confucius essay

Friday Essay: an introduction to Confucius, his ideas and their lasting relevance

Senior Lecturer in Chinese Studies, The University of Western Australia

Disclosure statement

Yu Tao does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

University of Western Australia provides funding as a founding partner of The Conversation AU.

View all partners

The man widely known in the English language as Confucius was born around 551 BCE in today’s southern Shandong Province. Confucius is the phonic translation of the Chinese word Kong fuzi 孔夫子, in which Kong 孔 was his surname and fuzi is an honorific for learned men.

Widely credited for creating the system of thought we now call Confucianism, this learned man insisted he was “not a maker but a transmitter”, merely “believing in and loving the ancients”. In this, Confucius could be seen as acting modestly and humbly, virtues he thought of highly.

Or, as Kang Youwei — a leading reformer in modern China has argued — Confucius tactically framed his revolutionary ideas as lost ancient virtues so his arguments would be met with fewer criticisms and less hostility.

Confucius looked nothing like the great sage in his own time as he is widely known in ours. To his contemporaries, he was perhaps foremost an unemployed political adviser who wandered around different fiefdoms for some years, attempting to sell his political ideas to different rulers — but never able to strike a deal.

It seems Confucius would have preferred to live half a millennium earlier, when China — according to him — was united under benevolent, competent and virtuous rulers at the dawn of the Zhou dynasty. By his own time, China had become a divided land with hundreds of small fiefdoms, often ruled by greedy, cruel or mediocre lords frequently at war.

But this frustrated scholar’s ideas have profoundly shaped politics and ethics in and beyond China ever since his death in 479 BCE. The greatest and the most influential Chinese thinker, his concept of filial piety, remains highly valued among young people in China , despite rapid changes in the country’s demography.

Despite some doubts as to whether many Chinese people take his ideas seriously, the ideas of Confucius remain directly and closely relevant to contemporary China.

This situation perhaps is comparable to Christianity in Australia. Although institutional participation is in constant decline, Christian values and narratives remain influential on Australian politics and vital social matters .

The danger today is in Confucianism being considered the single reason behind China’s success or failure. The British author Martin Jacques, for example, recently asserted Confucianism was the “biggest single reason” for East Asia’s success in the handling of the COVID-19 pandemic, without giving any explanation or justification.

If Confucius were alive, he would probably not hesitate to call out this solitary root of triumph or disaster as being lazy, incorrect and unwise.

Political structure and mutual responsibilities

Confucius wanted to restore good political order by persuading rulers to reestablish moral standards, exemplify appropriate social relations, perform time-honoured rituals and provide social welfare.

He worked hard to promote his ideas but won few supporters. Almost every ruler saw punishment and military force as shortcuts to greater power.

It was not until 350 years later during the reign of the Emperor Wu of Han that Confucianism was installed as China’s state ideology.

But this state-sanctioned version of Confucianism was not an honest revitalisation of Confucius’ ideas. Instead, it absorbed many elements from rival schools of thought, notably legalism , which emerged in the latter half of China’s Warring States period (453–221 BCE). Legalism argued efficient governance relies on impersonal laws and regulations — rather than moral principles and rites.

Like most great thinkers of the Axial Age between the 8th and 3rd century BCE, Confucius did not believe everyone was created equal.

Similar to Plato (born over 100 years later), Confucius believed the ideal society followed a hierarchy. When asked by Duke Jing of Qi about government, Confucius famously replied:

let the ruler be a ruler; the minister, a minister; the father, a father; the son, a son.

However it would be a superficial reading of Confucius to believe he called for unconditional obedience to rulers or superiors. Confucius advised a disciple “not to deceive the ruler but to stand up to them”.

Confucius believed the legitimacy of a regime fundamentally relies on the confidence of the people. A ruler should tirelessly work hard and “lead by example”.

Like in a family, a good son listens to his father, and a good father wins respect not by imposing force or seniority but by offering heartfelt love, support, guidance and care.

In other words, Confucius saw a mutual relationship between the ruler and the ruled.

Love and respect for social harmony

To Confucius, the appropriate relations between family members are not merely metaphors for ideal political orders, but the basic fabrics of a harmonious society.

An essential family value in Confucius’ ideas is xiao 孝, or filial piety, a concept explained in at least 15 different ways in the Analects, a collection of the words from Confucius and his followers.

Read more: Can Ne Zha, the Chinese superhero with $1b at the box office, teach us how to raise good kids?

Depending on the context, Confucius defined filial piety as respecting parents, as “never diverging” from parents, as not letting parents feel unnecessary anxiety, as serving parents with etiquette when they are alive, and as burying and commemorating parents with propriety after they pass away.

Confucius expected rulers to exemplify good family values. When Ji Kang Zi, the powerful prime minister of Confucius’ home state of Lu asked for advice on keeping people loyal to the realm, Confucius responded by asking the ruler to demonstrate filial piety and benignity ( ci 慈).

Confucius viewed moral and ethical principles not merely as personal matters, but as social assets. He profoundly believed social harmony ultimately relies on virtuous citizens rather than sophisticated institutions.

In the ideas of Confucius, the most important moral principle is ren 仁, a concept that can hardly be translated into English without losing some of its meaning.

Like filial piety, ren is manifested in the love and respect one has for others. But ren is not restricted among family members and does not rely on blood or kinship. Ren guides people to follow their conscience. People with ren have strong compassion and empathy towards others.

Translators arguing for a single English equivalent for ren have attempted to interpret the concept as “benevolence”, “humanity”, “humanness” and “goodness”, none of which quite capture the full significance of the term.

The challenge in translating ren is not a linguistic one. Although the concept appears more than 100 times in the Analects, Confucius did not give one neat definition. Instead, he explained the term in many different ways.

As summarised by China historian Daniel Gardner , Confucius defined ren as:

to love others, to subdue the self and return to ritual propriety, to be respectful, tolerant, trustworthy, diligent, and kind, to be possessed of courage, to be free from worry, or to be resolute and firm.

Instead of searching for an explicit definition of ren , it is perhaps wise to view the concept as an ideal type of the highest and ultimate virtue Confucius believed good people should pursue.

Relevance in contemporary China

Confucius’ thinking hs had a profound impact on almost every great Chinese thinker since. Based upon his ideas, Mencius (372–289 BCE) and Xunzi (c310–c235 BCE) developed different schools of thought within the system of Confucianism.

Arguing against these ideas, Mohism (4th century BCE), Daoism (4th century BCE), Legalism (3rd century BCE) and many other influential systems of thought emerged in the 400 years after Confucius’ time, going on to shape many aspects of the Chinese civilisation in the last two millennia.

Modern China has a complicated relationship with Confucius and his ideas.

Since the early 20th century, many intellectuals influenced by western thought started denouncing Confucianism as the reason for China’s national humiliations since the first Opium War (1839-42).

Confucius received fierce criticism from both liberals and Marxists .

Hu Shih , a leader of China’s New Culture Movement in the 1910s and 1920s and an alumnus of Columbia University , advocated overthrowing the “House of Confucius”.

Mao Zedong, the founder of the People’s Republic of China, also repeatedly denounced Confucius and Confucianism. Between 1973 and 1975, Mao devoted the last political campaign in his life against Confucianism.

Read more: To make sense of modern China, you simply can't ignore Marxism

Despite these fierce criticisms and harsh persecutions, Confucius’ ideas remain in the minds and hearts of many Chinese people, both in and outside China.

One prominent example is PC Chang , another Chinese alumnus of Columbia University, who was instrumental in drafting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in Paris on December 10 1948. Thanks to Chang’s efforts , the spirit of some most essential Confucian ideas, such as ren , was deeply embedded in the Declaration.

Today, many Chinese parents, as well as the Chinese state, are keen children be provided a more Confucian education .

In 2004, the Chinese government named its initiative of promoting language and culture overseas after Confucius, and its leadership has been enthusiastically embracing Confucius’ lessons to consolidate their legitimacy and ruling in the 21st century.

Read more: Explainer: what are Confucius Institutes and do they teach Chinese propaganda?

• Chinese history
• Friday essay
• Chinese politics

Assistant Editor - 1 year cadetship

Executive Dean, Faculty of Health

Nutrition Research Coordinator – Bone Health Program

Lecturer/Senior Lecturer, Earth System Science (School of Science)

Sydney Horizon Educators (Identified)

ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Confucianism.

Confucianism is one of the most influential religious philosophies in the history of China, and it has existed for over 2,500 years. It is concerned with inner virtue, morality, and respect for the community and its values.

Religion, Social Studies, Ancient Civilizations

Confucian Philosopher Mencius

Confucianism is an ancient Chinese belief system, which focuses on the importance of personal ethics and morality. Whether it is only or a philosophy or also a religion is debated.

Photograph by Historica Graphica Collection/Heritage Images/Getty Images, taken from Myths and Legends of China

Confucianism is a philosophy and belief system from ancient China, which laid the foundation for much of Chinese culture. Confucius was a philosopher and teacher who lived from 551 to 479 B.C.E. His thoughts on ethics , good behavior, and moral character were written down by his disciples in several books, the most important being the Lunyu . Confucianism believes in ancestor worship and human-centered virtues for living a peaceful life. The golden rule of Confucianism is “Do not do unto others what you would not want others to do unto you.” There is debate over if Confucianism is a religion. Confucianism is best understood as an ethical guide to life and living with strong character. Yet, Confucianism also began as a revival of an earlier religious tradition. There are no Confucian gods, and Confucius himself is worshipped as a spirit rather than a god. However, there are temples of Confucianism , which are places where important community and civic rituals happen. This debate remains unresolved and many people refer to Confucianism as both a religion and a philosophy. The main idea of Confucianism is the importance of having a good moral character, which can then affect the world around that person through the idea of “cosmic harmony.” If the emperor has moral perfection, his rule will be peaceful and benevolent. Natural disasters and conflict are the result of straying from the ancient teachings. This moral character is achieved through the virtue of ren, or “humanity,” which leads to more virtuous behaviours, such as respect, altruism , and humility. Confucius believed in the importance of education in order to create this virtuous character. He thought that people are essentially good yet may have strayed from the appropriate forms of conduct. Rituals in Confucianism were designed to bring about this respectful attitude and create a sense of community within a group. The idea of “ filial piety ,” or devotion to family, is key to Confucius thought. This devotion can take the form of ancestor worship, submission to parental authority, or the use of family metaphors, such as “son of heaven,” to describe the emperor and his government. The family was the most important group for Confucian ethics , and devotion to family could only strengthen the society surrounding it. While Confucius gave his name to Confucianism , he was not the first person to discuss many of the important concepts in Confucianism . Rather, he can be understood as someone concerned with the preservation of traditional Chinese knowledge from earlier thinkers. After Confucius’ death, several of his disciples compiled his wisdom and carried on his work. The most famous of these disciples were Mencius and Xunzi, both of whom developed Confucian thought further. Confucianism remains one of the most influential philosophies in China. During the Han Dynasty, emperor Wu Di (reigned 141–87 B.C.E.) made Confucianism the official state ideology. During this time, Confucius schools were established to teach Confucian ethics . Confucianism existed alongside Buddhism and Taoism for several centuries as one of the most important Chinese religions. In the Song Dynasty (960–1279 C.E.) the influence from Buddhism and Taoism brought about “Neo- Confucianism ,” which combined ideas from all three religions. However, in the Qing dynasty (1644–1912 C.E.), many scholars looked for a return to the older ideas of Confucianism , prompting a Confucian revival.

