One member of the ground crew calls out, that O 2

Tank

Two is not showing any readings. That vital bit of information

swooshes by almost unnoticed in the torrents of data. Soon

a number of people begin proposing explanations: Perhaps

the spacecraft had been struck by a meteor. Perhaps its radio

antenna is broken. Perhaps the issue is instrumentation, rather

than something more serious, like a loss of power.

The vital critical thinking skill of Self-Regulation is personified

in the movie by the character played by Ed Harris. His job

is to monitor everything that is going on and to correct the process

if he judges that it is getting off track. Harris’s character

makes the claim that the problem cannot simply be instrumentation.

The reason for that claim is clear and reasonable.

The astronauts are reporting hearing loud bangs and feeling

their spacecraft jolt and shimmy. The unspoken assumption,

one every pilot and technician understands in this context

is that these physical manifestations—the noises and the

shaking—would not be occurring if the problem were instrumentation.

The conclusion Harris’s character expressed has

the effect of directing everyone’s energy and attention toward

one set of possibilities, those that would be considered real

problems rather than toward the other set of possibilities. Had

he categorized the problem as instrumentation, then everyone’s

efforts would have been directed toward checking and

verifying that the gauges and computers were functioning

properly.

There is a very important lesson for good critical thinking in

what we see Ed Harris doing. Judging correctly what kind of

problem we are facing is essential. If we are mistaken about

what the problem is, we are likely to consume time, energy,

and resources exploring the wrong kinds of solutions. By the

time we figure out that we took the wrong road, the situation

could have become much worse than when we started.

The Apollo 13 situation is a perfect example. In real life, had

the people at Mission Control in Houston classified the problem

as instrumentation, they would have used up what little

oxygen there was left aboard the spacecraft while the ground

crew spent time validating their instrument readouts.

Back on the spacecraft, Tom Hanks, who personifies the

critical thinking skills of interpretation and inference, is struggling

to regain navigational control. He articulates the inference

by saying that had they been hit by a meteor, they would all be

dead already. A few moments later he glances out the spacecraft’s

side window. Something in the rearview mirror catches

his attention. Again, his inquisitive mind will not ignore what

he’s seeing. A few seconds pass as he tries to interpret what it

might be. He offers his first observation that the craft is venting

something into space. The mental focus and stress of the entire

Houston ground crew are etched on their faces. Their expressions

reveal the question in their minds: What could he possibly

be seeing Seconds pass with agonizing slowness. Using

his interpretive skills, Tom Hanks categorizes with caution and

then, adding greater precision, he infers that the venting must

be some kind of a gas. He pauses to try to figure out what the

gas might be and realizes that it must surely be the oxygen.

Kevin Bacon looks immediately to the oxygen tank gauge on

the instrument panel for information that might confirm or disconfirm

whether it really is the oxygen. It is.

“If we were compelled to make

a choice between these personal

attributes [of a thoughtful reasoner]

and knowledge about the principles

of logical reasoning together with

some degree of technical skill

in manipulating special logical

processes, we should decide for

the former.”

John Dewey, How We Think iii

• ••

Critical Thinking Disposition Self-Rating Form

Answer yes or no to each. Can I name any

specific instances over the past two days

when I:

1 was courageous enough to

ask tough questions about some of

my longest held and most cherished

beliefs

2 backed away from questions

that might undercut some of my

longest held and most cherished

3 showed tolerance toward the

beliefs, ideas, or opinions of someone

with whom I disagreed

4 tried to find information to

build up my side of an argument but

not the other side

5 tried to think ahead and anticipate

the consequences of various

options

6 laughed at what other people

said and made fun of their beliefs,

values, opinion, or points of views

7 made a serious effort to be

analytical about the foreseeable outcomes

of my decisions

8 manipulated information to

suit my own purposes

9 encouraged peers not to dismiss

out of hand the opinions and

ideas other people offered

10 acted with disregard for the

possible averse consequences of my

choices

11 organized for myself a

thoughtfully systematic approach to

a question or issue

12 jumped in and tried to solve a

problem without first thinking about

how to approach it

13 approached a challenging

problem with confidence that I could

think it through

14 instead of working through a

question for myself, took the easy

way out and asked someone else for

the answer

15 read a report, newspaper, or

book chapter or watched the world

news or a documentary just to learn

something new

16 put zero effort into learning

something new until I saw the immediate

utility in doing so

17 showed how strong I was by

being willing to honestly reconsider

a decision

18 showed how strong I was by

refusing to change my mind

19 attended to variations in circumstances,

contexts, and situations

in coming to a decision

20 refused to reconsider my

position on an issue in light of differences

in context, situations, or

circumstances

If you have described yourself honestly, this

self-rating form can offer a rough estimate

of what you think your overall disposition

toward critical thinking has been in the past

two days.

Give yourself 5 points for every “Yes” on

odd numbered items and for every “No” on

even numbered items. If your total is 70 or

above, you are rating your disposition toward

critical thinking over the past two days

as generally positive. Scores of 50 or lower

indicate a self-rating that is averse or hostile

toward critical thinking over the past two

days. Scores between 50 and 70 show that

you would rate yourself as displaying an ambivalent

or mixed overall disposition toward

critical thinking over the past two days.

Interpret results on this tool cautiously. At

best this tool offers only a rough approximation

with regard to a brief moment in

time. Other tools are more refined, such as

the California Critical Thinking Disposition

Inventory, which gives results for each of

the seven critical thinking habits of mind.

Beach, CA. Used with permission.

21

Skilled and Eager to Think

Being by habit inclined to anticipate consequences, everyone

silently contemplates the potential tragedy implied by the

loss of oxygen. As truth-seekers, they must accept the finding.

They cannot fathom denying it or hiding from it. Their somber

response comes in the form of Mission Control’s grim but objective

acknowledgment that the spacecraft is venting.

OK, now we have the truth. What are we going to do about

it The characters depicted in this movie are driven by a powerful

orientation toward using critical thinking to resolve whatever

problems they encounter. The room erupts with noise

as each person refocuses on their little piece of the problem.

People are moving quickly, talking fast, pulling headset wires

out of sockets in their haste. The chaos and cacophony in the

room reveal that the group is not yet taking a systematic, organized

approach. Monitoring this, Ed Harris’s character interjects

another self-correction into the group’s critical thinking.

He may not yet know how this problem of the oxygen supply

is going to be solved or even whether this problem can

be solved, but he is going to be sure that the ground crew addresses

it with all the skill and all the mental power it can muster.

He directs everyone to locate whomever they may need to

assist them in their work and to focus themselves and those

others immediately on working the problem.

As depicted in this excerpt, the combined ground crew

and spacecraft crew, as a group, would earn a top score on

“Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric.” The emotions and

stresses of the situation are unmistakable. The group’s powerfully

strong critical thinking habits of mind enable the group to

use that energy productively. It gives urgency to the efforts.

Thus, the message about our thinking processes that emerges

is that emotion need not be the antithesis to reason; emotion

can be the impetus to reason.

Chapter 02 22

THE SPIRIT OF A STRONG

CRITICAL THINKER

The scene shown in the video clip was well staged. Skillful

actors displayed the behaviors and responses of strong critical

thinkers engaged in problem solving at a moment of crisis.

Authors of screenplays and novels often endow their protagonists

with strongly positive critical thinking skills and dispositions.

The brilliantly insightful Sherlock Holmes, played in films

by Robert Downey Jr., the analytical and streetwise NYPD

Detective Jane Timoney from the NBC series Prime Suspect,

played by Maria Bello, or the clever and quick witted Patrick

Jane in the CBS series The Mentalist, played by Simon Baker,

come to mind as examples. A key difference, however, is that

fictional detectives always solve the mystery, while, as we all

know, in the real world there is no guarantee. Critical thinking

is about how we approach problems, decisions, questions,

and issues even if ultimate success eludes us. Being

disposed to engage our skills as best we can is the “eager”

part of “skilled and eager” to think. First we will examine the

“eager” part, beginning with taking a closer look at the overall

disposition toward critical thinking. Later in this chapter we will

examine the “skilled” part, the core critical thinking skills.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE HABITS

OF MIND

A person with a strong disposition toward critical thinking has

the consistent internal motivation to engage problems and

make decisions by using critical thinking. iv Operationally this

means three things: The person consistently values critical

thinking, believes that using critical thinking skills offers the

greatest promise for reaching good judgments, and intends to

approach problems and decisions by applying critical thinking

skills as best as he or she can. This combination of values, beliefs,

and intentions forms the habits of mind that dispose the

person toward critical thinking. v

Someone strongly disposed toward critical thinking would

probably agree with the following statements:

• “I hate talk shows where people shout their opinions but

never give any reasons at all.”

• “Figuring out what people really mean by what they say is

important to me.”

• “I always do better in jobs where I’m expected to think

things out for myself.”

• “I hold off making decisions until I have thought through

my options.”

• “Rather than relying on someone else’s notes, I prefer to

read the material myself.”

• “I try to see the merit in another’s opinion, even if I reject it later.”

• “Even if a problem is tougher than I expected, I will keep

working on it.”

• “Making intelligent decisions is more important than

winning arguments.”

Persons who display a strong positive disposition toward

critical thinking are described in the literature as “having

a critical spirit,” or as people who are “mindful,” “reflective,”

and “meta-cognitive.” These expressions give a person credit

for consistently applying their critical thinking skills to whatever

problem, question, or issue is at hand. People with a

critical spirit tend to ask good questions, probe deeply for

the truth, inquire fully into matters, and strive to anticipate the

consequences of various options. In real life our skills may or

may not be strong enough, our knowledge may or may not be

adequate to the task at hand. The problem may or may not be

too difficult for us. Forces beyond our control might or might

not determine the actual outcome. None of that cancels out

the positive critical thinking habits of mind with which strong

critical thinkers strive to approach the problems life sends

their way.

A person with weak critical thinking dispositions might

disagree with the previous statements and be more likely to

agree with these:

• “I prefer jobs where the supervisor says exactly what to do

and exactly how to do it.”

• “No matter how complex the problem, you can bet there

will be a simple solution.”

• “I don’t waste time looking things up.”

• “I hate when teachers discuss problems instead of just

giving the answers.”

• “If my belief is truly sincere, evidence to the contrary is

irrelevant.”

• “Selling an idea is like selling cars; you say whatever

works.”

• “Why go to the library when you can use made-up quotes

and phony references”

• “I take a lot on faith because questioning the fundamentals

frightens me.”

• “There is no point in trying to understand what terrorists

are thinking.”

When it comes to approaching specific questions, issues,

decisions or problems, people with a weak or negative critical

thinking disposition are apt to be impulsive, reactive, muddleheaded,

disorganized, overly simplistic, spotty about getting

relevant information, likely to apply unreasonable criteria, easily

distracted, ready to give up at the least hint of difficulty, intent

on a solution that is more detailed than is possible, or too

readily satisfied with some uselessly vague response.

PRELIMINARY SELF-ASSESSMENT

It is only natural to wonder about our own disposition. The

“Critical Thinking Disposition Self-Rating Form,” found on

page 21, offers us a way of reflecting on our own values, beliefs,

and intentions about the use of critical thinking. As noted

on the form itself, “This tool offers only a rough approximation

with regard to a brief moment in time.” We invite you to take

a moment and complete the self-assessment. Keep in mind

as you interpret the results that this measure does not assess

critical thinking skills. Rather, this tool permits one to reflect on

whether, over the past two days, the disposition manifested

in behavior was positive, ambivalent, or averse toward engaging

in thoughtful, reflective, and fair-minded judgments about

what to believe or what to do.

RESEARCH ON CRITICAL THINKING

HABITS OF MIND

The broad understanding of being disposed toward using critical

thinking, or disposed away from using critical thinking, has been

the object of empirical research in the cognitive sciences since

the early 1990s. The purpose of this research has been to give

greater precision to the analysis and measurement of the dispositional

dimension of critical thinking.

Seven Positive Critical

Thinking Habits of Mind

One research approach involved asking thousands of people

to indicate the extent to which they agreed or disagreed

with a long list of statements not unlike those in the two

short lists presented above. Using statistical analysis, these

researchers identified seven measurable aspects within the

overall disposition toward critical thinking. We can think of

these as the seven positive critical thinking habits of mind. vi

Based on this research, we can describe someone who has

all seven positive critical thinking habits of mind as a person

who is:

• Truth-seeking – meaning that the person has intellectual integrity

and a courageous desire to actively strive for the best

possible knowledge in any given situation. A truth-seeker

asks probing questions and follows reasons and evidence

wherever they lead, even if the results go against his or her

cherished beliefs.

• Open-minded – meaning that the person is tolerant of divergent

views and sensitive to the possibility of his or her

own possible biases. An open-minded person respects the

right of others to have different opinions.

• Analytical – meaning that the person is habitually alert

to potential problems and vigilant in anticipating consequences

and trying to foresee short-term and long-term

outcomes of events, decisions, and actions. Another word

to describe this habit of mind might be “Foresightful.”

• Systematic – meaning that the person consistently endeavors

to take an organized and thorough approach to

identifying and resolving problems. The systematic person

is orderly, focused, persistent, and diligent in his or her

approach to problem solving, learning, and inquiry.

• Confident in reasoning – meaning that the person is trustful

of his or her own reasoning skills to yield good judgments. A

person’s or a group’s confidence in their own critical thinking

may or may not be warranted, which is another matter.

• Inquisitive – meaning that the person habitually strives to be

well-informed, wants to know how things work, and seeks

to learn new things about a wide range of topics, even if

the immediate utility of knowing those things is not directly

evident. The inquisitive person has a strong sense of intellectual

curiosity.

• Judicious – meaning that the person approaches problems

with a sense that some are ill-structured and some can have

more than one plausible solution. The judicious person has

the cognitive maturity to realize that many questions and

issues are not black and white and that, at times, judgments

must be made in contexts of uncertainty.

Negative Habits of Mind

After the measurement tools were refined and validated for

use in data gathering, the results of repeated samplings

showed that some people are strongly positive on one or

more of the seven positive dispositional aspects. Some people

are ambivalent or negatively disposed on one or more of

the seven.

There is a name associated with the negative end of the

scale for each of the seven attributes, just as there is a name

associated with the positive end of the scale. The “Critical

Thinking Habits of Mind” chart on page 26 lists the names,

for both positive and negative attributes. A person’s individual

dispositional portrait emerges from the seven, for a person

may be positive, ambivalent, or negative on each.

In the film Philadelphia, Denzel Washington plays a personal

liability litigator who is not above increasing the amount

a client seeks for “pain and suffering” by hinting to the client

that he may have more medical problems than the client

had at first noticed. Watch the scene where a new potential

client, played by Tom Hanks, visits Washington’s office seeking

representation. Access this clip at www.mythinkinglab

.com. Watch the Video on mythinkinglab.com

The clip from Philadelphia starts out with Denzel Washington

talking to a client who wants to sue the city over a

foolish accident that the man brought upon himself. The

scene establishes that Washington is a hungry lawyer who

will take almost any case. Tom Hanks comes into the office

and says that he wants to sue his former employer, believing

that he was wrongly fired from his job because he has

AIDS. You would think that Washington would jump at this

opportunity. There is a lot of money to be made if he can win

the case. Truth-seeking demands that the real reason for the

firing be brought to light. But at this point in the story, Washington

declines to take the case.

Notice what the filmmakers do with the camera angles to

show what Washington is thinking as he considers what to do.

His eyes focus on the picture of his wife and child, on the skin

lesion on Hanks’s head, and on the cigars and other things

Hanks touches. The story takes place during the early years

when the general public did not understand AIDS well at all. It

was a time when prejudices, homophobia, and misinformation

23

Chapter 02 24

nonverbal thinking cues are so well done

The Disposition toward Critical Thinking

by the filmmakers that we are not surprised

when Washington, having thought

things through, refuses to take the case.

There is no question that critical thinking

is wonderfully powerful. Yet, by itself

it is incomplete. We need knowledge,

values, and sensitivities to guide our

thinking. Washington’s character is

sensitive to what he thinks are the

dangers of the disease and what he

believes (wrongly) about the ways

it might be transmitted. His character

uses his critical thinking skills,

which turn out to be quite formidable

as the film progresses. But his beliefs

about AIDS are simply wrong. He

makes a judgment at the time not to represent

Hanks’s character. It is not the same

judgment he will make later in the film, after

he becomes better informed. Fortunately, he has

the open-mindedness to entertain the possibility of representing

Hanks’s character, that perhaps Hanks’s character

does have a winnable case, and that perhaps the risks associated

with AIDS are not as great as he had at first imagined. He

has the inquisitiveness and the truth-seeking skills to gather

more accurate information. And he has the judiciousness to

reconsider and to change his mind.

surrounded the disease. Washington’s character portrays

the uncertainty and misplaced fears of the U.S. public at that

time. Not understanding AIDS or being misinformed, Washington’s

character is frightened for himself and for his family.

