biodiversity development essay

Why Biodiversity is Essential for Sustainable Development

By Chandler Green on May 21, 2018

A recent UN-supported study compiled by over 550 researchers re-emphasized a dire finding about the state of life on Earth: Species of plants and animals across the globe are disappearing at alarming rates. If not halted, this loss could amount to a sixth mass global extinction in our lifetime. As envisioned by Sustainable Development Goal 15: Life on Land , we must preserve biodiversity and use ecosystems sustainably to ensure the survival of our own species.

We talked to UN Foundation Senior Fellow, Dr. Thomas Lovejoy , who is credited with being the first to use the term “biological diversity” to learn more about why it matters – and is essential to sustainable development. Lovejoy is a tropical and conservation biologist, who has conducted research in the Brazilian Amazon since 1965.

Photo Credit: George Mason University

What is biodiversity?

Thomas Lovejoy: Biodiversity is the collective term for the full variety of life on earth. Many think of it as the total number of species, but it is actually more complex than that. It’s about the genetic diversity within species, the diversity of habitats, and the large biological units known as biomes, such as the coniferous forest biome.

How does biodiversity impact sustainable development?

TL: Without biological diversity, there is no other life on Earth, including our own. Even though we are often oblivious to it, this diversity of life is what provides clean water, oxygen, and all other things that end up being part of our diet, as well as clothing and shelter. It provides a lot of psychological benefits too, which are not much appreciated.

What are the biggest threats to biodiversity?

TL: The biggest threats are habitat destruction and fragmentation, direct harvest, various forms of pollution, and climate change. Biological diversity encompasses all environmental factors, so there are things that are direct threats, like habitat fragmentation. There are also indirect things like the distortion of the nitrogen cycle and the proliferation of dead zones in estuaries and coastal waters around the world. Basically, you can’t solve the biodiversity problem if you don’t solve all those problems as well.

How fast are we seeing species disappear? Which regions are suffering the most loss?

TL: The current rate that is often used, which is 1,000 times the normal rate of extinction, I think actually understates it. We are in the early stages of an exponential curve of loss. By increasing human population and imperfections in the development process, we could lose a substantial amount of life on Earth.

Everyone thinks first and foremost like I do about the Amazon, but that’s not the only tropical forest. There’s no question about it: Tropical forests everywhere are being seriously hammered, particularly in Southeast Asia, Africa, and South America. Another region that may seem surprising is grasslands around the world because they are attractive to people for raising domestic animals. The great irony, of course, is the huge amount of degraded land in the world – that’s why there is a UN desertification convention . We can’t end up with a happy outcome unless we spend a lot of time restoring that degraded land to productivity – and when you do that, you increase biological diversity.

How can we protect biodiversity?

TL: First, I think there needs to be a major shift in perception from thinking of nature as something with a fence around it in the middle of an expansive, human-dominated landscape as opposed to thinking about embedding our aspirations in nature. It means restoring vegetation along watercourses and putting natural connections back into the landscape, so when species begin to move and respond to climate change, there is actually a way for them to do it.

How can protecting biodiversity also help mitigate climate change?

TL: Ecosystem restoration is so important in terms of reducing the carbon load in the atmosphere, which causes global climate change. We now know that the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from destroyed and degraded ecosystems (over the last ~8,000 years) is bigger than we ever knew before. It’s about 450 – 500 gigatons of carbon, which is more than the total amount of carbon dioxide emitted from fossil fuel combustion so far.

But research shows that restored ecosystems could provide up to one-third of the climate mitigation needed by sequestering carbon from the atmosphere. So really, the important shift here is to stop thinking of the planet as a physical system but as a linked biological and physical system.

SDG 15 (Life on Land) will be reviewed at this year’s High-Level Political Forum (HLPF) in 2018. Here, participating countries will present Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs) of progress on this goal and others.

What are some examples of effective policies for SDG 15 you know of?

TL: I am certain that Costa Rica and Botswana serve as outstanding examples. Costa Rica prides itself on being the “Green Republic.” 28% of the country’s territory is protected by national parks. There has also been a lot of reforestation in Costa Rica, in part because of an explicit decision to have an ecosystem services law to tax gasoline and use the revenue to benefit reforestation. As a result, Costa Rica is the first tropical country to have stopped and reversed deforestation: over half of its land is covered by forest, compared to 26% in 1983.

Botswana has recognized that its wilderness and wild animals are an incredible source of economic benefit, so it outlawed the hunting of lions and other trophy hunting. The country has a thriving ecotourism industry. When you think about ecotourism, it’s not just about the people who drive the Volkswagen bus; it is everything that feeds into supporting the tourism industry. And when it’s done right, the revenue reinforces the economic well-being of the people in the region.

What has the international community done to protect biodiversity on a global scale? What are the challenges moving forward?

TL: The Convention on Biological Diversity , which was signed by 150 governments at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, sets targets to halt the loss of biodiversity. Over the last 25 years, we’ve seen the amount of increased protected area in the world grow impressively.

The current set of targets, the Aichi targets , are pretty ambitious. Looking ahead, the big challenge is the 2020 Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biodiversity in China, which will set the next set of targets for the next decade. There may be a reluctance to have ambitious targets because it’s not entirely clear how well we will do on the current ones, but you never know.

When I started working in the Amazon, which is as big as the 48 contiguous United States, there was just one national park in Venezuela. Today, more than half of the Amazon is under some form of protection.

Photo Credit: Global Environment Facility

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Biodiversity Essay

Broadly speaking, biodiversity, also known as biological diversity, refers to various types of plants and animals on Earth. The process of continuous biodiversity conservation is essential right now. A greater level of biodiversity is necessary to maintain the harmony of the natural environment. Here are a few sample essays on biodiversity.

100 Words Essay On Biodiversity

200 words essay on biodiversity, 500 words essay on biodiversity.

The term "biodiversity" is used to describe the variety of plants, animals, and other species found in an environment. All of them have a significant impact on preserving the planet's healthy ecosystem. In order to sustain the health of the ecosystem and human life, it is critical to maintain a high degree of biodiversity.

However, maintaining biodiversity is getting more challenging due to the increasing air, water, and land pollution on our planet. A number of plant and animal species have gone extinct as a result of the quick environmental changes brought on by the aforementioned causes of biodiversity loss.

By encouraging individuals to adopt more environmentally friendly behaviours and practises and to build a more peaceful and sympathetic relationship with the environment, it is possible to preserve biodiversity.

‘Bio’, which stands for life, and ‘diversity’, which means variety, make up the phrase "biodiversity." The diversity of life on Earth is referred to as biodiversity. Living species include all types of plants, animals, microorganisms, and fungus.

Benefits Of Biodiversity

Community engagement to protect biodiversity is crucial. Biodiversity has several economic advantages.

Many parts of the world benefit economically from biodiversity. The tourism and recreation industries are facilitated by biodiversity. National Parks and Natural Reserves gain a lot from it.

The best locations for ecotourism, photography, art, cinematography, and literary works are in forests, animal reserves, and sanctuaries.

Biodiversity is essential for maintaining the gaseous composition of the atmosphere, breaking down waste, and removing contaminants.

Biodiversity helps in improving soil quality.

Types Of Biodiversity

Genetic Biodiversity | Genetic diversity refers to the variance in genes and genotypes within a species, such as how each individual human differs from the others in appearance.

Species Biodiversity | The variety of species found in a habitat or an area is known as species diversity. It is the diversity of life that is seen in a community. Ecosystem Biodiversity | The diversity of plant and animal species that coexist and are linked by food webs and food chains is referred to as ecological biodiversity.

The biological diversity of many plants and animals is essential to everything. However, biodiversity is declining daily for a number of causes. Our planet could no longer be a place to live if it doesn't stop. Thus, several strategies help in boosting the earth's biodiversity. The three main threats to biodiversity today are habitat loss, hunting, and poaching. At an alarming rate, humans are destroying forests, grasslands, reefs and other natural areas.

Hundreds of species that live in these habitats are therefore vanishing every year. Due to population decline caused by illegal hunting and poaching, several species are put under even more stress.

Importance Of Biodiversity

Maintaining biodiversity is crucial for the health of the ecological system. Many species of plants and animals are dependent on each other. As a result, if one becomes extinct, the others will begin to become vulnerable. Additionally, as both plants and animals are necessary for human existence, it is crucial for us as well. For instance, in order to exist, humans require food, which we obtain from plants. We cannot produce any crops if the soil does not provide a conducive climate. As a result, we won't be able to live sustainably on this planet.

Biodiversity in both flora and fauna is essential today. Therefore, to prevent the decrease in species in danger, we need to implement a number of interventions. Furthermore, vehicle pollution should decrease. So that both humans and animals can get fresh air to breathe. Moreover, it will also decrease global warming which is the major cause of the extinction of the species.

How To Preserve Biodiversity

The basic goal of biodiversity conservation is to protect life on earth, all species, the ecosystem, and a healthy environment for all time so that it will continue to be healthy for future generations. The maintenance of the food chain, the provision of a healthy habitat for many animals, including people, and the promotion of our sustainable development all depend heavily on biodiversity conservation.

Here are some ways you can preserve biodiversity:

Set Up Gardens | The simplest approach to increase biodiversity is to build gardens inside of homes. In the yard or even on the balcony, you may grow a variety of plants. Additionally, this would contribute to bringing in more fresh air within the house.

Plant Local Flowers, Fruits And Vegetables | Plant a variety in your backyard or a hanging garden using the native plants, fruits, and vegetables of your region. Nurseries are excellent places to learn about caring for and preserving plants.

3 R’s | Reduce your consumption, reuse what you can, recycle before throwing away.

Since humans consume the majority of biodiversity resources, it is primarily their duty to maintain and safeguard biodiversity in order to save the environment. The diversity of species, the health of the ecosystem, the state of the environment, and the continued viability of life on earth are crucial. By maintaining and safeguarding species, ecosystems, and natural resources, biodiversity conservation can be achieved for the sustainability of a healthy planet. Some rare species can be saved with the help of law enforcement.

All living species are interconnected and can be negatively impacted by one disturbance and therefore maintaining biodiversity is crucial for human survival. Inadequate biodiversity protection puts human life, as well as the lives of plants, animals, and the environment, at danger. As a result, we must make every effort to preserve our biodiversity.

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Data Administrator

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Ethical Hacker

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Data Analyst

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Geothermal Engineer

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Remote Sensing Technician

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Bank Probationary Officer (PO)

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Welding Engineer

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Transportation Planner

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An expert in plumbing is aware of building regulations and safety standards and works to make sure these standards are upheld. Testing pipes for leakage using air pressure and other gauges, and also the ability to construct new pipe systems by cutting, fitting, measuring and threading pipes are some of the other more involved aspects of plumbing. Individuals in the plumber career path are self-employed or work for a small business employing less than ten people, though some might find working for larger entities or the government more desirable.

Construction Manager

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Urban Planner

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Highway Engineer

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Environmental Engineer

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Naval Architect

A Naval Architect is a professional who designs, produces and repairs safe and sea-worthy surfaces or underwater structures. A Naval Architect stays involved in creating and designing ships, ferries, submarines and yachts with implementation of various principles such as gravity, ideal hull form, buoyancy and stability.

Orthotist and Prosthetist

Orthotists and Prosthetists are professionals who provide aid to patients with disabilities. They fix them to artificial limbs (prosthetics) and help them to regain stability. There are times when people lose their limbs in an accident. In some other occasions, they are born without a limb or orthopaedic impairment. Orthotists and prosthetists play a crucial role in their lives with fixing them to assistive devices and provide mobility.

Veterinary Doctor

Pathologist.

A career in pathology in India is filled with several responsibilities as it is a medical branch and affects human lives. The demand for pathologists has been increasing over the past few years as people are getting more aware of different diseases. Not only that, but an increase in population and lifestyle changes have also contributed to the increase in a pathologist’s demand. The pathology careers provide an extremely huge number of opportunities and if you want to be a part of the medical field you can consider being a pathologist. If you want to know more about a career in pathology in India then continue reading this article.

Speech Therapist

Gynaecologist.

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An oncologist is a specialised doctor responsible for providing medical care to patients diagnosed with cancer. He or she uses several therapies to control the cancer and its effect on the human body such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy and biopsy. An oncologist designs a treatment plan based on a pathology report after diagnosing the type of cancer and where it is spreading inside the body.

Audiologist

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Hospital Administrator

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Video Game Designer

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Perspective
Published: 13 May 2021

Biodiversity conservation as a promising frontier for behavioural science

Kristian Steensen Nielsen ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8395-4007 1 ,
Theresa M. Marteau ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3025-1129 2 ,
Jan M. Bauer 3 ,
Richard B. Bradbury ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1245-2763 1 , 4 ,
Steven Broad ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1826-6400 5 ,
Gayle Burgess 5 ,
Mark Burgman 6 ,
Hilary Byerly ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7445-2099 7 ,
Susan Clayton 8 ,
Dulce Espelosin 9 ,
Paul J. Ferraro ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4777-5108 10 ,
Brendan Fisher 11 , 12 ,
Emma E. Garnett ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1664-9029 1 , 13 ,
Julia P. G. Jones 14 ,
Mark Otieno 15 , 16 ,
Stephen Polasky ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4934-2434 17 , 18 ,
Taylor H. Ricketts 11 , 12 ,
Rosie Trevelyan 19 ,
Sander van der Linden ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0269-1744 20 ,
Diogo Veríssimo 21 &
Andrew Balmford 1

Nature Human Behaviour volume 5 , pages 550–556 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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Environmental studies
Human behaviour
Psychology and behaviour
Sustainability

Human activities are degrading ecosystems worldwide, posing existential threats for biodiversity and humankind. Slowing and reversing this degradation will require profound and widespread changes to human behaviour. Behavioural scientists are therefore well placed to contribute intellectual leadership in this area. This Perspective aims to stimulate a marked increase in the amount and breadth of behavioural research addressing this challenge. First, we describe the importance of the biodiversity crisis for human and non-human prosperity and the central role of human behaviour in reversing this decline. Next, we discuss key gaps in our understanding of how to achieve behaviour change for biodiversity conservation and suggest how to identify key behaviour changes and actors capable of improving biodiversity outcomes. Finally, we outline the core components for building a robust evidence base and suggest priority research questions for behavioural scientists to explore in opening a new frontier of behavioural science for the benefit of nature and human wellbeing.