Media Credits

The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.

Production Managers

Program specialists, last updated.

March 6, 2024

User Permissions

For information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service. If you have questions about how to cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher. They will best know the preferred format. When you reach out to them, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource.

If a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media.

Text on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service .

Interactives

Any interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. You cannot download interactives.

Related Resources

Who was Confucius?

Confucius believed that all people–and the society they live in—benefit from a lifetime of learning and a moral outlook.

An ancient Chinese text recorded the height of Confucius as nine feet six inches tall. While that document may have exaggerated his physical size, there’s no doubt that Confucius was a teacher and philosopher of tremendous stature . His ideals have become intrinsically entwined with the national identity of China and the civilization of East Asia.

The individual known in the West as Confucius was born Kongqiu in 551 B.C. near Qufu, in eastern China. His family may once have been aristocratic, but they apparently fell on hard times, because he took menial jobs as a young man.

Love of learning

Confucius showed a zeal for academics early on. “At 15, I set my heart on learning,” he later told his disciples. He studied music, mathematics, the classics, history, and more. He was especially entranced by the early years of the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 B.C.), a peaceful period he perceived as a golden age to be emulated.

Confucius stressed the cultivation of personal qualities such as benevolence, reciprocity, and filial piety.

Confucius believed that education and reflection led to virtue, and that those who aspired to command others must cultivate discipline and moral authority in themselves. He strove to rise through the government ranks, but he tended to offend others with his forceful personality, using his position as a bully pulpit for preaching good governance. He eventually was appointed to the influential post of minister of crime in the state of Lu but fell from favor through his aggressive reform efforts.

He tried for years to reenter public service in order to improve it from within, but he found far greater success as a teacher instead. Confucius broke with tradition in his belief that all human beings could benefit from education. He espoused lifelong learning “for the sake of the self,” meaning self- knowledge and self-improvement. He attracted a wide circle of followers, who knew him as Kongfuzi (Master Kong). Those pupils recorded his words in The Analects, a collection of ethical concepts.

As stated in The Analects, Confucius believed that social harmony would naturally follow from the proper ordering of individuals in relation to one another, with the family unit as the basic building block of society. He therefore stressed the cultivation of personal qualities such as benevolence, reciprocity, and filial piety as essential to the formation of well-educated, conscientious individuals who would benefit society through public service.

Spreading his wisdom

Confucius was largely ignored in his own day. When he died in 479 B.C., he left behind perhaps 3,000 students, who devoted themselves to preserving and propagating their master’s precepts . Confucius’s teachings were enthusiastically adopted as Chinese state ideology by the Han dynasty in the second century B.C. The Analects would go on to guide governments and individuals for millennia, informing and influencing Chinese history and civilization in the process.

Qufu, Confucius's hometown

During his lifetime, Confucius was not particularly appreciated in his native city of Qufu, in eastern China. Time has remedied that oversight. The devotion of subsequent Chinese rulers and people over the centuries has helped preserve his now hallowed ground.

Today Confucius’s temple, cemetery, and family mansion are UNESCO World Heritage sites as well, as popular tourist and pilgrimage destinations. The Temple of Confucius was built shortly after the sage died in 479 B.C. and has evolved to become a 50-acre complex. A poignant symbol of the status of this revered “uncrowned king” — as his disciples referred to him —is that the glazed tiles forming the roof of his temple are yellow, a color usually reserved for the emperor.

Farmers’ tough existence

Peasant farmers were the core of Chinese agricultural society. Their lives were brutally hard. “Through all four seasons they never get a day off ... No matter how hard they work, they can be ruined by floods or droughts, or cruel and arbitrary officials ... They are forced to sell their fields and houses, even their children and grandchildren, to pay their debts,” reported Han dynasty official Chao Cuo in 178 B.C.

By Han times, peasants had plows with iron tips and were aided by oxen and donkeys. But taxes were grinding, and farmers also had to perform mandatory government labor. Their shrinking farms were divided among multiple heirs. Banditry and rebellion began to take hold, and peasant uprisings were a threat into the 20th century.

FREE BONUS ISSUE

Related topics.

• ANCIENT HISTORY
• PEOPLE AND CULTURE

You May Also Like

Who were the Tarim Basin mummies? Even scientists were surprised.

Who was King Tut?

Heard of Zoroastrianism? The ancient religion still has fervent followers

This brilliant philosopher was murdered by a mob. But there's much more to her story.

He spent 50 days on a deserted island. Then he found a message in a bottle.

• Environment
• Perpetual Planet

History & Culture

• History & Culture
• Mind, Body, Wonder
• Paid Content
• Terms of Use
• Privacy Policy
• Your US State Privacy Rights
• Children's Online Privacy Policy
• Interest-Based Ads
• About Nielsen Measurement
• Do Not Sell or Share My Personal Information
• Nat Geo Home
• Attend a Live Event
• Book a Trip
• Inspire Your Kids
• Shop Nat Geo
• Visit the D.C. Museum
• Learn About Our Impact
• Support Our Mission
• Advertise With Us
• Customer Service
• Renew Subscription
• Manage Your Subscription
• Work at Nat Geo
• Sign Up for Our Newsletters
• Contribute to Protect the Planet

Copyright © 1996-2015 National Geographic Society Copyright © 2015-2024 National Geographic Partners, LLC. All rights reserved

Confucius (551-479 BCE), according to Chinese tradition, was a thinker, political figure, educator, and founder of the Ru School of Chinese thought. His teachings, preserved in the Lunyu or Analects , form the foundation of much of subsequent Chinese speculation on the education and comportment of the ideal man, how such an individual should live his live and interact with others, and the forms of society and government in which he should participate. Fung Yu-lan, one of the great 20 th century authorities on the history of Chinese thought, compares Confucius' influence in Chinese history with that of Socrates in the West.

1. Confucius' Life

2. confucius' social philosophy, 3. confucius' political philosophy, 4. confucius and education, bibliography, other internet resources, related entries.

The sources for Confucius' life are later and do not carefully separate fiction and fact. Thus it is wise to regard much of what is known of him as legendary. Many of the legends surrounding Confucius at the end of the 2 nd century BCE were included by the Han dynasty court historian, Sima Qian (145-c.85 BCE), in his well-known and often-quoted Records of the Grand Historian ( Shiji ). This collection of tales opens by identifying Confucius' ancestors as members of the Royal State of Song. It notes as well that his great grandfather, fleeing the turmoil in his native Song, had moved to Lu, somewhere near the present town of Qufu in southeastern Shandong, where the family became impoverished. Confucius is described, by Sima Qian and other sources, as having endured a poverty-stricken and humiliating youth and been forced, upon reaching manhood, to undertake such petty jobs as accounting and caring for livestock. Sima Qian's account includes the tale of how Confucius was born in answer to his parents' prayers at a sacred hill ( qiu ) called Ni. Confucius' surname Kong (which means literally an utterance of thankfulness when prayers have been answered), his tabooed given name Qiu , and his social name Zhongni , all appear connected to the miraculous circumstances of his birth. This casts doubt, then, on Confucius' royal genealogy as found in Sima Qian. Similarly, Confucius' recorded age at death, ‘seventy-two,’ is a ‘magic number’ with far-reaching significance in early Chinese literature. We do not know how Confucius himself was educated, but tradition has it that he studied ritual with the Daoist Master Lao Dan, music with Chang Hong, and the lute with Music-master Xiang. In his middle age Confucius is supposed to have gathered about him a group of disciples whom he taught and also to have devoted himself to political matters in Lu. The number of Confucius' disciples has been greatly exaggerated, with Sima Qian and other sources claiming that there were as many as three thousand of them. Sima Qian goes on to say that, “Those who, in their own person, became conversant with the Six Disciplines [taught by Confucius], numbered seventy-two.” The 4 th century BCE Mencius and some other early works give their number as seventy. Perhaps seventy or seventy-two were a maximum, though both of these numbers are suspicious given Confucius' supposed age at death.

At the age of fifty, when Duke Ding of Lu was on the throne, Confucius' talents were recognized and he was appointed Minister of Public Works and then Minister of Crime. But Confucius apparently offended members of the Lu nobility who were vying with Duke Ding for power (or was it the duke himself that Confucius had rubbed the wrong way?) and he was subsequently forced to leave office and go into exile. As in other ancient cultures, exile and suffering are common themes in the lives of the heroes of the early Chinese tradition. In the company of his disciples, Confucius left Lu and traveled in the states of Wei, Song, Chen, Cai, and Chu, purportedly looking for a ruler who might employ him but meeting instead with indifference and, occasionally, severe hardship and danger. Several of these episodes, as preserved in the Records of the Grand Historian , appear to be little more than prose retellings of songs found in the ancient Chinese Book of Songs , Confucius' life is thus rendered a re-enactment of the suffering and alienation of the personas of the poems.