Notice how he stands in the very far corner of his office, as

physically far away from Hanks’s character as possible. He

wipes his hand against his trousers after shaking hands. The

Thinking Critically

1 You can do this exercise by yourself

or with a classmate. This exercise

requires watching TV for two hours.

Begin with a clean piece of paper and

draw a line down the page. Mark one

side + and the other –. With pencil and

paper in hand, watch CBS, NBC, or

ABC or a cable network that shows

commercials along with its regular programming.

Pay close attention to the

commercials, not the regular programming.

Note each of the people who

appear on screen. If you judge that a

person is portrayed as a strong critical

thinker, note it (e.g., Woman in car commercial

+). If you think a person is portrayed

as a weak critical thinker, note

that (e.g., Three guys in beer commercial

2 2 2). If you cannot tell (e.g., in

the car commercial there were two kids

riding in the back seat but they were

not doing or saying anything), do not

make any notation. After watching only

the commercials during one hour of

How Does TV Portray Critical Thinking

programming, total up the plusses and

the minuses. Now do the same thing for

another hour, but this time pay attention

only to the regular programming,

not the commercials. Again note every

character who appears and indicate on

the paper if the person is portrayed as

a strong critical thinker (e.g., evil bad

guy +, clever detective +) or a weak

critical thinker (e.g., victim who foolishly

walked into the dark alley alone –). Tally

up the plusses and minuses. Based on

your observations, is there a tendency

or pattern that might be evident regarding

the critical thinking strengths or

weaknesses of children, adolescents,

young adults, middle-aged people, and

senior citizens

2 Group Project – 4-page mini-paper:

Attitudes, while not immutable, are

shaped and formed as we mature. To

the extent that the disposition toward

critical thinking is attitudinal, it can be

affected by our experiences growing

up. Begin by locating research reports

(not just opinion pieces) in which credible

experts report findings based on

solid data about the impact of the

images of ourselves we see on television

and whether those images influence

how we behave. Research on the

power of TV stereotypes, for example,

can be a good place to start. Consider

what you learn through your review of

the materials you found, and drawing

too on your own life experience, formulate

your response to this question:

What is the potential impact that the

characters portrayed on TV have on

the disposition toward critical thinking,

which is developing in adolescents

Explain your opinion on this by providing

reasons, examples, and citations.

In the last part of your short paper,

respond to this question: What kind

of evidence would lead you to revise

or reverse the opinion you have been

presenting and explaining

25

In Philadelphia, the plaintiff, played by Tom Hanks, and his lawyer, played by Denzel Washington, wade through a

crowd of reporters. How does Denzel Washington’s character use critical thinking throughout the course of the film

“The expressions mental disciplines

and mental virtues can be used to

refer to habits of mind as well. The

word disciplines in a military context

and the word virtues in an ethical

context both suggest something

positive. We will use habits of mind

because the word habit is neutral.

Some habits are good, others bad.

As will become evident, the same

can be said with regard to critical

thinking habits of mind. Some, like

truth-seeking, are positive. Others,

like indifference or intellectual

dishonesty, are negative.”

IS A GOOD CRITICAL THINKER

AUTOMATICALLY A GOOD PERSON

Thinking about Denzel Washington’s character in Philadelphia

raises the natural question about how critical thinking

might or might not be connected with being an ethical

person. We have been using the expression “strong critical

thinker” instead of “good critical thinker” because of the ambiguity

of the word good. We want to praise the person as a

critical thinker without necessarily making a judgment about

the person’s ethics. For example, a person can be adept at

developing cogent arguments and very adroit at finding the

flaws in other people’s reasoning, but that same person can

use these skills unethically to mislead and exploit a gullible

person, perpetrate a fraud, or deliberately confuse, confound,

and frustrate a project.

A person can be strong at critical thinking, meaning that the

person can have the appropriate dispositions, and be adept

using his or her critical thinking skill, but still not be an ethical

critical thinker. There have been people with superior thinking

skills and strong habits of mind who, unfortunately, have

used their talents for ruthless, horrific, and immoral purposes.

Critical Thinking Habits of Mind

BUILDING POSITIVE HABITS

Positive

Truth-seeking

Open-minded

Analytical

Negative

Intellectually Dishonest

Intolerant

Heedless of Consequences

Critical thinking skills can be strengthened by exercising

them, which is what the examples and the exercises in this

book are intended to help you do. Critical thinking habits of

mind can be nurtured by internalizing the values that they

embody and by reaffirming the intention each day to live by

those values. vii Here are four specific suggestions about how

to go about this.

Chapter 02 26

Systematic

Confident in Reasoning

Inquisitive

Judicious

Disorganized

Hostile toward Reason

Indifferent

Imprudent

To get some sense of the colossal

problems that result from our

collective failures to anticipate

consequences, watch the

documentary film The Unforeseen

(2007, directed by Laura Dunn). It is

the remarkable story of the loss of

quality of life and environmental

degradation associated with real

estate development in Austin,

Texas, over the past 50 years.

It would be great if experience, knowledge, mental horsepower,

and ethical virtue were all one and the same. But they are not.

Consider, for example, the revelations that Victor Crawford, a

tobacco lobbyist, makes in the clip from his 60 Minutes interview

with Leslie Stahl. You can access a transcript of the interview

at www.mythinkinglab.com. He admits that he lied, falsified

information, and manipulated people in order to advance the

interests of the tobacco indu stry. Ms. Stahl calls him out, saying

that he was unethical and despicable to act that way. Crawford

admits as much. He used his critical thinking skills to help

sell people a product that, if used as intended by its manufacturer,

was apt to cause them grave harm. Now, all these years

later, he regrets having done that. The interview is part of his

effort to make amends for his lies and the harm they may have

caused to others. www.mythinkinglab.com and some printed

versions of this book include a chapter exploring the relationship

between critical thinking and ethical decision making more

deeply.

Read the Document on mythinkinglab.com

1 Value Critical Thinking. If we value critical thinking, we

desire to be ever more truth-seeking, open-minded, mindful

of consequences, systematic, inquisitive, confident in

our critical thinking, and mature in our judgment. We will

expect to manifest that desire in what we do and in what

we say. We will seek to improve our critical thinking skills.

2 Take Stock. It is always good to know where we are in

our journey. The “Critical Thinking Disposition Self-Rating

Form,” presented earlier in this chapter (page 21), will

give us a rough idea. If we have general positive critical

thinking habits of mind, that should show up in the score

we give ourselves using this self-rating form.

3 Be Alert for Opportunities. Each day be alert for opportunities

to act on the desire by translating it into words and

actions. Make a conscious effort each day to be as reflective

and thoughtful as possible in addressing at least one

of the many problems or decisions of the day.

4 Forgive and Persist. Forgive yourself if you happen to

backslide. Pick yourself up and get right back on the

path. These are ideals we are striving to achieve. We each

need discipline, determination, and persistence. There

will be missteps along the way, but do not let them deter

you. Working with a friend, mentor, or role model might

make it easier to be successful, but it is really about what

you want for your own thinking process.

The Experts Worried That Schooling Might Be Harmful!

The critical thinking expert panel we talked

about in Chapter 1 was absolutely convinced

that critical thinking is a pervasive and purposeful

human phenomenon. They insisted

that strong critical thinkers should be characterized

not merely by the cognitive skills they

may have, but also by how they approach life

and living in general.

This was a bold claim. At that time schooling

in most of the world was characterized by

the memorization of received truths. In the

USA, the “back to basics” mantra echoed the

pre-1960s Eisenhower era, when so much of

schooling was focused on producing “interchangeable

human parts” for an industrial

manufacturing economy. Critical thinking that

frees the mind to ask any question and evaluate

any assumption naturally goes far beyond

what the typical classroom was delivering. In

fact, many of the experts feared that some of

the things people experience in our schools

could actually be harmful to the development

and cultivation of strong critical thinking.

Critical thinking came before formal schooling

was invented. It lies at the very roots of

civilization. The experts saw critical thinking

as a driving force in the human journey from

ignorance, superstition, and savagery toward

global understanding. Consider what life would

be like without the things on this list, and you

will appreciate why they had such confidence

in strong critical thinking. The approaches to

life and living which the experts said characterized

the strong critical thinker included:

• inquisitiveness and a desire to remain

well-informed with regard to a wide range

of topics,

• trust in the processes of reasoned inquiry,

• self-confidence in one’s own abilities to

reason,

• open-mindedness regarding divergent

world views,

• flexibility in considering alternatives and

opinions,

• understanding of the opinions of other

people,

• fair-mindedness in appraising reasoning,

• honesty in facing one’s own biases,

prej udices, stereotypes, or egocentric

tendencies,

• prudence in suspending, making, or altering

judgments,

• willingness to reconsider and revise views

where honest reflection suggests that

change is warranted,

• alertness to opportunities to use critical

thinking.

The experts went beyond approaches to

life and living in general to emphasize how

strong critical thinkers approach specific

issues, questions, or problems. The experts

said we would find strong critical thinkers

striving for:

• clarity in stating the question or concern,

• orderliness in working with complexity,

• diligence in seeking relevant information,

• reasonableness in selecting and applying

criteria,

• care in focusing attention on the concern

at hand,

• persistence though difficulties are

encountered,

• precision to the degree permitted by the

subject and the circumstances.

Table 5, page 25. American Philosophical Association.

1990, Critical Thinking: An Expert

Consensus Statement for Purposes of Educational

Assessment and Instruction. ERIC

Doc. ED 315 423.

Putting the Positive Critical Thinking Habits of Mind into Practice

Here are a few suggestions about ways

to translate each of the seven positive

aspects of the disposition toward critical

thinking into action.

Truth-seeking – Ask courageous and

probing questions. Think deeply about the

reasons and evidence for and against a given

decision you must make. Pick one or two of

your own most cherished beliefs and ask yourself

what reasons and what evidence there are

for those beliefs.

Open-mindedness – Listen patiently to

someone who is offering opinions with which

you do not agree. As you listen, show respect

and tolerance toward the person offering the

ideas. Show that you understand (not the same

as “agree with”) the opinions being presented.

Analyticity – Identify an opportunity to

consciously pause to ask yourself about all

the foreseeable and likely consequences of a

decision you are making. Ask yourself what

that choice, whether it be large or small, will

mean for your future life and behavior.

Systematicity – Focus on getting more

organized. Make lists of your most urgent

work, family and educational responsibilities,

and your assignments. Make lists of the most

important priorities and obligations as well.

Compare the urgent with the important. Budget

time to take a systematic and methodical

approach to fulfilling obligations.

Critical Thinking Confidence – Commit

to resolve a challenging problem by reasoning

it through. Embrace a question, problem,

or issue that calls for a reasoned decision

and begin working on it yourself or in collaboration

with others.

Inquisitiveness – Learn something new.

Go out and seek information about any topic

of interest, but not one that you must learn

about for work, and let the world surprise you

with its variety and complexity.

Judiciousness – Revisit a decision you

made recently and consider whether it is still

the right decision. See if any relevant new information

has come to light. Ask if the results

that had been anticipated are being realized.

If warranted, revise the decision to better

suit your new understanding of the state of

affairs.

•••

27

What Is Wrong with These Statements

Each of the following statements contains

a mistake. Identify the mistake and edit the

statement so that it is more accurate.

1 Having a “critical spirit” means one is

a cynic.

2 Critical thinking habits of mind are always

positive.

3 If you are open-minded, you must be

a truth-seeker. Hint: open-mindedness

is passive.

4 Calling on people to be systematic means

that everyone must think the same way.

5 If a person is confident in his or her

critical thinking, then he or she must

have strong critical thinking skills.

6 If a person has strong critical thinking

skills, then he or she must be confident

in his or her critical thinking.

7 Truth-seeking is fine up to a point, but

we have to draw the line. Some questions

are too dangerous to be asked.

8 People with strong desire to be

analytical have the skill to foresee

the consequences of options and

events.

9 If a person can see the value of critical

thinking, then the person is disposed

toward critical thinking. That’s all it

takes.

10 People who have not taken a course

in critical thinking cannot have strong

critical thinking skills.

Chapter 02 28

If you feel comfortable with the

idea, you may want to ask a close

friend or two to rate you using the

“Critical Thinking Disposition Self-

Rating Form.” To do this your friend

would replace the words I or my with

references to you. This assessment

could provide valuable information

about how your critical thinking

disposition manifests itself to others.

When thinking critically, we apply these six skills to:

• Evidence (facts, experiences, statements)

• Conceptualizations (ideas, theories, ways of seeing the world)

• Methods (strategies, techniques, approaches)

• Criteria

(standards, benchmarks, expectations)

• Context

(situations, conditions, circumstances)

We are expected to ask a lot of tough questions about all

five areas. For example, How good is the evidence Do these

concepts apply Were the methods appropriate Are there

better methods for investigating this question What standard

of proof should we be using How rigorous should we be

What circumstantial factors might lead us to revise our opinions

Good critical thinkers are ever-vigilant, monitoring and

correcting their own thinking.

Core Critical Thinking Skills

We have talked about the “eager” in the phrase “skilled and

eager” to think critically. Now let’s explore the “skilled” part

by examining those mental skills which are at the core of

purposeful reflective judgment.

INTERPRETING AND ANALYZING

THE CONSENSUS STATEMENT

When thinking about the meaning and importance of the term

“critical thinking” in Chapter 1, we referred to an expert consensus.

That consensus identified certain cognitive skills as

being central to critical thinking. Their research findings are

shown below. viii

Let’s unpack their quote. The experts identify six skills:

• Interpretation

• Analysis

• Inference

• Evaluation

• Explanation

• Self-Regulation

THE JURY IS DELIBERATING

In 12 Angry Men by Reginal Rose a jury deliberates the guilt or

innocence of a young man accused of murder. ix The jury room

is hot, the hour is late, and tempers are short. Ten of the twelve

jurors have voted to convict when we join the story. In the classic

American film version of Rose’s play, one of the two jurors

who are still uncertain is Henry Fonda’s character. x That character

first analyzes the testimony of a pair of witnesses, putting

what each said side by side. Using all his critical thinking skills,

he tries to reconcile their conflicting testimony. He asks how the

old man could possibly have heard the accused man threaten

the victim with the El Train roaring by the open window. From

the facts of the situation Fonda’s character has inferred that

the old man could not have been telling the truth. Fonda then

explains that inference to the other jurors with a flawless argument.

But the other jurors still want to know why an old man

with apparently nothing to gain would not tell the truth. One of

the other jurors, an old man himself, interprets that witness’s

behavior for his colleagues. The conversation then turns to the

The jury has the authority to question the quality of the

evidence, to dispute the competing theories of the case that

are presented by the prosecution and the defense, to find fault

with the investigatory methods of the police, to dispute whether

the doubts some members may have meet the criterion of

“reasonable doubt” or not, and to take into consideration all

the contextual and circumstantial elements that may be relevant.

In other words, a good jury is the embodiment of good

critical thinking that a group of people practice. The stronger

their collective skills, the greater the justice that will be done.

Access the El Train video clip from 12 Angry Men at www.

mythinkinglab.com. Watch the Video on mythinkinglab.com

CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS FIRE

IN MANY COMBINATIONS

question of how to interpret the expression “I’m going kill you!”

that the accused is alleged to have shouted. One juror wants

to take it literally as a statement of intent. Another argues that

context matters, that words and phrases cannot always be

taken literally. Someone asks why the defense attorney did not

bring up these same arguments during his cross examination

of the witness. In their evaluation, the jury does seem to agree

on the quality of the defense—namely, that it was poor. One

juror draws the conclusion that this means the lawyer thought

his own client was guilty. But is that so Could there be some

other explanation or interpretation for the half-hearted defense

“We understand critical thinking

to be purposeful, self-regulatory

judgment which results in

interpretation, analysis, evaluation,

and inference, as well as explanation

of the evidential, conceptual,

methodological, criteriological, or

contextual considerations upon

which that judgment is based.”

— The Delphi Report, American

Philosophical Association xi

One way to present critical thinking skills is in the form of a

list. But lists typically suggest that we move from one item to

another in a predetermined step-by-step progression, similar

to pilots methodically working down the mandatory list of preflight

safety checks. Critical thinking is not rote or scripted in

the way that a list of skills might suggest.