Biodiversity and the challenge of pluralism

Unai Pascual, William M. Adams, … Esther Turnhout

The global conservation movement is diverse but not divided

Chris Sandbrook, Janet A. Fisher, … Aidan Keane

The evolution and future of research on Nature-based Solutions to address societal challenges

Thomas Dunlop, Danial Khojasteh, … Stefan Felder

A recent global synthesis estimates that 75% of Earth’s land surface has been fundamentally altered by human activities, 66% of the ocean has been negatively affected, and 85% of wetland areas have been lost 1 . The combined effects of land-use change and habitat fragmentation, overharvesting, invasive species, pollution and climate change have resulted in an average decline in monitored populations of vertebrates of nearly 70% since 1970 and extinction rates that are orders of magnitude higher than the average seen in the geological record 2 , 3 , 4 . The threats to species are so severe that there is growing scientific consensus that we are entering the sixth mass extinction—the fifth being the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago that eliminated all non-avian dinosaurs 5 .

The rapid degradation of ecosystems and associated loss of species is of profound importance for at least three reasons. First, there are powerful moral arguments that people should not cause the avoidable extinction of perhaps one million or more species 6 . It is beyond the scope of this paper to describe such arguments, but philosophers have discussed the ethics of biodiversity conservation 7 , 8 , 9 and social scientists have identified public support for assigning moral value to nature 10 , 11 , 12 . Second, human prosperity depends on wild habitats and species for a host of essential benefits, from climate regulation, biogeochemical and flood regulation to food production and the maintenance of mental wellbeing 13 , 14 . Their deterioration thus presents an existential challenge 1 . Third, evidence suggests that pandemics resulting from greater disease transmission between humans and wild animals 15 , 16 will become more regular features of the future unless our interactions with wild species changes fundamentally 15 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 . The COVID-19 pandemic—with devastating effects on societies and economies worldwide—most probably emerged from interactions between people and wild animals in China and illustrates the unforeseen consequences that can arise from human encroachment into wild habitats and from poorly regulated exploitation of biodiversity 17 , 21 .

Humanity’s impacts on biodiversity are the result of our actions, from unsustainable wildlife harvesting to the rising demand for environmentally damaging foods 1 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 . Importantly, these actions are undertaken by actors in myriad roles—including consumers, producers and policymakers—who directly or indirectly impact ecosystems and wild species 26 . For example, the rapid clearance of the Amazon is driven by the actions of consumers across the globe who eat beef, regional policymakers who undervalue forest retention, and ultimately local ranchers who are incentivised to convert forest to pasture 27 , 28 . Similarly, the illegal trade in wildlife (for example, rhino horn, pangolin scales, tiger bones and elephant ivory) involves suppliers who hunt the animals, intermediaries (and perhaps corrupt enforcement agents) who facilitate trade and transport the products to market, and domestic and international consumers 24 , 29 , 30 , 31 . The impacts of people’s behaviour on biodiversity are of course not only manifest in less developed countries. For example, the continued illegal persecution of birds of prey in UK uplands is the result of choices by some gamekeepers to shoot and poison raptors to limit their predation of red grouse, by some hunters to pay exceptionally high prices for large daily ‘bags’ of grouse, and by policymakers to resist attempts at tighter regulation of the shooting industry 32 .

Because human activities are responsible for driving ecosystem decline, reversing current trends will require profound and persistent changes to human behaviour across actors and scales 33 . Despite its critical importance, the science of behaviour change has not been a principal focus of research in conservation science and is rarely applied in practical efforts to address major threats to biodiversity (for example, habitat loss and degradation, overharvesting of resources and species, and invasive species) 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 (A.B. et al., manuscript in preparation). Conservation scientists (defined broadly to include researchers across the natural and social sciences seeking to understand and mitigate these threats) have generally been slow to incorporate evidence from behavioural science into their theories and interventions 33 , 36 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 . Conversely, biodiversity conservation has also not been a strong focus of study for behavioural scientists (defined broadly to include those engaged in the scientific study of behaviour across diverse disciplines, including psychology, sociology, economics, anthropology and political science). One exception is research on common-pool resource management and commons dilemmas, which has a long history tracing back to the 1970s 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 . This research tradition has tackled issues closely linked to biodiversity conservation and foreshadows many contemporary and interdisciplinary analyses. More recently, social-marketing techniques have been used to tackle a variety of biodiversity problems and their potential is increasingly recognised 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 . For example, a recent study in the Philippines, Indonesia and Brazil used locally tailored social-marketing campaigns to shift social norms and increase sustainable fishing among communities of small-scale fisheries 50 . But while the number of successful applications of behavioural science to biodiversity conservation is increasing, they remain rare and often suffer from methodological limitations 51 . The conservation evidence base is consequently patchy and generally poorly informed by behavioural science 36 , 52 .

Meanwhile, in other contexts, behavioural science has made substantial gains in understanding how to encourage prosocial behaviour, including actions that ultimately affect biodiversity outcomes. A growing body of research related to climate change suggests the importance of social norms, risk communication, emotion and choice architecture in changing behaviour 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 . Behavioural science has been incorporated into some public efforts to encourage sustainable land management in the United States and the European Union 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 . Nevertheless, there are still few applications of behavioural science to explicitly address the most important proximate causes of biodiversity loss. Behavioural insights from research related to climate change, land management, consumer behaviour, voting, collective action and programme enrolment can inform the multi-scale approach needed to deliver effective biodiversity conservation, but this research has not been systematically linked to address biodiversity conservation problems. Moreover, the literature is heavily focused on households and is not well-developed for other important actors 57 , 63 . We therefore see unrealised potential for behavioural science to address the escalating biodiversity crisis.

Increasing scientific engagement

Behavioural scientists might be motivated to become engaged in biodiversity conservation research for at least three reasons. First, biodiversity conservation is essential for the long-term prosperity of people and nature. Its particular characteristics (see below) mean that it would be unhelpful simply to adopt behaviour-change interventions found effective in other domains: indeed, these do not necessarily generalize to biodiversity conservation 52 , 64 . Instead, the field offers a new arena for exploring important research questions and for testing novel interventions. Behavioural science research that focuses specifically on biodiversity conservation can contribute to the mitigation of a global and existential threat.

Second, engaging in biodiversity conservation research offers behavioural scientists a chance to investigate theories and interventions in new contexts and populations 65 , 66 , 67 . A key requirement for increasing the generalizability of behavioural science is to ramp up research activities outside North America, Australia and Europe 68 , 69 . Due to the importance of the tropics for biodiversity, the focus of many conservation interventions is in Africa, Latin America and Asia, providing opportunities to test theory and interventions in contexts which are less ‘WEIRD’ (western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic). A related challenge is the need to shift behaviours of many different kinds of actors. Behaviour-change interventions in other sectors have been criticised for being too narrowly focused on end-users 70 , 71 : Conservation problems provide opportunities for targeting the behaviours of a far broader array of stakeholders. Moreover, conserving biodiversity often requires coordinated action across local, national and global actors, heterogeneous cultures and divergent financial interests, with the benefits of conservation commonly accruing to geographically and psychologically distant communities and indeed non-human species.

Finally, conservation scientists and practitioners are keen to collaborate more with behavioural scientists 72 , 73 . An increasing number of conservation scientists and practitioners recognise the need for stronger integration with behavioural science in order to design interventions that are grounded in greater understanding of the social, motivational and contextual drivers of people’s actions 33 , 39 , 74 , 75 . Naturally, as with all interdisciplinary collaborations, these collaborations will have their challenges 75 . However, recent examples show that effective collaborations can produce novel and mutually beneficial research that suggests practical routes to achieving behaviour change for biodiversity conservation 50 , 64 , 76 , 77 , 78 .

The remainder of this Perspective seeks to encourage greater engagement of behavioural scientists in conservation-targeted research and practice. We first highlight the diversity of actors involved in threats to biodiversity and the scope of behaviour changes required. In doing so, we propose routes to identifying key behaviour changes and prioritising among them on the basis of their potential for improving biodiversity outcomes. We suggest research questions for better understanding how to influence different actors’ behaviours and for improving conservation interventions, and close by making recommendations for how to expand the conservation evidence base systematically.

Identifying key actors and behaviour changes

Threats to biodiversity are rarely caused by a single action of a single actor. Rather, they typically result from multiple behaviours by multiple actors over large spatial and temporal scales 36 , 79 . It can thus be very challenging to identify those behaviour changes with the greatest promise of being achieved and of positively impacting biodiversity. Doing so requires specifying conservation targets (e.g., particular populations or ecosystems), and then systematically considering the proximate causes and underlying drivers of threats to them, the actors involved (for example, producers and consumers), and the harmful behaviours performed by those actors 26 , 39 , 45 , 80 .

The proximate threats to wild species and the places they live can be categorised into four main groups: habitat loss and degradation, overharvesting, invasive species, and climate change and pollution 81 , 82 , 83 . These threats also interact, with species or ecosystems commonly impacted by multiple threats, sometimes with amplifying effects. For example, the spread of some invasive plants is thought to be exacerbated by elevated nitrogen deposition and atmospheric CO 2 concentrations 84 , 85 . Proximate threats are driven by broader societal processes, including rising demand for food and consumer goods, weak local, national and international institutions that struggle to ensure the protection of public goods (including against corrupt actors), population growth and the growing disconnect of people from nature due to increasing urbanization and indoor recreation 86 . Many of the interventions conservationists deploy to tackle proximate threats, such as removing invasive species, restoring wetlands or propagating threatened species in captivity, are not primarily about changing people’s behaviour (although even in these examples those carrying out the management actions must be trained and incentivised, and behaviours must change if these threats are not to recur). However, given the pervasive importance of human activities in conservation problems, many interventions do involve attempts to alter behaviour. If behavioural science is to improve the effectiveness of these efforts, an important first step is to identify the main actors responsible for a given threat and the changes in their behaviour that might be required to alleviate it.

One tool for mapping the actors and behaviours impacting a conservation target is to build a threat chain (A.B. et al., manuscript in preparation). This is a simplified summary of knowledge of the reasons for the unfavourable status of a species or ecosystem, from changes in ecological dynamics to the socioeconomic mechanisms thought to be responsible, and their underlying drivers. Once this putative causal chain has been constructed, the main actors in the chain can be identified, along with changes in their behaviour that might potentially reduce the particular threat. Where conservation targets are impacted by multiple threats this process can be repeated, with the likely impact of different behaviour changes compared across threats in order to identify the most promising interventions for delivering those changes.

Using Amazon deforestation (as an example of habitat loss) for illustration 27 , 28 (Fig. 1 , red boxes), the extirpation of forest-dependent species and ecosystem processes resulting from conversion to pasture has been caused (inter alia) by a combination of rising global demand for beef, poor pasture and livestock management, the absence of incentives for forest retention and the practice of establishing de facto land tenure via forest clearance. Underlying drivers include weak governance at multiple levels and rising per capita demand for beef among a growing population in Brazil and beyond. Potential behaviour changes that might be targeted to reduce deforestation (blue boxes) include increased enforcement of forest protection legislation by government agencies, improved pasture and stock management by ranchers, a reduction in per capita demand for beef among domestic and international consumers, and an accelerated decline in human population growth in high-consumption countries.

This example characterizes (in red boxes) the threat to the Amazon forest from conversion to cattle pasture. Potentially beneficial changes in the behaviours are in blue boxes. This threat chain addresses only one of several interacting threats impacting the conservation target. The threat chain model is adapted from Balmford et al. 26 .

As a heuristic, we conducted this threat-mapping exercise for 12 examples chosen to represent different threat processes and the diversity of ecological and socioeconomic contexts in which they arise (A.B. et al., manuscript in preparation). We identified nine main clusters of actors (rows in Fig. 2 ), classified by how their behaviour impacts conservation targets. Producers and extractors of natural resources, conservation managers and consumers are commonly identified as targets for behaviour-change interventions in conservation and other sectors. However, we also identified other actor groupings, including manufacturers and sellers, investors, policymakers, voters, communicators and lobbyists, all of whom may have considerable—usually indirect—influences on conservation outcomes, yet are commonly overlooked when it comes to behaviour-change interventions. Because our clusters of actors are operationally defined, they align well with the diversity of behaviour changes we identified (Fig. 2 , right column), including reducing consumers’ purchases of high-footprint items and directing investors’ investments towards less damaging production technologies. Our clusters can also be mapped onto more conventional organisational groups (such as citizens or businesses; Fig. 2 , ‘Actor—defined by group’ columns), but because such organizational groups impact conservation targets in heterogeneous ways, their correspondence with behaviour changes is much weaker than for our typology.

Actors classified according to their behavioural impacts on conservation targets (rows) and by their organizational affiliation. NGO, non-governmental organization.

Prioritising behaviour changes

After examining all major threats to a given conservation target and identifying promising behaviour changes involving specified actors, the next step is to prioritise behaviour changes and, in turn, the interventions potentially capable of achieving them. We suggest this should focus on two main characteristics that together determine the impact of behaviour-change interventions 57 , 87 . The first is the target behaviour’s potential, if changed, to improve the state of the conservation objective (by analogy with the climate change literature, its technical potential). In the Amazon example (Fig. 1 ), both enforcing forest protection laws and providing herd management support that is conditional on ranchers stopping clearance might be considered to have greater technical potential than slowing population growth in beef-consuming countries (which may have only limited effect if per capita demand continues to rise). Prioritising behaviours for research and intervention on the basis of their technical potential—considered an omission in behavioural science contributions to climate change mitigation 57 , 88 , 89 , 90 —ensures that resources and efforts are allocated toward the behaviours with the greatest potential to effectively mitigate biodiversity threats.

The second aspect to consider in prioritization is the behaviour’s plasticity, which refers to the degree to which a target behaviour can be changed by a specified intervention 57 . For example, to what extent can behaviour-change interventions increase the share of plant-based food in overseas or Brazilian diets, or improve the cattle and pasture management of Amazonian farmers? Due to the current paucity of conservation-focused behaviour-change interventions, good estimates of behavioural plasticity will often be lacking. Instead, it will often be necessary to use evidence from interventions targeting comparable behaviours relating to other actors, contexts or domains until more direct data become available 87 . Although considerations of technical potential and behavioural plasticity should guide the selection of behaviours to study and intervene against, we note that additional considerations may become pertinent when selecting interventions for implementation (for example, feasibility, stakeholder support and costs) 91 , 92 , 93 .