In any case, by most traditional accounts, Confucius returned to Lu in 484 BCE and spent the remainder of his life teaching, putting in order the Book of Songs , the Book of Documents , and other ancient classics, as well as editing the Spring and Autumn Annals , the court chronicle of Lu. Sima Qian's account also provides background on Confucius' connection to the early canonical texts on ritual and on music (the latter of which was lost at an early date). Sima Qian claims, moreover, that, “In his later years, Confucius delighted in the Yi ”—the famous, some might say infamous, divination manual popular to this day in China and in the West. The Analects passage which appears to corroborate Sima Qian's claim seems corrupt and hence unreliable on this point. Confucius' traditional association with these works led them and related texts to be revered as the “Confucian Classics” and made Confucius himself the spiritual ancestor of later teachers, historians, moral philosophers, literary scholars, and countless others whose lives and works figure prominently in Chinese intellectual history.

Our best source for understanding Confucius and his thought is the Analects . But the Analects is a problematic and controversial work, having been compiled in variant versions long after Confucius's death by disciples or the disciples of disciples. Some have argued that, because of the text's inconsistencies and incompatibilities of thought, there is much in the Analects that is non-Confucian and should be discarded as a basis for understanding the thought of Confucius. Benjamin Schwartz cautions us against such radical measures.

While textual criticism based on rigorous philological and historic analysis is crucial, and while the later sections [of the Analects] do contain late materials, the type of textual criticism that is based on considerations of alleged logical inconsistencies and incompatibilities of thought must be viewed with great suspicion. . . . While none of us comes to such an enterprise without deep-laid assumptions about necessary logical relations and compatibilities, we should at least hold before ourselves the constant injunction to mistrust all our unexamined preconceptions on these matters when dealing with comparative thought. ( The World of Thought in Ancient China , p. 61)

Book X of the Analects consists of personal observations of how Confucius comported himself as a thinker, teacher, and official. Some have argued that these passages were originally more general prescriptions on how a gentleman should dress and behave that were relabeled as descriptions of Confucius. Traditionally, Book X has been regarded as providing an intimate portrait of Confucius and has been read as a biographical sketch. The following passages provide a few examples.

Confucius, at home in his native village, was simple and unassuming in manner, as though he did not trust himself to speak. But when in the ancestral temple or at Court he speaks readily, though always choosing his words with due caution. ( Lunyu 10.1) When at court conversing with the officers of a lower grade, he is friendly, though straightforward; when conversing with officers of a higher grade, he is restrained but precise. When the ruler is present he is wary, but not cramped. ( Lunyu 10.2) On entering the Palace Gate he seems to contract his body, as though there were not sufficient room to admit him. If he halts, it must never be in the middle of the gate, nor in going through does he ever tread on the threshold. ( Lunyu 10.4) When fasting in preparation for sacrifice he must wear the Bright Robe, and it must be of linen. He must change his food and also the place where he commonly sits. He does not object to his rice being thoroughly cleaned, nor to his meat being finely minced. ( Lunyu 10.7, 10.8) When sending a messenger to enquire after someone in another country, he bows himself twice while seeing the messenger off. ( Lunyu 10.15) In bed he avoided lying in the posture of a corpse … On meeting anyone in deep mourning he must bow across the bar of his chariot. ( Lunyu 10.24, 10.25)

Analects passages such as these made Confucius the model of courtliness and personal decorum for countless generations of Chinese officials.

By the 4 th century BCE, Confucius was recognized as a unique figure, a sage who was ignored but should have been recognized and become a king. At the end of the 4 th century, Mencius says of Confucius: “Ever since man came into this world, there has never been one greater than Confucius.” And in two passages Mencius implies that Confucius was one of the great sage kings who, according to his reckoning, arises every five hundred years. Confucius also figures prominently as the subject of anecdotes and the teacher of wisdom in the writing of Xunzi, a third century BCE follower of Confucius' teachings. Indeed chapters twenty-eight to thirty of the Xunzi , which some have argued were not the work of Xunzi but compilations by his disciples, look like an alternative, and considerably briefer, version of the Analects .

Confucius and his followers also inspired considerable criticism from other thinkers. The authors of the Zhuangzi took particular delight in parodying Confucius and the teachings conventionally associated with him. But Confucius' reputation was so great that even the Zhuangzi appropriates him to give voice to Daoist teachings.

Confucius' teachings and his conversations and exchanges with his disciples are recorded in the Lunyu or Analects , a collection that probably achieved something like its present form around the second century BCE. While Confucius believes that people live their lives within parameters firmly established by Heaven—which, often, for him means both a purposeful Supreme Being as well as ‘nature’ and its fixed cycles and patterns—he argues that men are responsible for their actions and especially for their treatment of others. We can do little or nothing to alter our fated span of existence but we determine what we accomplish and what we are remembered for.

Confucius represented his teachings as lessons transmitted from antiquity. He claimed that he was “a transmitter and not a maker” and that all he did reflected his “reliance on and love for the ancients.” ( Lunyu 7.1) Confucius pointed especially to the precedents established during the height of the royal Zhou (roughly the first half of the first millennium, BCE). Such justifications for one's ideas may have already been conventional in Confucius' day. Certainly his claim that there were antique precedents for his ideology had a tremendous influence on subsequent thinkers many of whom imitated these gestures. But we should not regard the contents of the Analects as consisting of old ideas. Much of what Confucius taught appears to have been original to him and to have represented a radical departure from the ideas and practices of his day.

Confucius also claimed that he enjoyed a special and privileged relationship with Heaven and that, by the age of fifty, he had come to understand what Heaven had mandated for him and for mankind. ( Lunyu 2.4). Confucius was also careful to instruct his followers that they should never neglect the offerings due Heaven. ( Lunyu 3.13) Some scholars have seen a contradiction between Confucius' reverence for Heaven and what they believe to be his skepticism with regard to the existence of ‘the spirits.’ But the Analects passages that reveal Confucius's attitudes toward spiritual forces ( Lunyu 3.12, 6.20, and 11.11) do not suggest that he was skeptical. Rather they show that Confucius revered and respected the spirits, thought that they should be worshipped with utmost sincerity, and taught that serving the spirits was a far more difficult and complicated matter than serving mere mortals.

Confucius' social philosophy largely revolves around the concept of ren , “compassion” or “loving others.” Cultivating or practicing such concern for others involved deprecating oneself. This meant being sure to avoid artful speech or an ingratiating manner that would create a false impression and lead to self-aggrandizement. ( Lunyu 1.3) Those who have cultivated ren are, on the contrary, “simple in manner and slow of speech.” ( Lunyu 13.27). For Confucius, such concern for others is demonstrated through the practice of forms of the Golden Rule: “What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others;” “Since you yourself desire standing then help others achieve it, since you yourself desire success then help others attain it.” ( Lunyu 12.2, 6.30). He regards devotion to parents and older siblings as the most basic form of promoting the interests of others before one's own and teaches that such altruism can be accomplished only by those who have learned self-discipline.

Learning self-restraint involves studying and mastering li , the ritual forms and rules of propriety through which one expresses respect for superiors and enacts his role in society in such a way that he himself is worthy of respect and admiration. A concern for propriety should inform everything that one says and does:

Look at nothing in defiance of ritual, listen to nothing in defiance of ritual, speak of nothing in defiance or ritual, never stir hand or foot in defiance of ritual. ( Lunyu 12.1)

Subjecting oneself to ritual does not, however, mean suppressing one's desires but instead learning how to reconcile one's own desires with the needs of one's family and community. Confucius and many of his followers teach that it is by experiencing desires that we learn the value of social strictures that make an ordered society possible (See Lunyu 2.4.). Nor does Confucius' emphasis on ritual mean that he was a punctilious ceremonialist who thought that the rites of worship and of social exchange had to be practiced correctly at all costs. Confucius taught, on the contrary, that if one did not possess a keen sense of the well-being and interests of others his ceremonial manners signified nothing. ( Lunyu 3.3). Equally important was Confucius' insistence that the rites not be regarded as mere forms, but that they be practiced with complete devotion and sincerity. “He [i.e., Confucius] sacrificed to the dead as if they were present. He sacrificed to the spirits as if the spirits were present. The Master said, ‘I consider my not being present at the sacrifice as though there were no sacrifice.’” ( Lunyu 3.12)

While ritual forms often have to do with the more narrow relations of family and clan, ren , however, is to be practiced broadly and informs one's interactions with all people. Confucius warns those in power that they should not oppress or take for granted even the lowliest of their subjects. “You may rob the Three Armies of their commander, but you cannot deprive the humblest peasant of his opinion.” ( Lunyu 9.26) Confucius regards loving others as a calling and a mission for which one should be ready to die ( Lunyu 15.9).

Confucius' political philosophy is also rooted in his belief that a ruler should learn self-discipline, should govern his subjects by his own example, and should treat them with love and concern. “If the people be led by laws, and uniformity among them be sought by punishments, they will try to escape punishment and have no sense of shame. If they are led by virtue, and uniformity sought among them through the practice of ritual propriety, they will possess a sense of shame and come to you of their own accord.” ( Lunyu 2.3; see also 13.6.) It seems apparent that in his own day, however, advocates of more legalistic methods were winning a large following among the ruling elite. Thus Confucius' warning about the ill consequences of promulgating law codes should not be interpreted as an attempt to prevent their adoption but instead as his lament that his ideas about the moral suasion of the ruler were not proving popular.