Critical thinking is a form of judgment—namely reflective,

purposeful judgment. The skills are what we use to

make that judgment. Imagine for a moment what it is like

looking for an address while driving on a busy and unfamiliar

street. To do this, we must simultaneously be coordinating

the use of many skills, but fundamentally our focus

is on the driving and not on the individual skills. We are

concentrating on street signs and address numbers while

also interpreting traffic signals such as stoplights, and controlling

the car’s speed, direction, and location relative to

other vehicles. Driving requires coordinating physical skills

such as how hard to press the gas or tap the brakes and

mental skills such as analyzing the movement of our vehicle

relative to those around ours to avoid accidents.

In the end, however, we say that we drove the car to the

destination. We do not list all the skills, and we certainly do

not practice them one by one in a serial order. Rather, we

use them all in concert. Critical thinking has certain important

features in common with looking for an address while

driving on a busy and unfamiliar street. The key similarity to

notice here is that critical thinking requires using all the skills

in concert, not one at a time sequentially.

The intricate interaction of critical thinking skills in real-life

problem solving and decision making may begin with an analysis,

an interpretation, an inference, or an evaluation. Then, using

self-regulation, we may go back and check ourselves for accuracy.

On other occasions, we may first draw an inference on the

basis of an interpretation and then evaluate our own inference.

We may be explaining our reasoning to someone and realize,

because we are monitoring our own thinking, that our reasoning

is not adequate. And this may lead us to recheck our analyses or

our inferences to see where we may need to refine our thinking.

29

Chapter 02 30

That was what the jury, considered as a whole, was doing in 12

Angry Men—going back and forth among interpretation, analysis,

inference, and evaluation, with Henry Fonda’s character

as the person who called for more careful self-monitoring and

self-correction. The jury’s deliberation demanded reflection and

an orderly analysis and evaluation of the facts, but deliberation

is not constrained by adherence to a predetermined list or sequencing

of mental events. Nor is critical thinking.

No, it would be an unfortunate and misleading oversimplification

to reduce critical thinking to a list of skills, such as the

recipe on the lid of dehydrated soup: first analyze, then infer,

then explain, then close the lid and wait five minutes. To avoid

the misimpressions that a list might engender, we need some

other way of displaying the names of the skills.

We xii have always found it helpful when talking with college

students and faculty around the world about critical thinking skills

to use the metaphor of a sphere with the names of the skills displayed

randomly over its surface. xiii Why a sphere Three reasons.

• First, organizing the names of the skills on a sphere is truer

to our lived experience of engaging in reflective judgment,

as indicated above. We have all experienced those moments

when, in the mental space of a few seconds, our

minds fly from interpretation to analysis to inference and

evaluation as we try to sort out our thoughts before we

commit ourselves to a particular decision. We may go back

and forth interpreting what we are seeing, analyzing ideas

and drawing tentative inferences, trying to be sure that we

have things right before we make a judgment.

• Second, a sphere does not presume any given order of

events, which, for the present, is truer to the current state

of the science.

• Third, a sphere reminds us about another important characteristic

of critical thinking skills, namely that each can be

applied to the other and to themselves. xiv We can analyze

Core Critical Thinking

Skills Interact

Professionals Measure Outcomes

Musicians

Salesperson

Athletes

Nurses

Teachers

Soldiers

our inferences. We can analyze our analyses. We can explain

our interpretations. We can evaluate our explanations.

We can monitor those processes and correct any mistakes

we might see ourselves making. In this way, the core critical

thinking skills can be said to interact.

STRENGTHENING OUR CORE

CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS

Quality of

the concert

Number of

sales

Games won

Health care

outcomes

achieved

Learning

accomplished

Success of

the mission

Musicians, salespeople, athletes, nurses, teachers, and soldiers

strive to improve their likelihood of success by strengthening

the skills needed in their respective professions. Even

as they train in one skill or another, working people must not

lose sight of how those skills come together in their professional

work. The quality of the concert, the number of sales

made, the games won, the health care outcomes achieved,

the learning accomplished, and the success of the mission—

these are the outcomes that count. The same holds for critical

thinkers. Success consists of making well-reasoned, reflective

judgments to solve problems effectively and to make good

decisions. Critical thinking skills are the tools we use to accomplish

those purposes. In the driving example, our attention

was on the challenges associated with reaching the intended

street address. In real-world critical thinking, our attention will

be on the challenges associated with solving the problem or

making the decision at hand.

THE ART OF THE GOOD QUESTION

There are many familiar questions that invite people to use

their critical thinking skills. We can associate certain questions

with certain skills. The table below gives some examples. xv

Often, our best critical thinking comes when we ask the right

questions. xvi

Asking good questions, ones that promote critical thinking,

is a highly effective way to gather important information

about a topic, to probe unspoken assumptions, to clarify issues

and to explore options. Asking good questions promotes

strong problem solving and decision making, particularly

when we encounter unfamiliar issues or significant problems.

Questions to Fire Up Our Critical Thinking Skills

Interpretation

Analysis

• What does this mean

• What’s happening

• How should we understand that (e.g., what he or she just said)

• What is the best way to characterize/categorize/classify this

• In this context, what was intended by saying/doing that

• How can we make sense out of this (experience, feeling, statement)

• Please tell us again your reasons for making that claim.

• What is your conclusion/What is it that you are claiming

• Why do you think that

• What are the arguments pro and con

• What assumptions must we make to accept that conclusion

• What is your basis for saying that

Inference

Evaluation

• Given what we know so far, what conclusions can we draw

• Given what we know so far, what can we rule out

• What does this evidence imply

• If we abandoned/accepted that assumption, how would things change

• What additional information do we need to resolve this question

• If we believed these things, what would they imply for us going forward

• What are the consequences of doing things that way

• What are some alternatives we haven’t yet explored

• Let’s consider each option and see where it takes us.

• Are there any undesirable consequences that we can and should foresee

• How credible is that claim

• Why do we think we can trust what this person claims

• How strong are those arguments

• Do we have our facts right

• How confident can we be in our conclusion, given what we now know

31

Explanation

• What were the specific findings/results of the investigation

• Please tell us how you conducted that analysis.

• How did you come to that interpretation

• Please take us through your reasoning one more time.

• Why do you think that (was the right answer/was the solution)

• How would you explain why this particular decision was made

Self-Regulation

• Our position on this issue is still too vague; can we be more precise

• How good was our methodology, and how well did we follow it

• Is there a way we can reconcile these two apparently conflicting conclusions

• How good is our evidence

• OK, before we commit, what are we missing

• I’m finding some of our definitions a little confusing; can we revisit what we mean by certain things before making

any final decisions

Ask Good Critical Thinking Questions

Chapter 02 32

Using the discussion about shale gas drilling

as an example, practice formulating good

critical thinking questions about the topics

listed below. Look too at the table entitled

“Questions to Fire Up Our Critical Thinking

Skills” on page 31 to get ideas about how to

target specific critical thinking skills with your

questions. Write at least four good critical

thinking questions about each of the topics

below. The materials supporting this exerice

are available at www.mythinkinglab.com.

1 Perhaps with more foresight strong

critical thinkers might have anticipated

this problem. But when the onechild

policy was put in place, China

was also beginning to experience a

phenomenon that has continued for

many decades, namely the migration

of young people into urban areas in

search of better jobs and a lifestyle

different from what is available “back

on the farm.” Recently China was considering

a regulation requiring children

to visit their elderly parents who lived

in the countryside. Review the story at

www.mythinkinglab.com and then

formulate good critical thinking questions

about this policy and its the

potential benefits and difficulties.

Consider for a moment the topic of drilling to extract natural

gas from shale. Natural gas as an alternative fuel source

has not enjoyed the attention of the American population

like solar energy or wind energy, mostly because it has been

thought to be in short supply—until recently, that is. It turns

out that natural gas can be harvested from shale rock formations

two miles beneath the Earth’s surface. The technology

behind shale gas drilling involves sideways drilling and a process

called “fracking.” Over 30 states in the U.S. have underground

shale beds and drilling in those regions has made

2 USA Today reported that 40 percent

of all pregnancies across the United

States were “unwanted or mistimed.”

The report was based on a study of

86,000 women who gave birth and

9,000 women who had abortions.

The study itself appeared online in

the journal Perspectives on Sexual

and Reproductive Health. Review the

study itself and the newspaper story

at www.mythinkinglab.com and then

about this phenomenon.

3 The plant called quinoa offers “an exceptional

balance of amino acids; quinoa,

they declared, is virtually unrivaled

in the plant or animal kingdom for its

life-sustaining nutrients,” according

to a New York Times story about the

problems of too much success. As

global demand skyrockets, quinoa producers

and other Bolivians may not be

receiving either the nutritional or the

economic benefits of this crop. Learn

more about quinoa and the problems of

its success by reading the news story

at www.mythinkinglab.com. Then

formulate four good critical thinking

questions about this issue. Let

one of the questions be about the importance

of foresightfulness.

4 The Buddhist nation of Bhutan has a

Commission for Gross National Happiness,

and the head of that commission

has a problem: Domestic violence appears

to be rampant among a population

whose religion abhors any kind

of violence. Review the news story at

from the perspective of the head

of the Commission for Gross National

Happiness.

5 How could a voluntary parent participation

program that resulted in increased

test scores go so wrong That’s what

parents and school administrators are

asking themselves in San Jose, California.

Read the story by Sharon Noguchi, which

appeared in the June 16, 2011 San Jose

Mercury News at www.mythinkinglab.

com, and then formulate good critical

thinking questions to further analyze what

happened and to guide in the formulation

of possible next steps to resolve the

situation.

some homeowners into overnight millionaires. The drilling

has given a boost to the local economies in terms of jobs

and retail sales. But, as reported by Lesley Stahl on 60 Minutes,

accidents and other safety concerns that have people

who live in drilling communities concerned. Those living near

shale gas drill sites are questioning the contamination of

the drinking water by the chemicals involved in the fracking

process. Go to www.mythinkinglab.com to listen to Lesley

Stahl’s full report.

Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric

1 Look at the descriptions of each of

the four levels of the “Holistic Critical

Thinking Scoring Rubric” on page 12.

In each, underline the elements that

call out positive or negative critical

thinking habits of mind.

2 Go online and locate two editorials

from this week’s New York Times or

Washington Post. Select any issue or

topic you wish. But find something

that is controversial enough that the

paper published at least one pro and

one con editorial. Approach the two

editorials with an open mind. Resist

forming a judgment about the issue

at least until you have read and considered

both carefully. Evaluate both

using the “Holistic Critical Thinking

Scoring Rubric.” Explain in detail the

reasons for the score you assigned.

Before forming an opinion for or against fracking under

residential real estate in your community, as a strong critical

thinker you first would want to know more about this natural

gas extraction method. Let’s try to think of good critical thinking

questions to ask. You might ask “What is known about the

environmental risks of the chemicals involved in the fracking

processes” or “What exactly is involved in establishing a new

drill site in my community” to promote interpretation. You

could also ask “What are the statistics on the frequency and

severity of the accidents and safety violations associated with

shale gas drilling” to promote inference. Perhaps we would

ask “If our community were to permit fracking, what would be

the economic impact of that decision, and for whom, and how

long would we have to wait before seeing those benefits”

to promote evaluation. Or you could ask “Do my past statements

in support of alternative energy policies, or my financial

interests in residential real estate, or my fears for the health

and safety of myself and my family bias my review of the information

about shale gas drilling” to exercise our judiciousness

habit of mind and our self-regulation skills.

SKILLS AND SUBSKILLS DEFINED

The six core critical thinking skills each has related subskills,

as shown in the table below. The descriptions in the table

of each core skill come from the expert consensus research discussed

earlier. xvii The experts provided this more refined level of

SKILL Experts’ Consensus Description Subskill

Interpretation “To comprehend and express the meaning or significance of a wide variety of

experiences, situations, data, events, judgments, conventions, beliefs, rules,

procedures, or criteria”

Categorize

Decode significance

Clarify meaning

“To identify the intended and actual inferential relationships among statements,

questions, concepts, descriptions, or other forms of representation intended to

express belief, judgment, experiences, reasons, information, or opinions”

Examine ideas

Identify arguments

Identify reasons and claims

33

“To identify and secure elements needed to draw reasonable conclusions; to form

conjectures and hypotheses; to consider relevant information and to educe the

consequences flowing from data, statements, principles, evidence, judgments, beliefs,

opinions, concepts, descriptions, questions, or other forms of representation”

“To assess the credibility of statements or other representations that are accounts

or descriptions of a person’s perception, experience, situation, judgment, belief, or

opinion; and to assess the logical strength of the actual or intended inferential relationships

among statements, descriptions, questions, or other forms of representation”

“To state and to justify that reasoning in terms of the evidential, conceptual,

methodological, criteriological, and contextual considerations upon which one’s

results were based; and to present one’s reasoning in the form of cogent arguments”

Query evidence

Conjecture alternatives

Draw conclusions using inductive

or deductive reasoning

Assess credibility of claims

Assess quality of arguments

that were made using inductive

State results

Justify procedures

Present arguments

“Self-consciously to monitor one’s cognitive activities, the elements used in those

activities, and the results educed, particularly by applying skills in analysis, and

evaluation to one’s own inferential judgments with a view toward questioning,

confirming, validating, or correcting either one’s reasoning or one’s results”

Self-monitor

Self-correct

Source: Critical thinking skill definitions cited are from APA Report: Expert Consensus Statement on Critical Thinking. (ERIC ED 315 423)

Chapter 02 34

analysis of the concept of “critical thinking skills” to assist students

and teachers in finding examples and exercises that could

help strengthen these skills. But, remember that “critical thinking”

does not refer to a package of skills. Rather, critical thinking

is what we do with the skills—which is making purposeful reflective

judgments about what to believe or what to do. So, make

sure to use this table as an awareness tool, not a map.

A First Look at Inductive and

Deductive Reasoning

The table describing the core critical thinking skills (see page

33) mentions “inductive or deductive reasoning” in the subskill

column of the “inference” row and on the “evaluation” row.

Conceiving of inferential reasoning as being either induction or

deduction has a long and rich history going back to Aristotle

(384–322 BCE). xviii Over the centuries, logicians studying deductive

reasoning developed deductive logic systems that

are useful in fields like mathematics and computer science. xix

Statisticians have developed advanced techniques of statistical

analysis that are useful for the kinds of probabilistic inductive

inferences characteristic of scientific research and

economics. xx But, as you will see from the examples in this

section and later in the book, we all use inductive and deductive

reasoning in making everyday inferences about what to

believe or what to do. Let’s take a quick preliminary look first

at inductive reasoning and then at deductive reasoning. In later

chapters we will return again and again to explore how critical

thinking skills relate to induction and deduction.

NURSES’ HEALTH STUDY—DECADES

OF DATA

One powerful example of research that uses inductive

reasoning is the Nurses’ Health Study. This project is perhaps

the most comprehensive descriptive investigation of

Early Life Factors and Risk of Breast Cancer

“Epidemiologic investigations conducted

by our group and others have suggested

that during childhood and early adult life

breast tissue is particularly sensitive to factors

that influence the likelihood of developing

cancer many years later. For example,

if the breast is exposed to multiple x-rays or

other types of radiation during this early period,

the risk of breast cancer rises steadily

with higher doses, but after age 40 radiation

has little effect. Also, we have seen that

being overweight before age 20 is paradoxically

associated with a reduced risk of breast

cancer for the rest of a woman’s life, although

subsequent weight gain and becoming overweight

after menopause increases risk of

breast cancer in these later years. These findings

led us to develop sets of questions focusing

on diet and physical activity during the high

school years. . . . In addition, to assess the

validity of the recalled dietary data, we invited

a sample of mothers of NHS II participants to

also complete a questionnaire about the high

school diets of their NHS II daughters; strong

correlation between the mother–daughter reports

supported the validity of our dietary data.

health-related behavior ever conducted. Since its inception

in 1976, over 238,000 nurses have provided information. xxi

The details in the box entitled “Early Life Factors and Risk

of Breast Cancer,” report findings based on statistical

analyses of millions of data points. As you can see, some

remarkable, unexpected, and important correlations were

discovered. xxii Measured expressions like “investigations

. . . suggested . . .”, “. . . is associated with reduced risk

. . .”, and “strong correlations . . . support . . .” characterize

the report. The scientists who conducted this research

are presenting probabilistic conclusions. Their conclusions

are warranted because the statistical analyses provide sufficient

confidence to assert that the relationships on which

they report are highly unlikely to have occurred by random

chance.

INDUCTIVE REASONING

Drawing probabilistic inferences regarding what is most likely

to be true or most likely not true, given certain information, is

known as inductive reasoning. Here are some examples.

• When I stop at a traffic light, I hear this funny, rattling sound

coming from under my car. It is sort of in the middle or

maybe toward the back, but definitely not toward the front.