Given the range of actors involved in causing ecosystem change and the complexity of their behaviour, standalone behaviour-change interventions are unlikely to effectively mitigate a biodiversity threat (as illustrated in Fig. 1 ). Individual-level interventions—for example, targeting specific farmers, manufacturers, or investors—may well form an important part of the solution, but they will usually be insufficient on their own. For example, successfully incentivising ranchers in one Amazonian municipality to retain their remaining forests will be of little benefit to biodiversity if prevailing market failure or weak institutions continue to incentivise forest clearance elsewhere. Tackling more systemic drivers, such as environmentally damaging subsidy regimes, corporate interests, poor governance and persistent norms, also necessitates population-level interventions that can alter economic systems, institutional systems and physical infrastructure. Importantly, the intent here is not to undermine the legitimacy of individual-level interventions—quite the contrary. Systemic changes also cannot be achieved without individual-level behaviour changes and support 57 , 94 , 95 . Different levels of intervention must work in concert, which requires a holistic understanding of the determinants of human behaviour.

Building a robust evidence base

Generating evidence on behaviour-change interventions for biodiversity conservation demands a mix of methods, including experimental and observational studies using quantitative and qualitative techniques 96 , 97 , 98 . Critically, to build an evidence base, these studies must be based on mapping and synthesizing the existing literature 99 . They also need to be embedded in relevant conceptual or theoretical frameworks, coupled with a theory of change, and designed with the statistical power to answer the study questions. This might include, for example, taking a systems perspective 98 , as well as using a taxonomy or typology of interventions 100 , 101 .

Behavioural responses and the effectiveness of interventions are likely to vary between social and cultural contexts. Assessing the effect size of interventions in different settings will be key to building a robust evidence base that has global application. Improving the cross-cultural profile of behavioural science evidence is thus imperative, and particularly so for biodiversity conservation, where many problems are centred outside Europe and North America. Achieving this will, however, be challenging given that the research capacity in behavioural science remains low in high-income countries and even lower elsewhere. International partnerships will therefore be an important strand of building capacity across regions.

Emergent research questions

Given that behavioural science research into conservation-related problems is still in its infancy, many important questions remain unanswered. In this final section, we outline four higher-order questions that we believe could impact the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing people’s negative impacts on biodiversity, natural habitats and the services provided by ecosystems. While these questions can apply to prosocial behaviour more broadly, we believe that there is considerable merit in tackling them within the context of biodiversity conservation, in part through devising and testing novel interventions in the field. This will necessitate close collaboration between behavioural scientists and conservation scientists and practitioners.

The first research question deals with prioritization. As with climate change interventions, there is a clear need for a more systematic understanding of the technical potential of different behaviour changes: which ones, if delivered, would be most likely to reduce a threat and thereby enhance the status of the conservation target, taking into account other threats it faces 80 , 91 ? Given the focus of many recent environmental interventions on appealing, tractable but relatively low-impact behaviour changes (for example, eating more locally grown food or avoiding plastic drinking straws), such prioritization is badly needed 88 , 90 . One challenge in identifying priorities may be the complexity of conservation outcomes: estimating probable impacts of behaviour changes on highly interconnected ecosystems may be more difficult than impacts on greenhouse gas levels 80 , but we suggest that this is a surmountable problem. A further consideration here is how far a behaviour change addressing one conservation issue might reduce (or indeed increase) threats to other conservation targets 102 .

The remaining research questions are all aimed at improving our understanding of the plasticity of priority behaviours (that is, those with high technical potential to improve biodiversity outcomes 91 ). Our second suggested question is which interventions work best to alter priority behaviours, and how does this vary across contexts? One key aspect is exploring how the suitability of behaviour-change interventions varies with the level of deliberation and perceived importance of the decision being made. Consider contrasting interventions aimed at increasing how often consumers buy sustainably (rather than unsustainably) sourced fish. For someone making a weekly shopping trip such a choice may be performed with limited deliberation, which means that interventions targeting automatic decision-making processes may be effective 103 . However, for other actors, such as supply-chain managers making bulk purchases for supermarkets, different interventions—perhaps motivated by limiting reputational risk—will probably be required. At the level of decision makers designing national or international fisheries policy, other sorts of interventions 104 —potentially linked to cessation or realignment of taxpayer subsidies—might need to be considered.

This example also illustrates our third suggested research question: how does the effectiveness of behaviour-change interventions vary with the financial and psychological costs of the change for the target actor? Differences in motivation will be important here. In some instances, actors may benefit directly from pro-conservation behaviour (for example, because eating more sustainably sourced fish aligns with health values, or keeping their pet cat indoors reduces its risk of injury). But sometimes those choices may carry costs (for example, sustainable seafood may be more expensive or difficult to source). In the case of the supermarket chains, there may be financial and administrative costs to switching suppliers, at least over the short term. Policymakers will also face strong lobbying pressure to continue to support the policy status quo. Clearly, different interventions will be needed across such diverse contexts. Varied interventions may also be needed within actor groups. For example, supermarket chains may differ in their motivations, knowledge, demographics and other interests in ways that warrant different types of behaviour-change interventions.

Lastly, how can practitioners design interventions to ensure that behaviour changes persist over the long term? Although many intervention studies do not evaluate persistence over time, those that do commonly observe that effectiveness wanes 105 , 106 , 107 . In some contexts, it might be possible to design one-off interventions with long-lasting effects, but in others, delivering lasting change may necessitate recurring rounds of intervention or the repeated introduction of novel interventions. Better understanding the persistence of intervention effects will be key to sustaining beneficial behaviour change.

Many more questions will emerge as this field develops. Addressing them will require fresh partnerships and continued commitment to work across disciplines and in unfamiliar circumstances. Such partnerships may follow recommendations for interdisciplinary collaborations around biodiversity conservation 108 , 109 or be inspired by existing programmes and networks (some of which collaborate closely with practitioners), such as the Cambridge Conservation Initiative, Center for Behavioral and Experimental Agri-environmental Research, and Science for Nature and People Partnership. We submit that there are few other opportunities where behavioural scientists have such potential to tackle one of the great challenges of our age. We hope this Perspective can help inspire this critical work.

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Acknowledgements

We are grateful for funding from the Cambridge Conservation Initiative Collaborative, Fund and Arcadia, RSPB and the Gund Institute for Environment, University of Vermont. A.B. is supported by a Royal Society Wolfson Research Merit award. E.E.G. was supported by a NERC studentship (grant number NE/L002507/1). We thank P. C. Stern for helpful discussion and feedback.

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All authors contributed to the conceptualization of the research. K.S.N., T.M.M. and A.B. wrote the manuscript. The other contributing authors (J.M.B., R.B.B., S.B., G.B., M.B., H.B., S.C., D.E., P.J.F., B.F., E.E.G., J.P.G.J., M.O., S.P., T.H.R., R.T., S.v.d.L. and D.V.) provided critical comments and revisions. All authors approved the final manuscript.

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Nielsen, K.S., Marteau, T.M., Bauer, J.M. et al. Biodiversity conservation as a promising frontier for behavioural science. Nat Hum Behav 5 , 550–556 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01109-5

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SDG15: The essential links between biodiversity and sustainable development

Author: guest contributor.

Environmental policy experts Dr Malgorzata Blicharska and Richard Smithers discuss the key role that biodiversity plays in contributing to the Sustainable Development Goals, and how this links to the upcoming post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework negotiations being discussed at the UN Biodiversity Conference (COP15) in December 2022.

Could you outline briefly how biodiversity and sustainable development are related?

People benefit from biodiversity in many ways that are under-appreciated or ignored. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (‘the 2030 Agenda’) comprises 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) but only explicitly mentions biodiversity in two goals relating to “Life below water” (SDG14) and “Life on land” (SDG15). However, we have identified many sources of robust evidence that biodiversity may contribute directly to ten SDGs and indirectly to the remainder (Blicharska et al. 2019, Nature Sustainability https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-019-0417-9 ).

Biodiversity’s direct contributions to sustainable development are numerous and wide-ranging. For example, a diversity of pollinators ensures crop pollination, and a third of global food production is dependent on them (which links clearly to SDG2). Microorganisms also contribute to waste management (SDG12), and many species have inspired people to develop new products and ways of doing things (SDG9). Biodiversity has also many impacts on health (SDG3), for example, vegetation is important for air and water quality, microorganisms are crucial for our immune system and green areas can reduce stress and promote a healthier lifestyle.

Perhaps less obvious are the ways in which biodiversity indirectly supports sustainable development. By maintaining and supporting increased food production, biodiversity can play a vital role in reducing poverty (SDG1), preventing hunger (SDG2) and improving health (SDG 3). Tree cover can counter the urban heat-island effect in cities (SDG 11), reducing children’s cumulative exposure to heat and thereby support better school performance (SDG 4). In developing countries, women’s greater knowledge of a wide range of crops and wild sources (SDG 2) can strengthen their societal role and promote gender equity (SDG 5). Ultimately, such indirect contributions by biodiversity to education (SDG 4) and gender equality (SDG 5) may, in turn, also help to reduce inequalities more generally (SDG 10).

How are the Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) and the SDGs related to each other?

Over the past two decades, there has been increasing recognition of the need to ensure coherence between the international agenda for sustainable development and for biodiversity. In 2008, the Millennium Development Goals incorporated the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) target “to achieve by 2010 a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss […] as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of life on earth”. Subsequently, in 2015, the 2030 agenda included the SDGs on “Life below water” and “Life on land”. The CBD Secretariat and others analysed how the CBD Strategic Plan’s Aichi Targets are reflected in SDGs and associated targets and identified ways in which the 2030 Agenda may ameliorate drivers of biodiversity loss and improve associated governance. It highlighted that biodiversity may contribute to the achievement of a number of SDGs and to some of their targets. In December 2016, the thirteenth Conference of the Parties to the CBD called for integration of national strategies and plans regarding the 2030 Agenda with those addressing the Aichi targets.

Could you comment on how the SDGs and the GBF might be implemented at national or subnational scales?

Our study identified that biodiversity may contribute to fulfilling SDGs at different scales, which has implications for governance at all levels. Almost all biodiversity’s direct contributions to fulfilling SDGs are delivered at the local and sub-national scale but effective interventions to maintain or restore individual countries’ biodiversity at this scale may also require national, transboundary and international actions. A country’s starting point may limit its future biodiversity potential and possibilities for achieving sustainable development, so a first step for sustainable development could be that countries each systematically identify specific interactions between their biodiversity and SDGs to identify mutually beneficial actions. This could then inform integration of their national biodiversity plans in relation to the GBF and national development plans regarding the SDGs rather than maintaining the continuing incoherence of policy development and implementation to no great effect.

Biodiversity could be mainstreamed in existing national and sub-national policy processes at a sectoral level, as biodiversity contributes to sustainable development in many sectors, including agricultural production, health, water management, economic development and urban planning. Such processes could also establish arrangements with neighbouring countries in order to maintain transboundary biodiversity benefits, including those related to water quantity and quality associated with river basins and forest cover.

In your view, what is the most important issues that needs to be discussed at the upcoming UN Biodiversity Conference (COP15)?

Our civilisation’s ever-growing use of resources at the expense of the biodiversity and climate that underpins it, increasingly compromises the ability of future generations to meet their own needs and are a growing existential threat. At the upcoming UN Biodiversity Conference (COP15) and UN Climate Change Conference (COP27), it is vital that discussions focus in earnest on the extent to which biodiversity, climate change and sustainable development are inextricably linked. We believe that there is an urgent need to develop an integrated global framework agreed by all the World’s countries that unifies global goals for biodiversity, climate change and sustainable development. Only through coherent implementation of national, transboundary and international actions can we hope to maintain and restore biodiversity, mitigate and adapt to climate change and develop in ways that ensure our future.

Visit our SDG15 hub for selected research content and more discussions around Life on Land.

About the authors.

Dr Malgorzata Blicharska is a Senior Lecturer/Associate Professor at Department of Earth Sciences, Programme of Natural Resources and Sustainable Development, Uppsala University, Sweden. She currently works on numerous issues linked to sustainable development, including implementation of environmental policies, biodiversity conservation conflicts, environmental attitudes (governance aspects and management measures in fish conservation and habitat restoration, socio-economic valuation of recreational fisheries), ecological and socio-economic assessment of ecosystem services, implementation of the ecosystem services concept and Sustainable Development Goals.

Richard Smithers is the Technical Director - Climate Adaptation Lead at Ricardo Energy & Environment, a global sustainability consultancy. He is an international expert on climate adaptation and ecosystem-based issues with wide-ranging experience in: evidence and policy development; policy, programme and technical monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment; systematic rapid evidence assessment; natural resource management; and stakeholder involvement. Work that he leads for national and subnational governmental organisations frequently considers co-benefits and trade-offs between climate action and sustainable development, including with regard to biodiversity.

Guest Contributors include Springer Nature staff and authors, industry experts, society partners, and many others. If you are interested in being a Guest Contributor, please contact us via email: [email protected] .

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Essay on Biodiversity for Students and Children

500+ words essay on biodiversity.

Essay on Biodiversity – Biodiversity is the presence of different species of plants and animals on the earth. Moreover, it is also called biological diversity as it is related to the variety of species of flora and fauna. Biodiversity plays a major role in maintaining the balance of the earth.

Furthermore, everything depends upon the biological diversity of different plants and animals. But due to some reasons, biodiversity is decreasing day by day. If it does not stop then our earth could no longer be a place to live in. Therefore different measures help in increasing the biodiversity of the earth.

Methods to Increase Biodiversity

Building wildlife corridors- This means to build connections between wildlife spaces. In other words, many animals are incapable to cross huge barriers. Therefore they are no able to migrate the barrier and breed. So different engineering techniques can make wildlife corridors. Also, help animals to move from one place to the other.

Set up gardens- Setting up gardens in the houses is the easiest way to increase biodiversity. You can grow different types of plants and animals in the yard or even in the balcony. Further, this would help in increasing the amount of fresh air in the house.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Protected areas- protected areas like wildlife sanctuaries and zoo conserve biodiversity. For instance, they maintain the natural habitat of plants and animals. Furthermore, these places are away from any human civilization. Therefore the ecosystem is well maintained which makes it a perfect breeding ground for flora and fauna. In our country, their various wildlife sanctuaries are build that is today spread over a vast area. Moreover, these areas are the only reason some of the animal species are not getting extinct. Therefore the protected areas should increase all over the globe.