Most troubling to Confucius was his perception that the political institutions of his day had completely broken down. He attributed this collapse to the fact that those who wielded power as well as those who occupied subordinate positions did so by making claim to titles for which they were not worthy. When asked by a ruler of the large state of Qi, Lu's neighbor on the Shandong peninsula, about the principles of good government, Confucius is reported to have replied: “Good government consists in the ruler being a ruler, the minister being a minister, the father being a father, and the son being a son.” ( Lunyu 12.11) If I claim for myself a title and attempt to participate in the various hierarchical relationships to which I would be entitled by virtue of that title, then I should live up to the meaning of the title that I claim for myself. Confucius' analysis of the lack of connection between actualities and their names and the need to correct such circumstances is usually referred to as Confucius' theory of zhengming . Elsewhere in the Analects , Confucius says to his disciple Zilu that the first thing he would do in undertaking the administration of a state is zhengming . ( Lunyu 13.3). Xunzi composed an entire essay entitled Zhengming . But for Xunzi the term referred to the proper use of language and how one should go about inventing new terms that were suitable to the age. For Confucius, zhengming does not seem to refer to the ‘rectification of names’ (this is the way the term is most often translated by scholars of the Analects ), but instead to rectifying behavior of people so that it exactly corresponds to the language with which they identify and describe themselves. Confucius believed that this sort of rectification had to begin at the very top of the government, because it was at the top that the discrepancy between names and actualities had originated. If the ruler's behavior is rectified then the people beneath him will follow suit. In a conversation with Ji Kangzi (who had usurped power in Lu), Confucius advised: “If your desire is for good, the people will be good. The moral character of the ruler is the wind; the moral character of those beneath him is the grass. When the wind blows, the grass bends.” ( Lunyu 12.19)

For Confucius, what characterized superior rulership was the possession of de or ‘virtue.’ Conceived of as a kind of moral power that allows one to win a following without recourse to physical force, such ‘virtue’ also enabled the ruler to maintain good order in his state without troubling himself and by relying on loyal and effective deputies. Confucius claimed that, “He who governs by means of his virtue is, to use an analogy, like the pole-star: it remains in its place while all the lesser stars do homage to it.” ( Lunyu 2.1) The way to maintain and cultivate such royal ‘virtue’ was through the practice and enactment of li or ‘rituals’—the ceremonies that defined and punctuated the lives of the ancient Chinese aristocracy. These ceremonies encompassed: the sacrificial rites performed at ancestral temples to express humility and thankfulness; the ceremonies of enfeoffment, toasting, and gift exchange that bound together the aristocracy into a complex web of obligation and indebtedness; and the acts of politeness and decorum—such things as bowing and yielding—that identified their performers as gentlemen. In an influential study, Herbert Fingarette argues that the performance of these various ceremonies, when done correctly and sincerely, involves a ‘magical’ quality that underlies the efficacy of royal ‘virtue’ in accomplishing the aims of the ruler.

A hallmark of Confucius' thought is his emphasis on education and study. He disparages those who have faith in natural understanding or intuition and argues that the only real understanding of a subject comes from long and careful study. Study, for Confucius, means finding a good teacher and imitating his words and deeds. A good teacher is someone older who is familiar with the ways of the past and the practices of the ancients. (See Lunyu 7.22) While he sometimes warns against excessive reflection and meditation, Confucius' position appears to be a middle course between studying and reflecting on what one has learned. “He who learns but does not think is lost. He who thinks but does not learn is in great danger.” ( Lunyu 2.15) Confucius, himself, is credited by the tradition with having taught altogether three thousand students, though only seventy are said to have truly mastered the arts he cherished. Confucius is willing to teach anyone, whatever their social standing, as long as they are eager and tireless. He taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasizes the “Six Arts” -- ritual, music, archery, chariot-riding, calligraphy, and computation -- it is clear that he regards morality the most important subject. Confucius' pedagogical methods are striking. He never discourses at length on a subject. Instead he poses questions, cites passages from the classics, or uses apt analogies, and waits for his students to arrive at the right answers. “I only instruct the eager and enlighten the fervent. If I hold up one corner and a student cannot come back to me with the other three, I do not go on with the lesson.” ( Lunyu 7.8).

Confucius' goal is to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. His strong dislike of the sycophantic “petty men,” whose clever talk and pretentious manner win them an audience, is reflected in numerous Lunyu passages. Confucius finds himself in an age in which values are out of joint. Actions and behavior no longer correspond to the labels originally attached to them. “Rulers do not rule and subjects do not serve,” he observes. ( Lunyu 12.11; cf. also 13.3) This means that words and titles no longer mean what they once did. Moral education is important to Confucius because it is the means by which one can rectify this situation and restore meaning to language and values to society. He believes that the most important lessons for obtaining such a moral education are to be found in the canonical Book of Songs , because many of its poems are both beautiful and good. Thus Confucius places the text first in his curriculum and frequently quotes and explains its lines of verse. For this reason, the Lunyu is also an important source for Confucius' understanding of the role poetry and art more generally play in the moral education of gentlemen as well as in the reformation of society. Recent archaeological discoveries in China of previously lost ancient manuscripts reveal other aspects of Confucius's reverence for the Book of Songs and its importance in moral education. These manuscripts show that Confucius had found in the canonical text valuable lessons on how to cultivate moral qualities in oneself as well as how to comport oneself humanely and responsibly in public.

• Ames, R. & Hall, D., 1987, Thinking Through Confucius , Albany, SUNY Press.
• Brooks, E. & A., 1998, The Original Analects , New York: Columbia University Press.
• Creel, H., 1949, Confucius , Harper.
• Fingarette, H., 1972, The Secular as Sacred , Harper.
• Knoblock, J., 1988, 1990, 1994, Xunzi : A Translation and Study of the Complete Works (Three Volumes), Stanford University Press.
• Lau, D. C., 1979, Confucius: The Analects , Harmondsworth: Penguin.
• Nivison, D., 1996, The Ways of Confucianism , Open Court.
• Riegel, J., 1997, "Eros, Introversion, and the Beginnings of Shijing Commentary," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 57.1, 143-177.
• Schwartz, B., 1985, The World of Thought in Ancient China , Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
• Waley, A., 1938, The Analects of Confucius , New York: Vintage Books.
• Wilson, T. A., 2002, On Sacred Grounds: Culture, Society, and the Formation of the Cult of Confucius , Cambrdige: Harvard University Asia Center.
• Yang, Bojun, 1958, Lunyu yizhu , Beijing: Zhonghua shuju.
• German Website with Various Links to Sites and Materials on Confucius and Confucianism , maintained by Erling Weinrich
• Online English Translation of the Analects , the Internet Classics Archive (MIT)
• Bibliography of Chinese Philosophy , maintained by Bryan Van Norden (Vassar College)

