academic case study layout

All You Wanted to Know About How to Write a Case Study

What do you study in your college? If you are a psychology, sociology, or anthropology student, we bet you might be familiar with what a case study is. This research method is used to study a certain person, group, or situation. In this guide from our dissertation writing service , you will learn how to write a case study professionally, from researching to citing sources properly. Also, we will explore different types of case studies and show you examples — so that you won’t have any other questions left.

What Is a Case Study?

A case study is a subcategory of research design which investigates problems and offers solutions. Case studies can range from academic research studies to corporate promotional tools trying to sell an idea—their scope is quite vast.

What Is the Difference Between a Research Paper and a Case Study?

While research papers turn the reader’s attention to a certain problem, case studies go even further. Case study guidelines require students to pay attention to details, examining issues closely and in-depth using different research methods. For example, case studies may be used to examine court cases if you study Law, or a patient's health history if you study Medicine. Case studies are also used in Marketing, which are thorough, empirically supported analysis of a good or service's performance. Well-designed case studies can be valuable for prospective customers as they can identify and solve the potential customers pain point.

Case studies involve a lot of storytelling – they usually examine particular cases for a person or a group of people. This method of research is very helpful, as it is very practical and can give a lot of hands-on information. Most commonly, the length of the case study is about 500-900 words, which is much less than the length of an average research paper.

The structure of a case study is very similar to storytelling. It has a protagonist or main character, which in your case is actually a problem you are trying to solve. You can use the system of 3 Acts to make it a compelling story. It should have an introduction, rising action, a climax where transformation occurs, falling action, and a solution.

Here is a rough formula for you to use in your case study:

Problem (Act I): > Solution (Act II) > Result (Act III) > Conclusion.

Types of Case Studies

The purpose of a case study is to provide detailed reports on an event, an institution, a place, future customers, or pretty much anything. There are a few common types of case study, but the type depends on the topic. The following are the most common domains where case studies are needed:

• Historical case studies are great to learn from. Historical events have a multitude of source info offering different perspectives. There are always modern parallels where these perspectives can be applied, compared, and thoroughly analyzed.
• Problem-oriented case studies are usually used for solving problems. These are often assigned as theoretical situations where you need to immerse yourself in the situation to examine it. Imagine you’re working for a startup and you’ve just noticed a significant flaw in your product’s design. Before taking it to the senior manager, you want to do a comprehensive study on the issue and provide solutions. On a greater scale, problem-oriented case studies are a vital part of relevant socio-economic discussions.
• Cumulative case studies collect information and offer comparisons. In business, case studies are often used to tell people about the value of a product.
• Critical case studies explore the causes and effects of a certain case.
• Illustrative case studies describe certain events, investigating outcomes and lessons learned.

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Case Study Format

The case study format is typically made up of eight parts:

• Executive Summary. Explain what you will examine in the case study. Write an overview of the field you’re researching. Make a thesis statement and sum up the results of your observation in a maximum of 2 sentences.
• Background. Provide background information and the most relevant facts. Isolate the issues.
• Case Evaluation. Isolate the sections of the study you want to focus on. In it, explain why something is working or is not working.
• Proposed Solutions. Offer realistic ways to solve what isn’t working or how to improve its current condition. Explain why these solutions work by offering testable evidence.
• Conclusion. Summarize the main points from the case evaluations and proposed solutions. 6. Recommendations. Talk about the strategy that you should choose. Explain why this choice is the most appropriate.
• Implementation. Explain how to put the specific strategies into action.
• References. Provide all the citations.

How to Write a Case Study

Let's discover how to write a case study.

Setting Up the Research

When writing a case study, remember that research should always come first. Reading many different sources and analyzing other points of view will help you come up with more creative solutions. You can also conduct an actual interview to thoroughly investigate the customer story that you'll need for your case study. Including all of the necessary research, writing a case study may take some time. The research process involves doing the following:

• Define your objective. Explain the reason why you’re presenting your subject. Figure out where you will feature your case study; whether it is written, on video, shown as an infographic, streamed as a podcast, etc.
• Determine who will be the right candidate for your case study. Get permission, quotes, and other features that will make your case study effective. Get in touch with your candidate to see if they approve of being part of your work. Study that candidate’s situation and note down what caused it.
• Identify which various consequences could result from the situation. Follow these guidelines on how to start a case study: surf the net to find some general information you might find useful.
• Make a list of credible sources and examine them. Seek out important facts and highlight problems. Always write down your ideas and make sure to brainstorm.
• Focus on several key issues – why they exist, and how they impact your research subject. Think of several unique solutions. Draw from class discussions, readings, and personal experience. When writing a case study, focus on the best solution and explore it in depth. After having all your research in place, writing a case study will be easy. You may first want to check the rubric and criteria of your assignment for the correct case study structure.

Read Also: ' WHAT IS A CREDIBLE SOURCES ?'

Although your instructor might be looking at slightly different criteria, every case study rubric essentially has the same standards. Your professor will want you to exhibit 8 different outcomes:

• Correctly identify the concepts, theories, and practices in the discipline.
• Identify the relevant theories and principles associated with the particular study.
• Evaluate legal and ethical principles and apply them to your decision-making.
• Recognize the global importance and contribution of your case.
• Construct a coherent summary and explanation of the study.
• Demonstrate analytical and critical-thinking skills.
• Explain the interrelationships between the environment and nature.
• Integrate theory and practice of the discipline within the analysis.

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Case Study Outline

Let's look at the structure of an outline based on the issue of the alcoholic addiction of 30 people.

Introduction

• Statement of the issue: Alcoholism is a disease rather than a weakness of character.
• Presentation of the problem: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there.
• Explanation of the terms: In the past, alcoholism was commonly referred to as alcohol dependence or alcohol addiction. Alcoholism is now the more severe stage of this addiction in the disorder spectrum.
• Hypotheses: Drinking in excess can lead to the use of other drugs.
• Importance of your story: How the information you present can help people with their addictions.
• Background of the story: Include an explanation of why you chose this topic.
• Presentation of analysis and data: Describe the criteria for choosing 30 candidates, the structure of the interview, and the outcomes.
• Strong argument 1: ex. X% of candidates dealing with anxiety and depression...
• Strong argument 2: ex. X amount of people started drinking by their mid-teens.
• Strong argument 3: ex. X% of respondents’ parents had issues with alcohol.
• Concluding statement: I have researched if alcoholism is a disease and found out that…
• Recommendations: Ways and actions for preventing alcohol use.

Writing a Case Study Draft

After you’ve done your case study research and written the outline, it’s time to focus on the draft. In a draft, you have to develop and write your case study by using: the data which you collected throughout the research, interviews, and the analysis processes that were undertaken. Follow these rules for the draft:

• Your draft should contain at least 4 sections: an introduction; a body where you should include background information, an explanation of why you decided to do this case study, and a presentation of your main findings; a conclusion where you present data; and references.
• In the introduction, you should set the pace very clearly. You can even raise a question or quote someone you interviewed in the research phase. It must provide adequate background information on the topic. The background may include analyses of previous studies on your topic. Include the aim of your case here as well. Think of it as a thesis statement. The aim must describe the purpose of your work—presenting the issues that you want to tackle. Include background information, such as photos or videos you used when doing the research.
• Describe your unique research process, whether it was through interviews, observations, academic journals, etc. The next point includes providing the results of your research. Tell the audience what you found out. Why is this important, and what could be learned from it? Discuss the real implications of the problem and its significance in the world.
• Include quotes and data (such as findings, percentages, and awards). This will add a personal touch and better credibility to the case you present. Explain what results you find during your interviews in regards to the problem and how it developed. Also, write about solutions which have already been proposed by other people who have already written about this case.
• At the end of your case study, you should offer possible solutions, but don’t worry about solving them yourself.

Use Data to Illustrate Key Points in Your Case Study

Even though your case study is a story, it should be based on evidence. Use as much data as possible to illustrate your point. Without the right data, your case study may appear weak and the readers may not be able to relate to your issue as much as they should. Let's see the examples from essay writing service :

‍ With data: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there. Without data: A lot of people suffer from alcoholism in the United States.

Try to include as many credible sources as possible. You may have terms or sources that could be hard for other cultures to understand. If this is the case, you should include them in the appendix or Notes for the Instructor or Professor.