Re-wilding – Re-wilding is necessary to avert the damage that has been taking place over centuries. Furthermore, the meaning of re-wilding is introducing the endangered species in the areas where it is extinct. Over the past years, by various human activities like hunting and cutting down of trees the biodiversity is in danger. So we must take the necessary steps to conserve our wildlife and different species of plants.

Importance of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is extremely important to maintain the ecological system. Most Noteworthy many species of plants and animals are dependent on each other.

Therefore if one of them gets extinct, the others will start getting endangered too. Moreover, it is important for humans too because our survival depends on plants and animals. For instance, the human needs food to survive which we get from plants. If the earth does not give us a favorable environment then we cannot grow any crops. As a result, it will no longer be possible for us to sustain on this planet.

Biodiversity in flora and fauna is the need of the hour. Therefore we should take various countermeasures to stop the reduction of endangering of species. Furthermore, pollution from vehicles should decrease. So that animals can get fresh air to breathe. Moreover, it will also decrease global warming which is the major cause of the extinction of the species.

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Biodiversity: Importance and Benefits Essay

Evolution is the process of developing new structures over time and ages. There could be a misconception that evolution is all about change in the physical properties of man. For example we may think that evolution is all about a man developing from simple cell microorganisms through levels like monkeys to what he is today. Though this is a fact in the face of contemporary views on evolution, it is not the only aspect of evolution in question.

Change in so many structures of the earth has lead to many other forms of evolution resulting from the forces acting from these changes. Change in character is also a form of evolution; change in tendencies is also a form of evolution and, change in views and conceptions about certain issues is also a form of evolution and so many other things which are evolutions in their own way. In brief, we talk about change as a result of time and other forces when we talk about evolution. (Greig-Gran, 256-312)

Human beings have a tendency to value long term benefits over short term benefits. Short term benefits are the benefits that someone receives after a short period of time while long term benefits are the ones that one gets after a long period as the term itself points out. Mostly, people prefer to venture in short term benefits rather than long term benefits whether in business or any other activity which they engage in (Patent 46-59).

Over time people have changed from preferring long term benefits to preferring short term but this is not absolute since there are also changes from short term to long term. For example, people have evolved from preferring huntering and gathering to cultivation of crops which take a longer period of time to reap or harvest. This helps them to survive in a world where food supply is decreasing day after day. Initially people thought of long term benefits and that is why they reproduced.

How ever, most of the changes have been a shift from preferring long term benefit to preferring short term benefits. The technological advancements are some of the causes for this change. For example in the field of agriculture, people have developed new breeds that develop faster and that take a short time to grow and be harvested. Where the concept of shortening the time came from is a matter of time also and simply a matter of evolution though it may also been caused by some forces acting on the environment. (Greig-Gran 256-312)

Technological advancements have also contributed to this shift. Increase in population is also a factor that leads to such a change. People have mated at very high rates and this calls for increased amounts of food. There has been an evolution from growing long term crops to growing crops that a very short period of time to develop completely. People have started to use fertilizers to speed up the growth; genetically modified crops which grow first are replacing the normal crops that used to take a long time to develop.

This is due to the fact that man is evolving from the tendency of valuing long term benefits to a tendency of valuing short terms benefits. This kind of crops did not exist before, but they are common today. This and many others illustrate that man has changed or evolved from valuing long term benefits to valuing short term benefits and there is no going back because evolution does not regress and besides its evident that we are moving ahead and not backwards. (Patent 46-59).

So how can we quantify biodiversity? The view of so many people is that we should not question the importance of natural provisions. But we have to understand that human nature benefits from these provisions whether in the long term or in the short term. This way, he should also conserve biodiversity and we must know the worth of biodiversity. The cost benefit analysis can be used to do this. Through this we can know how changes in biodiversity can affect the welfare of human nature. These changes in biodiversity can be influenced by man in one way or the other and this is why the cost and benefits of this activities or actions have to be calculated.

For example in the year 1995, Alaskan gray wolfs which had been extinct from 1930 were re-introduced in the Yellowstone national park. The cost here had to be calculated because it is an activity that involves spending. The benefits have to be compared to the cost of the operation. Short term benefits and long term benefits should be assessed. (Greig-Gran 256-312)

Three quantities can be use to determine the worth of conserving biodiversity. These are direct use value, indirect use value and non use value. From this we can come up with a relationship to determine the value of biodiversity. Thus

Value (Benefits) of conserving biodiversity = direct use value +indirect use value +non use value.

Where, direct use refers to the present and the expected benefits of the program in comparison to the cost involved. In this case we will consider the value of preserving biodiversity. Thus

Direct use=Expected benefits-cost of operation

Indirect use value is the value of those things that can not be bought or sold but have some benefits. In ecosystems, these values include the carbon cycle, purification of air, preservation of water sheds and others. (Greig-Gran 256-312)

Non use values are the benefits people get if they don’t use biodiversity. For example, in a case of extinction, people like visiting the extinct sites to see what has happened. If the species are replaced, then this will not happen. Some of these values can not be determined easily but since we must quantify the value of biodiversity, we must determine them under whatever cost. (Greig-Gran, 2006)

The benefits of biodiversity are both long term and short term. Human beings get so many benefits from biodiversity. These services may include food, wood, nitrogen fixation, pollination, and beauty. Other services include maintenance of climate and life, prevention of overflow of water and famine, natural bug’s control, and even spiritual enrichment. Some of these benefits are long term while others are short term. (Greig-Gran, 256-312)

Quantifying the relative merits of short term unsustainable versus long term sustainable usage may not be an easy task. So many quantities have to be considered. One starts by determining which benefits are long term and which ones are short term. This introduces a quantity of time. The time taken by an ecosystem to bring some benefits is a function of the value of the ecosystem. Another quantity is the degree of sustainability which is a probability quantity. Through experience and statistics one can determine the sustainability of a certain benefit of biodiversity. All these functions combined together will lead to the quantification of both long term and short term biodiversity usage. This can be summarized by the relationship (Maclaurin 17-217)

Long term benefit is a function of time and sustainability.
Short term benefit is a function of time and sustainability.
Total benefit is a function of long term benefits and short term benefits

Human beings were created to benefit from the provisions of nature. There can always be a balance between all aspects and members of an ecosystem. This becomes impossible when man exploits the natural environment and destroys the biodiversity instead of conserving it. Let’s join hands and let’s make a decision to take care of nature so that nature can take care of us. (Chivian 19-434)

Works cited

Chivian, Eric. & Bernstein, Aaron. “Sustaining life; How human health depends on biodiversity” Oxford University Press. 2008:19-434.

Greig-Gran, M. “Is tacking deforestation a cost-effective mitigation approach?” International Institute for Economic Development, 2006: 256-312.

Maclaurin, James. & Sterelny, Kim. “What is biodiversity?” University of Chicago Press. 2008:17-217.

Patent, Dorothy “Biodiversity” Sandpiper press. 2003:14-106.

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Bibliography

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Conserving Biodiversity: A Research Agenda for Development Agencies.

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1 Biodiversity and Development

We as a species are rapidly altering the world that provides our evolutionary and ecological context. The consequences of these changes are such that they demand our urgent attention. The large-scale problems of unprecedented population growth and inappropriate development are degrading the land, water, and atmosphere, and progressively extinguishing a broad array of the Earth's organisms and the habitats they inhabit. By downplaying these problems or putting them aside in favor of what seem to be more imperative personal, group, or national priorities, we are courting global disaster. By attending to them, we can begin to build a more stable foundation for lasting peace and prosperity.

We live in a world in which far more people are well fed, clothed, and housed than ever before. We also live in a world in which thousands of people, primarily women and young children in developing nations, die each day of starvation or of diseases related to starvation; in which human beings consume well over a third of total terrestrial photosynthetic productivity; and in which human activity threatens, over the next few decades, to eliminate a quarter of the world's species—species we may not use directly, but on which our survival depends in many other ways.

During the 1980s the total human population increased by about 0.8 billion people (from about 4.5 to 5.3 billion), or nearly 2 percent per year. If this rate of growth were to continue, human numbers would double in 39 years (PRB, 1989). If family planning programs and development activities are emphasized consistently and throughout the world, the human population could stabilize, according to United Nations estimates, at about 11 billion by approximately 2090. About 90 percent of this growth is likely to occur in the developing nations. Although population growth may not be the sole cause of environmental degradation, it is almost always an exacerbating factor and undermines the capacity of many developing countries, in particular, to conserve resources and meet basic human needs. As population pressures on land and other natural resources build, the intensity of natural disasters—especially flood and drought—can become aggravated, and the effects more tragic.

There are other, more immediate causes of resource degradation in developing nations, including continuing military conflicts, misguided or misapplied policies that discourage conservation and, above all, persistent and crushing poverty—all of which leave people with few choices in managing land and natural resources. In the past, world leaders in both the developing and the developed nations have tried to address these essentially interrelated problems as separate phenomena. Other global concerns, such as climate change resulting from the buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, were regarded as separate issues—if they were regarded at all. Few recognized the fundamental need to consider environmental effects and prevent environmental degradation at all stages of development.

Times appear to be changing. The level of concern among world leaders, including the international development agencies, has risen. Many are rethinking their priorities with respect to the allocation of resources to slow the degradation. Whether it is too late for leaders and development agencies to have a beneficial effect depends on what is done and how quickly. Furthermore, this new awareness comes at a time when dramatic political changes in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, Central America, the Middle East, and Africa are creating a competing demand for development resources. There are no easy choices, but there can be no turning back to the time when the short-term enrichment of human societies entailed the long-term impoverishment of the living world on which all societies depend.

Biodiversity: Definitions and Values

The diminishing of the Earth's biological diversity has consequences far more profound than other, sometimes more widely recognized, environmental dilemmas. Because the loss of biodiversity is irreversible—species that are lost are lost forever—the potential impact on the human condition, on the fabric of the Earth's living systems, and on the process of evolution is immense. Our species has evolved biologically and culturally in a highly diverse world. Our past interactions with other life forms have shaped our humanity in intricate ways, and our future cannot be separated from that of the other life forms with which we share the planet.

Biological diversity refers to the variety of life forms, the genetic diversity they contain, and the assemblages they form. Biological systems, whether tundra, forests, savannahs, grasslands, deserts, lakes, rivers, wetlands, coastal communities, or marine ecosystems, are functionally complex, and this complexity is associated, in often obscure ways, with the diversity of their component species.

Definitions

Biological diversity (or biodiversity , as it has come to be called) refers to the variety and variability among living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur. Diversity can be defined as the number of different items and their relative frequency. For biological diversity, these items are organized at many levels, ranging from chemical structures that are the molecular basis of heredity to complete ecosystems. Thus, the term encompasses different genes, species, ecosystems, and their relative abundance (OTA, 1987).

Species is the taxonomic category ranking immediately below genus; it includes closely related, morphologically similar, individual organisms that play a particular ecological role. Species diversity refers to the variety of different species.

Genes represent the basic unit of inheritance, the strands of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) polymers that are found in the chromosomes in cell nuclei and control the genetic identity of individual organisms. Genetic diversity refers to the variety of genes.

Species diversity normally refers to the diversity among species, whereas genetic diversity refers to the diversity within species.

Ecosystem (derived from ''ecological system'') refers to the functional system that includes the organisms of a natural community together with their physical environment. Ecosystem diversity is the diversity among systems in a given area.

Evolution is the process of change in the characteristics of organisms by which descendants come to differ from their ancestors.

Biota refers to the collective plant, animal, fungal, and microbial life characterizing a given region.

The direct benefits of biological diversity to humanity are myriad. We depend on animal, plant, fungal, and microbial species for food, fuel, fiber, medicines, drugs, and raw materials for a host of manufacturing technologies and purposes. The productivity of agricultural systems is a result of our continual alteration, over thousands of years, of once wild plant and animal germplasm, and still rests on interactions of diverse organisms within agroecosystems. Genetic engineering, especially in the pharmaceutical and food-processing industries, uses natural genetic diversity from sources worldwide. Biomedical research requires comparative information on other species—models such as the mouse and the fruit fly. Although such direct values of biological diversity are not always reflected in market prices, they are more amenable than other values to economic analysis; hence, most economists have focused on this aspect of biological diversity.

Beyond such direct values, biological diversity provides ecological services that are more difficult to calculate with precision. Living organisms are an important part of the processes that regulate the Earth's atmospheric, climatic, hydrologic, and biogeochemical cycles. Only in recent decades have we begun to understand the dynamics of these global processes, and discerning the functional role of biological diversity within them remains a fundamental and challenging question. This is especially important as we seek to understand how biological systems may affect, and be affected by, global climate change resulting from the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

It is easier to comprehend (and measure) the ecological services that biological diversity provides more locally in protecting watersheds, cycling nutrients, combating erosion, enriching soil, regulating water flow, trapping sediments, mitigating pollution, and controlling pest populations. As human activities alter landscapes and ecological processes on larger scales, the need for improved management and conservation of land, water, and marine resources will require greater understanding of ecosystem composition, structure, and function. The value of biological diversity in this sense is fundamental.

Finally, ethical and aesthetic concerns direct us to respect, and strive toward rational stewardship of, the world's heritage of biological resources. The noneconomic, intangible, and inherent values of biological diversity take us beyond the traditional realm of the sciences, into the realm of the arts and humanities, language and history, religion and philosophy. These varied modes of human perception and expression have a fundamental stake in the fate of biological diversity, and must contribute to the determination of its fate. Although the values they embody may be less quantifiable, they are nonetheless real and pervasive. To regard biological diversity only for its tangible economic and instrumental values—even where these might be fully taken into account—paradoxically reduces its value.

Loss of Biodiversity

The degradation of ecosystems throughout the world, but especially in warmer regions, has been well documented by scientists and is now widely reported in the media. For example, tropical moist lowland forests, which until recently were the least disturbed terrestrial tropical communities, are now experiencing human exploitation on an unprecedented scale. These forests, which may contain more than half of the total species on Earth, have endured longer than other tropical ecosystems because they tend to be difficult to manage. (Deciduous forests, thorn scrub, and other plant communities in the tropics were decimated much earlier.) Their soils are relatively poor in nutrient reserves, often acidic, and subject to rapid leaching of nutrients under the high-rainfall conditions. This makes them relatively difficult to convert to intensive agriculture or forestry systems. Nonetheless, clearing for shifting cultivation, cattle ranching, timber, fuelwood, and conversion to perennial plantations has resulted in the accelerated loss and degradation of primary tropical moist forest. Large areas of the tropics have already been affected. Left unchecked, most of the forests will be entirely lost or reduced to small fragments by early in the next century.