I only hear it when the car is idling, not when I’m driving

along at a reasonable speed. My Dad said once that the

metal baffles inside a muffler can loosen up if the muffler is

old and rusty. He said that a loose baffle makes a rattling

sound when it vibrates, like when the engine is idling or

when the tires are out of alignment. My muffler is at least

nine years old. So, I’m thinking that probably the rattling

sound is coming from the muffler.

• We interviewed three people, and each one was very personable.

I think that the first person had the strongest resume.

But the second person seemed a lot smarter. I liked

the enthusiasm and energy that the third person had, but

We have now begun to examine the relation

of high school diet and activity patterns to

subsequent risk of breast cancer. We have

seen that higher intake of red meat during

high school years is related to a greater

risk of premenopausal breast cancer. Also,

higher levels of physical activity during high

school were associated with lower risk of

breast cancer before menopause. This is

particularly important, as many schools do

not include regular physical activity in the

curriculum, and many girls are now quite inactive

during these years.”

that person never worked for an organization like

ours before. It’s a tough choice. But I’m thinking

that probably the second person would

be the best of the three for us to hire since

innovative ideas are more important to

us than experience or enthusiasm.

• In the past whenever the TV news

programs in Chicago ran headline

stories featuring a sketch artist’s

drawing of a fugitive, the Chicago

Police Department (CPD) hotline

received over 200 phone calls

from people all over the city who

said that they spotted the person.

Tonight the Chicago TV news

programs are going to feature

a sketch artist’s drawing

of a fugitive whom the police

are trying to locate. This will

probably yield hundreds of

calls to the CPD hotline.

• Suppose we imagine electricity

flowing through wires

in the way that water flows

through pipes. With this analogy in mind, it would be reasonable

to infer that wires that are larger in circumference

should be capable of carrying greater electrical loads.

Cosmos series, which you can access at www.

mythinkinglab.com.

Sagan tells us that Aristarchus

“deduced that the Sun had to be

much larger” from “the size of the

Earth’s shadow on the Moon

during a lunar eclipse.” Aristarchus

used deduction to infer

that the Sun was much larger

than the Earth because there

was no other possible explanation

for the size of the shadow

of the Earth on the Moon during

a lunar eclipse than that

the shadow is being made by a

hugely larger source of light shining

toward the Earth and the Moon from a

very great distance away.

DEDUCTIVE

REASONING

Drawing inferences in which it

appears that the conclusion cannot

possibly be false if all of the premises are true is called

deductive reasoning.

Here are some examples:

35

Inductive reasoning is used when we are trying to diagnose

what the problem might be or deciding which of several promising

options would be the most reasonable to select. Scientists

use inductive methods, such as experimentation, and

inductive tools, such as statistics. The Nurses’ Health Study

report was an example of scientific findings derived inductively.

When we base our predictions on our past experiences

about how things will happen in the future, we are using inductive

reasoning. Reasoning by analogy, exemplified in the

example about electricity being like water, is inductive. In

strong, inductive reasoning, the evidence at hand gives us a

reasonable assurance that the conclusion we are drawing is

probably true. As long as there is the possibility that all the

reasons for a claim could be true and yet the claim itself could

turn out to be false, we are in the realm of inductive reasoning.

COSMOS VS. CHAOS

The idea that the earth is a planet revolving around the sun is

often attributed to the fifteenth-century Polish astronomer-priest

named Copernicus. But, in fact, the first scientist known to have

reasoned to that view of the solar system was the Greek astronomer

mathematician Aristarchus, who lived more than two

millennia earlier. Centuries before telescopes were invented,

Aristarchus had only his eyes and, of course, his mind. Carl Sagan

describes the reasoning Aristarchus used in a clip from the

• San Francisco is west of Denver. Denver is west of Detroit

and Newark. Therefore, we can infer with deductive

certitude that San Francisco is west of Newark.

• Every successful president of the United States was both

diplomatic and decisive. General Dwight D. Eisenhower

served in WWII as the Commander of the Allied Armies

in Europe and then went on to become a successful U.S.

president. Therefore, President Eisenhower was decisive

and diplomatic.

• Either we attended the campus Halloween party last year

or we were in Texas visiting your folks that day. We did not

go to Texas at all last year. So, we must have attended the

campus Halloween party last year.

• Assume that ‘a,’ ‘b,’ and ‘c’ are any three numbers. Where

‘w’ and ‘y’ are numbers, assume that ‘f’ is a mathematical

function such that ‘fwy’ yields ‘z’ where ‘z’ is the number

that is the product of ‘w’ multiplied by ‘y.’ It follows

deductively then that ‘(fa(fbc))’ yields to the product of ‘a’

multiplied by the product of ‘b’ multiplied by ‘c.’

• If God intended marriage for the sole purpose of human reproduction,

and if same-sex couples are entirely incapable

of human reproduction, then it follows that God did not

intend marriage for same-sex couples.

• Not every argument is of equal quality. Therefore, at least

one argument is better than at least one other argument.

What Are Your Professors and Textbooks

Asking of You

1 A good education includes learning

content knowledge and learning skills.

Because there is so much to learn, it is

understandable that many instructors

focus a lot of attention on helping students

get the content knowledge right.

These profs often call on students in

class to answer questions that show

that they know the meanings of technical

terms or have learned the material

from a previous lesson. Sprinkled in

among those questions from time to

time are critical thinking skills questions

like those given in the table on page 31.

Here is your challenge: In each of your

classes over the next two class days,

keep a list of the questions that the

instructors ask students. Then, take

the complete list and evaluate each

question to see which were intended to

evoke the use of critical thinking skills.

Which skills were most often evoked

2 Some textbooks include exercises

at the end of each chapter or unit.

Those exercises can address content

knowledge to be sure it is well understood.

They can also invite students

to apply their critical thinking skills

to that knowledge—for example to

interpret some data, to analyze arguments,

to draw out the consequences

of certain principles or facts, or to

explain the right methods to apply.

Take the textbooks for your other subjects

and review the exercises at the

end of the unit or chapter you are on.

Identify those questions, if any, that

are intended to evoke critical thinking

skills. In the case of each textbook,

write five additional “exercise questions”

that evoke critical thinking about

the content of the chapter.

Chapter 02 36

Mathematics, algebra, geometry, and computer programming

rely heavily on deductive reasoning. Activities that require

us to apply strict protocols, rules, or regulations that

leave no room for independent judgment call on our deductive

reasoning skills. People often enjoy games and puzzles

that test their deductive reasoning skills, such as Sudoku.

When we seek to resolve questions and doubts by appeal to

first principles, commandments, or beliefs that are assumed

to be absolute certitudes, we are often using our deductive

powers.

Deductive reasoning is a very important form of inference,

as is inductive reasoning. We require both forms of inference

to be successful in critical thinking. There is a lot more to learn

about inductive and deductive reasoning. We will explore the

uses and evaluation of both kinds of reasoning in more detail

later. Chapter 8 is on deduction and Chapter 9 is on induction.

As a matter of fact, this is a good place to talk about

how this book is organized and how you can use this book

to plan your learning to strengthen your critical thinking skills

and habits of mind.

How to Get the Most Out

of this Book

Our plan from here forward is to use each chapter to emphasize

different critical thinking skills, always remembering to

apply those skills with strong positive critical thinking habits of

mind. To strengthen our critical thinking skills, we will emphasize

first one skill and then another.

But first things first! Chapter 3, on problem solving, applies

critical thinking to something we all care about, namely

your being successful academically. From there we focus on

strengthening specific skills.

We begin with interpretation and analysis in Chapters 4

and 5 when we examine how to clarify the meanings of individual

claims and how to visually display the reasoning we use

to support our claims and conclusions. In Chapters 6 through

9 we will work on evaluation, looking first at how to assess

the credibility of individual claims and then at how to evaluate

the quality of arguments. Strengthening our self-regulation

skill will be our emphasis in Chapters 10 and 11 as we take a

closer look at how to strengthen our real-life decision making.

Snap judgments and reflective decisions are the topics for

those two chapters.

We draw everything we’ve learned about critical thinking

back together in Chapters 12, 13, and 14. In this set of chapters,

which emphasize inference and explanation, as we

focus on how human beings use their powers of reasoning

to acquire new knowledge by means of analogies, inferences

drawn from core ideological beliefs, and inferences drawn

through methodical scientific investigative inquiry. These

chapters explore the benefits, uses, strengths, and weaknesses

of the three most powerful forms of argument making:

comparative (“this is like that”) reasoning, ideological (“top

down”) reasoning, and empirical (“bottom up”) reasoning.

We complete the core set of fifteen chapters with one that

addresses the vital skill of communicating in writing the critical

thinking you have invested in a given question, issue, decision,

or point of view. Effective writing and critical thinking just

might be the two most important things to learn—period. The

two are connected not only in the world of education but in

every professional field and all throughout life.

If your instructor has elected to supplement the basics we

present in these fifteen chapters, she or he may have added

one or more of the four additional optional chapters to your

version of this book. One of those supplemental chapters is

on how social scientists think, one on how natural scientists

think, one on ethical decision making, and one is on the logic

of declarative statements. Building the connections between

critical thinking and each of those different domains was both

enjoyable and interesting for us, as authors. We sincerely hope

that you have the opportunity to enjoy and learn from one or

more of those chapters too. We think each of them, like the 15

we proudly included in the basic version of THINK Critically,

will further strengthen your critical thinking skills and habits of

mind. And that, after all, is our the whole point. It’s about you,

building up your critical thinking skills and habits of mind, and

you capitalizing on your critical thinking to achieve success in

college and throughout your whole life.

The key to getting the most out of this book is to practice

your critical thinking skills as often as possible. There

are literally hundreds of exercises in this text. Look for them

not only at the ends chapters but in the “Thinking Critically”

boxes within each chapter. There are more exercises for

you at www.mythinkinglab.com. You’ll find that some of

these exercises ask you to think to yourself while others ask

you to think in groups. This mirrors real life in that critical

thinking is both an individual process on some occasions

and a group problem-solving and a group decision-making

process on other occasions. The point of including all of

these exercises is that it is not enough to simply read about

critical thinking as a topic, or passively view others thinking

critically. We humans learn by doing. Building expertise at

reflective judgment—that is, at critical thinking—takes practice,

and lots of it! Explore the Concept on mythinkinglab.com

37

02 REVIEW Study

and Review on mythinkinglab.com

Chapter 02 38

We defined critical thinking and inquired into its value

for ourselves individually and for society in Chapter 1. In

this chapter we analyzed first the “eager” and then the

“skilled” parts of the phrase, “skilled and eager to think

critically.” The willingness comes in the form of the seven

positive habits of mind that dispose us toward engaging

problems and making decisions using our critical thinking.

For each of these seven habits, there is an opposite

habit of mind that disposes us to be averse or hostile toward

using critical thinking as our way of problem solving

and decision making. We can fortify our critical thinking

habits of mind by valuing critical thinking, taking stock of

our current disposition toward critical thinking, looking for

opportunities to translate the habits into practice, and being

persistent in our efforts to engage problems using our

Being skilled at thinking is only part of the story. We

examined the six core critical thinking skills: interpretation,

analysis, inference, evaluation, explanation, and

self-regulation. By asking good questions, we fire up

those skills and their subskills. The skill of inference included

both of the domains that are traditionally known

as “inductive reasoning” and “deductive reasoning.” To

clarify the difference between induction and deduction

we pointed to examples and presented definitions. But

because this was only our first look at induction and deduction,

we did not go as deeply into these topics here

as we will in later chapters.

Knowing the plan for one’s learning provides benchmarks

for progress and helps a person to clarify his or

her expectations. If the goal of this book is to assist you

in building up your critical thinking skills and habits of

mind, then there had better be a plan for achieving that

goal. There is a plan, and we wanted to share it with you

early in the book. We will first look at problem solving,

then delve deeper into the different critical thinking skills,

with the reminder to always apply those skills with strong

positive critical thinking habits of mind.

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER REVIEW

truth-seeking means that a person has intellectual integrity and a

courageous desire to actively strive for the best possible knowledge

in any given situation. A truth-seeker asks probing questions and

follows reasons and evidence wherever they lead, even if the results

go against his or her cherished beliefs. (p. 23)

open-minded means that a person is tolerant of divergent views

and sensitive to the possibility of his or her own possible biases.

An open-minded person respects the right of others to have different

opinions. (p. 23)

analytical means that a person is habitually alert to potential problems

and vigilant in anticipating consequences and trying to foresee

short-term and long-term outcomes of events, decisions, and actions.

“Foresightful” is another word for what “analytical” means here. (p. 23)

systematic means that a person consistently endeavors to take

an organized and thorough approach to identifying and resolving

problems. A systematic person is orderly, focused, persistent, and

diligent in his or her approach to problem solving, learning,

and inquiry. (p. 23)

confident in reasoning means that a person is trustful of his or

her own reasoning skills to yield good judgments. A person’s or a

group’s confidence in their own critical thinking may or may not be

warranted, which is another matter. (p. 23)

inquisitive means that a person habitually strives to be wellinformed,

wants to know how things work, and seeks to learn new

things about a wide range of topics, even if the immediate utility of

knowing those things is not directly evident. An inquisitive person

has a strong sense of intellectual curiosity. (p. 23)

judicious means that a person approaches problems with a sense

that some are ill-structured and some can have more than one

plausible solution. A judicious person has the cognitive maturity

to realize that many questions and issues are not black and white

and that, at times, judgments must be made in contexts of uncertainty.

(p. 23)

interpretation is an expression of the meaning or significance of

a wide variety of experiences, situations, data, events, judgments,

conventions, beliefs, rules, procedures, or criteria. (p. 33)

inference identifies and secures elements needed to draw reasonable

conclusions; it forms conjectures and hypotheses, it considers

relevant information, and it educes or draws out the consequences

flowing from data, statements, principles, evidence, judgments,

eliefs, opinions, concepts, descriptions, questions, or other forms

of representation. (p. 33)

evaluation assesses the credibility of statements or other representations

that are accounts or descriptions of a person’s perception,

experience, situation, judgment, belief, or opinion; also assesses

the logical strength of the actual or intended inferential relationships

among statements, descriptions, questions, or other forms

self-regulation is a process in which one monitors one’s cognitive

activities, the elements used in those activities, and the results

educed, particularly by applying skills in analysis, and evaluation

to one’s own inferential judgments with a view toward questioning,

confirming, validating, or correcting either one’s reasoning or one’s

results. (p. 33)

inductive reasoning is drawing probabilistic inferences regarding

what is most likely to be true or most likely not true, given certain

information. (p. 34)

deductive reasoning is drawing inferences in which it appears

that the conclusion cannot possibly be false if all of the premises

are true. (p. 35)

analysis identifies the intended and actual inferential relationships

among statements, questions, concepts, descriptions, or

other forms of representation intended to express belief, judgment,

experiences, reasons, information, or opinions. (p. 37)

explanation states and justifies reasoning in terms of the evidential,

conceptual, methodological, criteriological, and contextual considerations

upon which one’s results were based; also presents one’s

reasoning in the form of cogent arguments. (p. 37)

FIND IT ON MYTHINKINGLAB.COM

• Dramatic reenactment is not real life, but then neither are socalled

“reality” shows. However, dramatic reenactments can be

very valuable because they often highlight ideas and decision

making in tense situations where uncertainties and risks abound.

The clips from Apollo 13 and Philadelphia certainly do that. The

transcript of Leslie Stahl’s interview with Victor Crawford is

dramatic for what it reveals. Access all three of these clips at

www.mythinkinglab.com.

• When we reference a video clip in the exercises, as with the

“truthiness” clip from Comedy Central’s The Colbert Report, you

can also find it at www.mythinkinglab.com.

• The video clip of the El Train scene from 12 Angry Men is a classic.

Please view that scene and analyze it carefully, noticing how

the argument unfolds and how the

“train of reasoning” is often interrupted

yet always stays on track.

The movie itself is terrific, and we

urge you to watch it all the way

through. Do you think we’ve made

much progress on the issue of racial

profiling in the past 50 years How

about on a citizen’s duty to render

service as a thoughtful and diligent

juror (p. 29)

39 Skilled and Eager to Think

Exercises

SMALL GROUP DISCUSSIONS

1. Consider this claim: “If textbooks used more critical thinking

exercises, students would learn the material better.” What are

the best arguments for and against that claim Do not take a

position on this. Rather, work to develop the strongest arguments

possible for both sides. What additional information

would you need to investigate, in order to ground each side’s

arguments in solid facts What assumptions about learning

and schooling are required to make each side’s arguments as

strong as possible Again, do not evaluate (yet).