Finalizing the Draft: Checklist

After you finish drafting your case study, polish it up by answering these ‘ask yourself’ questions and think about how to end your case study:

• Check that you follow the correct case study format, also in regards to text formatting.
• Check that your work is consistent with its referencing and citation style.
• Micro-editing — check for grammar and spelling issues.
• Macro-editing — does ‘the big picture’ come across to the reader? Is there enough raw data, such as real-life examples or personal experiences? Have you made your data collection process completely transparent? Does your analysis provide a clear conclusion, allowing for further research and practice?

Problems to avoid:

• Overgeneralization – Do not go into further research that deviates from the main problem.
• Failure to Document Limitations – Just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study, you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis.
• Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications – Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings.

How to Create a Title Page and Cite a Case Study

Let's see how to create an awesome title page.

Your title page depends on the prescribed citation format. The title page should include:

• A title that attracts some attention and describes your study
• The title should have the words “case study” in it
• The title should range between 5-9 words in length
• Your name and contact information
• Your finished paper should be only 500 to 1,500 words in length.With this type of assignment, write effectively and avoid fluff

Here is a template for the APA and MLA format title page:

There are some cases when you need to cite someone else's study in your own one – therefore, you need to master how to cite a case study. A case study is like a research paper when it comes to citations. You can cite it like you cite a book, depending on what style you need.

Citation Example in MLA ‍ Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing, 2008. Print.

Citation Example in APA ‍ Hill, L., Khanna, T., & Stecker, E. A. (2008). HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing.

Citation Example in Chicago Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies.

Case Study Examples

To give you an idea of a professional case study example, we gathered and linked some below.

Eastman Kodak Case Study

Case Study Example: Audi Trains Mexican Autoworkers in Germany

To conclude, a case study is one of the best methods of getting an overview of what happened to a person, a group, or a situation in practice. It allows you to have an in-depth glance at the real-life problems that businesses, healthcare industry, criminal justice, etc. may face. This insight helps us look at such situations in a different light. This is because we see scenarios that we otherwise would not, without necessarily being there. If you need custom essays , try our research paper writing services .

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What Is A Case Study?

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Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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Designing and Conducting Case Studies

This guide examines case studies, a form of qualitative descriptive research that is used to look at individuals, a small group of participants, or a group as a whole. Researchers collect data about participants using participant and direct observations, interviews, protocols, tests, examinations of records, and collections of writing samples. Starting with a definition of the case study, the guide moves to a brief history of this research method. Using several well documented case studies, the guide then looks at applications and methods including data collection and analysis. A discussion of ways to handle validity, reliability, and generalizability follows, with special attention to case studies as they are applied to composition studies. Finally, this guide examines the strengths and weaknesses of case studies.

Definition and Overview

Case study refers to the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group, frequently including the accounts of subjects themselves. A form of qualitative descriptive research, the case study looks intensely at an individual or small participant pool, drawing conclusions only about that participant or group and only in that specific context. Researchers do not focus on the discovery of a universal, generalizable truth, nor do they typically look for cause-effect relationships; instead, emphasis is placed on exploration and description.

Case studies typically examine the interplay of all variables in order to provide as complete an understanding of an event or situation as possible. This type of comprehensive understanding is arrived at through a process known as thick description, which involves an in-depth description of the entity being evaluated, the circumstances under which it is used, the characteristics of the people involved in it, and the nature of the community in which it is located. Thick description also involves interpreting the meaning of demographic and descriptive data such as cultural norms and mores, community values, ingrained attitudes, and motives.

Unlike quantitative methods of research, like the survey, which focus on the questions of who, what, where, how much, and how many, and archival analysis, which often situates the participant in some form of historical context, case studies are the preferred strategy when how or why questions are asked. Likewise, they are the preferred method when the researcher has little control over the events, and when there is a contemporary focus within a real life context. In addition, unlike more specifically directed experiments, case studies require a problem that seeks a holistic understanding of the event or situation in question using inductive logic--reasoning from specific to more general terms.

In scholarly circles, case studies are frequently discussed within the context of qualitative research and naturalistic inquiry. Case studies are often referred to interchangeably with ethnography, field study, and participant observation. The underlying philosophical assumptions in the case are similar to these types of qualitative research because each takes place in a natural setting (such as a classroom, neighborhood, or private home), and strives for a more holistic interpretation of the event or situation under study.

Unlike more statistically-based studies which search for quantifiable data, the goal of a case study is to offer new variables and questions for further research. F.H. Giddings, a sociologist in the early part of the century, compares statistical methods to the case study on the basis that the former are concerned with the distribution of a particular trait, or a small number of traits, in a population, whereas the case study is concerned with the whole variety of traits to be found in a particular instance" (Hammersley 95).

Case studies are not a new form of research; naturalistic inquiry was the primary research tool until the development of the scientific method. The fields of sociology and anthropology are credited with the primary shaping of the concept as we know it today. However, case study research has drawn from a number of other areas as well: the clinical methods of doctors; the casework technique being developed by social workers; the methods of historians and anthropologists, plus the qualitative descriptions provided by quantitative researchers like LePlay; and, in the case of Robert Park, the techniques of newspaper reporters and novelists.

Park was an ex-newspaper reporter and editor who became very influential in developing sociological case studies at the University of Chicago in the 1920s. As a newspaper professional he coined the term "scientific" or "depth" reporting: the description of local events in a way that pointed to major social trends. Park viewed the sociologist as "merely a more accurate, responsible, and scientific reporter." Park stressed the variety and value of human experience. He believed that sociology sought to arrive at natural, but fluid, laws and generalizations in regard to human nature and society. These laws weren't static laws of the kind sought by many positivists and natural law theorists, but rather, they were laws of becoming--with a constant possibility of change. Park encouraged students to get out of the library, to quit looking at papers and books, and to view the constant experiment of human experience. He writes, "Go and sit in the lounges of the luxury hotels and on the doorsteps of the flophouses; sit on the Gold Coast settees and on the slum shakedowns; sit in the Orchestra Hall and in the Star and Garter Burlesque. In short, gentlemen [sic], go get the seats of your pants dirty in real research."

But over the years, case studies have drawn their share of criticism. In fact, the method had its detractors from the start. In the 1920s, the debate between pro-qualitative and pro-quantitative became quite heated. Case studies, when compared to statistics, were considered by many to be unscientific. From the 1930's on, the rise of positivism had a growing influence on quantitative methods in sociology. People wanted static, generalizable laws in science. The sociological positivists were looking for stable laws of social phenomena. They criticized case study research because it failed to provide evidence of inter subjective agreement. Also, they condemned it because of the few number of cases studied and that the under-standardized character of their descriptions made generalization impossible. By the 1950s, quantitative methods, in the form of survey research, had become the dominant sociological approach and case study had become a minority practice.

Educational Applications

The 1950's marked the dawning of a new era in case study research, namely that of the utilization of the case study as a teaching method. "Instituted at Harvard Business School in the 1950s as a primary method of teaching, cases have since been used in classrooms and lecture halls alike, either as part of a course of study or as the main focus of the course to which other teaching material is added" (Armisted 1984). The basic purpose of instituting the case method as a teaching strategy was "to transfer much of the responsibility for learning from the teacher on to the student, whose role, as a result, shifts away from passive absorption toward active construction" (Boehrer 1990). Through careful examination and discussion of various cases, "students learn to identify actual problems, to recognize key players and their agendas, and to become aware of those aspects of the situation that contribute to the problem" (Merseth 1991). In addition, students are encouraged to "generate their own analysis of the problems under consideration, to develop their own solutions, and to practically apply their own knowledge of theory to these problems" (Boyce 1993). Along the way, students also develop "the power to analyze and to master a tangled circumstance by identifying and delineating important factors; the ability to utilize ideas, to test them against facts, and to throw them into fresh combinations" (Merseth 1991).

In addition to the practical application and testing of scholarly knowledge, case discussions can also help students prepare for real-world problems, situations and crises by providing an approximation of various professional environments (i.e. classroom, board room, courtroom, or hospital). Thus, through the examination of specific cases, students are given the opportunity to work out their own professional issues through the trials, tribulations, experiences, and research findings of others. An obvious advantage to this mode of instruction is that it allows students the exposure to settings and contexts that they might not otherwise experience. For example, a student interested in studying the effects of poverty on minority secondary student's grade point averages and S.A.T. scores could access and analyze information from schools as geographically diverse as Los Angeles, New York City, Miami, and New Mexico without ever having to leave the classroom.