-->Confucianism --> | Laozi | Mencius | Mohism | Taoism | Xunzi | Zhuangzi

• Search Menu
• Browse content in Arts and Humanities
• Browse content in Archaeology
• Anglo-Saxon and Medieval Archaeology
• Archaeological Methodology and Techniques
• Archaeology by Region
• Archaeology of Religion
• Archaeology of Trade and Exchange
• Biblical Archaeology
• Contemporary and Public Archaeology
• Environmental Archaeology
• Historical Archaeology
• History and Theory of Archaeology
• Industrial Archaeology
• Landscape Archaeology
• Mortuary Archaeology
• Prehistoric Archaeology
• Underwater Archaeology
• Urban Archaeology
• Zooarchaeology
• Browse content in Architecture
• Architectural Structure and Design
• History of Architecture
• Residential and Domestic Buildings
• Theory of Architecture
• Browse content in Art
• Art Subjects and Themes
• History of Art
• Industrial and Commercial Art
• Theory of Art
• Biographical Studies
• Byzantine Studies
• Browse content in Classical Studies
• Classical History
• Classical Philosophy
• Classical Mythology
• Classical Literature
• Classical Reception
• Classical Art and Architecture
• Classical Oratory and Rhetoric
• Greek and Roman Papyrology
• Greek and Roman Epigraphy
• Greek and Roman Law
• Greek and Roman Archaeology
• Late Antiquity
• Religion in the Ancient World
• Digital Humanities
• Browse content in History
• Colonialism and Imperialism
• Diplomatic History
• Environmental History
• Genealogy, Heraldry, Names, and Honours
• Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing
• Historical Geography
• History by Period
• History of Emotions
• History of Agriculture
• History of Education
• History of Gender and Sexuality
• Industrial History
• Intellectual History
• International History
• Labour History
• Legal and Constitutional History
• Local and Family History
• Maritime History
• Military History
• National Liberation and Post-Colonialism
• Oral History
• Political History
• Public History
• Regional and National History
• Revolutions and Rebellions
• Slavery and Abolition of Slavery
• Social and Cultural History
• Theory, Methods, and Historiography
• Urban History
• World History
• Browse content in Language Teaching and Learning
• Language Learning (Specific Skills)
• Language Teaching Theory and Methods
• Browse content in Linguistics
• Applied Linguistics
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Computational Linguistics
• Forensic Linguistics
• Grammar, Syntax and Morphology
• Historical and Diachronic Linguistics
• History of English
• Language Evolution
• Language Reference
• Language Acquisition
• Language Variation
• Language Families
• Lexicography
• Linguistic Anthropology
• Linguistic Theories
• Linguistic Typology
• Phonetics and Phonology
• Psycholinguistics
• Sociolinguistics
• Translation and Interpretation
• Writing Systems
• Browse content in Literature
• Bibliography
• Children's Literature Studies
• Literary Studies (Romanticism)
• Literary Studies (American)
• Literary Studies (Asian)
• Literary Studies (European)
• Literary Studies (Eco-criticism)
• Literary Studies (Modernism)
• Literary Studies - World
• Literary Studies (1500 to 1800)
• Literary Studies (19th Century)
• Literary Studies (20th Century onwards)
• Literary Studies (African American Literature)
• Literary Studies (British and Irish)
• Literary Studies (Early and Medieval)
• Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers)
• Literary Studies (Gender Studies)
• Literary Studies (Graphic Novels)
• Literary Studies (History of the Book)
• Literary Studies (Plays and Playwrights)
• Literary Studies (Poetry and Poets)
• Literary Studies (Postcolonial Literature)
• Literary Studies (Queer Studies)
• Literary Studies (Science Fiction)
• Literary Studies (Travel Literature)
• Literary Studies (War Literature)
• Literary Studies (Women's Writing)
• Literary Theory and Cultural Studies
• Mythology and Folklore
• Shakespeare Studies and Criticism
• Browse content in Media Studies
• Browse content in Music
• Applied Music
• Dance and Music
• Ethics in Music
• Ethnomusicology
• Gender and Sexuality in Music
• Medicine and Music
• Music Cultures
• Music and Media
• Music and Religion
• Music and Culture
• Music Education and Pedagogy
• Music Theory and Analysis
• Musical Scores, Lyrics, and Libretti
• Musical Structures, Styles, and Techniques
• Musicology and Music History
• Performance Practice and Studies
• Race and Ethnicity in Music
• Sound Studies
• Browse content in Performing Arts
• Browse content in Philosophy
• Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
• Epistemology
• Feminist Philosophy
• History of Western Philosophy
• Metaphysics
• Moral Philosophy
• Non-Western Philosophy
• Philosophy of Language
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Perception
• Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Action
• Philosophy of Law
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic
• Practical Ethics
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Browse content in Religion
• Biblical Studies
• Christianity
• East Asian Religions
• History of Religion
• Judaism and Jewish Studies
• Qumran Studies
• Religion and Education
• Religion and Health
• Religion and Politics
• Religion and Science
• Religion and Law
• Religion and Art, Literature, and Music
• Religious Studies
• Browse content in Society and Culture
• Cookery, Food, and Drink
• Cultural Studies
• Customs and Traditions
• Ethical Issues and Debates
• Hobbies, Games, Arts and Crafts
• Lifestyle, Home, and Garden
• Natural world, Country Life, and Pets
• Popular Beliefs and Controversial Knowledge
• Sports and Outdoor Recreation
• Technology and Society
• Travel and Holiday
• Visual Culture
• Browse content in Law
• Arbitration
• Browse content in Company and Commercial Law
• Commercial Law
• Company Law
• Browse content in Comparative Law
• Systems of Law
• Competition Law
• Browse content in Constitutional and Administrative Law
• Government Powers
• Judicial Review
• Local Government Law
• Military and Defence Law
• Parliamentary and Legislative Practice
• Construction Law
• Contract Law
• Browse content in Criminal Law
• Criminal Procedure
• Criminal Evidence Law
• Sentencing and Punishment
• Employment and Labour Law
• Environment and Energy Law
• Browse content in Financial Law
• Banking Law
• Insolvency Law
• History of Law
• Human Rights and Immigration
• Intellectual Property Law
• Browse content in International Law
• Private International Law and Conflict of Laws
• Public International Law
• IT and Communications Law
• Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law
• Law and Politics
• Law and Society
• Browse content in Legal System and Practice
• Courts and Procedure
• Legal Skills and Practice
• Primary Sources of Law
• Regulation of Legal Profession
• Medical and Healthcare Law
• Browse content in Policing
• Criminal Investigation and Detection
• Police and Security Services
• Police Procedure and Law
• Police Regional Planning
• Browse content in Property Law
• Personal Property Law
• Study and Revision
• Terrorism and National Security Law
• Browse content in Trusts Law
• Wills and Probate or Succession
• Browse content in Medicine and Health
• Browse content in Allied Health Professions
• Arts Therapies
• Clinical Science
• Dietetics and Nutrition
• Occupational Therapy
• Operating Department Practice
• Physiotherapy
• Radiography
• Speech and Language Therapy
• Browse content in Anaesthetics
• General Anaesthesia
• Neuroanaesthesia
• Clinical Neuroscience
• Browse content in Clinical Medicine
• Acute Medicine
• Cardiovascular Medicine
• Clinical Genetics
• Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
• Dermatology
• Endocrinology and Diabetes
• Gastroenterology
• Genito-urinary Medicine
• Geriatric Medicine
• Infectious Diseases
• Medical Toxicology
• Medical Oncology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Medicine
• Rehabilitation Medicine
• Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonology
• Rheumatology
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports and Exercise Medicine
• Community Medical Services
• Critical Care
• Emergency Medicine
• Forensic Medicine
• Haematology
• History of Medicine
• Browse content in Medical Skills
• Clinical Skills
• Communication Skills
• Nursing Skills
• Surgical Skills
• Browse content in Medical Dentistry
• Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
• Paediatric Dentistry
• Restorative Dentistry and Orthodontics
• Surgical Dentistry
• Medical Ethics
• Medical Statistics and Methodology
• Browse content in Neurology
• Clinical Neurophysiology
• Neuropathology
• Nursing Studies
• Browse content in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
• Gynaecology
• Occupational Medicine
• Ophthalmology
• Otolaryngology (ENT)
• Browse content in Paediatrics
• Neonatology
• Browse content in Pathology
• Chemical Pathology
• Clinical Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics
• Histopathology
• Medical Microbiology and Virology
• Patient Education and Information
• Browse content in Pharmacology
• Psychopharmacology
• Browse content in Popular Health
• Caring for Others
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Self-help and Personal Development
• Browse content in Preclinical Medicine
• Cell Biology
• Molecular Biology and Genetics
• Reproduction, Growth and Development
• Primary Care
• Professional Development in Medicine
• Browse content in Psychiatry
• Addiction Medicine
• Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Learning Disabilities
• Old Age Psychiatry
• Psychotherapy
• Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology
• Epidemiology
• Public Health
• Browse content in Radiology
• Clinical Radiology
• Interventional Radiology
• Nuclear Medicine
• Radiation Oncology
• Reproductive Medicine
• Browse content in Surgery
• Cardiothoracic Surgery
• Gastro-intestinal and Colorectal Surgery
• General Surgery
• Neurosurgery
• Paediatric Surgery
• Peri-operative Care
• Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
• Surgical Oncology
• Transplant Surgery
• Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery
• Vascular Surgery
• Browse content in Science and Mathematics
• Browse content in Biological Sciences
• Aquatic Biology
• Biochemistry
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
• Developmental Biology
• Ecology and Conservation
• Evolutionary Biology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Microbiology
• Molecular and Cell Biology
• Natural History
• Plant Sciences and Forestry
• Research Methods in Life Sciences
• Structural Biology
• Systems Biology
• Zoology and Animal Sciences
• Browse content in Chemistry
• Analytical Chemistry
• Computational Chemistry
• Crystallography
• Environmental Chemistry
• Industrial Chemistry
• Inorganic Chemistry
• Materials Chemistry
• Medicinal Chemistry
• Mineralogy and Gems
• Organic Chemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Polymer Chemistry
• Study and Communication Skills in Chemistry
• Theoretical Chemistry
• Browse content in Computer Science
• Artificial Intelligence
• Computer Architecture and Logic Design
• Game Studies
• Human-Computer Interaction
• Mathematical Theory of Computation
• Programming Languages
• Software Engineering
• Systems Analysis and Design
• Virtual Reality
• Browse content in Computing
• Business Applications
• Computer Security
• Computer Games
• Computer Networking and Communications
• Digital Lifestyle
• Graphical and Digital Media Applications
• Operating Systems
• Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography
• Atmospheric Sciences
• Environmental Geography
• Geology and the Lithosphere
• Maps and Map-making
• Meteorology and Climatology
• Oceanography and Hydrology
• Palaeontology
• Physical Geography and Topography
• Regional Geography
• Soil Science
• Urban Geography
• Browse content in Engineering and Technology
• Agriculture and Farming
• Biological Engineering
• Civil Engineering, Surveying, and Building
• Electronics and Communications Engineering
• Energy Technology
• Engineering (General)
• Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology
• History of Engineering and Technology
• Mechanical Engineering and Materials
• Technology of Industrial Chemistry
• Transport Technology and Trades
• Browse content in Environmental Science
• Applied Ecology (Environmental Science)
• Conservation of the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Environmental Sustainability
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Environmental Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Environmental Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environmental Science)
• Nuclear Issues (Environmental Science)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Environmental Science)
• History of Science and Technology
• Browse content in Materials Science
• Ceramics and Glasses
• Composite Materials
• Metals, Alloying, and Corrosion
• Nanotechnology
• Browse content in Mathematics
• Applied Mathematics
• Biomathematics and Statistics
• History of Mathematics
• Mathematical Education
• Mathematical Finance
• Mathematical Analysis
• Numerical and Computational Mathematics
• Probability and Statistics
• Pure Mathematics
• Browse content in Neuroscience
• Cognition and Behavioural Neuroscience
• Development of the Nervous System
• Disorders of the Nervous System
• History of Neuroscience
• Invertebrate Neurobiology
• Molecular and Cellular Systems
• Neuroendocrinology and Autonomic Nervous System
• Neuroscientific Techniques
• Sensory and Motor Systems
• Browse content in Physics
• Astronomy and Astrophysics
• Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics
• Biological and Medical Physics
• Classical Mechanics
• Computational Physics
• Condensed Matter Physics
• Electromagnetism, Optics, and Acoustics
• History of Physics
• Mathematical and Statistical Physics
• Measurement Science
• Nuclear Physics
• Particles and Fields
• Plasma Physics
• Quantum Physics
• Relativity and Gravitation
• Semiconductor and Mesoscopic Physics
• Browse content in Psychology
• Affective Sciences
• Clinical Psychology
• Cognitive Psychology
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Criminal and Forensic Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational Psychology
• Evolutionary Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems in Psychology
• Music Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational Psychology
• Psychological Assessment and Testing
• Psychology of Human-Technology Interaction
• Psychology Professional Development and Training
• Research Methods in Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Browse content in Social Sciences
• Browse content in Anthropology
• Anthropology of Religion
• Human Evolution
• Medical Anthropology
• Physical Anthropology
• Regional Anthropology
• Social and Cultural Anthropology
• Theory and Practice of Anthropology
• Browse content in Business and Management
• Business Ethics
• Business Strategy
• Business History
• Business and Technology
• Business and Government
• Business and the Environment
• Comparative Management
• Corporate Governance
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Entrepreneurship
• Health Management
• Human Resource Management
• Industrial and Employment Relations
• Industry Studies
• Information and Communication Technologies
• International Business
• Knowledge Management
• Management and Management Techniques
• Operations Management
• Organizational Theory and Behaviour
• Pensions and Pension Management
• Public and Nonprofit Management
• Strategic Management
• Supply Chain Management
• Browse content in Criminology and Criminal Justice
• Criminal Justice
• Criminology
• Forms of Crime
• International and Comparative Criminology
• Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
• Development Studies
• Browse content in Economics
• Agricultural, Environmental, and Natural Resource Economics
• Asian Economics
• Behavioural Finance
• Behavioural Economics and Neuroeconomics
• Econometrics and Mathematical Economics
• Economic History
• Economic Systems
• Economic Methodology
• Economic Development and Growth
• Financial Markets
• Financial Institutions and Services
• General Economics and Teaching
• Health, Education, and Welfare
• History of Economic Thought
• International Economics
• Labour and Demographic Economics
• Law and Economics
• Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
• Microeconomics
• Public Economics
• Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics
• Welfare Economics
• Browse content in Education
• Adult Education and Continuous Learning
• Care and Counselling of Students
• Early Childhood and Elementary Education
• Educational Equipment and Technology
• Educational Strategies and Policy
• Higher and Further Education
• Organization and Management of Education
• Philosophy and Theory of Education
• Schools Studies
• Secondary Education
• Teaching of a Specific Subject
• Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs
• Teaching Skills and Techniques
• Browse content in Environment
• Applied Ecology (Social Science)
• Climate Change
• Conservation of the Environment (Social Science)
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Social Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environment)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Social Science)
• Browse content in Human Geography
• Cultural Geography
• Economic Geography
• Political Geography
• Browse content in Interdisciplinary Studies
• Communication Studies
• Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences
• Browse content in Politics
• African Politics
• Asian Politics
• Chinese Politics
• Comparative Politics
• Conflict Politics
• Elections and Electoral Studies
• Environmental Politics
• European Union
• Foreign Policy
• Gender and Politics
• Human Rights and Politics
• Indian Politics
• International Relations
• International Organization (Politics)
• International Political Economy
• Irish Politics
• Latin American Politics
• Middle Eastern Politics
• Political Behaviour
• Political Economy
• Political Institutions
• Political Methodology
• Political Communication
• Political Philosophy
• Political Sociology
• Political Theory
• Politics and Law
• Public Policy
• Public Administration
• Quantitative Political Methodology
• Regional Political Studies
• Russian Politics
• Security Studies
• State and Local Government
• UK Politics
• US Politics
• Browse content in Regional and Area Studies
• African Studies
• Asian Studies
• East Asian Studies
• Japanese Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Middle Eastern Studies
• Native American Studies
• Scottish Studies
• Browse content in Research and Information
• Research Methods
• Browse content in Social Work
• Addictions and Substance Misuse
• Adoption and Fostering
• Care of the Elderly
• Child and Adolescent Social Work
• Couple and Family Social Work
• Developmental and Physical Disabilities Social Work
• Direct Practice and Clinical Social Work
• Emergency Services
• Human Behaviour and the Social Environment
• International and Global Issues in Social Work
• Mental and Behavioural Health
• Social Justice and Human Rights
• Social Policy and Advocacy
• Social Work and Crime and Justice
• Social Work Macro Practice
• Social Work Practice Settings
• Social Work Research and Evidence-based Practice
• Welfare and Benefit Systems
• Browse content in Sociology
• Childhood Studies
• Community Development
• Comparative and Historical Sociology
• Economic Sociology
• Gender and Sexuality
• Gerontology and Ageing
• Health, Illness, and Medicine
• Marriage and the Family
• Migration Studies
• Occupations, Professions, and Work
• Organizations
• Population and Demography
• Race and Ethnicity
• Social Theory
• Social Movements and Social Change
• Social Research and Statistics
• Social Stratification, Inequality, and Mobility
• Sociology of Religion
• Sociology of Education
• Sport and Leisure
• Urban and Rural Studies
• Browse content in Warfare and Defence
• Defence Strategy, Planning, and Research
• Land Forces and Warfare
• Military Administration
• Military Life and Institutions
• Naval Forces and Warfare
• Other Warfare and Defence Issues
• Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution
• Weapons and Equipment