2. Consider this claim: “Professors should ask content questions,

not critical thinking questions. It’s the responsibility of

the professor to lay out the content, but it’s the job of the

student to think critically about the subject matter.” What are

the best arguments for and against that claim As with the

question above, do not take a position on this. Rather, work

to develop the strongest arguments possible for both sides.

What additional information would you need to investigate, in

order to ground each side’s arguments in solid facts What

assumptions about learning and schooling are required to

make each side’s arguments as strong as possible Again, do

not evaluate (yet).

Chapter 02 40

REFLECTIVE LOG

1. Mark Twain is reported to have said, “I have never let my

schooling interfere with my education.” xxiii Connect that sentiment

with the information on page 27 in the box, “The Experts

Worried That School Might Be Harmful!”. What is your reasoned

opinion on the matter If you were critical of schooling,

what would you recommend be done to improve it What evidence

do you have that your suggestions would actually work

in the real world Now ask someone who is 10 years younger

than you what Mark Twain meant. Note the response in your

log. Then ask someone who is at least 20 years older than you

what Twain’s saying might mean. Log the response. Compare

the three opinions: yours, the younger person’s, and the older

person’s. End this notation in your log by reflecting on these

final questions: Should K-12 schooling be designed to prevent

students from learning to think critically for themselves Why

or why not

2. You were specifically asked not to “defend,” “evaluate,” or to

“argue for” one side or the other in the previous two exercise

items. Here’s your new challenge: Keeping an open mind and

maybe stirring up a bit of courage, too, interview two professors

and two students not in your critical thinking class. Present

them with the same two claims, but invite them to agree or

disagree with each one and to give their reasons. Note their

reasons respectfully, and ask follow-up questions aimed at

evoking more critical thinking. You should be able to base your

follow-up questions on the group work you did earlier when

you developed the best arguments for and against each claim.

Then, in your reflective log, record the conversations and highlight

some of the places where the people you interviewed did,

in fact, engage in some deeper critical thinking about the topic.

3. Using the “Holistic Critical Thinking Scoring Rubric” from

Chapter 1, how would you evaluate the critical thinking

displayed by each of the four people you interviewed Quote

some of the things each side said that led you to evaluate them

in the way that you did. [We know you caught it, but just in

case you didn’t, that was another critical thinking skills question.

This one asked you to explain the evidence you used for

your evaluation.]

GROUP EXERCISE: WHAT WOULD IT BE LIKE

Our habitual attitudes affect our behavior and the way that we

interact with one another. People who are habitually intellectually

dishonest, intolerant, or indifferent act differently in household and

workplace settings than those who have opposite, positive habits.

This exercise invites you to draw on your experience to describe

what it would be like to interact regularly with a person with negative

critical thinking habits of mind.

Scenario #1. You have a brother, close to your age, who is

habitually intellectually dishonest, intolerant, and imprudent in

making decisions. He has been like this since junior high school,

and he recently enrolled at your college. Now he wants to share

your apartment, borrow your car, and get you to help him with his

academic assignments. What is it like to have this person as your

family member Given that you have the power to say “no” to his

requests, what are your plans with regard to his requests

Scenario #2. You have a part-time job in a department store as a

clerk. Your old manager used to let your group solve a lot of the store’s

own problems, like who is going to cover a shift if someone can’t work

on a given day. But now you have a new manager. This person makes

scheduling decisions arbitrarily, and is disorganized, and this means

that your group always seems to be rushing to meet deadlines. She

also habitually does not think about the consequences of her actions.

What is it like to work for this supervisor Given that you have the right

to complain to management about your new supervisor, is that an

option you will pursue What other plans might you make to help you

cope with the approach taken by this new supervisor

THE COLBERT REPORT

Watch the Video on mythinkinglab.com Stephen Colbert,

a master of humor and irony, offers “truthiness” as his word of

the day. How does “truthiness,” as Mr. Colbert defines it, relate to

“truth-seeking” Go to www.mythinkinglab.com to view the clip.

APOLLO 13 QUESTION

Group or Individual Exercise: The scene in Apollo 13 when the engineers

are put in a room and given a task is a memorable dramatization

of a critical thinking challenge. Their task is to engineer something

that will reduce the toxicity of the air in the spacecraft (a) as quickly

as possible because time is running out, (b) using only the things the

astronauts have at their disposal, and (c) using methods that the astronauts

can repeat so that they can build the device themselves. Go to

www.mythinkinglab.com, and watch the scene two or three times.

The second or third time through, focus on trying to identify evidence

of the critical thinking skills and habits of mind. Listen to what the characters

say and watch their body language. Discuss the scene in detail,

and then prepare a brief description of the scene, like the description

that begins this chapter. Your description should highlight those critical

thinking skills and habits of mind you noticed the characters displaying

either individually or as a group.

WEB VIDEO PROJECT

Consider this claim: “Effective writing and critical thinking are the

two most important things to learn in college.” Do not take a position

on that claim; instead present the strongest possible arguments

pro and con. One way to gather information about this is to

ask other people their views and the reasons they have for those

views. Ask at least three teachers or professors, ask three successful

people in business and three in other professions, and ask three

people who graduated at least 20 years ago what they think. Get

their reasons, not just their opinions. Then formulate the arguments

pro and con. Make and post a Web video that shows both sides.

41 Skilled and Eager to Think

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Lesson 1.5 Critical Thinking Mindset Self-Rating

Measured Reasons LLC is an organization that specializes in “assessing reasoning, thinking strategically, and educating for critical thinking.” The following activity was adapted from their Critical Thinking Mindset Self-Rating Form. Reflect on your thinking over the last two days and answer the following questions. If you have described yourself honestly, this self-rating form can offer a rough estimate of what you think your overall disposition toward critical thinking has been in the past two days.

Reflection Opportunity 3

Please complete the following self-rating form.

If your total is 14 ("correct" answers) or above, you are rating your disposition toward critical thinking over the past two days as generally positive. Scores of 10 or lower indicate a self-rating that is averse or hostile toward critical thinking over the past two days. Scores between 10 and 14 show that you would rate yourself as displaying an ambivalent or mixed overall disposition toward critical thinking over the past two days.

Interpret results on this tool cautiously. At best this tool offers only a rough approximation with regard to a brief moment in time. Other tools are more refined, such as the California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory, which gives results for each of the seven critical thinking habits of mind.

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Front Psychol

How Do Critical Thinking Ability and Critical Thinking Disposition Relate to the Mental Health of University Students?

Associated data.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Theories of psychotherapy suggest that human mental problems associate with deficiencies in critical thinking. However, it currently remains unclear whether both critical thinking skill and critical thinking disposition relate to individual differences in mental health. This study explored whether and how the critical thinking ability and critical thinking disposition of university students associate with individual differences in mental health in considering impulsivity that has been revealed to be closely related to both critical thinking and mental health. Regression and structural equation modeling analyses based on a Chinese university student sample ( N = 314, 198 females, M age = 18.65) revealed that critical thinking skill and disposition explained a unique variance of mental health after controlling for impulsivity. Furthermore, the relationship between critical thinking and mental health was mediated by motor impulsivity (acting on the spur of the moment) and non-planning impulsivity (making decisions without careful forethought). These findings provide a preliminary account of how human critical thinking associate with mental health. Practically, developing mental health promotion programs for university students is suggested to pay special attention to cultivating their critical thinking dispositions and enhancing their control over impulsive behavior.

Introduction

Although there is no consistent definition of critical thinking (CT), it is usually described as “purposeful, self-regulatory judgment that results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanations of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations that judgment is based upon” (Facione, 1990 , p. 2). This suggests that CT is a combination of skills and dispositions. The skill aspect mainly refers to higher-order cognitive skills such as inference, analysis, and evaluation, while the disposition aspect represents one's consistent motivation and willingness to use CT skills (Dwyer, 2017 ). An increasing number of studies have indicated that CT plays crucial roles in the activities of university students such as their academic performance (e.g., Ghanizadeh, 2017 ; Ren et al., 2020 ), professional work (e.g., Barry et al., 2020 ), and even the ability to cope with life events (e.g., Butler et al., 2017 ). An area that has received less attention is how critical thinking relates to impulsivity and mental health. This study aimed to clarify the relationship between CT (which included both CT skill and CT disposition), impulsivity, and mental health among university students.

Relationship Between Critical Thinking and Mental Health

Associating critical thinking with mental health is not without reason, since theories of psychotherapy have long stressed a linkage between mental problems and dysfunctional thinking (Gilbert, 2003 ; Gambrill, 2005 ; Cuijpers, 2019 ). Proponents of cognitive behavioral therapy suggest that the interpretation by people of a situation affects their emotional, behavioral, and physiological reactions. Those with mental problems are inclined to bias or heuristic thinking and are more likely to misinterpret neutral or even positive situations (Hollon and Beck, 2013 ). Therefore, a main goal of cognitive behavioral therapy is to overcome biased thinking and change maladaptive beliefs via cognitive modification skills such as objective understanding of one's cognitive distortions, analyzing evidence for and against one's automatic thinking, or testing the effect of an alternative way of thinking. Achieving these therapeutic goals requires the involvement of critical thinking, such as the willingness and ability to critically analyze one's thoughts and evaluate evidence and arguments independently of one's prior beliefs. In addition to theoretical underpinnings, characteristics of university students also suggest a relationship between CT and mental health. University students are a risky population in terms of mental health. They face many normative transitions (e.g., social and romantic relationships, important exams, financial pressures), which are stressful (Duffy et al., 2019 ). In particular, the risk increases when students experience academic failure (Lee et al., 2008 ; Mamun et al., 2021 ). Hong et al. ( 2010 ) found that the stress in Chinese college students was primarily related to academic, personal, and negative life events. However, university students are also a population with many resources to work on. Critical thinking can be considered one of the important resources that students are able to use (Stupple et al., 2017 ). Both CT skills and CT disposition are valuable qualities for college students to possess (Facione, 1990 ). There is evidence showing that students with a higher level of CT are more successful in terms of academic performance (Ghanizadeh, 2017 ; Ren et al., 2020 ), and that they are better at coping with stressful events (Butler et al., 2017 ). This suggests that that students with higher CT are less likely to suffer from mental problems.

Empirical research has reported an association between CT and mental health among college students (Suliman and Halabi, 2007 ; Kargar et al., 2013 ; Yoshinori and Marcus, 2013 ; Chen and Hwang, 2020 ; Ugwuozor et al., 2021 ). Most of these studies focused on the relationship between CT disposition and mental health. For example, Suliman and Halabi ( 2007 ) reported that the CT disposition of nursing students was positively correlated with their self-esteem, but was negatively correlated with their state anxiety. There is also a research study demonstrating that CT disposition influenced the intensity of worry in college students either by increasing their responsibility to continue thinking or by enhancing the detached awareness of negative thoughts (Yoshinori and Marcus, 2013 ). Regarding the relationship between CT ability and mental health, although there has been no direct evidence, there were educational programs examining the effect of teaching CT skills on the mental health of adolescents (Kargar et al., 2013 ). The results showed that teaching CT skills decreased somatic symptoms, anxiety, depression, and insomnia in adolescents. Another recent CT skill intervention also found a significant reduction in mental stress among university students, suggesting an association between CT skills and mental health (Ugwuozor et al., 2021 ).

The above research provides preliminary evidence in favor of the relationship between CT and mental health, in line with theories of CT and psychotherapy. However, previous studies have focused solely on the disposition aspect of CT, and its link with mental health. The ability aspect of CT has been largely overlooked in examining its relationship with mental health. Moreover, although the link between CT and mental health has been reported, it remains unknown how CT (including skill and disposition) is associated with mental health.

Impulsivity as a Potential Mediator Between Critical Thinking and Mental Health

One important factor suggested by previous research in accounting for the relationship between CT and mental health is impulsivity. Impulsivity is recognized as a pattern of action without regard to consequences. Patton et al. ( 1995 ) proposed that impulsivity is a multi-faceted construct that consists of three behavioral factors, namely, non-planning impulsiveness, referring to making a decision without careful forethought; motor impulsiveness, referring to acting on the spur of the moment; and attentional impulsiveness, referring to one's inability to focus on the task at hand. Impulsivity is prominent in clinical problems associated with psychiatric disorders (Fortgang et al., 2016 ). A number of mental problems are associated with increased impulsivity that is likely to aggravate clinical illnesses (Leclair et al., 2020 ). Moreover, a lack of CT is correlated with poor impulse control (Franco et al., 2017 ). Applications of CT may reduce impulsive behaviors caused by heuristic and biased thinking when one makes a decision (West et al., 2008 ). For example, Gregory ( 1991 ) suggested that CT skills enhance the ability of children to anticipate the health or safety consequences of a decision. Given this, those with high levels of CT are expected to take a rigorous attitude about the consequences of actions and are less likely to engage in impulsive behaviors, which may place them at a low risk of suffering mental problems. To the knowledge of the authors, no study has empirically tested whether impulsivity accounts for the relationship between CT and mental health.

This study examined whether CT skill and disposition are related to the mental health of university students; and if yes, how the relationship works. First, we examined the simultaneous effects of CT ability and CT disposition on mental health. Second, we further tested whether impulsivity mediated the effects of CT on mental health. To achieve the goals, we collected data on CT ability, CT disposition, mental health, and impulsivity from a sample of university students. The results are expected to shed light on the mechanism of the association between CT and mental health.

Participants and Procedure

A total of 314 university students (116 men) with an average age of 18.65 years ( SD = 0.67) participated in this study. They were recruited by advertisements from a local university in central China and majoring in statistics and mathematical finance. The study protocol was approved by the Human Subjects Review Committee of the Huazhong University of Science and Technology. Each participant signed a written informed consent describing the study purpose, procedure, and right of free. All the measures were administered in a computer room. The participants were tested in groups of 20–30 by two research assistants. The researchers and research assistants had no formal connections with the participants. The testing included two sections with an interval of 10 min, so that the participants had an opportunity to take a break. In the first section, the participants completed the syllogistic reasoning problems with belief bias (SRPBB), the Chinese version of the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCSTS-CV), and the Chinese Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CCTDI), respectively. In the second session, they completed the Barrett Impulsivity Scale (BIS-11), Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21), and University Personality Inventory (UPI) in the given order.

Measures of Critical Thinking Ability

The Chinese version of the California Critical Thinking Skills Test was employed to measure CT skills (Lin, 2018 ). The CCTST is currently the most cited tool for measuring CT skills and includes analysis, assessment, deduction, inductive reasoning, and inference reasoning. The Chinese version included 34 multiple choice items. The dependent variable was the number of correctly answered items. The internal consistency (Cronbach's α) of the CCTST is 0.56 (Jacobs, 1995 ). The test–retest reliability of CCTST-CV is 0.63 ( p < 0.01) (Luo and Yang, 2002 ), and correlations between scores of the subscales and the total score are larger than 0.5 (Lin, 2018 ), supporting the construct validity of the scale. In this study among the university students, the internal consistency (Cronbach's α) of the CCTST-CV was 0.5.

The second critical thinking test employed in this study was adapted from the belief bias paradigm (Li et al., 2021 ). This task paradigm measures the ability to evaluate evidence and arguments independently of one's prior beliefs (West et al., 2008 ), which is a strongly emphasized skill in CT literature. The current test included 20 syllogistic reasoning problems in which the logical conclusion was inconsistent with one's prior knowledge (e.g., “Premise 1: All fruits are sweet. Premise 2: Bananas are not sweet. Conclusion: Bananas are not fruits.” valid conclusion). In addition, four non-conflict items were included as the neutral condition in order to avoid a habitual response from the participants. They were instructed to suppose that all the premises are true and to decide whether the conclusion logically follows from the given premises. The measure showed good internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.83) in a Chinese sample (Li et al., 2021 ). In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach's α) of the SRPBB was 0.94.

Measures of Critical Thinking Disposition

The Chinese Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory was employed to measure CT disposition (Peng et al., 2004 ). This scale has been developed in line with the conceptual framework of the California critical thinking disposition inventory. We measured five CT dispositions: truth-seeking (one's objectivity with findings even if this requires changing one's preconceived opinions, e.g., a person inclined toward being truth-seeking might disagree with “I believe what I want to believe.”), inquisitiveness (one's intellectual curiosity. e.g., “No matter what the topic, I am eager to know more about it”), analyticity (the tendency to use reasoning and evidence to solve problems, e.g., “It bothers me when people rely on weak arguments to defend good ideas”), systematically (the disposition of being organized and orderly in inquiry, e.g., “I always focus on the question before I attempt to answer it”), and CT self-confidence (the trust one places in one's own reasoning processes, e.g., “I appreciate my ability to think precisely”). Each disposition aspect contained 10 items, which the participants rated on a 6-point Likert-type scale. This measure has shown high internal consistency (overall Cronbach's α = 0.9) (Peng et al., 2004 ). In this study, the CCTDI scale was assessed at Cronbach's α = 0.89, indicating good reliability.