The case study method also incorporates the idea that students can learn from one another "by engaging with each other and with each other's ideas, by asserting something and then having it questioned, challenged and thrown back at them so that they can reflect on what they hear, and then refine what they say" (Boehrer 1990). In summary, students can direct their own learning by formulating questions and taking responsibility for the study.

Types and Design Concerns

Researchers use multiple methods and approaches to conduct case studies.

Types of Case Studies

Under the more generalized category of case study exist several subdivisions, each of which is custom selected for use depending upon the goals and/or objectives of the investigator. These types of case study include the following:

Illustrative Case Studies These are primarily descriptive studies. They typically utilize one or two instances of an event to show what a situation is like. Illustrative case studies serve primarily to make the unfamiliar familiar and to give readers a common language about the topic in question.

Exploratory (or pilot) Case Studies These are condensed case studies performed before implementing a large scale investigation. Their basic function is to help identify questions and select types of measurement prior to the main investigation. The primary pitfall of this type of study is that initial findings may seem convincing enough to be released prematurely as conclusions.

Cumulative Case Studies These serve to aggregate information from several sites collected at different times. The idea behind these studies is the collection of past studies will allow for greater generalization without additional cost or time being expended on new, possibly repetitive studies.

Critical Instance Case Studies These examine one or more sites for either the purpose of examining a situation of unique interest with little to no interest in generalizability, or to call into question or challenge a highly generalized or universal assertion. This method is useful for answering cause and effect questions.

Identifying a Theoretical Perspective

Much of the case study's design is inherently determined for researchers, depending on the field from which they are working. In composition studies, researchers are typically working from a qualitative, descriptive standpoint. In contrast, physicists will approach their research from a more quantitative perspective. Still, in designing the study, researchers need to make explicit the questions to be explored and the theoretical perspective from which they will approach the case. The three most commonly adopted theories are listed below:

Individual Theories These focus primarily on the individual development, cognitive behavior, personality, learning and disability, and interpersonal interactions of a particular subject.

Organizational Theories These focus on bureaucracies, institutions, organizational structure and functions, or excellence in organizational performance.

Social Theories These focus on urban development, group behavior, cultural institutions, or marketplace functions.

Two examples of case studies are used consistently throughout this chapter. The first, a study produced by Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988), looks at a first year graduate student's initiation into an academic writing program. The study uses participant-observer and linguistic data collecting techniques to assess the student's knowledge of appropriate discourse conventions. Using the pseudonym Nate to refer to the subject, the study sought to illuminate the particular experience rather than to generalize about the experience of fledgling academic writers collectively.

For example, in Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman's (1988) study we are told that the researchers are interested in disciplinary communities. In the first paragraph, they ask what constitutes membership in a disciplinary community and how achieving membership might affect a writer's understanding and production of texts. In the third paragraph they state that researchers must negotiate their claims "within the context of his sub specialty's accepted knowledge and methodology." In the next paragraph they ask, "How is literacy acquired? What is the process through which novices gain community membership? And what factors either aid or hinder students learning the requisite linguistic behaviors?" This introductory section ends with a paragraph in which the study's authors claim that during the course of the study, the subject, Nate, successfully makes the transition from "skilled novice" to become an initiated member of the academic discourse community and that his texts exhibit linguistic changes which indicate this transition. In the next section the authors make explicit the sociolinguistic theoretical and methodological assumptions on which the study is based (1988). Thus the reader has a good understanding of the authors' theoretical background and purpose in conducting the study even before it is explicitly stated on the fourth page of the study. "Our purpose was to examine the effects of the educational context on one graduate student's production of texts as he wrote in different courses and for different faculty members over the academic year 1984-85." The goal of the study then, was to explore the idea that writers must be initiated into a writing community, and that this initiation will change the way one writes.

The second example is Janet Emig's (1971) study of the composing process of a group of twelfth graders. In this study, Emig seeks to answer the question of what happens to the self as a result educational stimuli in terms of academic writing. The case study used methods such as protocol analysis, tape-recorded interviews, and discourse analysis.

In the case of Janet Emig's (1971) study of the composing process of eight twelfth graders, four specific hypotheses were made:

• Twelfth grade writers engage in two modes of composing: reflexive and extensive.
• These differences can be ascertained and characterized through having the writers compose aloud their composition process.
• A set of implied stylistic principles governs the writing process.
• For twelfth grade writers, extensive writing occurs chiefly as a school-sponsored activity, or reflexive, as a self-sponsored activity.

In this study, the chief distinction is between the two dominant modes of composing among older, secondary school students. The distinctions are:

• The reflexive mode, which focuses on the writer's thoughts and feelings.
• The extensive mode, which focuses on conveying a message.

Emig also outlines the specific questions which guided the research in the opening pages of her Review of Literature , preceding the report.

Designing a Case Study

After considering the different sub categories of case study and identifying a theoretical perspective, researchers can begin to design their study. Research design is the string of logic that ultimately links the data to be collected and the conclusions to be drawn to the initial questions of the study. Typically, research designs deal with at least four problems:

• What questions to study
• What data are relevant
• What data to collect
• How to analyze that data

In other words, a research design is basically a blueprint for getting from the beginning to the end of a study. The beginning is an initial set of questions to be answered, and the end is some set of conclusions about those questions.

Because case studies are conducted on topics as diverse as Anglo-Saxon Literature (Thrane 1986) and AIDS prevention (Van Vugt 1994), it is virtually impossible to outline any strict or universal method or design for conducting the case study. However, Robert K. Yin (1993) does offer five basic components of a research design:

• A study's questions.
• A study's propositions (if any).
• A study's units of analysis.
• The logic that links the data to the propositions.
• The criteria for interpreting the findings.

In addition to these five basic components, Yin also stresses the importance of clearly articulating one's theoretical perspective, determining the goals of the study, selecting one's subject(s), selecting the appropriate method(s) of collecting data, and providing some considerations to the composition of the final report.

Conducting Case Studies

To obtain as complete a picture of the participant as possible, case study researchers can employ a variety of approaches and methods. These approaches, methods, and related issues are discussed in depth in this section.

Method: Single or Multi-modal?

To obtain as complete a picture of the participant as possible, case study researchers can employ a variety of methods. Some common methods include interviews , protocol analyses, field studies, and participant-observations. Emig (1971) chose to use several methods of data collection. Her sources included conversations with the students, protocol analysis, discrete observations of actual composition, writing samples from each student, and school records (Lauer and Asher 1988).

Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) collected data by observing classrooms, conducting faculty and student interviews, collecting self reports from the subject, and by looking at the subject's written work.

A study that was criticized for using a single method model was done by Flower and Hayes (1984). In this study that explores the ways in which writers use different forms of knowing to create space, the authors used only protocol analysis to gather data. The study came under heavy fire because of their decision to use only one method.

Participant Selection

Case studies can use one participant, or a small group of participants. However, it is important that the participant pool remain relatively small. The participants can represent a diverse cross section of society, but this isn't necessary.

For example, the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study looked at just one participant, Nate. By contrast, in Janet Emig's (1971) study of the composition process of twelfth graders, eight participants were selected representing a diverse cross section of the community, with volunteers from an all-white upper-middle-class suburban school, an all-black inner-city school, a racially mixed lower-middle-class school, an economically and racially mixed school, and a university school.

Often, a brief "case history" is done on the participants of the study in order to provide researchers with a clearer understanding of their participants, as well as some insight as to how their own personal histories might affect the outcome of the study. For instance, in Emig's study, the investigator had access to the school records of five of the participants, and to standardized test scores for the remaining three. Also made available to the researcher was the information that three of the eight students were selected as NCTE Achievement Award winners. These personal histories can be useful in later stages of the study when data are being analyzed and conclusions drawn.

Data Collection

There are six types of data collected in case studies:

• Archival records.
• Interviews.
• Direct observation.
• Participant observation.

In the field of composition research, these six sources might be:

• A writer's drafts.
• School records of student writers.
• Transcripts of interviews with a writer.
• Transcripts of conversations between writers (and protocols).
• Videotapes and notes from direct field observations.
• Hard copies of a writer's work on computer.

Depending on whether researchers have chosen to use a single or multi-modal approach for the case study, they may choose to collect data from one or any combination of these sources.