Confucius and the Analects: New Essays

• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions Icon Permissions

Confucius is one of the most influential figures—as historical individual and as symbol—in world history; and the Analects, the sayings attributed to Confucius and his disciples, is a classic of world literature. Nonetheless, how to understand both figure and text is constantly under dispute. Surprisingly, this volume is the first and only anthology on these topics in English. Here, contributors apply a variety of different methodologies (including philosophical, philological, and religious) and address a number of important topics, from Confucius and western “virtue ethics” to Confucius’ attitude towards women to the historical composition of the text of the Analects. Scholars will appreciate the rigor of these essays, while students and beginners will find them accessible and engaging.

Personal account

• Sign in with email/username & password
• Get email alerts
• Save searches
• Purchase content
• Activate your purchase/trial code

Institutional access

• Sign in with a library card Sign in with username/password Recommend to your librarian
• Institutional account management
• Get help with access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Sign in through your institution

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic.

• Click Sign in through your institution.
• Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
• When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
• Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institution’s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Sign in with a library card

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see ‘Sign in through society site’ in the sign in pane within a journal:

• Click Sign in through society site.
• When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

• View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
• View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions.

• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Rights and permissions
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

The Analects of Confucius

by Confucius

The analects of confucius essay questions.

The concept of The Golden Rule appears in almost all the world's religions in one form or another. Examine its usage in The Analects (Book V, Ch. 11; Book XV, Ch. 23). Why is this such a universal concept?

Such a concept would fit easily into the ideology presented in The Analects . Confucius repeatedly stresses the concept of goodness or humaneness ( jen ) in the text. The Golden Rule, or ethic of reciprocity, dictates simply that behavior should be determined by an understanding of another human being's capacity for goodness, as well as one's own humanity. If we were to engage in abusive behavior, we could not ask anything better for ourselves. In doing so, we not only destroy our capacity for jen but also could contribute to its erosion in others. Its universality only underscores its importance in the maintenance of a civilized society. As such, it is no surprise that it is found in nearly every major religion.

Examine Book VII, Ch.1, in which Confucius states that he only transmits what has been taught to him but does not innovate or add anything of his creation. Why do you think this is the case? How does this approach complement Confucian ideology?

Confucius placed great value on the ways of the ancients before him. In Chapters 2 and 3 of Book VII, he continues to elaborate on this idea by professing his love of learning, but not of teaching specifically. It can be inferred that if a relationship between learning and teaching could be ascertained, Confucius would place greater weight on learning. In this manner the knowledge that he has gained is simply passed on but not to be reinterpreted. He states in Chapter 3 that the thought of not having perfected his learning is among those things that would bring him great sadness. At numerous times in the text, Confucius tells his disciples that he is not himself an example of perfection, and that he does not know one who is. It can be argued that he saw himself more as an arrow pointing to the Way, rather than presenting himself as one who had lived it.

Examine the passage from Book II, Chapter 4 ("At fifteen, I set my heart upon learning. At thirty I had planted my feet firm upon the ground..."). What is the significance of this passage and how does it relate to the larger thematic principles of the text?

The passage ends with the phrase "At seventy, I could follow the dictates of my own heart; for what I desired no longer overstepped the boundaries of right." Confucius reveals that self-cultivation is a lifelong goal. The self that Confucius wishes to cultivate is one that looks within and compares himself with the moral and social canons of tradition. The standard of Chun-tzu/junzi is not one that is simply reached and then used as an example to others. Rather it is a constant process of refinement, in which every thought and action must be evaluated against the moral ideals of Confucius's time. Confucius states that it took him until the age of seventy to be able to feel he had internalized this moral canon as his own.

Examine the concepts of li , te , and jen/ren . How are they related to the manifestation of the junzi/chun-tzu ?

In examining these concepts it is helpful to see jen/ren as a characteristic, while the other terms can be seen as a means to attain it. A gentleman applies te , or moral force, in accordance with what is proper ( li ), in order to achieve ren/jen , or goodness. By providing this outline, the text makes an argument for their relationship, but more importantly illustrates how the moral attitude of a gentleman is manifested. It can be argued that it is actually goodness which is necessary to first seek out the knowledge of li , for example. By examining the terms in a related but not necessarily linear arrangement, this relationship can take on an almost cyclical nature. This would also explain not only how goodness is achieved, but also how it is maintained.

Examine the concept of filial piety hsiao/xiao in The Analects . How does it relate to the guidelines presented regarding governance over a population?

The text repeatedly stresses the importance of how each action can affect one's parents, while also stressing the importance that one's parents have in his or her daily life. Deference to them is praised as a virtue unto itself. Duties were assigned not only to the living but also to the dead. As part of the larger fabric of Confucianism, there is an underlying theme of consideration for others. Book II of the text in particular contains passages on both filial piety as well as governance. While seemingly unrelated, both stress the importance of the responsibility to care for others. Confucian ideals about governance also stress fairness and leading by virtue ( te ). Although a relationship between the two is never literally spelled out, their inclusion as topics together in Book II draws an implication that caring for others as part of one's duties applies just as directly to the expectations of public office. This connection is revisited again in Book XII, Ch. 11.

Are Confucius's ideas on the governance of common people realistic or idealistic?

Confucian ideals stress that a ruler should rule by example and te/de , or moral force, rather than by the use of fear or physical force. As presented in The Analects , Confucius believed that a just and benevolent ruler would be able to spread such goodness and positivity by example and thus help it spread throughout a kingdom so that all the people within it would learn to apply it in their own lives. While this is somewhat idealistic on its face, it also illustrates that Confucius's beliefs stemmed from benevolence and not the later ideologies represented by Legalism. While this is a sound basis for a philosophy of governance, The Analects does not deal in specific examples but rather in general statements. As such, there is no clear guidance on how to best deal with complex problems. For example, Confucian ideals teach that if a ruler is not able to act in what is right or best, that ruler should step down. By stepping down, a ruler may actually invite greater difficulties and problems into a kingdom. Good and bad are presented as largely black and white ideas, with no shades of gray.

In opposition to the gentleman ( junzi/chun-tzu ), the text presents the character of the "small man". Compare and contrast these two characters.

The junzi/chun-tzu is described in the text as being benevolent, concerned with the welfare of others, governed by ritual and tradition, honest, and also deferential to ancestors and the Way. Such an individual is concerned with doing what is right in any and all situations. By contrast, a small man is not concerned with morality but with what is profitable. Such an individual is on the look out for what can benefit only himself and has no concern for benevolence. The text describes a small man as easily agitated and stressed, whereas the gentleman is calm and centered. Beyond describing these characters simply in terms of superior vs. inferior moral codes, the text also presents the life of the gentleman as being of greater benefit to others and to himself. In this sense, Confucius elevates this standard because he believes it is in every person's self-interest to cultivate the gentleman within.

Confucius was born into a poor family and managed to climb the social strata by becoming one of a growing number of shi , an intermediate class between commoners and aristocracy. Discuss why Confucius's ideas are of particular note considering his background and class status.

Considering his own climb through the social classes on a path that would have led to a possible political career, Confucius could have easily become a goal-oriented individual seeking wealth and status. Instead he eschewed these principals and substituted a moral philosophy that was concerned with the betterment of all classes in society. It is certain that Confucius was disillusioned by some of the behavior he witnessed men in power engaging in. His exile from the kingdom of Lu is evidence of that. Confucius imposed this exile on himself in order to travel to neighboring kingdoms to spread his particular brand of philosophy. In keeping with his own beliefs, he continually engaged in seeking out and spreading what he saw as good. A lesser man may have simply given up or decided to join those in power. Confucius's occupation in the intermediate class also gave him perspective. Coming from a poorer home, he had knowledge of the lives of commoners. In the shi class he was able to move up and had some exposure to aristocracy. This unique position allowed for the development of his social and political beliefs.