Measure of Impulsivity

The well-known Barrett Impulsivity Scale (Patton et al., 1995 ) was employed to assess three facets of impulsivity: non-planning impulsivity (e.g., “I plan tasks carefully”); motor impulsivity (e.g., “I act on the spur of the moment”); attentional impulsivity (e.g., “I concentrate easily”). The scale includes 30 statements, and each statement is rated on a 5-point scale. The subscales of non-planning impulsivity and attentional impulsivity were reversely scored. The BIS-11 has good internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.81, Velotti et al., 2016 ). This study showed that the Cronbach's α of the BIS-11 was 0.83.

Measures of Mental Health

The Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 was used to assess mental health problems such as depression (e.g., “I feel that life is meaningless”), anxiety (e.g., “I find myself getting agitated”), and stress (e.g., “I find it difficult to relax”). Each dimension included seven items, which the participants were asked to rate on a 4-point scale. The Chinese version of the DASS-21 has displayed a satisfactory factor structure and internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.92, Wang et al., 2016 ). In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach's α) of the DASS-21 was 0.94.

The University Personality Inventory that has been commonly used to screen for mental problems of college students (Yoshida et al., 1998 ) was also used for measuring mental health. The 56 symptom-items assessed whether an individual has experienced the described symptom during the past year (e.g., “a lack of interest in anything”). The UPI showed good internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.92) in a Chinese sample (Zhang et al., 2015 ). This study showed that the Cronbach's α of the UPI was 0.85.

Statistical Analyses

We first performed analyses to detect outliers. Any observation exceeding three standard deviations from the means was replaced with a value that was three standard deviations. This procedure affected no more than 5‰ of observations. Hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to determine the extent to which facets of critical thinking were related to mental health. In addition, structural equation modeling with Amos 22.0 was performed to assess the latent relationship between CT, impulsivity, and mental health.

Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Correlations

Table 1 presents descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations of all the variables. CT disposition such as truth-seeking, systematicity, self-confidence, and inquisitiveness was significantly correlated with DASS-21 and UPI, but neither CCTST-CV nor SRPBB was related to DASS-21 and UPI. Subscales of BIS-11 were positively correlated with DASS-21 and UPI, but were negatively associated with CT dispositions.

Descriptive results and correlations between all measured variables ( N = 314).

Regression Analyses

Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to examine the effects of CT skill and disposition on mental health. Before conducting the analyses, scores in DASS-21 and UPI were reversed so that high scores reflected high levels of mental health. Table 2 presents the results of hierarchical regression. In model 1, the sum of the Z-score of DASS-21 and UPI served as the dependent variable. Scores in the CT ability tests and scores in the five dimensions of CCTDI served as predictors. CT skill and disposition explained 13% of the variance in mental health. CT skills did not significantly predict mental health. Two dimensions of dispositions (truth seeking and systematicity) exerted significantly positive effects on mental health. Model 2 examined whether CT predicted mental health after controlling for impulsivity. The model containing only impulsivity scores (see model-2 step 1 in Table 2 ) explained 15% of the variance in mental health. Non-planning impulsivity and motor impulsivity showed significantly negative effects on mental health. The CT variables on the second step explained a significantly unique variance (6%) of CT (see model-2 step 2). This suggests that CT skill and disposition together explained the unique variance in mental health after controlling for impulsivity. 1

Hierarchical regression models predicting mental health from critical thinking skills, critical thinking dispositions, and impulsivity ( N = 314).

CCTST-CV, The Chinese version of the California Critical Thinking Skills Test; SRPBB, Syllogistic Reasoning Problems with Belief Bias .

Structural equation modeling was performed to examine whether impulsivity mediated the relationship between CT disposition (CT ability was not included since it did not significantly predict mental health) and mental health. Since the regression results showed that only motor impulsivity and non-planning impulsivity significantly predicted mental health, we examined two mediation models with either motor impulsivity or non-planning impulsivity as the hypothesized mediator. The item scores in the motor impulsivity subscale were randomly divided into two indicators of motor impulsivity, as were the scores in the non-planning subscale. Scores of DASS-21 and UPI served as indicators of mental health and dimensions of CCTDI as indicators of CT disposition. In addition, a bootstrapping procedure with 5,000 resamples was established to test for direct and indirect effects. Amos 22.0 was used for the above analyses.

The mediation model that included motor impulsivity (see Figure 1 ) showed an acceptable fit, χ ( 23 ) 2 = 64.71, RMSEA = 0.076, CFI = 0.96, GFI = 0.96, NNFI = 0.93, SRMR = 0.073. Mediation analyses indicated that the 95% boot confidence intervals of the indirect effect and the direct effect were (0.07, 0.26) and (−0.08, 0.32), respectively. As Hayes ( 2009 ) indicates, an effect is significant if zero is not between the lower and upper bounds in the 95% confidence interval. Accordingly, the indirect effect between CT disposition and mental health was significant, while the direct effect was not significant. Thus, motor impulsivity completely mediated the relationship between CT disposition and mental health.

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Illustration of the mediation model: Motor impulsivity as mediator variable between critical thinking dispositions and mental health. CTD-l = Truth seeking; CTD-2 = Analyticity; CTD-3 = Systematically; CTD-4 = Self-confidence; CTD-5 = Inquisitiveness. MI-I and MI-2 were sub-scores of motor impulsivity. Solid line represents significant links and dotted line non-significant links. ** p < 0.01.

The mediation model, which included non-planning impulsivity (see Figure 2 ), also showed an acceptable fit to the data, χ ( 23 ) 2 = 52.75, RMSEA = 0.064, CFI = 0.97, GFI = 0.97, NNFI = 0.95, SRMR = 0.06. The 95% boot confidence intervals of the indirect effect and the direct effect were (0.05, 0.33) and (−0.04, 0.38), respectively, indicating that non-planning impulsivity completely mediated the relationship between CT disposition and mental health.

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Illustration of the mediation model: Non-planning impulsivity asmediator variable between critical thinking dispositions and mental health. CTD-l = Truth seeking; CTD-2 = Analyticity; CTD-3 = Systematically; CTD-4 = Self-confidence; CTD-5 = Inquisitiveness. NI-I and NI-2 were sub-scores of Non-planning impulsivity. Solid line represents significant links and dotted line non-significant links. ** p < 0.01.

This study examined how critical thinking skill and disposition are related to mental health. Theories of psychotherapy suggest that human mental problems are in part due to a lack of CT. However, empirical evidence for the hypothesized relationship between CT and mental health is relatively scarce. This study explored whether and how CT ability and disposition are associated with mental health. The results, based on a university student sample, indicated that CT skill and disposition explained a unique variance in mental health. Furthermore, the effect of CT disposition on mental health was mediated by motor impulsivity and non-planning impulsivity. The finding that CT exerted a significant effect on mental health was in accordance with previous studies reporting negative correlations between CT disposition and mental disorders such as anxiety (Suliman and Halabi, 2007 ). One reason lies in the assumption that CT disposition is usually referred to as personality traits or habits of mind that are a remarkable predictor of mental health (e.g., Benzi et al., 2019 ). This study further found that of the five CT dispositions, only truth-seeking and systematicity were associated with individual differences in mental health. This was not surprising, since the truth-seeking items mainly assess one's inclination to crave for the best knowledge in a given context and to reflect more about additional facts, reasons, or opinions, even if this requires changing one's mind about certain issues. The systematicity items target one's disposition to approach problems in an orderly and focused way. Individuals with high levels of truth-seeking and systematicity are more likely to adopt a comprehensive, reflective, and controlled way of thinking, which is what cognitive therapy aims to achieve by shifting from an automatic mode of processing to a more reflective and controlled mode.

Another important finding was that motor impulsivity and non-planning impulsivity mediated the effect of CT disposition on mental health. The reason may be that people lacking CT have less willingness to enter into a systematically analyzing process or deliberative decision-making process, resulting in more frequently rash behaviors or unplanned actions without regard for consequences (Billieux et al., 2010 ; Franco et al., 2017 ). Such responses can potentially have tangible negative consequences (e.g., conflict, aggression, addiction) that may lead to social maladjustment that is regarded as a symptom of mental illness. On the contrary, critical thinkers have a sense of deliberativeness and consider alternate consequences before acting, and this thinking-before-acting mode would logically lead to a decrease in impulsivity, which then decreases the likelihood of problematic behaviors and negative moods.

It should be noted that although the raw correlation between attentional impulsivity and mental health was significant, regression analyses with the three dimensions of impulsivity as predictors showed that attentional impulsivity no longer exerted a significant effect on mental effect after controlling for the other impulsivity dimensions. The insignificance of this effect suggests that the significant raw correlation between attentional impulsivity and mental health was due to the variance it shared with the other impulsivity dimensions (especially with the non-planning dimension, which showed a moderately high correlation with attentional impulsivity, r = 0.67).

Some limitations of this study need to be mentioned. First, the sample involved in this study is considered as a limited sample pool, since all the participants are university students enrolled in statistics and mathematical finance, limiting the generalization of the findings. Future studies are recommended to recruit a more representative sample of university students. A study on generalization to a clinical sample is also recommended. Second, as this study was cross-sectional in nature, caution must be taken in interpreting the findings as causal. Further studies using longitudinal, controlled designs are needed to assess the effectiveness of CT intervention on mental health.

In spite of the limitations mentioned above, the findings of this study have some implications for research and practice intervention. The result that CT contributed to individual differences in mental health provides empirical support for the theory of cognitive behavioral therapy, which focuses on changing irrational thoughts. The mediating role of impulsivity between CT and mental health gives a preliminary account of the mechanism of how CT is associated with mental health. Practically, although there is evidence that CT disposition of students improves because of teaching or training interventions (e.g., Profetto-Mcgrath, 2005 ; Sanja and Krstivoje, 2015 ; Chan, 2019 ), the results showing that two CT disposition dimensions, namely, truth-seeking and systematicity, are related to mental health further suggest that special attention should be paid to cultivating these specific CT dispositions so as to enhance the control of students over impulsive behaviors in their mental health promotions.

Conclusions

This study revealed that two CT dispositions, truth-seeking and systematicity, were associated with individual differences in mental health. Furthermore, the relationship between critical thinking and mental health was mediated by motor impulsivity and non-planning impulsivity. These findings provide a preliminary account of how human critical thinking is associated with mental health. Practically, developing mental health promotion programs for university students is suggested to pay special attention to cultivating their critical thinking dispositions (especially truth-seeking and systematicity) and enhancing the control of individuals over impulsive behaviors.

Data Availability Statement

Ethics statement.

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by HUST Critical Thinking Research Center (Grant No. 2018CT012). The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

XR designed the study and revised the manuscript. ZL collected data and wrote the manuscript. SL assisted in analyzing the data. SS assisted in re-drafting and editing the manuscript. All the authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

1 We re-analyzed the data by controlling for age and gender of the participants in the regression analyses. The results were virtually the same as those reported in the study.

Funding. This work was supported by the Social Science Foundation of China (grant number: BBA200034).

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Cultivating A Critical Thinking Mindset

Since the publication of the California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory in 1992, our research team has often been asked what a person might do in order to develop strong critical thinking habits of mind. The answer, as it turns out, is both easier and more difficult than might at first be imagined. This essay offers specific suggestions – practices which can be incorporate into daily living. After a quick summary of how education and socialization are used in the formation of character, the paper provides a summary analysis of the seven positive attributes which comprise the critical thinking mindset, a preliminary self-assessment tool which the ready may elect to use, a discussion distinguishing strong critical thinking from knowledge and then from ethics, and finally specific recommendations for building and sustaining all seven positive attributes of a strong critical thinker. Permission is granted without charge for the non-commercial educational use of this paper with citation as indicated in the first note.

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Intelligence

What are the key dispositions of good critical thinkers, a collective intelligence analysis of critical thinking dispositions..

Posted January 18, 2016

As human beings, we make thousands of decisions every day. Every time we go to the shop to buy bread we must decide whether we would prefer white bread, brown bread, small or large loaf, barrel or sliced, etc. The same goes for the ‘simple’ task of ordering a coffee. For example, if you enter Starbucks, it’s been estimated that there are over 19,000 possible beverages available to you (Vohs et al., 2014). Indeed, we are immersed in increasingly complex and differentiated environments -- decisions are ever-present and surround us as we make our way in the world.

Of course, some decisions are more important than others. Perhaps ordering coffee at Starbucks and selecting bread at the shop are not seen as incredibly important by many people and, naturally, we often depend on prior choices or habitual responses to guide our choices in these situations. But what about decisions we care about, decisions that we recognise as important and that require some deliberation? Repeating habitual responses or ‘going with our gut’ in those situations will not suffice – we must pause for reflection and think critically – we must think about our decisions in these situations. Although it is not always clear what is needed to support good critical thinking, scholars have suggested that there may be a number of core personal dispositions that support good critical thinking. But what are these critical thinking dispositions?

Critical thinking (CT) is commonly defined as a metacognitive process, consisting of a number of cognitive skills (e.g. analysis, evaluation and inference) and a variety of personal dispositions (e.g. open-mindedness, inquisitiveness and scepticism), that, when used appropriately, increases the chances of producing a logical solution to a problem or a valid conclusion to an argument (Dwyer, 2011; Dwyer, Hogan & Stewart, 2012; 2014). However, most definitions of critical thinking (CT), and most interventions designed to increase CT, are grounded in academic or expert definitions of CT skills; and there has been very little emphasis on CT dispositions in the research conducted to date. Furthermore, students and educators are rarely, if ever, asked to describe their perspectives on what constitutes CT or key CT dispositions. As such, critical thinking dispositions have not yet been clearly conceptualised in research literature; and what little is agreed upon when it comes to such disposition is generally derived from the opinions of academics.

So what do students and educators describe as the key dispositions of good critical thinkers? We recently conducted research to address this question, as part of our ongoing efforts to develop and validate a new Critical Thinking Dispositions Scale . Using a collective intelligence methodology, Interactive Management , we examined the way students and educators conceptualise CT dispositions.

Interactive Management (IM) is a computer-assisted process that allows a group to build a structural model describing relations among elements in a system. In the current study, these elements were CT dispositions, and the relations of interest were the ways in which these dispositions support one another in a positive system of influence. Interactive Management is a five-step systems thinking methodology that is used to aid groups in developing outcomes that integrate contributions from individuals with diverse views, backgrounds and perspectives, via: (1) generating and clarifying ideas; (2) voting, ranking and selecting elements for structuring; (3) structuring elements by answering a series of questions in the form: “Does CT disposition A facilitate CT disposition B?’’; (4) evaluating a graphical representation of group logic; and (5) interpreting and evaluating discourse and reasoning to further understand the nature of the collective intelligence. In our study on critical thinking dispositions, three groups comprising a total of thirty-one students and ten educators took part in the collective intelligence workshops. Across these three workshops, a total of 32 CT dispositions were identified and organised into 13 categories (see figure 1).