Protocols, that is, transcriptions of participants talking aloud about what they are doing as they do it, have been particularly common in composition case studies. For example, in Emig's (1971) study, the students were asked, in four different sessions, to give oral autobiographies of their writing experiences and to compose aloud three themes in the presence of a tape recorder and the investigator.

In some studies, only one method of data collection is conducted. For example, the Flower and Hayes (1981) report on the cognitive process theory of writing depends on protocol analysis alone. However, using multiple sources of evidence to increase the reliability and validity of the data can be advantageous.

Case studies are likely to be much more convincing and accurate if they are based on several different sources of information, following a corroborating mode. This conclusion is echoed among many composition researchers. For example, in her study of predrafting processes of high and low-apprehensive writers, Cynthia Selfe (1985) argues that because "methods of indirect observation provide only an incomplete reflection of the complex set of processes involved in composing, a combination of several such methods should be used to gather data in any one study." Thus, in this study, Selfe collected her data from protocols, observations of students role playing their writing processes, audio taped interviews with the students, and videotaped observations of the students in the process of composing.

It can be said then, that cross checking data from multiple sources can help provide a multidimensional profile of composing activities in a particular setting. Sharan Merriam (1985) suggests "checking, verifying, testing, probing, and confirming collected data as you go, arguing that this process will follow in a funnel-like design resulting in less data gathering in later phases of the study along with a congruent increase in analysis checking, verifying, and confirming."

It is important to note that in case studies, as in any qualitative descriptive research, while researchers begin their studies with one or several questions driving the inquiry (which influence the key factors the researcher will be looking for during data collection), a researcher may find new key factors emerging during data collection. These might be unexpected patterns or linguistic features which become evident only during the course of the research. While not bearing directly on the researcher's guiding questions, these variables may become the basis for new questions asked at the end of the report, thus linking to the possibility of further research.

Data Analysis

As the information is collected, researchers strive to make sense of their data. Generally, researchers interpret their data in one of two ways: holistically or through coding. Holistic analysis does not attempt to break the evidence into parts, but rather to draw conclusions based on the text as a whole. Flower and Hayes (1981), for example, make inferences from entire sections of their students' protocols, rather than searching through the transcripts to look for isolatable characteristics.

However, composition researchers commonly interpret their data by coding, that is by systematically searching data to identify and/or categorize specific observable actions or characteristics. These observable actions then become the key variables in the study. Sharan Merriam (1988) suggests seven analytic frameworks for the organization and presentation of data:

• The role of participants.
• The network analysis of formal and informal exchanges among groups.
• Historical.
• Thematical.
• Ritual and symbolism.
• Critical incidents that challenge or reinforce fundamental beliefs, practices, and values.

There are two purposes of these frameworks: to look for patterns among the data and to look for patterns that give meaning to the case study.

As stated above, while most researchers begin their case studies expecting to look for particular observable characteristics, it is not unusual for key variables to emerge during data collection. Typical variables coded in case studies of writers include pauses writers make in the production of a text, the use of specific linguistic units (such as nouns or verbs), and writing processes (planning, drafting, revising, and editing). In the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study, for example, researchers coded the participant's texts for use of connectives, discourse demonstratives, average sentence length, off-register words, use of the first person pronoun, and the ratio of definite articles to indefinite articles.

Since coding is inherently subjective, more than one coder is usually employed. In the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study, for example, three rhetoricians were employed to code the participant's texts for off-register phrases. The researchers established the agreement among the coders before concluding that the participant used fewer off-register words as the graduate program progressed.

Composing the Case Study Report

In the many forms it can take, "a case study is generically a story; it presents the concrete narrative detail of actual, or at least realistic events, it has a plot, exposition, characters, and sometimes even dialogue" (Boehrer 1990). Generally, case study reports are extensively descriptive, with "the most problematic issue often referred to as being the determination of the right combination of description and analysis" (1990). Typically, authors address each step of the research process, and attempt to give the reader as much context as possible for the decisions made in the research design and for the conclusions drawn.

This contextualization usually includes a detailed explanation of the researchers' theoretical positions, of how those theories drove the inquiry or led to the guiding research questions, of the participants' backgrounds, of the processes of data collection, of the training and limitations of the coders, along with a strong attempt to make connections between the data and the conclusions evident.

Although the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study does not, case study reports often include the reactions of the participants to the study or to the researchers' conclusions. Because case studies tend to be exploratory, most end with implications for further study. Here researchers may identify significant variables that emerged during the research and suggest studies related to these, or the authors may suggest further general questions that their case study generated.

For example, Emig's (1971) study concludes with a section dedicated solely to the topic of implications for further research, in which she suggests several means by which this particular study could have been improved, as well as questions and ideas raised by this study which other researchers might like to address, such as: is there a correlation between a certain personality and a certain composing process profile (e.g. is there a positive correlation between ego strength and persistence in revising)?

Also included in Emig's study is a section dedicated to implications for teaching, which outlines the pedagogical ramifications of the study's findings for teachers currently involved in high school writing programs.

Sharan Merriam (1985) also offers several suggestions for alternative presentations of data:

• Prepare specialized condensations for appropriate groups.
• Replace narrative sections with a series of answers to open-ended questions.
• Present "skimmer's" summaries at beginning of each section.
• Incorporate headlines that encapsulate information from text.
• Prepare analytic summaries with supporting data appendixes.
• Present data in colorful and/or unique graphic representations.

Issues of Validity and Reliability

Once key variables have been identified, they can be analyzed. Reliability becomes a key concern at this stage, and many case study researchers go to great lengths to ensure that their interpretations of the data will be both reliable and valid. Because issues of validity and reliability are an important part of any study in the social sciences, it is important to identify some ways of dealing with results.

Multi-modal case study researchers often balance the results of their coding with data from interviews or writer's reflections upon their own work. Consequently, the researchers' conclusions become highly contextualized. For example, in a case study which looked at the time spent in different stages of the writing process, Berkenkotter concluded that her participant, Donald Murray, spent more time planning his essays than in other writing stages. The report of this case study is followed by Murray's reply, wherein he agrees with some of Berkenkotter's conclusions and disagrees with others.

As is the case with other research methodologies, issues of external validity, construct validity, and reliability need to be carefully considered.

Commentary on Case Studies

Researchers often debate the relative merits of particular methods, among them case study. In this section, we comment on two key issues. To read the commentaries, choose any of the items below:

Strengths and Weaknesses of Case Studies

Most case study advocates point out that case studies produce much more detailed information than what is available through a statistical analysis. Advocates will also hold that while statistical methods might be able to deal with situations where behavior is homogeneous and routine, case studies are needed to deal with creativity, innovation, and context. Detractors argue that case studies are difficult to generalize because of inherent subjectivity and because they are based on qualitative subjective data, generalizable only to a particular context.

Flexibility

The case study approach is a comparatively flexible method of scientific research. Because its project designs seem to emphasize exploration rather than prescription or prediction, researchers are comparatively freer to discover and address issues as they arise in their experiments. In addition, the looser format of case studies allows researchers to begin with broad questions and narrow their focus as their experiment progresses rather than attempt to predict every possible outcome before the experiment is conducted.

Emphasis on Context

By seeking to understand as much as possible about a single subject or small group of subjects, case studies specialize in "deep data," or "thick description"--information based on particular contexts that can give research results a more human face. This emphasis can help bridge the gap between abstract research and concrete practice by allowing researchers to compare their firsthand observations with the quantitative results obtained through other methods of research.

Inherent Subjectivity

"The case study has long been stereotyped as the weak sibling among social science methods," and is often criticized as being too subjective and even pseudo-scientific. Likewise, "investigators who do case studies are often regarded as having deviated from their academic disciplines, and their investigations as having insufficient precision (that is, quantification), objectivity and rigor" (Yin 1989). Opponents cite opportunities for subjectivity in the implementation, presentation, and evaluation of case study research. The approach relies on personal interpretation of data and inferences. Results may not be generalizable, are difficult to test for validity, and rarely offer a problem-solving prescription. Simply put, relying on one or a few subjects as a basis for cognitive extrapolations runs the risk of inferring too much from what might be circumstance.