The loss of tropical forest cover can have far-reaching effects, including changes in regional climate (especially rainfall) patterns, changes in biological productivity, accelerated rates of soil erosion, disruption of watershed stability, and increasing emissions of green-house gases (which further affects global climate dynamics). In terms of biological diversity, the destruction of primary tropical moist forests causes the extinction of vast numbers of species. Most of the species lost are unknown. Their inherent and aesthetic value, and their potential agricultural, pharmaceutical, or silvicultural values vanish with them.

Although the accelerated pace of deforestation in the humid tropics has drawn widespread attention and is of immediate concern, the degradation of natural ecosystems and habitats, and the loss of their characteristic species diversity, are occurring in nearly every part of the globe as human populations and their support systems expand. We are at a critical juncture for the conservation and study of biological diversity; such an opportunity will not occur again. The Earth's biota is experiencing its greatest episode of species loss since the end of the Cretaceous Era 65 million years ago. More importantly, it is the first mass extinction event that has been caused by a single species—one that we now hope will act, if for no other reason than its own self-interest, to stem the tide (NSB, 1989).

The proximate causes of biodiversity loss are biological, but the root causes of the problem include sociological and economic processes that operate on a global scale. A thorough understanding of the phenomenon will require the investigation and elucidation of both biological and social components, and international cooperation will be necessary to develop both this scientific knowledge and successful mitigation and management strategies. Unless the international community can, indeed, reverse the trend over the next few decades, the erosion of the Earth's biological legacy will continue to accelerate.

Natural Versus Accelerated Rates of Biodiversity Loss

The diversity of life on Earth has never been, and never will be, static. Global biodiversity has fluctuated through geologic time as evolution has added new species and extinction has taken them away. Evolution and extinction are natural processes, the responses of populations of organisms to changes in their physical and biological environment. Change is, in a very real sense, a basic fact of life (Jablonski, 1991).

If change is the norm, why are we now concerned about the conservation of biodiversity? In the past, the environmental changes responsible for fluctuations in diversity occurred over relatively long periods of time. Over the past 15 million years, for example, many parts of the world have gradually become more arid, which has changed the nature of their constituent ecosystems. Even times of relatively rapid environmental change allow organisms the chance to adapt. Over the last 2 million years—a short period by geological standards—glaciers have frequently advanced and retreated, but at a rate gradual enough to allow organisms to migrate and evolve in response. Natural calamities have occasionally destroyed most or even all of one type of ecosystem and great numbers of organisms, but there were always refuges for some species and niches large or small in which evolutionary processes could continue. Even given the role that human beings have had in recent (late Pleistocene and Holocene) extinctions, these have still been isolated, rather than systematic.

The environmental changes affecting biodiversity today have a different origin, order, and magnitude than those recorded in geologic annals. Today, the rate and scale of environmental changes brought about by human activities have increased to the point where a great many species may not have sufficient time or space in which to migrate or adapt.

The current loss of biodiversity has several causes (McNeely et al., 1990; Soulé, 1991). The direct destruction, conversion, or degradation of ecosystems results in the loss of entire assemblages of species. Overexploitation, habitat disturbance, pollution, and the introduction of exotic species accelerate the loss of individual species within communities or ecosystems. More subtly, selective pressures arising directly and indirectly from human activities can result in the loss of genetic variability. Exploitation, habitat alteration, the presence of chemical toxins, or regional climate change may eliminate some genetically distinct parts of a population yet not cause extinction of the entire species. As genetic variability is lost, however, the species as a whole becomes more vulnerable to other factors, more susceptible to problems of inbreeding, and less adaptable to environmental change.

The most important single factor affecting the fate of biodiversity on Earth is the accelerated rate of habitat destruction, particularly in the tropical forests. When an area of forest is cut and the land is converted to intensified use, most of the species living in it cannot survive in the replacement system, be it an agricultural field, pasture, or plantation forest. When any habitat type is reduced to small patches, the organisms that depend on it are in greater danger of extinction as their populations are reduced in number, isolated, and subject to the highly altered impacts of sun, wind, water, soil conditions, other organisms, and human beings. These and other factors enter selectively into small patches of any habitat, severely reducing the diversity of life in that locale (Harris, 1984; Saunders et al., 1991).

In the past, when human activities slowly altered limited areas of the Earth's surface, the rate of local extinctions was barely distinguishable from the natural background rate. Now we may be losing species at a rate 1,000 to 10,000 times greater than the background rate (Wilson, 1988). As Robinson (1988) notes, "We are destroying irreplaceable species on an unprecedented scale without regard for their potential economic, aesthetic, or biological significance." Even conservative estimates of species loss rates suggest that unless current trends are reversed, more than one-quarter of the Earth's species, may vanish in the next 50 years (Raven, 1988; Wilson, 1989; Reid and Miller, 1989; Ehrlich and Wilson, 1991).

Unlike these currently threatened species, or those whose fate is now part of the geologic record, human beings can decide not to choose extinction. We can change our behavior and stop the acceleration of environmental degradation and species loss, thereby safeguarding species, their habitats, and our own future options for their use and enjoyment.

Scientific Understanding of Biodiversity

Our understanding of the Earth's biological diversity has significant gaps. * This lack of information hampers our ability to comprehend the magnitude of the loss of biodiversity, prevent further losses, and formulate sustainable alternatives to resource depletion. Answers are still unavailable for seemingly simple but important questions: How many species are there? Where do they occur? What is their ecological role? What is their status—common, rare, endangered, extinct?

Although schemes for classifying organisms date back at least to Aristotle, biologists are still very far from completing an inventory of the Earth's animals, plants, fungi, and microorganisms. The idea of producing encyclopedic treatments of the world's animals and plants began about 300 years ago, toward the close of the seventeenth century. In the eighteenth century, the Swedish naturalist Linnaeus, building on this encyclopedist tradition, devised the system of plant and animal taxonomy involving binomial Latin names that is still used today, in essentially the same form (Mayr, 1982). To date, some 1.4 million kinds of organisms have been assigned scientific names, but coverage is complete for only a few well-studied taxonomic groups such as vertebrates, angiosperms, and butterflies (Wilson, 1998; see table 1-1 ). Most groups and many major habitats such as coral reefs, the deep sea floor and thermal vents, tropical soils and forest canopies, remain poorly studied. Current estimates of the Earth's total species diversity range from 10 million to 100 million (Wilson, 1988; Ehrlich and Wilson, 1991; Erwin, 1991). Thus, as Wilson (1988) has pointed out, we do not know even to within the nearest order of magnitude the number of species on the planet. Even among those species that have been named, very few have been subject to close biological description or study (NSB, 1989).

Numbers of Described Species of Living Organisms.

Current scientific knowledge, then, is adequate for estimating only the most general characteristics of the abundance and distribution of plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms of the world. In the following discussions of major taxonomic groups, aquatic systems, and marine biota, emphasis is therefore placed less on numbers than on the relative abundance, ecological importance, and economic and scientific significance of organisms.

Most estimates suggest that there are about 250,000 species of vascular plants in the world. Approximately two-thirds of these are found in the tropics. The New World tropics are particularly rich in species. For example, at least one-sixth of the Earth's diversity of plant life—45,000 species—can be found in Latin America in Ecuador, Peru, and Colombia, which constitute an area about one-third the size of the contiguous United States. There may be twice as many species in Costa Rica, which is about the size of West Virginia, as have been named for the entire tropics of the world (Latin America, Asia, and Africa combined). Although estimates of the total number of plant species are believed to be relatively accurate compared to other groups, more specific biological knowledge is lacking for most plants.

The ability of plants, along with algae and photosynthetic bacteria, to convert radiant energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis places them at the base of all food chains (with the exception of the recently discovered sulfur-reducing chemosynthetic bacteria associated with some deep sea thermal vents). Because many species depend on specific plants for food and other habitat requirements, the destruction of plant diversity threatens much of the diversity of life in general. One-half of the total species diversity of the Earth may be found in the tropical forests and is, therefore, threatened by their destruction or degradation. If current trends continue, almost all the remaining tropical forests will be severely damaged or reduced to small patches within the next few decades, resulting in the extinction of many as yet unknown plant species (Raven, 1988).

The many and varied human uses of plants—as sources of food, medicines, fibers, waxes, oils, and construction materials; as ornamentals; and as providers of a wide range of environmental services—are too numerous to catalog here. It is important to note, however, that new uses for plants are discovered regularly, and research continues to expand our understanding of their role in ecological processes at all levels. Recent interest in taxol, for example, an anti-cancer agent derived from the bark of the Pacific yew ( Taxus brevifolia ), highlights not only our continued reliance on plant-derived drugs, but our lack of knowledge of the biochemical properties of even the well-inventoried plants of the Temperate Zone.

The developing countries, especially those of the tropics, probably harbor many poorly known or as yet undiscovered plant species with properties of potential benefit to society. About 18,000 species of the legume family, for example, have been described, and the family includes many that are widely used for foods, forage, and oils. It also includes many important tropical timber trees. Most legumes form nodules on their roots that harbor bacteria of the genus Rhizobium , which are able to convert atmospheric nitrogen directly into a form in which it can be used for plant growth by both the legumes themselves and other organisms. Both the winged bean ( Psophocarpus tetragonolobus ), a food plant native to Papua New Guinea whose use has spread widely through the moist tropics over the past 15 years, and the "wonder tree" ipil-ipil ( Leucaena leucocephala ), native to Central America but carried by the Spaniards to Hawaii and the Philippines, and now hailed as a solution to problems of soil erosion and firewood shortages, are legumes (NRC, 1975, 1979). Legumes are obviously of great economic importance and have significant potential as genetic raw material for agricultural biotechnology. However, most of those that are now used in agroecosystems were discovered quite by chance. Little is being done to investigate the enormous numbers of legume species that exist in the tropics: 6,000 can be found in Latin America alone; of these, an estimated 2,000 or more are threatened with extinction as the forests of Latin America are degraded and disappear. Unless work on these species is undertaken immediately, most will never have been studied in relation to their utility, nor will they have been incorporated into botanical gardens or seed banks.

Although work in plant taxonomy continues, no coordinated effort to inventory the plants of the world has been initiated, and no general data bank exists from which information about such plants can be retrieved. International networks of botanical gardens, seed banks, and other ex situ strategies for preserving plants are in place in some regions but need to be strengthened. Of special concern in this regard is the accelerated loss of genetic diversity in domesticated crops, their varieties and landraces, and their wild relatives. This diversity of germ-plasm resources has been largely responsible for the gains made in agricultural productivity in recent decades, but even as that diversity is being called upon to meet new agronomic and environmental needs, it faces growing threats (NRC, 1991b).

The expansion of plant inventories, screening, the dissemination of information, and conservation efforts on a global basis—which can build on efforts at the national level—should be matters of high priority, based on our absolute dependence on plants and our ignorance of the properties of most of them. The estimated 250,000 species of plants are manageable in the sense that the status of their population can be monitored relatively easily, and they can be cultivated and reintroduced into the wild where necessary. Progress in all of these efforts, however, is hindered by a lack of financing and by a dearth of scientists trained for systematic studies in tropical countries. The insufficient number of adequately trained scientists makes the preparation of even simple inventories very difficult.

We still have much to learn about even the best-known groups of organisms, and for most, our explorations have hardly begun despite the important role they often play in human affairs. Fungi are a case in point. Some fungi cause crop damage costing billions of dollars annually; others are beneficial, for example, in the production of foods and antibiotics, the maintenance of fertile soils, and the decomposition of biomass. Mycorrhizal fungi, which form symbiotic relationships with plant roots and enhance mineral nutrient uptake by their host plants, are critical links between the soil and plant components of most terrestrial ecosystems, and have been shown to have significant impacts on sustainable crop and forest management, as well as on the success of environmental restoration efforts (Harley and Smith, 1983; Miller, 1985; Amaranthus and Perry, 1987; Cook, 1991). These fungi, however, are insufficiently studied, with most attention being devoted to those relatively few associated with economically important plants.

In general, much work is still to be done on the diversity of the world's fungi. Unlike many taxonomic groups, they may reach their highest levels of diversity outside the tropics, in Temperate Zone forests (especially those of the American Pacific Northwest) (Norse, 1990). In the tropics, there is not a single area for which the fungi are even relatively well known, and it is impossible to prepare regional accounts for any but a very few groups on the basis of collections that are available. Even less explored are the ecological roles that fungi play and their potential to develop into pests or to serve as beneficial agents.

Microorganisms

Through the critical role they play in nutrient movement and cycling, microorganisms constitute "biological bridges" between trophic levels, between abiotic and biotic factors, and between the biogeosphere and the atmosphere. The importance of these linkages extends far beyond the microscopic realm that these organisms inhabit. For example, microflora and microfauna contribute to the maintenance of soil fertility and tilth through their ability to catabolize organic matter, produce organic compounds, and control disease outbreaks. Other microorganisms are important sources of greenhouse gases, although research on this aspect of their ecology is still in its early stages. Many types of microorganisms can cause disease in plants and animals. Although diseases are usually considered in terms of their human economic and medical consequences, microbial and parasitic diseases also play a significant role in population regulation within natural communities. Human-induced changes in ecosystems and the resulting alteration in host species abundances can have unforeseen and undesirable effects on the epidemiology of those diseases.

Humans have derived many benefits from scientific knowledge of microorganisms. Actinomycetes alone have been the source of 3,000 antibiotics since 1950 (Demain and Solomon, 1981). In the future, biotechnology promises to increase the use of microorganisms in solving medical, agricultural, and environmental problems. The foundations of research and development in biotechnology are the fundamental understanding and techniques of molecular biology and genetics, and the diversity of naturally occurring organisms. For biotechnology to realize its potential, more knowledge is required about the microorganisms that are the basis for new technologies.