Figure 1. Key Dispositions of Good Critical Thinkers

An analysis of the systems thinking of participants revealed that key CT dispositions including inquisitiveness , open-mindedness and self-efficacy had the strongest positive, supporting influence on other CT dispositions in the set; whereas, reflection and resourcefulness were seen as highly dependent on other dispositions (i.e., supported positively by other dispositions in the set). Drawing upon the logic of these systems structures, and ordering the full set of critical thinking dispositions by reference to their relative influence in the system, revealed the following ordered set:

Inquisitiveness : An inclination to be curious; desire to fully understand something, discover the answer to a problem and accept that the full answer may not yet be known; a desire to understand a task and its associated requirements, available options and limits.
Open-Mindedness : An inclination to be cognitively flexible, open to divergent or conflicting views; detaching from one’s own beliefs to consider diverse points of view without bias or self-interest; to be open to feedback, accepting positive feedback, criticism or constructive feedback with thoughtful consideration; an openness to amending existing knowledge in light of new ideas and experiences; and a willingness to explore new, alternative or ‘unusual’ ideas.
Self-efficacy : The tendency to be confident and trust in one’s own reasoned judgments; acknowledging one’s sense of self while considering problems and arguments (i.e. situating reasoned judgements within one’s own life experiences, knowledge, biases, culture and environment); to believe in one’s ability to receive and internalize feedback positively and constructively; to be self-efficacious in leading others in the rational resolution of problems; and belief that good reasoning is the key to living a rational life and to a creating a more just world.
Attentiveness : Willingness to focus and concentrate; to be aware of surroundings, context, consequences and potential obstacles; to have the ‘full picture’.
Intrinsic Goal Orientation : Inclined to be enthusiastic towards a goal, task, topic of focus and, if not the topic itself, enthusiasm for the process of learning new things; to search for answers as a result of internal motivation , rather than an external, extrinsic reward system.
Perseverance : To be resilient and to be motivated to persist at working through complex tasks and the associated frustration and difficulty inherent in such tasks, without giving up; motivation to get the job done correctly; a desire to progress.
Organization : An inclination to be orderly, systematic and diligent with information, resources and time when determining and maintaining focus on a task, problem or question, whilst simultaneously considering the total situation and being able to present the resulting information in a holistic, organized fashion, for purposes of achieving specified goals.
Truth-Seeking : A desire for knowledge and truth; to seek and offer both reasons and objections in an effort to inform and to be well-informed; a willingness to challenge popular beliefs and social norms by asking questions (of oneself and others); to be honest and objective about pursuing the truth even if the findings do not support one’s self-interest or pre-conceived beliefs or opinions; and willingness to change one’s mind about an idea as a result of the desire for truth.
Creativity : A tendency to visualize and generate ideas; and to ‘think outside the box’ (i.e. think differently than usual)
Skepticism: An inclination to challenge ideas and question conclusions in light of the evidence presented; to withhold judgment prior to engaging with the evidence; to take a position and be able to change position when the evidence and reasons are sufficient; and to look at findings from various perspectives.
Reflection : An inclination to reflect on one’s behavior, attitudes, opinions, and motivations; to distinguish what is known and what is not; to approach decision-making with an awareness of limited knowledge or uncertainty, recognition that some problems are ill-structured, some situations permit more than one plausible conclusion or solution, and judgments must often be made based on analysis, evaluation, standards, contexts and evidence that preclude certainty.
Resourcefulness : The willingness to utilize existing resources to resolve problems; search for additional resources in order to resolve problems; to switch between solution processes and knowledge to seek new ways/information to solve a problem; to make the best of the resources available; to adapt and/or improve if something goes wrong; and to think about how and why something went wrong.

Another way to understand this logic of supporting influence, or the relation between critical thinking dispositions, is by reference to the total influence map in figure 2, where dispositions to the left are collectively seen to influence disposition to the right. This figure represents a meta-analysis of the systems thinking across the three workshops, and highlights dispositions that influence or support other dispositions in the system.

Figure 2. Influence Map Describing Supporting Relations between CT Dispositions

Interestingly, one CT disposition, clarity , although highlighted as important during the idea generation stage (i.e., Step 1 above), did not receive a sufficient number of votes when it came to selecting ideas for structuring (i.e., Step 3 above). However, we believe it is important to highlight the significance of clarity , which was defined by our participants as the inclination to seek intelligibility, transparency, lucidity and precision, from oneself and others, and to be clear with respect to the intended meaning of what is communicated .

We appreciate that more work needs to be done to further understand the dynamics of critical thinking dispositions in action. We are currently working to develop critical thinking educational programmes that support the cultivation of key CT skills and dispositions. The understanding obtained through our collective intelligence research has also informed the development or a new Critical Thinking Dispositions Scale , which we are currently working to validate. We believe a new Critical Thinking Dispositions Scale is needed to empower students and educators who wish to reflect upon their critical thinking dispositions and negotiate new learning experiences that promote the development of CT skill and dispositions in academic settings. If you would like to contribute to our scale development work, we would be delighted if you could take our survey.

Link to Sona version of survey for NUI, Galway Students :

A direct link to survey is available upon request to [email protected]

Chris Dwyer ( LinkedIn , ResearchGate ), Michael Hogan ( Web ), Owen Harney ( ResearchGate ), Caroline Kavanagh, Sarah Quinn.

Dwyer, C.P., Hogan, M.J., Harney, O. & Kavanagh, C. (2016). Facilitating a student-educator conceptual model of dispositions towards critical thinking through interactive management. Educational Technology & Research (Submitted).

Dwyer, C.P. & Hogan, M.J. (2014). An integrated critical thinking framework for the 21st century. Thinking Skills & Creativity, 12, 43-52.

Dwyer, C.P., Hogan, M.J., & Stewart, I. (2012). An evaluation of argument mapping as a method of enhancing critical thinking performance in e-learning environments. Metacognition and Learning, 7, 219-244.

Dwyer, C.P., Hogan, M.J., & Stewart, I. (2011). The promotion of critical thinking skills through argument mapping. In C.P. Horvart & J.M. Forte (Eds.), Critical Thinking, 97-122. Nova Science Publishers, New York.

Vohs, K. D., Baumeister, R. F., Schmeichel, B. J., Twenge, J. M., Nelson, N. M., & Tice, D. M. (2014). Making choices impairs subsequent self-control: a limited-resource account of decision making, self-regulation , and active initiative.

Michael Hogan, Ph.D. , is a lecturer in psychology at the National University of Ireland, Galway.

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Published: 03 January 2019

Influence of critical thinking disposition on the learning efficiency of problem-based learning in undergraduate medical students

Juhua Ni 2 ,
Demao Song 3 ,
Weiguang Zhang 4 ,
Yuedan Wang 5 ,
Liling Wu 3 ,
Xian Wang 3 &
Yun Wang 6

BMC Medical Education volume 19 , Article number: 1 ( 2019 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

Problem-based learning (PBL), a pedagogical approach, is widely accepted in medical education. Manipulated by many factors, the internal motivation of learner is the most crucial determinant that affects the nature of the outcome, in which the influences of critical thinking (CT) remained elusive.

One hundred two third-year undergraduate medical students at Peking University were involved in this study. A Chinese version of the Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CTDI-CV) was used to assess the CT disposition, and the performance scores of students in PBL tutorials were compiled. A parametric bivariate correlation analysis was performed between the students’ CT scores and their PBL average scores. The PBL scores were compared between the strong and weak CT disposition groups using independent t-test. The analysis of numerical data was conducted using SPSS 16.0.

CT disposition of third-year undergraduate medical students at Peking University was at a positive level, with an average score of 297.72. The total CT scores had a positive correlation with the scores of the PBL performance and its five dimensions significantly. In the majority, students with Strong-CT disposition obtained higher scores in PBL tutorials compared with students with Weak-CT disposition. The performance of these two groups was significantly different in the Late-Half but not in the Early-Half PBL tutorials. Furthermore, a significant improvement was observed in the students with strong CT but not weak CT dispositions.

CT disposition positively correlates to a students’ PBL performance. Students with stronger CT dispositions perform better in the PBL process and obtain higher scores. Our work suggested that the open-mindedness of the CT disposition is the primary factor that determines the improvement of the preparation dimensions in the PBL process.

Peer Review reports

Following the constructivist theory, the ideal learning process suggested that learner should acquire knowledge and skills actively, and the objective of education is to help students to learn how to learn. Recently, there is a broad consensus that problem-based learning (PBL), a pedagogical approach widely accepted in medical education, has a positive effect on active learning and learning outcomes [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. PBL is characterized as problem-triggered, student-centered, and tutor-facilitated to achieve active lifelong learning [ 1 , 4 , 5 , 6 ]. Comparing to graduates from traditional curriculum schools, graduates from active learning curriculum schools rated themselves higher not only on the typical PBL-related competencies, for example, the abilities of interpersonal communication, problem-solving, self-directed and lifelong learning, as well as information gathering, but also on the more general work-related skills which are deemed as the crucial aspect for success in professional practice, such as writing reports, presenting papers, doing research, producing new ideas, being able to work independently, being efficient and being able to work under pressure [ 7 ]. Schools adopting active-learning curricula had higher graduation rate than schools with conventional curricula, students graduated earlier than their counterparts from conventional schools [ 8 ]. Overall, PBL aims to foster the ability of interdisciplinary knowledge application, self-directed learning, critical thinking, communication and collaborative skills, teamwork, information searching and management, and professional values. Thus, PBL has become a modern-day educational strategy, particularly in medical education [ 6 , 9 , 10 ].

Many factors influence the outcomes of PBL, including the quality of the scenario [ 11 , 12 , 13 ], the type of learning materials [ 14 , 15 ], the behaviors of the tutors or facilitators [ 16 , 17 ], and the participation of the group members [ 18 , 19 ]. In the point of fact, the most crucial factor of PBL is the internal motivation of the learner. It is generally accepted by the educators that PBL is an active and immersive process in which the students must take significant responsibility for their learning. Students who understand and agree with the PBL concept, who are well aware of and implement the group dynamics, who collaborate closely with team members and who are good at transforming into self-directed learners will garner increased benefits from PBL [ 7 , 9 , 11 , 18 ].

Critical thinking (CT) is usually viewed as a philosophical concept, referred to characteristics of the individual, personality traits or habits of mind [ 20 ]. It is a pervasive and self-rectifying human phenomenon, referring to the dispositions and skills revealing what is authentic, what to believe, why it is and how it happens. A statement presented by Scriven and Paul in 1987 said, “Critical thinking is the ability to apply higher-order cognitive skills (conceptualization, analysis, evaluation) and the disposition to be deliberate about thinking (being open-minded or intellectually honest) that lead to action that is logical and appropriate” [ 21 ]. The consensus regarding critical thinking characterizes it as a self-adjusting process of judging what to believe and what to do in a given context [ 22 ]. The disposition toward CT was the consistent internal motivation to engage in problem solving and decision making.

The consensus was reached that skills and dispositions of critical thinking are positively correlated with the internal motivation to think. CT plays a central role in one’s learning and working, particularly in addition to medical education that transitions from knowledge-based curricula to competency-based curricula. It is crucial for students to learn and work further critically to evaluate existing knowledge and information. World Federation for Medical Education had considered critical thinking as one of the medical training standards. Critical thinking is vital to a health professional’s competence to assess, diagnose and care for patients correctly and effectively. Moreover, the essential requirements issued by the Institute for International Medical Education addressed personal judgments based on the ability to critically collect, analyze, evaluate and apply all sources of information and thus remain competitive in the challenging healthcare environment [ 23 ].

CT is being recognized as a liberating force in education, and a powerful resource in one’s life, increasingly exciting findings were rising in measuring and developing the students’ CT. Numerous studies suggested that CT has a definite relationship with the acquirement of knowledge and the development of professional values and clinical judgments [ 24 , 25 , 26 ]. Studies by Chang et al. indicated that the ability of critical thinking has a positive correlation with nursing competence significantly [ 24 ]. Ghazivakili et al. found that critical thinking correlated with academic performance substantially [ 25 ]. Several other studies also revealed the relationship between critical thinking and academic success of medical professionals, such as GPA, course grade and certification exam [ 26 , 27 , 28 ].

While previous studies most concentrated on following aspects: 1) how the CT disposition was in students, residents or working staffs; 2) the relationship between the CT dispositions and psychological characteristic, such as personalities, emotional intelligence, learning models, or ego resiliency; 3) whether the CT dispositions improved or not after some kinds of curriculum or education reform; 4) the relationship of CT disposition with the academic or career success. Even among the researches in respecting to the relationship of CT and PBL, most studies were concentrated on the variation of students’ CT dispositions or skills before and after PBL, or the different models and elements of PBL [ 26 , 27 , 29 ]. Similarly, the conclusion was reached that PBL could develop the critical thinking ability of students. However, no studies have investigated how CT and its subscales influence students’ performance in the PBL process, namely, all behaviors in PBL process, included the preparations and input, the knowledge, the skills and the attitudes.

The objective of this study is to explore the relationship of CT disposition and students’ performance in PBL and to address the following issues: 1. Does CT disposition correlate to students’ performance in PBL? 2. Is CT disposition crucial to PBL performance? 3. How does CT disposition impact the students’ performance in PBL tutorials?

Participants

All participants were third-year undergraduate medical students at Peking University who had finished 12 pre-clinical subjects, including anatomy, biochemistry, immunology, and microbiology. The participants also had undergone two introductory PBL tutorials and were familiar with the PBL procedures.

PBL procedures

All students underwent eight PBL tutorials during one semester in purpose-built classrooms. Each tutorial group consisted of 12 or 13 students facilitated by one PBL tutor. The group was randomly re-assigned every two tutorials.

For each PBL tutorial, students and their tutor met three times over 2 weeks, for a total of 10 hours. Before each PBL case, students were unaware of the topic and contents. They were introduced to the scenario in the first class and were expected to discuss and ascertain what is known, what is unknown, what should be searched and what should be learned. Afterward, students would search and learn the related information, summarize the notes, submit their homework on their own and browse classmates’ homework, by themselves or with their classmates. In the second class, students would discuss and share information and more scenario would be assigned from tutors where they were requested to repeat the reflective procedures after class. After the third class, they were required to review and summarize all learning issues, and gather all materials and summarize the whole case at the end of the tutorial.

Evaluation of students’ performance in the PBL tutorials

The performance evaluation form was first developed by our experts in assessments of medical education, based on literature review [ 30 , 31 , 32 ] and curriculum reform goal of PBL. According to literature, some evaluation form constructed by five aspects, that is the application of knowledge base, clinical reasoning and decision making skills, self-directed learning, collaborative work and attitude during discussion and professionalism. Some included four aspects, that is group skills, learning skills, reasoning and feedback. Some PBL tutorial assessment included four aspects, that is participation and communication skills, cooperation / team-building skills, comprehension / reasoning skills and knowledge / information gathering skills.

The objectives of PBL in our school included: application basic medical sciences for analysis of disease pathogenesis or treatment, cultivation of self-directed, active and life-long learning, promotion of team working spirit, promotion the expression and communication, development of critical thinking dispositions and skills, and development of appropriate professional attitudes and behaviors.

Therefore, combined the literature and our PBL outcomes, the student performance evaluation form consisted of five domains, which is participation, preparation, communication skills, critical discussion, and teamwork.

Students were evaluated by their tutors immediately after the case learning. Each dimension divides into five levels and accounts for 20 scores. The standard of performance is characterized in Table 1 .

The participation dimension measures one’s passion for learning and the attitude towards PBL. Students are expected to attend every class, to submit their homework, and to read through all the learning materials shared by group members on time.

The preparation dimension measures one’s input on learning. Students are obligated to prepare all learning issues and to examine related information after class and submit homework online.

The communication skills dimension measures the ability to communicate with the group members. Students should express their thoughts precisely and concisely in an appropriate manner.

The critical discussion dimension measures the extent of participation and contribution in the group learning. Students should learn the references actively and critically to make comments using substantial evidence and innovative thinking.

The teamwork dimension measures the participation in group learning and the collaboration with other members. Students should accord sufficient respect to their colleagues and tutor and work together with great enthusiasm.

Group classification

To investigate whether and how CT disposition influences the PBL performance in tutorials, students were divided into several groups. According to the extreme grouping method and the total CT scores, students with total CT scores in the top 27% of all students were defined as Strong-CT Students, and those whose total CT scores were in the bottom 27% were defined as Weak-CT Students.

Overall, eight successive PBL tutorials were conducted in one semester; the first four tutorials were classified as Early-Half PBL tutorials, and the remaining four tutorials were classified as Late-Half PBL tutorials.

Instruments for CT disposition assessment

The critical thinking disposition was usually measured by the California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CCTDI) which was first developed by Facione in 1994 [ 22 ]. In 2004, Peng et al. in The Hong Kong Polytechnic University translated and modified CCTDI in consideration of Chinese culture, developed a Chinese version of critical thinking disposition inventory (CTDI-CV) [ 33 ]. After that, most studies in China used this CTDI-CV to assess the critical thinking disposition [ 29 , 34 ]. The CTDI-CV is a standardized, six Likert multiple choice test that consisted of 70 items, which could be divided into seven subscales: truth-seeking, open-mindedness, analyticity, systematicity, CT self-confidence, inquisitiveness, and cognitive maturity. Each subscale had 10 items, and its score ranged from 10 to 60. A total score above 280 and subscale scores above 40 were considered as positive CT disposition. A total score below 210 and subscale scores below 30 were considered as negative CT disposition.

Students were allowed to finish the questionnaire via an internet website, where the data were collected from their submission.

Statistical analysis

This study was quantitatively researched, and the numerical data were analyzed by SPSS 16.0. A P -value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

The general descriptive analysis of CTDI-CV showed students were at a positive CT level

Among a total of 168 students at Peking University, 102 (60.71%) students finished the CTDI-CV test. The CT scores ranged from 236 to 370, with a mean score of 297.72 and a standard deviation of 29.80. By assigning the index score to 280, scores above 280 were defined as a positive attitude, and the scores below 210 were defined as a negative attitude. The result showed that the CT disposition of third-year undergraduate medical students at Peking University was at a positive level on average. An analysis of seven subscale dimensions also indicated that approximately 50% of students were at a positive level (Table 2 ).