High Investment

Case studies can involve learning more about the subjects being tested than most researchers would care to know--their educational background, emotional background, perceptions of themselves and their surroundings, their likes, dislikes, and so on. Because of its emphasis on "deep data," the case study is out of reach for many large-scale research projects which look at a subject pool in the tens of thousands. A budget request of $10,000 to examine 200 subjects sounds more efficient than a similar request to examine four subjects.

Ethical Considerations

Researchers conducting case studies should consider certain ethical issues. For example, many educational case studies are often financed by people who have, either directly or indirectly, power over both those being studied and those conducting the investigation (1985). This conflict of interests can hinder the credibility of the study.

The personal integrity, sensitivity, and possible prejudices and/or biases of the investigators need to be taken into consideration as well. Personal biases can creep into how the research is conducted, alternative research methods used, and the preparation of surveys and questionnaires.

A common complaint in case study research is that investigators change direction during the course of the study unaware that their original research design was inadequate for the revised investigation. Thus, the researchers leave unknown gaps and biases in the study. To avoid this, researchers should report preliminary findings so that the likelihood of bias will be reduced.

Concerns about Reliability, Validity, and Generalizability

Merriam (1985) offers several suggestions for how case study researchers might actively combat the popular attacks on the validity, reliability, and generalizability of case studies:

• Prolong the Processes of Data Gathering on Site: This will help to insure the accuracy of the findings by providing the researcher with more concrete information upon which to formulate interpretations.
• Employ the Process of "Triangulation": Use a variety of data sources as opposed to relying solely upon one avenue of observation. One example of such a data check would be what McClintock, Brannon, and Maynard (1985) refer to as a "case cluster method," that is, when a single unit within a larger case is randomly sampled, and that data treated quantitatively." For instance, in Emig's (1971) study, the case cluster method was employed, singling out the productivity of a single student named Lynn. This cluster profile included an advanced case history of the subject, specific examination and analysis of individual compositions and protocols, and extensive interview sessions. The seven remaining students were then compared with the case of Lynn, to ascertain if there are any shared, or unique dimensions to the composing process engaged in by these eight students.
• Conduct Member Checks: Initiate and maintain an active corroboration on the interpretation of data between the researcher and those who provided the data. In other words, talk to your subjects.
• Collect Referential Materials: Complement the file of materials from the actual site with additional document support. For example, Emig (1971) supports her initial propositions with historical accounts by writers such as T.S. Eliot, James Joyce, and D.H. Lawrence. Emig also cites examples of theoretical research done with regards to the creative process, as well as examples of empirical research dealing with the writing of adolescents. Specific attention is then given to the four stages description of the composing process delineated by Helmoltz, Wallas, and Cowley, as it serves as the focal point in this study.
• Engage in Peer Consultation: Prior to composing the final draft of the report, researchers should consult with colleagues in order to establish validity through pooled judgment.

Although little can be done to combat challenges concerning the generalizability of case studies, "most writers suggest that qualitative research should be judged as credible and confirmable as opposed to valid and reliable" (Merriam 1985). Likewise, it has been argued that "rather than transplanting statistical, quantitative notions of generalizability and thus finding qualitative research inadequate, it makes more sense to develop an understanding of generalization that is congruent with the basic characteristics of qualitative inquiry" (1985). After all, criticizing the case study method for being ungeneralizable is comparable to criticizing a washing machine for not being able to tell the correct time. In other words, it is unjust to criticize a method for not being able to do something which it was never originally designed to do in the first place.

Annotated Bibliography

Armisted, C. (1984). How Useful are Case Studies. Training and Development Journal, 38 (2), 75-77.

This article looks at eight types of case studies, offers pros and cons of using case studies in the classroom, and gives suggestions for successfully writing and using case studies.

Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1997). Beyond Methods: Components of Second Language Teacher Education . New York: McGraw-Hill.

A compilation of various research essays which address issues of language teacher education. Essays included are: "Non-native reading research and theory" by Lee, "The case for Psycholinguistics" by VanPatten, and "Assessment and Second Language Teaching" by Gradman and Reed.

Bartlett, L. (1989). A Question of Good Judgment; Interpretation Theory and Qualitative Enquiry Address. 70th Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. San Francisco.

Bartlett selected "quasi-historical" methodology, which focuses on the "truth" found in case records, as one that will provide "good judgments" in educational inquiry. He argues that although the method is not comprehensive, it can try to connect theory with practice.

Baydere, S. et. al. (1993). Multimedia conferencing as a tool for collaborative writing: a case study in Computer Supported Collaborative Writing. New York: Springer-Verlag.

The case study by Baydere et. al. is just one of the many essays in this book found in the series "Computer Supported Cooperative Work." Denley, Witefield and May explore similar issues in their essay, "A case study in task analysis for the design of a collaborative document production system."

Berkenkotter, C., Huckin, T., N., & Ackerman J. (1988). Conventions, Conversations, and the Writer: Case Study of a Student in a Rhetoric Ph.D. Program. Research in the Teaching of English, 22, 9-44.

The authors focused on how the writing of their subject, Nate or Ackerman, changed as he became more acquainted or familiar with his field's discourse community.

Berninger, V., W., and Gans, B., M. (1986). Language Profiles in Nonspeaking Individuals of Normal Intelligence with Severe Cerebral Palsy. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 2, 45-50.

Argues that generalizations about language abilities in patients with severe cerebral palsy (CP) should be avoided. Standardized tests of different levels of processing oral language, of processing written language, and of producing written language were administered to 3 male participants (aged 9, 16, and 40 yrs).

Bockman, J., R., and Couture, B. (1984). The Case Method in Technical Communication: Theory and Models. Texas: Association of Teachers of Technical Writing.

Examines the study and teaching of technical writing, communication of technical information, and the case method in terms of those applications.

Boehrer, J. (1990). Teaching With Cases: Learning to Question. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 42 41-57.

This article discusses the origins of the case method, looks at the question of what is a case, gives ideas about learning in case teaching, the purposes it can serve in the classroom, the ground rules for the case discussion, including the role of the question, and new directions for case teaching.

Bowman, W. R. (1993). Evaluating JTPA Programs for Economically Disadvantaged Adults: A Case Study of Utah and General Findings . Washington: National Commission for Employment Policy.

"To encourage state-level evaluations of JTPA, the Commission and the State of Utah co-sponsored this report on the effectiveness of JTPA Title II programs for adults in Utah. The technique used is non-experimental and the comparison group was selected from registrants with Utah's Employment Security. In a step-by-step approach, the report documents how non-experimental techniques can be applied and several specific technical issues can be addressed."

Boyce, A. (1993) The Case Study Approach for Pedagogists. Annual Meeting of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. (Address). Washington DC.

This paper addresses how case studies 1) bridge the gap between teaching theory and application, 2) enable students to analyze problems and develop solutions for situations that will be encountered in the real world of teaching, and 3) helps students to evaluate the feasibility of alternatives and to understand the ramifications of a particular course of action.

Carson, J. (1993) The Case Study: Ideal Home of WAC Quantitative and Qualitative Data. Annual Meeting of the Conference on College Composition and Communication. (Address). San Diego.

"Increasingly, one of the most pressing questions for WAC advocates is how to keep [WAC] programs going in the face of numerous difficulties. Case histories offer the best chance for fashioning rhetorical arguments to keep WAC programs going because they offer the opportunity to provide a coherent narrative that contextualizes all documents and data, including what is generally considered scientific data. A case study of the WAC program, . . . at Robert Morris College in Pittsburgh demonstrates the advantages of this research method. Such studies are ideal homes for both naturalistic and positivistic data as well as both quantitative and qualitative information."

---. (1991). A Cognitive Process Theory of Writing. College Composition and Communication. 32. 365-87.

No abstract available.

Cromer, R. (1994) A Case Study of Dissociations Between Language and Cognition. Constraints on Language Acquisition: Studies of Atypical Children . Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 141-153.

Crossley, M. (1983) Case Study in Comparative and International Education: An Approach to Bridging the Theory-Practice Gap. Proceedings of the 11th Annual Conference of the Australian Comparative and International Education Society. Hamilton, NZ.

Case study research, as presented here, helps bridge the theory-practice gap in comparative and international research studies of education because it focuses on the practical, day-to-day context rather than on the national arena. The paper asserts that the case study method can be valuable at all levels of research, formation, and verification of theories in education.