Confucius travels to several kingdoms to try to spread his particular brand of gospel but does not see it implemented anywhere. Afterward he returns home. Why do you think Confucius's ideology did not gain support amongst the leaders of these kingdoms?

Confucius's ideology called for rulers who did not act out of personal gain but out of benevolence for their people. Given that the power was beginning to be usurped by feudal lords during his lifetime, it is likely that many kingdoms did not see the practicality of his teachings. They may even have seen benevolence as partially responsible for the scattering of power. Confucius's beliefs also limited the power of the ruler to some extent. Ruling by what was just and right was considered paramount, even superior to the ruler himself. In this framework, a ruler was always to be held accountable to interests that may benefit others but not necessarily benefit his own political interests. Though the teachings of The Analects are steeped in morality and ritual, they may have been seen by rulers as being old-fashioned as well as a check on their own power.

It is clear from textual analysis as well as dating of the work that The Analects were written after Confucius's death as well as the death of some of the disciples mentioned. Despite this fact the work has had great influence on Chinese society and philosophy. Examine the content presented in the work. Why has it resonated with so many people for so long?

While the practicality of Confucius's ideas may be called into question, the principles have a timeless quality that have encouraged the pursuit of what Confucius believed was the best in all people. Confucius presented an underlying order of justice in his assessment of human existence. If someone were to behave selfishly or treat others poorly, a punishment was not necessary. This individual's life would simply not be one of happiness but one of anxiousness and despair. Contrast this with the concept of punishment awaiting them in the afterlife. Meanwhile someone who lived according to a moral code and followed the Way would find that to be its own reward. This is of particular importance to someone who may have suffered injustice at the hands of others and could be tempted to simply behave in the same manner. In this sense it can argued that a concept of faith can be found in Confucianism, and this may explain its reach and longevity.

The Analects of Confucius Questions and Answers

The Question and Answer section for The Analects of Confucius is a great resource to ask questions, find answers, and discuss the novel.

What reason does Duke Ching of Ch'i give Confucius for dismissing him?

The Duke Ching of Ch'i dismissed Confucius on the bassis that he is too and and has no use for him.

Explain the purpose of the chun tzu?

The purpose of chun tzu, the ideal man, was to reform and improve society.... a man who would embrace morality and knowledge.... a man who would act rationally in opposition to the violent, warring period, in which, Confucius lived. Confucius...

In context, Confucius is warning leaders that they need to take care in the way they utilize their citizens when it comes to advancing the kingdom, as overuse or expectations can easily cause rebellion.

Study Guide for The Analects of Confucius

The Analects of Confucius study guide contains a biography of Confucius, literature essays, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and analysis.

• About The Analects of Confucius
• The Analects of Confucius Summary
• Character List

Essays for The Analects of Confucius

The Analects of Confucius literature essays are academic essays for citation. These papers were written primarily by students and provide critical analysis of the Analects by Confucius.

• The Way in the Chinese Classic Age
• Chinese neo-Confucian vs Aquinas Ethics

Lesson Plan for The Analects of Confucius

• About the Author
• Study Objectives
• Common Core Standards
• Introduction to The Analects of Confucius
• Relationship to Other Books
• Bringing in Technology
• Notes to the Teacher
• Related Links
• The Analects of Confucius Bibliography

E-Text of The Analects of Confucius

The Analects of Confucius e-text contains the full text of The Analects by Confucius.

• Book I. Hsio R.
• Book II. Wei Chang.
• Book III. Pa Yih.
• Book IV. Le Jin.
• Book V. Kung-Ye Ch'ang.

Wikipedia Entries for The Analects of Confucius

• Introduction
• Notable translations

Essay on Confucius Teachings

Introduction

Confucius was a Chinese philosopher and politician who is highly regarded for his contribution to philosophy. His teachings emphasized on morality, social justice, the correctness of social relationships, kindness, and sincerity. Confucius was a believer in the power of studying and he encouraged his students to master books on past events. He believed there was a correlation between past events and issues affecting the society at the present. Confucius’s teachings are still influential especially in the east. In this essay, I will focus on how Confucius taught and passed on his message and some of his teachings on how we should relate with one another.

How Confucius taught

Confucius conducted his lesson orally. His students were mainly adults some of his age. He did not charge for his lessons but would accept payments or gifts from his learners. Confucius would never turn away anyone willing to learn because he appeared empty-handed. However, for one to remain his student, you had to demonstrate a willingness and effort to learn. He would create room for them to think for themselves after a lesson. Confucius was a strong believer in wisdom with action. What he taught had to be practiced and applied in real-life situations (Lai, 2018).

One of the differences that can be noted in Analects and Symposium was that Confucius presented himself as a teacher but Socrates never claimed to be a teacher. Another difference between the two was that Confucius mainly taught by giving talks on various topics. On the other hand, Socrates taught by engaging in debates and dialogues where different opinions were given by those resent (2013).The two philosophers also shared similarities such as they both adapted their teachings to suit their audience abilities. They both encouraged their students to engage in friendly rivalry on various topics in order to teach values (Angle, 2013).

How should we relate to one another?

The concept of ren was one of those advocated for by Confucius. This concept is characterized by humaneness, goodness, and love. The concept requires people to aim to acquire behavior that helps in the flourishing of the community. Yi is the moral disposition to do what is good and just. Together with yen the two form the Confucian way of life. Confucius also believes rituals (li) played a key part in sustaining social order. When the three concepts are applied together, they ensure the development of a society where people are at peace with themselves and their neighbors which makes it easy for the state to govern ((Sarkissian, 2013).

Throughout the Analects, Confucius emphasized on the benefits of honesty and integrity. One should honor their words and recognize their faults in order to become good students and effective leaders. One should not be afraid of admitting when they do not something. Confucius remarks that admitting when you know something and when you do not know something is an indicator of knowledge (Dan & Tyldesley, 2009.) The ideas of xiao are great however; I will modify them slightly to fit into modern times. In modern times, it is not practical to put the needs of parents and elders above everyone else. In modern times society has become more individualized and striking a balance between the needs of your family and those of the elders will serve me better.

Confucius believed that friends were capable of bringing joy to the life of others through joy of rendao or benevolence. When choosing friends we should go for people who are dependable not those who change with the season. Friends should be able to loyally admonish one another and set each other on the right path. We should also choose friends who are as good as we are (Angle, 2013). I agree with Confucius’s ideas on friendship. I believe friends should help keep each other in check by honestly correcting one another. By choosing friends who are equal to us it ensures you do not backslide in your virtues. There are differences in Confucius’s and Aristotle’s views on friendship. Confucius believed friendship should help one maintain or improve their virtue. On the other hand, Aristotle distinguished three types of friendship: for pleasure, of utility, and of virtue.

Angle, S. C. (2013). The Analects and moral theory. Dao Companion to the Analects, 225-257. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7113-0_12

Confucius : The historical context. (n.d.). Confucius, the Analects and Western Education. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781472541079.ch-001

Dan, Y., & Tyldesley, E. (2009). Confucius from the heart: Ancient wisdom for today’s world. Simon & Schuster.

Lai, C. (2018). Confucius and modern China. Confucius and the Modern World, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351268929-1

Sarkissian, H. (2013). Ritual and rightness in the Analects. Dao Companion to the Analects, 95-116. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7113-0_6

Symposium. (2013). Plato: The Man and His Work (RLE: Plato), 223-248. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203101377-14

Cite this page

Similar essay samples.

• A paper reviewing the production of optically active pharmaceutical co...
• Essay on Personal Leadership Assessment
• Essay on the Existence of Hidden-City Tickets
• Essay on Evaluating E-Learning Success
• Essay on Child Obesity
• Developing Effective Graphic Communications

Confucian Ethics Essay

Ethical concerns, ethical and philosophical system of confucianism, application of confucianism, works cited.

Confucianism is a philosophical movement that started from the teachings of a famous Chinese philosopher, Confucius. Some people argue that Confucian was not a philosopher, but rather, a religious leader (Taylor 8).

His works span through several disciplines, including morality, humanity, rationality, and ethics. However, his teaching on human virtues and morality stands out as his most prominent teachings.

These teachings have formed an important part of Chinese society for more than two millennia now. Its impact on Chinese society manifests through the Chinese social and political spheres (Taylor 8).

The influence of Confucianism has also spread to other parts of Asia, including Vietnam, Japan, and Korea.

The teachings also cut across several religions because albeit some Confucians may profess Islam, Buddhism, or Christianity as their main religion, they rarely deny the fact that they are Confucians.

Confucianism developed from the quest by Confucius to retrieve the meaning of the past by using the love of antiquity and the desire to understand why certain rituals (like burial ceremonies) have existed for centuries (Confucius ignores worship, metaphysics, and dogma throughout most of his teachings).

Confucianism derives a lot of faith from the role of culture in upholding human societies, and the continuity of social norms to uphold civilization (Taylor 8).

Indeed, Confucianism adopts a straightforward perspective on approaching people about benevolence, love, compassion, generosity, and other human virtues.

From the basis of its development, Confucianism supersedes other religious influences, like Daoism and Buddhism, to have the greatest impact on Chinese society (Waxman 1). This paper discusses the ethical dimensions of Confucianism by exploring some of its most fundamental ethical pillars.

This analogy works to show how Confucianism relates to the dominant ethical and political vision of society. These findings also analyze a practical social problem of solving leadership dilemmas in most modern democracies (from the Confucian perspective).

Confucianism outlines six important ethical components – Xi, Zhi, Li, Yi, Wen , and ren . These components also have significant connections with one another.

The concept of Xi explores the innate qualities of people by understanding if people are born with a natural tendency to do “good,” or be “evil.” However, in the understanding of Confucianism, “goodness” and” badness” are not contained in the concept of the Xi (Waxman 1).

Instead, Xi encourages people to learn to undertake their duties ethically because ethics is not an innate human trait. The concept of xi also represents the ability of men to instill virtuous qualities among their peers (Waxman 1).

The concept of Zhi refers to the natural substance that defines people’s behaviors. It, however, does not refer to the innate human attributes as described above (in Xi ). Zhi , therefore, refers to the native substance that defines people’s characters.

For example, educational qualifications mirror the concept of Zhi as an acquired character. The acquisition of Zhi , however, depends on a person’s ability to develop their character (self-motivation).