In the past, little funding has been devoted to work in microbial systematics and ecology. In developing countries, the UNESCO-organized network of Microbiological Resource Centres (MIRCENs) helps link scientists in many countries, and serves as a repository of knowledge and germ plasm for microorganisms. However, the resources available to the MIRCENs are woefully inadequate, and they are able to concentrate their efforts only on well-known organisms such as Rhizobium and Frankia . In general, little is known about the distribution or diversity of microorganisms, much less about their functional role in ecosystems. What we are learning suggests that they are even more important in supporting healthy ecological systems and biological productivity than previously believed.

Improvement in our scientific understanding of microbial ecology will require increased knowledge of microbial systematics—a daunting challenge. Because research on the biology of microorganisms, especially bacteria, involves so much biochemical experimentation, it is expensive. Furthermore, money alone is not the answer. As in other areas of systematic biology, the human resource base here is thin, and institutional support is meager. Rectifying this situation will require attention to education at all levels and to training, retraining, and employment opportunities in universities, agencies, industry, and other organizations.

Invertebrates

Our knowledge of invertebrate species diversity, like that of microorganisms, is poor for most of the world, especially soil and marine environments, and tropical forests. No more than 10 percent of invertebrate species, and probably a far lower percentage, have actually been described. For some groups such as mites and nematodes, taxonomic work has only begun.

The statistics regarding invertebrates are striking. Approximately two-thirds of the 1.4 million described species are invertebrates (Wilson, 1988). Of these, the vast majority are insects. On a single tree in the Tambopata Reserve in Peru, Wilson (1987) collected 43 species of ants belonging to 26 genera. Collections of arthropods from tropical forest canopies have led scientists to suggest that sharply higher estimates of the total number of species on Earth may be warranted (Erwin, 1982, 1983, 1991; Stork, 1988). The biomass figures are equally commanding. For example, ants alone probably comprise between 5 and 15 percent of the biomass of the entire fauna of most terrestrial ecosystems.

Invertebrates play pervasive, though often unseen, roles in many ecosystem functions, including pollination, decomposition, disease transmission, and regulation of other populations. For example, the interactions of soil mesofauna (e.g., nematodes, collembolans, and mites) and soil microorganisms are crucial in maintaining the plant-soil system. Nematodes both feed on and act as dispersal agents for soil bacteria.

Marine invertebrates play major roles in ecosystem function in the ocean, many of which are analogous to those in terrestrial systems (but there are no pollinators). Marine protozoans, as well as crustaceans (e.g., copepods, euphausids, isopods, amphipods, and larvae of other species), link marine primary producers (phytoplankton) with higher levels of the marine food web, such as fish and marine mammals. Some invertebrates (e.g., squid and octopods) feed on or parasitize marine vertebrates. Invertebrates such as corals and some mollusks can substantially modify the physical structure of the marine environment by building reefs. Marine grazers, such as mollusks and echinoderms, can reduce the structural complexity of the marine environment by removing marine macroalgae and angiosperms. Suspension-feeding mollusks and other invertebrates can control particle concentrations in enclosed bodies of water, affecting water turbidity and the water column concentrations of particle-bound elements and compounds. Marine invertebrates also have both positive and negative impacts on humans. Mollusks, crustaceans, and echinoderms are a major source of food in some areas of the world. Some mollusks and echinoderms are used in biomedical research. Invertebrate growth on hard surfaces, such as ships, piers, and buoys, causes major damage each year and humans spend a great deal of money every year to coat marine surfaces with toxicant-fouling materials. Other species actually burrow into wood and rocks, causing structures made of these materials to fail.

Marine invertebrate parasites and disease organisms are not as common as their freshwater and terrestrial counterparts.

The activities of invertebrates can have major economic impacts on humans. Many crops, for example, depend on insect pollinators, yet they can incur significant damage from other insects. Many of the major human diseases—malaria, schistosomiasis, bubonic plague, encephalitis—are caused by or transmitted through invertebrates. For example, the recent spread of Lyme disease in the United States has been linked to ticks that carry the spirochete agent while spending different parts of their life cycles on white-tailed deer and mice.

Abundant as they are, terrestrial invertebrates are also more prone to extinction than most other groups of organisms. Many species are highly specialized with respect to food, habitat, or other environmental requirements and thus are subject to extinction as a result of even relatively small-scale environmental degradation. This is especially true of tropical forest insects, whose ranges are often quite restricted. The alterations of habitat, on all scales, that are taking place in tropical regions thus result in far greater incidence of invertebrate species loss than would alterations on a similar scale in temperate regions.

Studies of invertebrates do not reflect either their numbers or their importance in ecosystems, which represents a primary constraint of biodiversity research as a whole. Invertebrate systematics, especially in the tropical ecosystems of developing countries, is a neglected area in a neglected branch of basic biology. Important taxonomic groups of great diversity are often the responsibility of a handful of resident scientists in tropical countries, while very limited help is available from the large museums of temperate regions. Moreover, many of the present experts are senior scientists whose administrative responsibilities leave them little time for basic taxonomic work (NAS, 1980). Until scientists from temperate and tropical zones alike are encouraged and rewarded for taking up these fundamental taxonomic studies, the lack of trained systematists will be an important limiting factor in the advancement of knowledge on biological diversity.

Vertebrates

As a group, vertebrates have been more thoroughly studied than most other organisms. Approximately 41,000 species have been described, but many have yet to be discovered.

Almost half of the known vertebrates are fish, and most of those that remain undescribed are likely to be fish, primarily because of their relatively inaccessible habitats. For example, it has been estimated that as many as 40 percent of the freshwater fish of South America have not yet been classified scientifically (Böhlke et al., 1978), and the fish of tropical Asia are also poorly known. Data on life-history patterns, food webs, and the behavior of fish are for the most part lacking. Major stocks of many commercial species may be depleted to such an extent in the near future that it will be impossible to study the variety of their adaptations and the conditions under which they evolved. This is especially true with respect to migrating fish that depend on unimpeded access to upper regions of rivers, which are often favored sites for dams. Information of this type is of fundamental ecological and economic importance. Fish also represent a critical human food resource that is insufficiently understood to be used on a fully sustainable basis. In the same sense that tropical rain forests might contain many species whose products could be of great use, fish communities may include members whose nutritional modes, defense mechanisms, behavior, or growth characteristics could be applied in the production of proteins, medicines, or fertilizers, and in the management of aquatic habitats.

In comparison to other taxonomic groups, there are few undescribed species of reptiles, birds, and mammals. Nonetheless, new species continue to be discovered fairly regularly. Even among primates—the most widely and carefully studied group of organisms—new discoveries are still being made. The black-faced lion tamarin, Leontopithecus caissara , a previously unknown primate, was discovered in 1990 by two Brazilian biologists on an island close to São Paulo (Lorini and Persson, 1990). Despite our relatively complete knowledge of the species diversity within these groups, we know nothing more about the vast majority of them except that they exist.

Vertebrates—especially those that have been domesticated—are the species of greatest economic and aesthetic importance to human beings. Because much basic zoological research has focused on domesticated vertebrate species and because much of our previous conservation research has focused on wild vertebrate species, these are important models as biodiversity research expands. Moreover, because the highest trophic levels within ecosystems are generally occupied by reptiles, birds, and mammals, efforts to preserve diversity among these groups will have beneficial impacts on other organisms that share—and constitute—their habitat.

Tropical Aquatic Systems

Tropical rivers, lakes, and wetlands are among the richest, most important, yet least studied, habitats in the developing world. The 1980 National Academy of Sciences report Research Priorities in Tropical Biology noted the critical scientific and economic importance of these systems, and recommended that they be studied much more intensively and monitored for long-term changes (NAS, 1980). The need for scientific study of these systems, particularly of their biological diversity, has increased in the interim.

Watershed development projects of all kinds inevitably alter river systems and their biota, usually before scientific investigations of unmodified watersheds and basins take place. Research must focus on river systems prior to development if any accurate characterization is to be made of their biological diversity, ecosystem functions, and hydrological dynamics. This need, it should be noted, pertains to rivers in both tropical and nontropical developing countries. In the tropics, it includes both the great rivers—the Amazon, Orinoco, Parana, Zaire, Niger, Nile, Mekong—and the many minor rivers and tributaries.

The needs and opportunities for research in this area are great. The composition, abundance, and functioning of the plankton of large rivers in their natural state are essentially unstudied, and although the opportunity has largely been lost in temperate regions, it is still possible in the tropics (NAS, 1980). The invertebrates of tropical rivers, immense in their variety, are largely unstudied because of the shortage of trained taxonomic experts. Knowledge of the fish and other vertebrates of tropical rivers is somewhat more advanced, but as more systems are altered, the opportunity for comprehensive studies of riverine community structures, trophic interactions, and vertebrate population dynamics becomes increasingly scarce.

Lakes are less common in the tropics than in the temperate zones, primarily because glaciation was a less significant factor in the geological history of the tropics. Nonetheless, the special physical features, high productivity, economic importance, and vulnerability of tropical lakes make the study of their biological diversity particularly important. A number of tropical lakes, large and small, support high levels of fish endemism and merit study not only because of their inherent importance for science, but also because of their susceptibility to the effects of exotic fish introductions. The unique circumstances under which the biota of tropical lakes has evolved and the likelihood of alteration due to development pressures make these lakes important sites for expanded scientific attention. Especially important are Lake Malawi in Africa's Great Rift Valley, Lake Titicaca and smaller lakes of the high Andes, Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela, Lake Toba in Sumatra, and many smaller lakes of insular Southeast Asia (NAS, 1980).

Tropical wetlands, of many varieties, are among the most productive freshwater systems in the world. They are also highly vulnerable to destruction by drainage, conversion to intensive rice production, and the alteration of associated river systems (NAS, 1980). Many of the most important—the Sudd in the Sudan, the Okavango of Botswana, the Pantanal of Brazil, the wetlands of the Sepik and Fly Rivers of Papua New Guinea—exhibit distinctive species compositions, evolutionary adaptations, energy-flow characteristics, and population dynamics as a result of seasonal fluctuations in water levels and unique chemical factors. Studies of the biological diversity of these systems are critical in understanding how they function, and how human alteration and use of tropical wetlands may affect their diversity and productivity.

Marine Biota

Until recently, interest in biological diversity and its conservation focused primarily on terrestrial and freshwater environments, and thus neglected the most extensive habitat on Earth (Ray, 1988). The very vastness of the marine environment (oceans cover 70 percent of the Earth's surface), the variety of ecosystems it contains, and the difficulties involved in exploring and studying the life of the sea have hampered efforts to treat marine biodiversity more comprehensively. Marine organisms have long been used in cell biology and other areas of basic biological research, and certain communities—in particular, coastal wetlands, mangrove forests, and coral reefs (the species richness of which is often compared to that of tropical rain forests)—have been studied in detail. In general, however, relatively little is known about the diversity, abundance, and distribution of marine organisms or the structure and function of marine ecosystems.

Marine systems are distinguished by their high degree of diversity at all taxonomic levels. Current estimates of the total number of species on the planet assume that approximately 94 percent of the species are terrestrial. Recent research, however, suggests that previously unexplored marine habitats, especially the deep sea and the ocean floor, may harbor millions of additional species, thus rivaling the species richness even of the tropical forests. Moreover, if we measure diversity in the broader taxonomic categories—phyla, classes, divisions—then the greatest variety of life on Earth is unquestionably contained within the seas (Thorne-Miller and Cantena, 1991). It is not uncommon to find representatives of a dozen or more basic classes or divisions in the same small space—a breadth of diversity that has no match on land.

Fish, marine mammals, mollusks, and corals are the best-known groups of marine organisms. However, major groups of organisms and new habitats are still being discovered. The phylum Loricifera was first described in 1983 (Kristensen, 1983), and an entirely new habitat was revealed with the discovery of ocean vent systems. The bottom of the ocean is still largely unexplored; assaying and understanding its biological diversity will require resources equivalent to those committed for exploring the Moon. Because such research depends on costly and specialized equipment, funding for ships and associated sampling tools is a limiting factor (NSB, 1989).

The importance of marine biodiversity is almost as vast as the oceans themselves. Much of the Earth's human population depends on the oceans, especially marine coastal systems, for food. In the developing nations, more than half of the population obtains at least 40 percent of its animal protein from fish (WRI, 1986). Some 9,000 species of fish are currently exploited for food, although only 22 are harvested in significant quantities on a global scale (WRI, 1987). Approximately 80 percent of the marine species of commercial importance occur within 200 miles of a coast. Marine flora and fauna are also extensively used in the production of antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals, food additives and processing agents, and a variety of manufactured goods.

Above and beyond these commodity values, marine organisms are critical determinants of the structure and function of the global ecosystem. Marine phytoplankton, for example, are the foundation of marine food chains and play an important role in atmospheric dynamics. The interactions among marine biota, the Earth's geochemical cycles, and global climate change are just coming to light, and even our most advanced computer models have been able to offer only the roughest approximations of the feedback mechanisms involved in the maintenance of biospheric conditions. The study of marine biodiversity is thus critical to understanding environmental dynamics on the global, as well as on local and regional, scales.

Interest in the conservation of marine biodiversity is a relatively recent phenomenon. The immensity that makes oceans such a challenge to study has also made it possible to believe that anthropogenic disturbances would remain limited in their environmental impact. Compared to terrestrial environments, oceans provide relatively stable, extensive, open, well-buffered habitats for the organisms that inhabit them. Nonetheless, the threats to marine diversity are much the same as on land: habitat destruction (especially in coastal, estuarine, wetland, and coral reef systems); pollution (including suspended sediments, nutrients, and toxics); overexploitation of harvestable species (including fish, shellfish, turtles, and mammalian species); and the specter of global climate change with all its attendant marine impacts (Soulé, 1991; Thorne-Miller and Cantena, 1991).

Although the biota of oceans has been protected from many of these impacts by the extent of the medium itself, environmental stresses can be expected to place the same pressures on marine systems that they are placing on terrestrial systems. So little is known about marine biota that rates of extinction are difficult to estimate. Ray (1988), however, suggests that the degradation of coastal zones is occurring as rapidly as tropical forest destruction, and recent findings indicate that coral reefs may be among those communities most seriously imperiled by human activities (Salvat, 1987; Guzman, 1991). As in terrestrial systems, inventories and ecological studies are needed for all oceans, with special emphasis on those habitats most immediately threatened.