Daillak, R., H., and Alkin, M., C. (1982). Qualitative Studies in Context: Reflections on the CSE Studies of Evaluation Use . California: EDRS

The report shows how the Center of the Study of Evaluation (CSE) applied qualitative techniques to a study of evaluation information use in local, Los Angeles schools. It critiques the effectiveness and the limitations of using case study, evaluation, field study, and user interview survey methodologies.

Davey, L. (1991). The Application of Case Study Evaluations. ERIC/TM Digest.

This article examines six types of case studies, the type of evaluation questions that can be answered, the functions served, some design features, and some pitfalls of the method.

Deutch, C. E. (1996). A course in research ethics for graduate students. College Teaching, 44, 2, 56-60.

This article describes a one-credit discussion course in research ethics for graduate students in biology. Case studies are focused on within the four parts of the course: 1) major issues, 2 )practical issues in scholarly work, 3) ownership of research results, and 4) training and personal decisions.

DeVoss, G. (1981). Ethics in Fieldwork Research. RIE 27p. (ERIC)

This article examines four of the ethical problems that can happen when conducting case study research: acquiring permission to do research, knowing when to stop digging, the pitfalls of doing collaborative research, and preserving the integrity of the participants.

Driscoll, A. (1985). Case Study of a Research Intervention: the University of Utah’s Collaborative Approach . San Francisco: Far West Library for Educational Research Development.

Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education, Denver, CO, March 1985. Offers information of in-service training, specifically case studies application.

Ellram, L. M. (1996). The Use of the Case Study Method in Logistics Research. Journal of Business Logistics, 17, 2, 93.

This article discusses the increased use of case study in business research, and the lack of understanding of when and how to use case study methodology in business.

Emig, J. (1971) The Composing Processes of Twelfth Graders . Urbana: NTCE.

This case study uses observation, tape recordings, writing samples, and school records to show that writing in reflexive and extensive situations caused different lengths of discourse and different clusterings of the components of the writing process.

Feagin, J. R. (1991). A Case For the Case Study . Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.

This book discusses the nature, characteristics, and basic methodological issues of the case study as a research method.

Feldman, H., Holland, A., & Keefe, K. (1989) Language Abilities after Left Hemisphere Brain Injury: A Case Study of Twins. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 9, 32-47.

"Describes the language abilities of 2 twin pairs in which 1 twin (the experimental) suffered brain injury to the left cerebral hemisphere around the time of birth and1 twin (the control) did not. One pair of twins was initially assessed at age 23 mo. and the other at about 30 mo.; they were subsequently evaluated in their homes 3 times at about 6-mo intervals."

Fidel, R. (1984). The Case Study Method: A Case Study. Library and Information Science Research, 6.

The article describes the use of case study methodology to systematically develop a model of online searching behavior in which study design is flexible, subject manner determines data gathering and analyses, and procedures adapt to the study's progressive change.

Flower, L., & Hayes, J. R. (1984). Images, Plans and Prose: The Representation of Meaning in Writing. Written Communication, 1, 120-160.

Explores the ways in which writers actually use different forms of knowing to create prose.

Frey, L. R. (1992). Interpreting Communication Research: A Case Study Approach Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.

The book discusses research methodologies in the Communication field. It focuses on how case studies bridge the gap between communication research, theory, and practice.

Gilbert, V. K. (1981). The Case Study as a Research Methodology: Difficulties and Advantages of Integrating the Positivistic, Phenomenological and Grounded Theory Approaches . The Annual Meeting of the Canadian Association for the Study of Educational Administration. (Address) Halifax, NS, Can.

This study on an innovative secondary school in England shows how a "low-profile" participant-observer case study was crucial to the initial observation, the testing of hypotheses, the interpretive approach, and the grounded theory.

Gilgun, J. F. (1994). A Case for Case Studies in Social Work Research. Social Work, 39, 4, 371-381.

This article defines case study research, presents guidelines for evaluation of case studies, and shows the relevance of case studies to social work research. It also looks at issues such as evaluation and interpretations of case studies.

Glennan, S. L., Sharp-Bittner, M. A. & Tullos, D. C. (1991). Augmentative and Alternative Communication Training with a Nonspeaking Adult: Lessons from MH. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 7, 240-7.

"A response-guided case study documented changes in a nonspeaking 36-yr-old man's ability to communicate using 3 trained augmentative communication modes. . . . Data were collected in videotaped interaction sessions between the nonspeaking adult and a series of adult speaking."

Graves, D. (1981). An Examination of the Writing Processes of Seven Year Old Children. Research in the Teaching of English, 15, 113-134.

Hamel, J. (1993). Case Study Methods . Newbury Park: Sage. .

"In a most economical fashion, Hamel provides a practical guide for producing theoretically sharp and empirically sound sociological case studies. A central idea put forth by Hamel is that case studies must "locate the global in the local" thus making the careful selection of the research site the most critical decision in the analytic process."

Karthigesu, R. (1986, July). Television as a Tool for Nation-Building in the Third World: A Post-Colonial Pattern, Using Malaysia as a Case-Study. International Television Studies Conference. (Address). London, 10-12.

"The extent to which Television Malaysia, as a national mass media organization, has been able to play a role in nation building in the post-colonial period is . . . studied in two parts: how the choice of a model of nation building determines the character of the organization; and how the character of the organization influences the output of the organization."

Kenny, R. (1984). Making the Case for the Case Study. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 16, (1), 37-51.

The article looks at how and why the case study is justified as a viable and valuable approach to educational research and program evaluation.

Knirk, F. (1991). Case Materials: Research and Practice. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 4 (1 ), 73-81.

The article addresses the effectiveness of case studies, subject areas where case studies are commonly used, recent examples of their use, and case study design considerations.

Klos, D. (1976). Students as Case Writers. Teaching of Psychology, 3.2, 63-66.

This article reviews a course in which students gather data for an original case study of another person. The task requires the students to design the study, collect the data, write the narrative, and interpret the findings.

Leftwich, A. (1981). The Politics of Case Study: Problems of Innovation in University Education. Higher Education Review, 13.2, 38-64.

The article discusses the use of case studies as a teaching method. Emphasis is on the instructional materials, interdisciplinarity, and the complex relationships within the university that help or hinder the method.

Mabrito, M. (1991, Oct.). Electronic Mail as a Vehicle for Peer Response: Conversations of High and Low Apprehensive Writers. Written Communication, 509-32.

McCarthy, S., J. (1955). The Influence of Classroom Discourse on Student Texts: The Case of Ella . East Lansing: Institute for Research on Teaching.

A look at how students of color become marginalized within traditional classroom discourse. The essay follows the struggles of one black student: Ella.

Matsuhashi, A., ed. (1987). Writing in Real Time: Modeling Production Processes Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.

Investigates how writers plan to produce discourse for different purposes to report, to generalize, and to persuade, as well as how writers plan for sentence level units of language. To learn about planning, an observational measure of pause time was used" (ERIC).

Merriam, S. B. (1985). The Case Study in Educational Research: A Review of Selected Literature. Journal of Educational Thought, 19.3, 204-17.

The article examines the characteristics of, philosophical assumptions underlying the case study, the mechanics of conducting a case study, and the concerns about the reliability, validity, and generalizability of the method.

---. (1988). Case Study Research in Education: A Qualitative Approach San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Merry, S. E., & Milner, N. eds. (1993). The Possibility of Popular Justice: A Case Study of Community Mediation in the United States . Ann Arbor: U of Michigan.

". . . this volume presents a case study of one experiment in popular justice, the San Francisco Community Boards. This program has made an explicit claim to create an alternative justice, or new justice, in the midst of a society ordered by state law. The contributors to this volume explore the history and experience of the program and compare it to other versions of popular justice in the United States, Europe, and the Third World."

Merseth, K. K. (1991). The Case for Cases in Teacher Education. RIE. 42p. (ERIC).

This monograph argues that the case method of instruction offers unique potential for revitalizing the field of teacher education.

Michaels, S. (1987). Text and Context: A New Approach to the Study of Classroom Writing. Discourse Processes, 10, 321-346.

"This paper argues for and illustrates an approach to the study of writing that integrates ethnographic analysis of classroom interaction with linguistic analysis of written texts and teacher/student conversational exchanges. The approach is illustrated through a case study of writing in a single sixth grade classroom during a single writing assignment."

Milburn, G. (1995). Deciphering a Code or Unraveling a Riddle: A Case Study in the Application of a Humanistic Metaphor to the Reporting of Social Studies Teaching. Theory and Research in Education, 13.