A significant positive association was observed between CT dispositions and PBL performance

To investigate whether CT disposition correlates with PBL performance among the students, a parametric bivariate correlation analysis was performed between the students’ CT scores and their eight successive PBL average scores. The results showed that the total CT scores had positive correlations significantly with the scores of the PBL performance and all five dimensions. Among the seven subscales, the scores of open-mindedness, analyticity, CT self-confidence and inquisitiveness showed positive correlations with the PBL total scores. In addition, open-mindedness, analyticity and CT self-confidence showed positive correlations with almost all dimensions of the PBL performance (Table 3 ).

CT disposition plays a crucial role in students’ performance in the PBL process

To investigate whether CT disposition is crucial to students’ performance in the PBL process, the PBL average scores and the scores in the Early-Half or Last-Half PBL were compared between the two extreme CT disposition groups.

First, students with strong CT dispositions obtained higher scores in PBL tutorials

When the eight PBL tutorial average scores were compared between the Strong-CT students and Weak-CT students, significant differences in the total scores and the three dimensions of PBL performance between the two groups were found (Table 4 ).

Second, the performance of these two groups was not different in the early-half PBL but was significantly different in the late-half PBL

It was observed that the average scores of the PBL and the five dimensions in the two groups were not different in the Early-Half PBL tutorials. However, in the Late-Half PBL tutorials, students with strong CT dispositions had higher PBL scores than students with weak CT dispositions (Table 5 ).

Third, a significant improvement was observed in students with strong CT dispositions but not in students with weak CT dispositions

The improvement scores, that is, the average scores of the Late-Half PBL after subtracting the First-Half PBL, were compared between the two extreme CT disposition groups. The average improvement score of the CT-Strong group significantly increased; conversely, the score decreased in students with weak CT dispositions, particularly in the dimensions of preparation, communication skills and critical discussion dimensions (Table 6 ).

An open-mindedness subscale of CT disposition may be the central component in students’ performance

To investigate which subscale of CT disposition is crucial to improving the students’ performance in the PBL process and to execute on the appropriate dimensions of the PBL performance, a stepwise multiple linear regression was conducted by the improvement scores. The five dimensions of the PBL performance were successively used as the dependent variable, and the subscale of the CT disposition was used as the independent variables. It was found that the open-mindedness subscale of CT disposition was the primary factor that influences the improvement of the Preparation dimensions in the PBL process (Table 7 ).

Our results revealed a favorable critical thinking disposition among third-year undergraduate medical students at Peking University because the average mean score on the CTDI-CV was 297.72, which was specified by Facione [ 22 ]. Following several other results from Huang L [ 35 ], students from top medical universities showed a positive attitude towards critical thinking, particularly on the subscales of analyticity and inquisitiveness. However, students showed weaker performance on the subscales of truth-seeking and CT self-confidence, which presumably ascribed to the traditional large-classroom teaching methods and the bashfulness of the Chinese culture.

A significant positive association was observed between the total CT scores and the PBL scores resulting from the correlation analysis, which meant that the CT dispositions of the learners would influence their performance during PBL tutorials.

Among the seven CT subscales, the scores of open-mindedness, analyticity, CT self-confidence, and inquisitiveness showed positive correlations with the PBL total scores, implying that students who score higher in these dispositions would be more active in the PBL process and would thus obtain higher PBL scores. Furthermore, the subscale of open-mindedness showed a positive correlation with three performance dimensions: the participation, the preparation, and the communication skills dimension; CT self-confidence showed a positive correlation with the participation and the Critical discussion dimension. According to Facione, the open-mindedness subscale addresses “ being tolerant of divergent views with sensitivity to the possibility of one’s own bias. ” Thus, students score higher in the open-mindedness disposition would prefer to collect various information, to tune in different perspectives, and to express themselves actively; this concept is demonstrated in the higher scores of the participation, the preparation, and the communication skills dimension. A stronger disposition of CT-confidence allows students to relax and participate in the learning process and discussion, which could be reflected in the higher scores of the participation and the critical discussion dimension.

More data supports our hypothesis that CT disposition plays a crucial role in students’ performance in the PBL process. First, students with strong CT dispositions obtained higher PBL scores than those with weak CT dispositions meaning that stronger CT dispositions bring students to learn more actively and to perform much better. Second, it was observed that in the Late-Half PBL tutorials, the average scores of the PBL and the five dimensions in the Strong-CT group were significantly higher than those in the Weak-CT group. On the contrary, in the Early-Half PBL tutorials, they showed no difference, which indicates that Strong-CT disposition students commit more passion in learning, and the knowledge and skills would improve as long as the process of tutorials. Finally, a significant improvement was observed in students with a strong CT disposition, which suggest that strong CT dispositions stimulate students to advance steadily. However, in the Weak-CT group, the students would behave consistently throughout whole semester without significant improvement.

Overall, our results showed that CT disposition positively correlates to a students’ PBL performance. Students with stronger CT dispositions would perform better in the PBL process and obtain higher scores. The open-mindedness of the CT disposition is the primary factor that determines the improvement of the preparation dimensions in the PBL process. Thus, the cultivation of open-mindedness plays a beneficial role in learning.

However, some limitations of this study include the following aspects. First, the 102 students involved in this study is considered as a limited sample pool. Nonetheless, these 102 students were enrolled with similar admission scores and underwent the same curricular system, which had similar features to reveal the PBL scores and CT dispositions. Second, the positive correlation between PBL scores and CT disposition could be explained by the generosity grading scales conducted by the tutors, leading to all students received similar PBL scores with low or no significance.

Conclusions

Collectively, this study described the details of how CT disposition influence the performance in PBL tutorials. According to the consensus statement regarding critical thinking and the ideal critical thinker, “CT is a liberating force in education and a powerful resource in one’s personal and civic life.” Previous studies were most concentrated on how the CT disposition or its’ influence factor was, or whether the CT disposition was improved after educational reform. Although several studies mentioned that PBL might help students to improve their critical thinking, no studies considered whether and how CT and its subscales influence students’ performance in the PBL process. Our research demonstrated that CT disposition of students might also influence the learning efficiency and learning outcomes in PBL tutorials. Therefore, as a tutor in PBL tutorial or the manager in the medical curriculum, it is crucial to recognize the potential influence of critical thinking dispositions on the outcome of PBL. Systematic guiding or training of students, which would help them to acclimatize to PBL pedagogy and learning methods, should be enhanced throughout the whole course. The tutor training should be improved to promote the teaching and learning effects.

Abbreviations

Critical thinking

The Chinese version of the Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory

Problem-based learning

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank all study participants for their contribution to the research.

This work was supported by National Found for Fostering Talents of Basic Science (J1103605/J0108) from National Natural Science Foundation of China, Peking University Health Science Center 2017 Medical Education Research Project (2017JJ10), Chinese Medical Association Medical Education Branch and China Higher Education Society Medical Education Specialized Committee 2016 Medical Education Research Project (2016B-RC021).

The funders had no role in the design and conduct of the study; the collection, analysis, and interpretation of the data; the preparation of the manuscript; or the decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Demao Song, Liling Wu & Xian Wang

Department of Anatomy, Peking University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100083, China

Weiguang Zhang

Department of Immunology, Peking University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100083, China

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Contributions

PD performed data collection, interpretation, statistical analyses, and drafted the manuscript. NJH, SDM, ZWG, WYD, WX and WLL performed data interpretation, and helped to draft the manuscript. WY designed this study, contributed to interpret the data and draft the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Yun Wang .

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The Research Ethics Board at Peking University Health Science Center approved the study. All participants were conveyed about the study by email and by our local PBL website, written informed consent was obtained once they filled the questionnaire.

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Pu, D., Ni, J., Song, D. et al. Influence of critical thinking disposition on the learning efficiency of problem-based learning in undergraduate medical students. BMC Med Educ 19 , 1 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-018-1418-5

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-018-1418-5

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critical thinking disposition self rating form

A critical thinking disposition scale for nurses: short form

Affiliation.

1 Department of Nursing, Chung Hwa University of Medical Technology, Tainan, Taiwan.
PMID: 21040020
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2702.2010.03343.x

Aims and objectives: The aim of this study was to test the Chinese version of the Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CTDI-CV) among nurses in Taiwan.

Background: Critical thinking is the use of purposeful self-regulatory judgments to identify patient's problems and provide patient care. Critical thinking influences nurses' decision making. To date, no inventory to understand nurse's critical thinking disposition has been developed.

Design: This was a survey design with a stratified random sampling to test the reliability and validity of the CTDI-CV.

Methods: The participants comprised 864 registered nurses who were chosen by stratified random sampling from seven hospitals in Taiwan. Data were collected through self-administered structured questionnaires.

Results: A new scale, short form (SF) CTDI-CV, contains 18 items with three subscales: 'systematic analysis', 'thinking within the box' and 'thinking out of the box', was generated from the analysis with 44% explained variance. Cronbach's alpha coefficients and intra-class correlation coefficients for overall and subscale were above 0.8. Goodness-of-fit test for the final model of SF-CTDI-CV revealed an acceptable result in the overall fit (χ(2)/df = 4.04, p < 0.05, GFI = 0.93, AGFI = 0.91, SRMR = 0.076, RMSEA = 0.059).

Conclusion: On the basis of these results, the SF-CTDI-CV is a reliable instrument for assessing critical thinking disposition for nurses.

Relevance to clinical practice: A short and valid critical thinking instrument for nurses will facilitate critical thinking research in the clinical practice arena. When designing continuing education activities, clinical educators will be able to efficiently and effectively evaluate the quality of critical thinking among practicing nurses.

Cross-Sectional Studies
Decision Making
Employee Performance Appraisal / methods*
Factor Analysis, Statistical
Middle Aged
Nurse Clinicians / standards*
Nursing Diagnosis / standards*
Practice Patterns, Nurses'
Professional Competence*
Psychometrics
Reproducibility of Results
Surveys and Questionnaires

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Measuring Critical Thinking Disposition Rubric
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Critical Thinking Disposition Self-Rating Form
Critical Thinking Disposition Self-rating Form - Free download as Word Doc (.doc / .docx), PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read online for free. Critical Thinking Disposition Self-rating Form
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Critical Thinking Disposition Self- Rating Form.
even numbered items. If your total is 70 or . above, you are rating your disposition toward . critical thinking over the past two days . as generally positive. Scores of 50 or lower . indicate a self-rating that is averse or hostile . toward critical thinking over the past two . days.
PDF Critical Thinking Self-Study Evaluation Tool: An Introduction
to the self-study provider in order to receive the provider issued certificate of completion. Critical thinking can be defined as the objective analysis, interpretation and evaluation of a topic or issue in order to form a judgment. Good critical thinking can draw reasonable conclusion from a set of information
Lesson 1.5 Critical Thinking Mindset Self-Rating
The following activity was adapted from their Critical Thinking Mindset Self-Rating Form. Reflect on your thinking over the last two days and answer the following questions. If you have described yourself honestly, this self-rating form can offer a rough estimate of what you think your overall disposition toward critical thinking has been in ...
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How Do Critical Thinking Ability and Critical Thinking Disposition
Introduction. Although there is no consistent definition of critical thinking (CT), it is usually described as "purposeful, self-regulatory judgment that results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanations of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations that judgment is based upon" (Facione, 1990, p. 2).
The Disposition Toward Critical Thinking
disposition toward CT. The California Critical Thinking Disposi. tion Inventory (CCTDI) (Facione and Facione 1992), which. derives its conceptualization of the disposition toward CT from. the APA Delphi Report, is the first such instrument. Building on. the power of a relatively rare occurrence in research, a cross.
The development and psychometric validation of a Critical Thinking
Abstract. This article describes the development and psychometric evaluation of a Critical Thinking Disposition Scale (CTDS). Items for the scale were generated using taxonomies of important thinking dispositions discussed in the literature. Participants comprised of two cohorts of first year undergraduate and graduate students enrolled on a ...
Cultivating A Critical Thinking Mindset
The "Critical Thinking Mindset Self-Rating Form" on the next page offers one way of reflecting on our own values, beliefs, and intentions about the application of critical thinking to life's daily problems and decisions. ... The "Critical Thinking Disposition Self-Rating Form," presented earlier, will give us a rough idea. If we have ...
(PDF) The Disposition Toward Critical Thinking: Its Character
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A gap analysis of critical thinking skills and attitude toward critical thinking among interns Zayabalaradjane Zayapragassarazan1, Thomas V Chacko2,3 ... skills and with CT disposition self‑rating form[20] containing 20 items to assess their attitude toward CT, respectively. The Hogan Lovells CT appraisal tool is an
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Critical thinking (CT) is commonly defined as a metacognitive process, consisting of a number of cognitive skills (e.g. analysis, evaluation and inference) and a variety of personal dispositions ...
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This study presents and validates the psychometric characteristics of a short form of the Critical Thinking Self-assessment Scale (CTSAS). The original CTSAS was composed of six subscales representing the six components of Facione's conceptualisation of critical thinking. The CTSAS short form kept the same structures and reduced the number of items from 115 in the original version, to 60.
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The Disposition Toward Critical Thinking: Its Character, Measurement, and Relationship to Critical Thinking Skill ... evaluation, and comparison by one's self and others. Namable and describable ...
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Background Problem-based learning (PBL), a pedagogical approach, is widely accepted in medical education. Manipulated by many factors, the internal motivation of learner is the most crucial determinant that affects the nature of the outcome, in which the influences of critical thinking (CT) remained elusive. Methods One hundred two third-year undergraduate medical students at Peking University ...
PDF Critical Thinking Self-Study Evaluation Tool: An Introduction
The original is to be submitted to the self-study provider in order to receive the provider issued certificate of completion. Critical thinking can be defined as the objective analysis, interpretation and evaluation of a topic or issue in order to form a judgment. Good critical thinking can draw reasonable conclusion from a set of information
A critical thinking disposition scale for nurses: short form
Results: A new scale, short form (SF) CTDI-CV, contains 18 items with three subscales: 'systematic analysis', 'thinking within the box' and 'thinking out of the box', was generated from the analysis with 44% explained variance. Cronbach's alpha coefficients and intra-class correlation coefficients for overall and subscale were above 0.8.
PDF Critical Thinking Self-Study Evaluation Tool: An Introduction
to the self-study provider in order to receive the provider issued certi˚cate of completion. Critical thinking can be de˚ned as the objective analysis, interpretation and evaluation of a topic or issue in order to form a judgment. Good critical thinking can draw reasonable conclusion from a set of information
philosphy 1116 Flashcards
what can one learn by using the critical thinking disposition self rating form. a rough estimate of one's current overall attitude towards critical thinking. ... evidence used to reach that conclusion. to respond to this question the social scientist will be primarily using which critical thinking skill? ...

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Lesson 1.5 Critical Thinking Mindset Self-Rating

Reflection Opportunity 3

How Do Critical Thinking Ability and Critical Thinking Disposition Relate to the Mental Health of University Students?

Introduction

Relationship Between Critical Thinking and Mental Health

Impulsivity as a Potential Mediator Between Critical Thinking and Mental Health

Participants and Procedure

Measures of Critical Thinking Ability

Measures of Critical Thinking Disposition

Measure of Impulsivity

Measures of Mental Health

Statistical Analyses

Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Correlations

Regression Analyses

Conclusions

Data Availability Statement

Author Contributions

Conflict of Interest

Publisher's Note

Cultivating A Critical Thinking Mindset

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RELATED TOPICS

Intelligence

Influence of critical thinking disposition on the learning efficiency of problem-based learning in undergraduate medical students

Participants

PBL procedures

Evaluation of students’ performance in the PBL tutorials

Group classification

Instruments for CT disposition assessment

Statistical analysis

The general descriptive analysis of CTDI-CV showed students were at a positive CT level

A significant positive association was observed between CT dispositions and PBL performance

CT disposition plays a crucial role in students’ performance in the PBL process

First, students with strong CT dispositions obtained higher scores in PBL tutorials

Second, the performance of these two groups was not different in the early-half PBL but was significantly different in the late-half PBL

Third, a significant improvement was observed in students with strong CT dispositions but not in students with weak CT dispositions

An open-mindedness subscale of CT disposition may be the central component in students’ performance

Conclusions

Abbreviations

Acknowledgements

Availability of data and materials

Author information

Contributions

Corresponding author

Ethics declarations

Consent for publication

Competing interests

Publisher’s Note

Rights and permissions

About this article

Share this article

BMC Medical Education

A critical thinking disposition scale for nurses: short form

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