The acquisition of Zhi also depends on whether a person’s behavioral trait aligns with the concept of Li, as described below (Waxman 4).

In most western countries, the concept of Li manifests when teachers teach culturally accepted norms (Waxman 4).

There is, however, a significant contention with the concept of Li because some pundits believe people may mimic cultural traits, without changing their inner traits (moral direction) (Fan 171).

Therefore, there is a widespread fear that Li may not necessarily affect people’s moral behaviors (Waxman 4). Nonetheless, Li also refers to the appreciation of hierarchical order in the society (and the resultant norms that ascribe to this structure).

Li , therefore, motivates people to think and act in socially accepted ways. This happens through “character shaping.” From this redefinition of character, there is a widespread perception of people who have mastered Li as equitable and fair (Fan 171).

An example, of a group of people who have not mastered the concept of Li , may be judges who make their decisions based on their understanding of the law and not the prevailing special circumstances that may skew the application of the law.

However, in a situation where a judge considers the spirit of the law, rather than what the law stipulates; the concept of Li manifests. Indeed, such judges demonstrate a special degree of ethical fairness, thereby demonstrating their mastery of Li .

The concept of Yi refers to issues of morality. However, from the same definition, the concept of Yi also refers to the actions, duties, and righteousness of a person (Waxman 4).

The importance of Yi in understanding the philosophy of Confucianism cannot be overemphasized because Yi has always been an important part of Confucianism. Waxman (5) says that Yi defines the standard by which people measure actions.

However, there is no standard for measuring Yi . Yi, therefore, denotes the object of all learning because it defines the ethical set of principles that define the concept of Confucianism in the first place.

If we were to trace the relationship between Yi and Li , it would be correct to say that Li is the expression of Yi .

Therefore, Yi measures the principles of right actions (as defined in Li ). Stated differently, if a person constantly and harmoniously practices Li , they achieve a perfect balance in life (Waxman 6).

The concept of Wen refers to music, poetry, and other acts that express an act of leisure. Wen criticizes some of these expressions of leisure as lacking virtue (Rosenlee 128).

For example, in the sixties, a popular form of music, bubble gum , lacked purpose and value, but people celebrated it worldwide. Therefore, even though the music was profitable for most companies and artists, its popularity did not advance any useful continuum to the associated genre.

Certainly, many people thought that the cultural impact of such music was very superficial and did not add any values to the advancement of society (Waxman 9). Therefore, Confucianism does not expect people to engage in such activities if they lack virtue.

Instead, Confucianism requires people to embed moral themes in the pursuit of these leisure activities. For example, Confucianism would encourage people to listen to music that has an important message that would promote their personal growth.

Still sticking to the musical example, several types of music meet the above criterion. For example, several music albums such as Pepper (Beatles) had a strong impact on the development of most western societies, as we know them today.

The same type of music still has a profound impact on the way artists write modern music. Comprehensively,

“Since music provides a universal language, it is an effective vehicle for expressing emotion, virtue, and morality. Confucius understands that artistic expression is an opportunity to teach (and remind) people of the perennial virtues which are sometimes forgotten.

Consequently, through the expression of the arts, the community maintains its ethics, compassion, benevolence, and morality” (Waxman 13).

The manifestation of humanity and altruism outlines the concept of Ren . The practice of human behavioral reciprocation provides the best example of the application of Ren because Confucianism stresses on the importance of supporting desirable actions among people (Waxman 6). Ren , therefore, stresses the importance of people loving each other.

Confucianism does not emphasize on the nature of people being good or evil because it says, “men are men born similar, but in practice, they differ” (Waxman 9).

Therefore, although some men may be evil and others are good, the concept of Confucianism acknowledges that their practices and social conditioning mainly influence their actions (Waxman 9).

Waxman (9) adds that some men are often ambitious by pursuing what they want, regardless of whether the outcomes are going to be desirable or undesirable. Confucianism, therefore, emphasizes the importance of cultivating good human values.

The concept for Ren is therefore highly important in understanding the ethics of Confucianism because if people lack Ren , they will not exhibit humane behavior.

In a political dimension, it is correct to say that if a leader acts inhumanely towards his subjects, he runs the risk of losing the right to rule. Waxman (11) says people do not need to obey a ruler who does not exhibit humane behavior.

Instead, people should obey leaders that act humanely. Confucianism does not expose a lot of interest regarding the will of the people here, but it stresses the importance of leaders to consider the contribution of their subjects (Waxman 12).

Another important feature of Confucianism and self-cultivation is the understanding that Confucianism is important in practice and reflection.

This is especially important in making important political decisions because self-cultivation involves a leader’s understanding of his experiences, plus the experiences of other leaders who have been in similar conditions.

This understanding is crucial in comprehending the link between Confucianism and leadership because practice and reflections are important factors in Confucian moral philosophy (Lai 21).

Lai (21) also explains that the Confucius of the Analects is also crucial in understanding the decisions of other leaders, as part of moral philosophy. The Confucius of the Analects also manifests as a key observer of humanity.

Relative to this assertion, Lai (21) says Confucianism helps leaders to not only observe and imitate the behaviors of other leaders but also to evaluate these behaviors critically.

The importance of both observing and reflecting in leadership practice is not only important when seeking a solution to every leadership problem but also in supporting self-cultivation and applying the learned skills in different leadership circumstances.

Therefore, Confucianism helps leaders to reflect on what they have observed and practiced. Relative to this assertion

“Through the exposure to different situations, the Confucian paradigmatic person cultivates sensitivity to the morally weighty factors that arise in these situations. In brief, the three processes, observation, practice, and reflection, are intertwined in Confucian moral cultivation” (Lai 21).

Broadly, if we mirror the above statement to the ethical and moral frameworks that Confucianism supports, it is easy to see how Confucianism is preoccupied with people’s moral development.

Indeed, “It follows that universal — in the forms of normative prescriptions — has a limited place in such a philosophy” (Lai 21).

The application of Confucianism manifests through the justification of people’s actions as they approach different ethical dilemmas. For example, some people have used Confucianism to solve the political issues surrounding authoritarianism in some third-world countries.

Most countries that fail to observe human rights provide the best example for the application of Confucianism because Confucianism helps to explain the actions of leaders in such countries. The actions of these leaders manifest through the understanding of how people develop their characters.

Confucianism stipulates that the best leaders are those that are ethically cultivated because they are the best drivers of political reform (Lai 21).

Their suitability for this purpose is important because leaders who have cultivated a strong “ethical base” are likely to disseminate the same values to their subjects.

This concept closely resembles the concept of wen , which advocates for the inculcation of strong ethical principles that respect humanity. Therefore, the Confucian moral development of political leadership thrives on the commitment of leaders to uphold high levels of human welfare.

This commitment thrives on a leader’s exposure and reflection on ordinary situations that characterize the lives of their subjects.

Experts, therefore, define the moral capability of leaders through their ability to conduct moral deliberation (Lai 21). Therefore, as some of these leaders face varied moral dilemmas, their level of moral development provides them with the best compass for pursuing their political decisions.

Through the pursuant of sound moral decisions, the leaders cultivate ethical principles on their subjects.

The application of Confucianism principles in the political leadership of many countries has been undisputed. For instance, powerful political and military leaders of China use Confucianism principles to influence their judgments.

Ma Fuxiang is one such example of a leader who greatly relied on Confucianism to make his decisions (Lai 22). The influence of Confucianism in modern times also manifests through the adoption of the concept among Hui Muslims of China.

The adoption of Confucianism principles also manifests as a strong reason for the rapid development of most Asian economies like China, Malaysia, and Hong Kong (Lai 22).

For example, the Vietnam War had a significant negative impact on the country’s economy, but unlike other countries that have experienced such a conflict, the Vietnam economy recovered rapidly. The rapid expansion of such an economy traces to the adoption of Confucian principles.

Confucianism is a moral and philosophical construct of human activities and interactions. After weighing the findings of this paper, the concepts of Xi, Zhi, Li, Yi, Wen , and Ren stand out as the main driving forces of this philosophy because they explain humanity and its antecedents.

Confucianism also emphasizes on the ability of people to learn and improve their moral and ethical compasses because the concept finds people to be teachable, improbable, and perfectible (Lai 21).

Personal experiences and communication skills outline the main bridges people may use as self-cultivation and self-creation skills for improving their interactions with other people.

The cultivation of virtues and the maintenance of ethics, therefore, outline the main goal of Confucianism, as practiced by Chinese society.

Fan, R. Reconstructionist Confucianism: Rethinking Morality after the West , New York: Springer, 2010. Print.

Lai, K. “Understanding Confucian Ethics: Reflections on Moral Development.” Australian Journal of Professional and Applied Ethics , 9.2 (2007): 21-27. Print.

Rosenlee, Li-hsiang. Confucianism and Women: A Philosophical Interpretation , New York: SUNY Press, 2007. Print.

Taylor, R. Confucianism , New York: Infobase Publishing, 2009. Print.

Waxman, R. 2013, How-To Practice Confucian Ethics . Web.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, January 3). Confucian Ethics. https://ivypanda.com/essays/confucian-ethics/

"Confucian Ethics." IvyPanda , 3 Jan. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/confucian-ethics/.

IvyPanda . (2024) 'Confucian Ethics'. 3 January.

IvyPanda . 2024. "Confucian Ethics." January 3, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/confucian-ethics/.

1. IvyPanda . "Confucian Ethics." January 3, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/confucian-ethics/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Confucian Ethics." January 3, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/confucian-ethics/.

• World Religions: Confucianism and Its Influence
• Confucian Concept of Ren
• The painting "Planting Chrysanthemums"
• Justice in “Letter to Ren An” by Sima Qian
• How Is Mencius Theory Different Than Confucius?
• Confucius: Life, Teachings, and Legacy
• Ideal Person According to Confucius, LI Philosophy
• The Confucian System and Its Aspects of Life
• Confucius and His Philosophy
• The Expression of "Hong Kong Obsession" in Xi Xi's "Marvels of a Floating City" and Dung Kai Cheung's "The Atlas: Archeology of an Imaginary City"
• ‘The Singularity is Near’ by Ray Kurzweil
• Philosophy: The Creation of Value
• Philosophy's Main Branches
• The Christian State - Views of Luther And Machiavelli
• “Man's Search for Meaning” by Victor Frankl