This citation serves as an example of how case studies document learning procedures in a senior-level economics course.

Milley, J. E. (1979). An Investigation of Case Study as an Approach to Program Evaluation. 19th Annual Forum of the Association for Institutional Research. (Address). San Diego.

The case study method merged a narrative report focusing on the evaluator as participant-observer with document review, interview, content analysis, attitude questionnaire survey, and sociogram analysis. Milley argues that case study program evaluation has great potential for widespread use.

Minnis, J. R. (1985, Sept.). Ethnography, Case Study, Grounded Theory, and Distance Education Research. Distance Education, 6.2.

This article describes and defines the strengths and weaknesses of ethnography, case study, and grounded theory.

Nunan, D. (1992). Collaborative language learning and teaching . New York: Cambridge University Press.

Included in this series of essays is Peter Sturman’s "Team Teaching: a case study from Japan" and David Nunan’s own "Toward a collaborative approach to curriculum development: a case study."

Nystrand, M., ed. (1982). What Writers Know: The Language, Process, and Structure of Written Discourse . New York: Academic Press.

Owenby, P. H. (1992). Making Case Studies Come Alive. Training, 29, (1), 43-46. (ERIC)

This article provides tips for writing more effective case studies.

---. (1981). Pausing and Planning: The Tempo of Writer Discourse Production. Research in the Teaching of English, 15 (2),113-34.

Perl, S. (1979). The Composing Processes of Unskilled College Writers. Research in the Teaching of English, 13, 317-336.

"Summarizes a study of five unskilled college writers, focusing especially on one of the five, and discusses the findings in light of current pedagogical practice and research design."

Pilcher J. and A. Coffey. eds. (1996). Gender and Qualitative Research . Brookfield: Aldershot, Hants, England.

This book provides a series of essays which look at gender identity research, qualitative research and applications of case study to questions of gendered pedagogy.

Pirie, B. S. (1993). The Case of Morty: A Four Year Study. Gifted Education International, 9 (2), 105-109.

This case study describes a boy from kindergarten through third grade with above average intelligence but difficulty in learning to read, write, and spell.

Popkewitz, T. (1993). Changing Patterns of Power: Social Regulation and Teacher Education Reform. Albany: SUNY Press.

Popkewitz edits this series of essays that address case studies on educational change and the training of teachers. The essays vary in terms of discipline and scope. Also, several authors include case studies of educational practices in countries other than the United States.

---. (1984). The Predrafting Processes of Four High- and Four Low Apprehensive Writers. Research in the Teaching of English, 18, (1), 45-64.

Rasmussen, P. (1985, March) A Case Study on the Evaluation of Research at the Technical University of Denmark. International Journal of Institutional Management in Higher Education, 9 (1).

This is an example of a case study methodology used to evaluate the chemistry and chemical engineering departments at the University of Denmark.

Roth, K. J. (1986). Curriculum Materials, Teacher Talk, and Student Learning: Case Studies in Fifth-Grade Science Teaching . East Lansing: Institute for Research on Teaching.

Roth offers case studies on elementary teachers, elementary school teaching, science studies and teaching, and verbal learning.

Selfe, C. L. (1985). An Apprehensive Writer Composes. When a Writer Can't Write: Studies in Writer's Block and Other Composing-Process Problems . (pp. 83-95). Ed. Mike Rose. NMY: Guilford.

Smith-Lewis, M., R. and Ford, A. (1987). A User's Perspective on Augmentative Communication. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 3, 12-7.

"During a series of in-depth interviews, a 25-yr-old woman with cerebral palsy who utilized augmentative communication reflected on the effectiveness of the devices designed for her during her school career."

St. Pierre, R., G. (1980, April). Follow Through: A Case Study in Metaevaluation Research . 64th Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. (Address).

The three approaches to metaevaluation are evaluation of primary evaluations, integrative meta-analysis with combined primary evaluation results, and re-analysis of the raw data from a primary evaluation.

Stahler, T., M. (1996, Feb.) Early Field Experiences: A Model That Worked. ERIC.

"This case study of a field and theory class examines a model designed to provide meaningful field experiences for preservice teachers while remaining consistent with the instructor's beliefs about the role of teacher education in preparing teachers for the classroom."

Stake, R. E. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

This book examines case study research in education and case study methodology.

Stiegelbauer, S. (1984) Community, Context, and Co-curriculum: Situational Factors Influencing School Improvements in a Study of High Schools. Presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.

Discussion of several case studies: one looking at high school environments, another examining educational innovations.

Stolovitch, H. (1990). Case Study Method. Performance And Instruction, 29, (9), 35-37.

This article describes the case study method as a form of simulation and presents guidelines for their use in professional training situations.

Thaller, E. (1994). Bibliography for the Case Method: Using Case Studies in Teacher Education. RIE. 37 p.

This bibliography presents approximately 450 citations on the use of case studies in teacher education from 1921-1993.

Thrane, T. (1986). On Delimiting the Senses of Near-Synonyms in Historical Semantics: A Case Study of Adjectives of 'Moral Sufficiency' in the Old English Andreas. Linguistics Across Historical and Geographical Boundaries: In Honor of Jacek Fisiak on the Occasion of his Fiftieth Birthday . Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

United Nations. (1975). Food and Agriculture Organization. Report on the FAO/UNFPA Seminar on Methodology, Research and Country: Case Studies on Population, Employment and Productivity . Rome: United Nations.

This example case study shows how the methodology can be used in a demographic and psychographic evaluation. At the same time, it discusses the formation and instigation of the case study methodology itself.

Van Vugt, J. P., ed. (1994). Aids Prevention and Services: Community Based Research . Westport: Bergin and Garvey.

"This volume has been five years in the making. In the process, some of the policy applications called for have met with limited success, such as free needle exchange programs in a limited number of American cities, providing condoms to prison inmates, and advertisements that depict same-sex couples. Rather than dating our chapters that deal with such subjects, such policy applications are verifications of the type of research demonstrated here. Furthermore, they indicate the critical need to continue community based research in the various communities threatened by acquired immuno-deficiency syndrome (AIDS) . . . "

Welch, W., ed. (1981, May). Case Study Methodology in Educational Evaluation. Proceedings of the Minnesota Evaluation Conference. Minnesota. (Address).

The four papers in these proceedings provide a comprehensive picture of the rationale, methodology, strengths, and limitations of case studies.

Williams, G. (1987). The Case Method: An Approach to Teaching and Learning in Educational Administration. RIE, 31p.

This paper examines the viability of the case method as a teaching and learning strategy in instructional systems geared toward the training of personnel of the administration of various aspects of educational systems.

Yin, R. K. (1993). Advancing Rigorous Methodologies: A Review of 'Towards Rigor in Reviews of Multivocal Literatures.' Review of Educational Research, 61, (3).

"R. T. Ogawa and B. Malen's article does not meet its own recommended standards for rigorous testing and presentation of its own conclusions. Use of the exploratory case study to analyze multivocal literatures is not supported, and the claim of grounded theory to analyze multivocal literatures may be stronger."

---. (1989). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. London: Sage Publications Inc.

This book discusses in great detail, the entire design process of the case study, including entire chapters on collecting evidence, analyzing evidence, composing the case study report, and designing single and multiple case studies.

Related Links

Consider the following list of related Web sites for more information on the topic of case study research. Note: although many of the links cover the general category of qualitative research, all have sections that address issues of case studies.

• Sage Publications on Qualitative Methodology: Search here for a comprehensive list of new books being published about "Qualitative Methodology" http://www.sagepub.co.uk/
• The International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education: An on-line journal "to enhance the theory and practice of qualitative research in education." On-line submissions are welcome. http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/tf/09518398.html
• Qualitative Research Resources on the Internet: From syllabi to home pages to bibliographies. All links relate somehow to qualitative research. http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/qualres.html

Becker, Bronwyn, Patrick Dawson, Karen Devine, Carla Hannum, Steve Hill, Jon Leydens, Debbie Matuskevich, Carol Traver, & Mike Palmquist. (2005). Case Studies. Writing@CSU . Colorado State University. https://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=60

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Writing a case report in 10 steps

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• Peer review
• Victoria Stokes , foundation year 2 doctor, trauma and orthopaedics, Basildon Hospital ,
• Caroline Fertleman , paediatrics consultant, The Whittington Hospital NHS Trust
• victoria.stokes1{at}nhs.net

Victoria Stokes and Caroline Fertleman explain how to turn an interesting case or unusual presentation into an educational report

It is common practice in medicine that when we come across an interesting case with an unusual presentation or a surprise twist, we must tell the rest of the medical world. This is how we continue our lifelong learning and aid faster diagnosis and treatment for patients.