This brief review does not reflect the full status of scientific knowledge with regard to specific taxa, geographic areas, ecosystems, or habitats, and only touches on genetic-level diversity and the vitally important relationship between ecosystem dynamics and diversity. As we seek the means to slow or reverse the losses, we will have to secure increased support for established scientific efforts in systematics and resource management, and for relatively new scientific endeavors in such integrative, applied fields as sustainable agriculture, conservation biology, and restoration ecology. We face an unprecedented situation that demands new combinations of the basic and applied sciences, the expertise of specialists and the vision of generalists, conceptual clarity as well as concrete experience. The science of biological diversity and its conservation demands not only more knowledge but new kinds of knowledge, and new ways of synthesizing what we know.

Implications for Development Agencies

Biological diversity reaches its highest levels, and faces its greatest risks, in the developing nations of the world, primarily because of intensive resource exploitation and the extensive alteration of habitats. This is due in part, however, to international markets, development policies, and lending practices that transfer financial resources from developing countries to industrial countries and undermine the capacity of developing countries to sustainably manage their resources.

Rapid population growth, extreme and persistent poverty, social inequity, institutional breakdown, and perverse policy incentives have brought unstable economic conditions to many developing nations. In response, many of these countries have had to adopt short-term development agendas and exploitative resource management practices aimed at increasing foreign exchange earnings from their undiversified economics. Trade in elephant ivory (mostly illegal) and tropical timber (legal) provides obvious examples that have important consequences for the maintenance of biodiversity, but other less publicized practices—overgrazing of ranges, expansion of cash crop agriculture, intensified shifting cultivation—also lead directly to the demise of species and habitats.

As a result of these interrelated social, economic, and environmental trends, many developing countries have begun to question the sustainability of current resource management practices and look for more promising alternatives. The policies and funding practices of international development agencies, if directed toward wise, long-term commitments of assistance, can aid in this by affording developing countries greater economic stability and hence greater national capacity to preserve biological diversity. In the past, development agencies have funded infrastructural development activities, agricultural expansion programs, dams, and other large-scale projects that have contributed directly to the loss of biological diversity, while doing little to ease the indirect causes of resource decline (NSB, 1989). A new vision is necessary at all levels of the development community—one that recognizes the inextricably connected fate of human communities and the biotic community, of development and conservation.

Biological diversity is, in the most literal sense, the basis of sustainable development and resource management. By conserving biodiversity, we retain not only plants and animals, soils and waters, but the foundations of sustainable societies and the availability of options for future generations. Fuelwood gathering, to cite just one example, is a significant contributing factor behind the rising rates of deforestation in many parts of the tropics. A billion and half people in developing countries depend on firewood as their major fuel source. In many areas, expanding demand and declining local supplies have led to excessive harvest rates, and acute fuelwood shortages, and subsequent decline in soil and water resources. Developing renewable, cost-effective alternative energy sources, sustainable agroforestry systems, and more productive sources of firewood, charcoal, and timber will require greater attention to potentially useful species and genetic resources (NRC, 1991a).

Biodiversity, in short, must come to be seen as an inherently important aspect of every nation's heritage and as a productive, sustainable resource upon which we all depend for our present and future welfare. The conservation of biological diversity is not merely an obscure, hitherto neglected area of endeavor whose importance has only now been discovered; rather, it is a fundamental concern that has been absent in short-term development planning, at the risk of long-term social and economic well-being.

Responding to Research Needs

In both the developing and the developed nations, immediate action needs to be taken to protect biodiversity. At the same time, there is a continuing need for research on biodiversity that improves our knowledge base and our management capacities, and leads to the development of new ways for people to live with, and not at the expense of, their biological resources.

It is unlikely that poor countries will be able to support major biodiversity research enterprises, however important, in the near future. If global environmental and scientific objectives are to be served, more effective means for north-south transfers of funding must be found, and more productive mechanisms for scientific collaboration must be invented (NSB, 1989). The international development agencies are essential in this regard. Other organizations are unlikely or unable to provide the necessary funds. In the long run, this assistance will allow developing nations to move toward greater independence by strengthening in-country research institutions. As their research capacity increases, so too will their ability to chart their own course of sustainable development.

As they seek to meet these growing research needs, development agencies will themselves have to undertake institutional changes. Research on biological diversity is necessarily broad based and multidisciplinary, and the administration of research within the agencies must reflect this. Overlapping areas of biology, including ecology, sustainable agriculture, and conservation biology, are critically important in addressing the needs of developing countries and must be given greater support. More support must also be given to research that integrates economics, the social sciences, and biodiversity conservation. Above all, research must be carried out largely by people in and of the countries involved.

Long-term institutional commitment is necessary. Support for these changes must be incorporated wherever possible into the human resource development programs of technical assistance agencies. All personnel should be given training in biodiversity science and policy. More personnel with the requisite background knowledge must be brought into the agencies on a permanent basis and given adequate specific training, as well as opportunities to remain up to date on research in their fields. Although development and science agencies can play a leading role in promoting these efforts, their work must involve agencies, institutions, and organizations that have not traditionally taken part in conservation activities. Finally, development agencies must have a ''built-in'' capacity to review outcomes, monitor practices, and recommend adjustments in policies that affect the status of biological diversity.

Several development agency research programs have begun to reflect these needs. The U.S. Agency for International Development, for example, provides funds for innovative research on biodiversity under its Program of Scientific and Technical Cooperation (PSTC) and its Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resource Management (SAN-REM) Collaborative Research Support Program. Support for this kind of research should be expanded and strengthened. Agencies will need to find creative ways to sustain funding for these endeavors over many years, even indefinitely. National biological inventories, for example, could well be funded by pooling the resources of all international assistance agencies functioning within a given country.

The research agenda outlined in the remainder of this report is intended to assist development agencies in their efforts to respond to these research needs. Research cannot, in and of itself, conserve biodiversity in developing nations any more than it can in the developed nations. What research can do, however, is provide the people and the leaders of these nations with information that may help them to improve their lives, while securing the biological legacy on which their livelihood depends.

A recent review of the state of scientific understanding has been provided by the National Science Board (1989) of the National Science Foundation in its report Loss of Biological Diversity: A Global Crisis Requiring International Solutions . This report provides the basis for the present discussion (see also Reid and Miller, 1989; Soulé and Kohm, 1989).

Cite this Page National Research Council (US) Panel on Biodiversity Research Priorities. Conserving Biodiversity: A Research Agenda for Development Agencies. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 1992. 1, Biodiversity and Development.
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Biodiversity Essay

Essay on Biodiversity

Biodiversity is a term made up of two words - Bio meaning Life, and Diversity meaning Variety. The term biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth. Plants, animals, microbes, and fungi are all examples of living species on the planet.

Types of Biodiversity

Genetic Biodiversity- Genetic diversity is the variation in genes and genotypes within a species, e.g., every human looks different from the other.

Species Biodiversity- Species Diversity is the variety of species within a habitat or a region. It is the biodiversity observed within a community.

Ecosystem Biodiversity- Ecological biodiversity refers to the variations in the plant and animal species living together and connected by food chains and food webs.

Importance of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is an integral part of cultural identity. Human cultures co-evolve with their environment and conservation is a priority for cultural identity. Biodiversity is used for Medicinal purposes.

Many plants and animals are used for medicinal purposes, like vitamins and painkillers. It contributes to climate stability. It helps in controlling the effects of climate change and managing greenhouse gases.

Biodiversity provides more food resources. It supplies many vital ecosystems, such as creating and maintaining soil quality, controlling pests, and providing habitat for wildlife. Biodiversity has a relationship with Industry. Biological sources provide many Industrial materials including rubber, cotton, leather, food, paper, etc.

There are many economic benefits of Biodiversity. Biodiversity also helps in controlling pollution. Biodiversity helps in forming a healthy ecosystem. Biodiversity also acts as a source of recreation. Along with other factors, biodiversity helps in improving soil quality.

Long Essay on Biodiversity

There are many economic benefits of Biodiversity. Biodiversity is a source of economic wealth for many regions of the world. Biodiversity facilitates Tourism and the Recreational industry. Natural Reserves and National Parks benefit a lot from it. Forest, wildlife, biosphere reserve, sanctuaries are prime spots for ecotourism, photography, painting, filmmaking, and literary works.

Biodiversity plays a vital role in the maintenance of the gaseous composition of the atmosphere, breakdown of waste material, and removal of pollutants.

Conservation of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is very important for human existence as all life forms are interlinked with each other and one single disturbance can have multiple effects on another. If we fail to protect our biodiversity, we can endanger our plants, animals, and environment, as well as human life. Therefore, it is necessary to protect our biodiversity at all costs. Conservation of Biodiversity can be done by educating the people to adopt more environment-friendly methods and activities and develop a more harmonious and empathetic nature towards the environment. The involvement and cooperation of communities are very important. The process of continuous protection of Biodiversity is the need of the hour.

The Government of India, along with 155 other nations, has signed the convention of Biodiversity at the Earth Summit to protect it. According to the summit, efforts should be made in preserving endangered species.

The preservation and proper management methods for wildlife should be made. Food crops, animals, and plants should be preserved. Usage of various food crops should be kept at a minimum. Every country must realize the importance of protecting the ecosystem and safeguarding the habitat.

The Government of India has launched the Wild Life Protection Act 1972 to protect, preserve, and propagate a variety of species. The Government has also launched a scheme to protect national parks and sanctuaries. There are 12 countries - Mexico, Columbia, Peru, Brasil, Ecuador, Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, India, China, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Australia, in which Mega Diversity Centres are located. These countries are tropical and they possess a large number of the world’s species.

Various hotspots have been made to protect the vegetation. There are various methods for conserving biodiversity.

If biodiversity conservation is not done efficiently, each species would eventually become extinct due to a lack of appetite and hunger. This scenario has been a big issue for the last few decades, and many unique species have already become extinct. As a result of a lack of biodiversity protection, several species are still on the verge of extinction.

FAQs on Biodiversity Essay

1. What are the three types of Biodiversity?

Biodiversity is referred to as the variability that exists between the living organisms from different sources of nature, such as terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems. Biodiversity has three levels, which are genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity. This is also considered as the type of ecosystem.

2. What is Biodiversity and why is it important?

Biodiversity is responsible for boosting the productivity of the ecosystems in which every species, no matter how small, has an important role to play. For example, a greater variety of crops can be obtained from a plant species which is in large numbers. If species diversity is in a greater amount, then it ensures natural sustainability for all life forms.

3. What is the connection between Biodiversity and the Food Chain?

If a single species goes extinct from the food chain, it will have an impact on the species that survive on it, putting them on the verge of extinction.

4. How are human beings affecting biodiversity?

Pollution- Pollution not only affects human beings, but also affects our flora and fauna, and we should control the pollution to conserve our biodiversity.

Population- Population control is a must to maintain a balance in our ecological system. Humans contribute to pollution by bursting crackers and by not following all the traffic rules.

5. How does Deforestation affect biodiversity?

Deforestation- Trees are very important for survival. They help in balancing out the ecosystem. Deforestation leads to the destruction of habitat. Deforestation should be stopped to protect our animals and plants. Deforestation not only removes vegetation that is important for removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, but it also emits greenhouse gases.

Conference of the Arabian Journal of Geosciences

CAJG 2020: Selected Studies in Environmental Geosciences and Hydrogeosciences pp 57–59 Cite as

Assessment of Moscow’s New Territory for Biodiversity Conservation Using Remote Sensing

Anna M. Aleynikova 35 ,
Elizaveta V. Karpukhina 35 ,
Natalya V. Marsheva 35 &
Elena A. Parakhina 35
Conference paper
First Online: 31 December 2023

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Part of the book series: Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation ((ASTI))

In recent years, the territory of Moscow has greatly increased in size, which led to a sharp decline in the biodiversity of many territories that were not part of Moscow before. Using remote sensing methods, the nature of vegetation and dynamics of land use in New Moscow for the 2014–2019 period were assessed in the article. Forests occupy about 42% of the territory of New Moscow, and cultural plantations account for about 28.5%. From 2014 to 2019, the area of residential sites increased by 8%, the area of meadows decreased by 7%, and that of forests—by 1%. The main areas for biodiversity conservation in New Moscow are specially protected natural areas (SPNAs). It is necessary to create an ecological frame of protected areas and monitor it by interpreting space images.

Analysis of the dynamics
Vegetation cover
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Biodiversity
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Kavayas, F., Ramos, Y., & Boye, A. (2011). Inventory and monitoring of urban green spaces using WorldView-2 data. Geomatika. No. 3 (pp. 67–73).

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Stanis, E. V., Karpukhina, E. A., Makarova, M. G. (2015). Changes of new Moscow territory and preservation of natural heritage. In Geology, geoecology, evolutionary geography: Collective monograph . Volume 14, Saint Petersburg: Herzen University Publishing House, (pp. 258–262).

Stanis, E. V., Buldovich, N. S., Karpukhina, E. A., Makarova, M. G. (2016). Transformation of territorial structure of new territories of moscow and preservation of natural heritage. In Natural and cultural heritage: Interdisciplinary research, preservation and development , Saint Petersburg, Herzen University Publishing House, (pp. 563–566).

Stanis, E. V., Karpukhina, E. A. et al. (2012). Natural Ecosystems of Moscow Region (pp. 94). Publishing and Analysis Centre Energia.

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Amjad Kallel

Department of Chemical Engineering Materials Environment, Faculty of Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy

Maurizio Barbieri

Departamento de Análisis Geográfico Regional y Geografía Física, Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Campus Universitario de Cartuja, University of Granada, Granada, Spain

Jesús Rodrigo-Comino

Polytechnic of Porto, School of Engineering (ISEP), Porto, Portugal

Helder I. Chaminé

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Broder Merkel

Higher National School of Forests, Khenchela, Algeria

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Nabil Khélifi

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Ali Cemal Benim

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Stefan Grab

Chapman University, ORANGE, USA

Hesham El-Askary

Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India

Santanu Banerjee

Laboratory of Applied Research in Engineering Geology, Geotechnics, Water Sciences, and Environment, University of Farhat Abbas, Setif, Algeria

Riheb Hadji

Department of Applied Geomatics, University of Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada

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Aleynikova, A.M., Karpukhina, E.V., Marsheva, N.V., Parakhina, E.A. (2023). Assessment of Moscow’s New Territory for Biodiversity Conservation Using Remote Sensing. In: Kallel, A., et al. Selected Studies in Environmental Geosciences and Hydrogeosciences. CAJG 2020. Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43803-5_13

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Essay On Biodiversity [300-500 words]

Essay On Biodiversity: The earth is the only known planet having the existence of life on it. Besides, life has manifested in different forms such as animals, birds, plants, microorganisms etc. Among these broad categories, Each one has its variety. This diversity is called Biodiversity.

In other words, Biodiversity refers to the presence of different species of plants, animals, insects, and reptiles on the earth. It is one of the essential parts of the ecosystem that help in running the life cycle effortlessly.

Short Essay On Biodiversity | 250-300 Words

Introduction- Biodiversity or biological diversity refers to the presence of different species of plants and animals on the earth. A lot of reasons can be described for the biodiversity on earth such as geological positions, temperatures, climatic conditions and genetic changes etc. Biodiversity is considered a vital part of the life cycle on Earth.

Importance- There is a very thin line between biodiversity and ecology. One can not exist without the second. We can conclude that these two terms refer to the same intention. Hence, biodiversity is very important in maintaining the ecological balance as living things on the planet are interdependent.

If one species is decreased in number or eliminated from the environment, other species have to face negative effects because of that. Moreover, we humans are dependent on plants and animals. Thus our life is also dependent on biodiversity. If it damages, we will have to face the results.

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Conservation- After understanding the importance of biodiversity, it is clear that a threat to biodiversity is a threat to the existence of life on Earth. Hence, it becomes very important to protect and conserve biodiversity to protect the ecology and ourselves. We can take the following steps to conserve biodiversity.

Setting up home gardens to grow different types of plants.
Using organic agricultural methods to save microorganisms
Discouraging the practice of deforestation
Encouraging the practice of Afforestation
Prevention of smuggling of animals and their body parts
Prevention of smuggling of plants, trees and byproducts
Feeding the stray animals

Conclusion- Biodiversity is not only important for us but it is extremely important for the existence of life on the planet. The present scenario is not in our favour means we are under threat of damaged biodiversity. That is why preserving biodiversity is the need of the hour.

500+ Words Essay On Biodiversity

Introduction.

Nature has created diverse forms of life such as plants, animals, insects, microorganisms etc. This diversification is known as biodiversity or biological diversity. Biodiversity is not uniformly dispersed over the planet and it is found more in the forests and locations undisturbed by humans.

Nature’s intelligence is very sophisticated to understand. It has designed everything so well that despite having no similarities living beings are interdependent to survive. Biodiversity is one of the essential parts of the ecosystem that help in running the life cycle effortlessly. That is the reason that biodiversity holds a huge significance for each organism whether it is a plant, animal or human being.

Biodiversity & Survival

Biodiversity is the most critical factor in executing the life cycle and maintaining the balance of the earth as living things are interdependent. If one life form is lowered or eliminated from the environment, other life forms have to encounter adverse effects because of that.

Moreover, we humans are dependent on plants and animals. Thus our life is also dependent on biodiversity. If it damages, we will have to face the results. Thus it can endanger the existence of life on Earth. Furthermore, there are many studies have been conducted on the effect of change on biodiversity and the outcomes were shocking.

The Threats!

There are lots of threats to biodiversity. First of all, a constant change in the climate is endangering many species. Some of them are on the ledge of extinction. Second, we humans are clearing out forests for various purposes that expells wild animals of their homes and eventually, they die of the lack of food and shelter.

Third, pollution and chemicals discharged into the water bodies cause many aquatic animals to die which also decreases the amount of biodiversity on Earth. Fourth, the smuggling of rare plants, trees, animals, their skin, their bones and other byproducts is one of the most critical threats to biodiversity.

How to Increase Biodiversity

We have lost a large amount of biodiversity in the past time and the adverse effects can be identified. Now, it is time to find a solution to increase biodiversity to restore the ecological balance. We can do it by taking various steps and initiatives. We need to eliminate the reasons responsible for the decrease in biodiversity.

Apart from that, we need to put effort to build a perfect planet to live in. We can do the following things to help biodiversity

Biodiversity & Sustainable Development

Sustainable development refers to “ the development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. ” But we are gradually losing our biodiversity. Then how would sustainable development be possible?

The decrease in biodiversity will lead to the scarcity of several natural resources. The conservation of biodiversity is a game changer for sustainable development. Hence, we can conclude that sustainable development is not possible without the conservation of biodiversity.

✔ Essay On Sustainable Development

✔ Essay On Climate Change

To sum it up, One of the reasons for the execution of life on the earth is biodiversity. It is important to restore biodiversity on the planet. For this to happen, humans must take control of their actions against the ecosystem. It is time to protect the earth’s flora and fauna to witness sustainable development.

What does It mean By “Biodiversity”?

Biodiversity refers to the presence of different species of plants and animals on the planet.

When is International Day for Biological Diversity celebrated?

22 May is celebrated as the international day for biological diversity.

What are the types of Biodiversity?

There are three types of biodiversity: 1. Genetic Biodiversity – Genetic diversity is the variation in genes and genotypes within a species, 2. Species Biodiversity – Species Diversity is the variety of species within a habitat or a region. 3. Ecosystem Biodiversity – Ecological biodiversity refers to the variations in the plant and animal species living together.

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Advancing Biodiversity Conservation: 10th Africa Regional Dialogue on Biodiversity Finance

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Ms. Astrid Schomaker appointed as the Executive Secretary of the Convention on Biological Diversity

United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres has appointed Ms. Astrid Schomaker as the Executive Secretary of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Astrid brings to the position extensive experience in international relations and negotiations, deep knowledge of the global sustainable development agenda and multilateral environment agreements, and of policymaking on global environmental issues.

Since July 2017, Astrid has successively been the Director for Global Sustainable Development and for Green Diplomacy and Multilateralism at the European Commission’s Environment Department. In these roles, she led the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the integration of biodiversity, pollution and resource efficiency / circularity into partnerships with developing countries, relations with international organizations as well as engagement with G20 countries, amongst others.

Prior to that, Astrid served as Director for environment policy strategy at the European Commission, responsible for economic analysis, sustainable consumption and production, and developing the scientific knowledge base for environment policy and policy integration. She also headed the European Commission’s divisions for marine and freshwater issues as well as chemicals. Since 2015 she has been co-chair of the steering committee of UNEP’s International Resource Panel.

Astrid studied English and history and holds a law degree from Hamburg University and a Master’s Degree in International Legal Cooperation from the Free University of Brussels, Belgium. She is fluent in German, English and French with some knowledge of Italian and Spanish.

UN Secretary-General António Guterres has appointed Ms. Astrid Schomaker as the Executive Secretary of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). We congratulate Ms. Schomaker and welcome her in her new role. Read more: https://t.co/GkBtTQI8SV pic.twitter.com/tpM4AjMNH1 — UN Biodiversity (@UNBiodiversity) April 2, 2024

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Statement: United Nations Secretary-General

Former Executive Secretaries

The Biodiversity Plan

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NASA Is Recruiting a New Class of Astronauts

Victor Glover, a nine-year veteran of the astronaut corps who will fly around the moon in 2025, said the search for excellence and diversity were not mutually exclusive.

Victor Glover wearing a blue astronaut jumpsuit.

By Kenneth Chang and Emma Goldberg

The reporters interviewed a NASA official and an astronaut in The Times’s newsroom for this article.

Do you dream of leaving the planet?

NASA is looking for its next group of astronauts, and you have until April 2 to make a pitch for yourself .

“Typically, it’s a very popular application,” April Jordan, NASA’s astronaut selection manager, said.

The odds that you will be chosen are slim. The last time NASA put out a call for applications, in 2020, more than 12,000 people applied.

It took the agency a year and a half to go through the applications. NASA selected just 10 of the hopefuls, or 0.083 percent. That makes Harvard’s 3.5 percent acceptance rate among high school applicants appear bountiful.

“So when I say ‘popular,’” Ms. Jordan said, “it’s probably an understatement.”

Ms. Jordan is on a media tour to spread the word that “ the right stuff ” for being an astronaut in 2024 is not the same as what it was in the 1960s, when astronauts were all white men, almost all from the military.

Joining her on that tour, which included a stop at The New York Times, was Victor Glover, a nine-year veteran of the astronaut corps who offered a glimpse into how he made it through the rigorous selection process.

To become a NASA astronaut today, you have to be a U.S. citizen and you must pass the astronaut physical exam.

NASA does set a fairly high bar for education — a master’s degree in science, technology, engineering or mathematics, followed by at least three years of related professional experience.

Beyond that, the agency tries to keep an open mind. (There is no age limit, for example, or a requirement for 20/20 vision.)

“We want the group of astronaut candidates that we select to be reflective of the nation that they’re representing,” Ms. Jordan said.

Take, for example, Mr. Glover.

In some aspects, he fits the historical archetype. Before NASA, he was a Navy aviator and trained as a test pilot.

He is also breaking historical barriers.

In 2020, he became the first Black astronaut to serve as a crew member on the International Space Station after 20 years of astronauts living there. In 2025, he will become the first Black astronaut to fly around the moon for the Artemis II mission .

To stand out in NASA’s competitive application process, Mr. Glover knew he would need more than a strong résumé. He was particularly set on landing a good joke.

The night before one of Mr. Glover’s interviews at NASA for the 2013 class, he was asked to write an essay. The title: “Girls Like Astronauts.”

“They’re sitting in this room all day listening to all these dry answers,” he recalled thinking. “I’m going to try to make them laugh.”

The essay pivoted from a punchline to poignancy, reflecting on the ways he has tried to inspire his four daughters. He also decided to be vulnerable during the interview, sharing a “bone-headed” moment when he risked nearly hitting the water during an air show demonstration.

“You have to be able to share that information with the interview panel when you come in, because you’re inevitably going to fail at something,” Ms. Jordan said. “And so there’s a humbleness that you have to bring in even if you’ve achieved great things.”

As part of the application process, Mr. Glover wrote a limerick that concluded: “This is all dizzying to me, because I gave so much blood and pee.”

Mr. Glover set his sights on going to outer space as a child, when he saw his classmates moved to tears by the Challenger disaster.

His space ambition deepened years later when he heard a speech from Pam Melroy, a former space shuttle commander. Ms. Melroy, now NASA’s deputy administrator, recounted how her crew had scrambled to fix a damaged solar array on the International Space Station.

“I thought, ‘Wow, she just talked about something really technical, really logistically challenging,’” Mr. Glover said. “But the emotion in it was about the people.”

He realized, then, that just as astronauts need technical ability, they also need something that is more difficult to teach: social skills.

“You’re going to live in this tin can with somebody for six months,” he said of a stay on the space station. “We’re almost picking family members.”

Mr. Glover proudly points to the diversity of backgrounds among current astronauts. “If you compare our office to the country’s demographics, we match the country very well,” he said.

Indeed, the diversity within NASA outpaces that of the private sector in some aspects. The percentage of Black astronauts is higher than the percentage of Black people in the broader science and technology work force, Mr. Glover said.

That is the direct result of NASA’s sustained efforts over a couple of decades to recruit astronauts beyond the traditional archetype, he said.

“Our office looks the way it looks because of this intentionality, and thinking about our biases and how it may affect who we hire,” he said. “I think that’s a huge victory.”

But Mr. Glover acknowledged that diversity as a hiring goal was becoming increasingly fraught .

Critics include Elon Musk, the billionaire who runs SpaceX, the rocket company that NASA relies on to transport cargo and astronauts — like Mr. Glover — to the International Space Station. NASA has also hired SpaceX to land astronauts on the moon .

“His perspective on some things is a little disturbing,” Mr. Glover said of Mr. Musk.

SpaceX did not respond to a request for comment by Mr. Musk.

Mr. Musk has repeatedly called for the end of programs that focus on diversity, equity and inclusion, or D.E.I. “D.E.I. is just another word for racism,” he posted in January on X, the social media network that he owns.

Mr. Glover said he had just listened to a contentious interview that Don Lemon , a former CNN anchor, recently conducted with Mr. Musk. “My mom sent it to me and she goes, ‘Does he remember you rode in his spaceship?’” he said. “I’m like, ‘Ma, he probably remembers very vividly.’ He’s a great intellect, but he probably just doesn’t care.”

People ask him how he feels about becoming the first Black person to go on a lunar mission next year when Artemis II will swing around the moon without landing.

“Actually, I’m sad,” Mr. Glover said. “It’s 2025, and I’m going to be the first? Come on.”

He recounted the story of Ed Dwight , the only Black Air Force pilot in the 1960s who met the restrictive requirements that NASA had for astronauts then. But Mr. Dwight was never selected.

“Ed Dwight could have done this in the ’60s,” Mr. Glover said. “How much better would our country be if he actually got the chance? Society wasn’t ready. It’s not him. He was ready.”

While Mr. Glover has heard some of the pushback to D.E.I. initiatives, he feels firmly that seeking diversity is not about lowering standards and accepting less qualified candidates. “I think it should just be excellence,” he said. “As long as you don’t equate whiteness or maleness with excellence, then we’re good. We’re speaking the same language.”

Many applicants are drawn by the potential glory of being the first astronauts to walk on Mars, an accomplishment that NASA is aiming for in the 2030s.

But Mr. Glover said they should also contemplate the sacrifices that they and their families might have to make along the way.

“The trip to Mars is six to nine months,” he said. “You’re going to be away from familiar for more than a year, one to three years. Are you really ready for that?”

Kenneth Chang , a science reporter at The Times, covers NASA and the solar system, and research closer to Earth. More about Kenneth Chang

Emma Goldberg is a business reporter covering workplace culture and the ways work is evolving in a time of social and technological change. More about Emma Goldberg

What’s Up in Space and Astronomy

Keep track of things going on in our solar system and all around the universe..

Never miss an eclipse, a meteor shower, a rocket launch or any other 2024 event that’s out of this world with our space and astronomy calendar .

A new set of computer simulations, which take into account the effects of stars moving past our solar system, has effectively made it harder to predict Earth’s future and reconstruct its past.

Dante Lauretta, the planetary scientist who led the OSIRIS-REx mission to retrieve a handful of space dust , discusses his next final frontier.

A nova named T Coronae Borealis lit up the night about 80 years ago. Astronomers say it’s expected to put on another show in the coming months.

Voyager 1, the 46-year-old first craft in interstellar space which flew by Jupiter and Saturn in its youth, may have gone dark .

Is Pluto a planet? And what is a planet, anyway? Test your knowledge here .

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