It usually falls to the junior to write up the case, so here are a few simple tips to get you started.

First steps

Begin by sitting down with your medical team to discuss the interesting aspects of the case and the learning points to highlight. Ideally, a registrar or middle grade will mentor you and give you guidance. Another junior doctor or medical student may also be keen to be involved. Allocate jobs to split the workload, set a deadline and work timeframe, and discuss the order in which the authors will be listed. All listed authors should contribute substantially, with the person doing most of the work put first and the guarantor (usually the most senior team member) at the end.

Getting consent

Gain permission and written consent to write up the case from the patient or parents, if your patient is a child, and keep a copy because you will need it later for submission to journals.

Information gathering

Gather all the information from the medical notes and the hospital’s electronic systems, including copies of blood results and imaging, as medical notes often disappear when the patient is discharged and are notoriously difficult to find again. Remember to anonymise the data according to your local hospital policy.

Write up the case emphasising the interesting points of the presentation, investigations leading to diagnosis, and management of the disease/pathology. Get input on the case from all members of the team, highlighting their involvement. Also include the prognosis of the patient, if known, as the reader will want to know the outcome.

Coming up with a title

Discuss a title with your supervisor and other members of the team, as this provides the focus for your article. The title should be concise and interesting but should also enable people to find it in medical literature search engines. Also think about how you will present your case study—for example, a poster presentation or scientific paper—and consider potential journals or conferences, as you may need to write in a particular style or format.

Background research

Research the disease/pathology that is the focus of your article and write a background paragraph or two, highlighting the relevance of your case report in relation to this. If you are struggling, seek the opinion of a specialist who may know of relevant articles or texts. Another good resource is your hospital library, where staff are often more than happy to help with literature searches.

How your case is different

Move on to explore how the case presented differently to the admitting team. Alternatively, if your report is focused on management, explore the difficulties the team came across and alternative options for treatment.

Finish by explaining why your case report adds to the medical literature and highlight any learning points.

Writing an abstract

The abstract should be no longer than 100-200 words and should highlight all your key points concisely. This can be harder than writing the full article and needs special care as it will be used to judge whether your case is accepted for presentation or publication.

Discuss with your supervisor or team about options for presenting or publishing your case report. At the very least, you should present your article locally within a departmental or team meeting or at a hospital grand round. Well done!

Competing interests: We have read and understood BMJ’s policy on declaration of interests and declare that we have no competing interests.

How to write a case study — examples, templates, and tools

It’s a marketer’s job to communicate the effectiveness of a product or service to potential and current customers to convince them to buy and keep business moving. One of the best methods for doing this is to share success stories that are relatable to prospects and customers based on their pain points, experiences, and overall needs.

That’s where case studies come in. Case studies are an essential part of a content marketing plan. These in-depth stories of customer experiences are some of the most effective at demonstrating the value of a product or service. Yet many marketers don’t use them, whether because of their regimented formats or the process of customer involvement and approval.

A case study is a powerful tool for showcasing your hard work and the success your customer achieved. But writing a great case study can be difficult if you’ve never done it before or if it’s been a while. This guide will show you how to write an effective case study and provide real-world examples and templates that will keep readers engaged and support your business.

In this article, you’ll learn:

What is a case study?

How to write a case study, case study templates, case study examples, case study tools.

A case study is the detailed story of a customer’s experience with a product or service that demonstrates their success and often includes measurable outcomes. Case studies are used in a range of fields and for various reasons, from business to academic research. They’re especially impactful in marketing as brands work to convince and convert consumers with relatable, real-world stories of actual customer experiences.

The best case studies tell the story of a customer’s success, including the steps they took, the results they achieved, and the support they received from a brand along the way. To write a great case study, you need to:

• Celebrate the customer and make them — not a product or service — the star of the story.
• Craft the story with specific audiences or target segments in mind so that the story of one customer will be viewed as relatable and actionable for another customer.
• Write copy that is easy to read and engaging so that readers will gain the insights and messages intended.
• Follow a standardized format that includes all of the essentials a potential customer would find interesting and useful.
• Support all of the claims for success made in the story with data in the forms of hard numbers and customer statements.

Case studies are a type of review but more in depth, aiming to show — rather than just tell — the positive experiences that customers have with a brand. Notably, 89% of consumers read reviews before deciding to buy, and 79% view case study content as part of their purchasing process. When it comes to B2B sales, 52% of buyers rank case studies as an important part of their evaluation process.

Telling a brand story through the experience of a tried-and-true customer matters. The story is relatable to potential new customers as they imagine themselves in the shoes of the company or individual featured in the case study. Showcasing previous customers can help new ones see themselves engaging with your brand in the ways that are most meaningful to them.

Besides sharing the perspective of another customer, case studies stand out from other content marketing forms because they are based on evidence. Whether pulling from client testimonials or data-driven results, case studies tend to have more impact on new business because the story contains information that is both objective (data) and subjective (customer experience) — and the brand doesn’t sound too self-promotional.

Case studies are unique in that there’s a fairly standardized format for telling a customer’s story. But that doesn’t mean there isn’t room for creativity. It’s all about making sure that teams are clear on the goals for the case study — along with strategies for supporting content and channels — and understanding how the story fits within the framework of the company’s overall marketing goals.

Here are the basic steps to writing a good case study.

1. Identify your goal

Start by defining exactly who your case study will be designed to help. Case studies are about specific instances where a company works with a customer to achieve a goal. Identify which customers are likely to have these goals, as well as other needs the story should cover to appeal to them.

The answer is often found in one of the buyer personas that have been constructed as part of your larger marketing strategy. This can include anything from new leads generated by the marketing team to long-term customers that are being pressed for cross-sell opportunities. In all of these cases, demonstrating value through a relatable customer success story can be part of the solution to conversion.

2. Choose your client or subject

Who you highlight matters. Case studies tie brands together that might otherwise not cross paths. A writer will want to ensure that the highlighted customer aligns with their own company’s brand identity and offerings. Look for a customer with positive name recognition who has had great success with a product or service and is willing to be an advocate.

The client should also match up with the identified target audience. Whichever company or individual is selected should be a reflection of other potential customers who can see themselves in similar circumstances, having the same problems and possible solutions.

Some of the most compelling case studies feature customers who:

• Switch from one product or service to another while naming competitors that missed the mark.
• Experience measurable results that are relatable to others in a specific industry.
• Represent well-known brands and recognizable names that are likely to compel action.
• Advocate for a product or service as a champion and are well-versed in its advantages.

Whoever or whatever customer is selected, marketers must ensure they have the permission of the company involved before getting started. Some brands have strict review and approval procedures for any official marketing or promotional materials that include their name. Acquiring those approvals in advance will prevent any miscommunication or wasted effort if there is an issue with their legal or compliance teams.

3. Conduct research and compile data

Substantiating the claims made in a case study — either by the marketing team or customers themselves — adds validity to the story. To do this, include data and feedback from the client that defines what success looks like. This can be anything from demonstrating return on investment (ROI) to a specific metric the customer was striving to improve. Case studies should prove how an outcome was achieved and show tangible results that indicate to the customer that your solution is the right one.

This step could also include customer interviews. Make sure that the people being interviewed are key stakeholders in the purchase decision or deployment and use of the product or service that is being highlighted. Content writers should work off a set list of questions prepared in advance. It can be helpful to share these with the interviewees beforehand so they have time to consider and craft their responses. One of the best interview tactics to keep in mind is to ask questions where yes and no are not natural answers. This way, your subject will provide more open-ended responses that produce more meaningful content.

4. Choose the right format

There are a number of different ways to format a case study. Depending on what you hope to achieve, one style will be better than another. However, there are some common elements to include, such as:

• An engaging headline
• A subject and customer introduction
• The unique challenge or challenges the customer faced
• The solution the customer used to solve the problem
• The results achieved
• Data and statistics to back up claims of success
• A strong call to action (CTA) to engage with the vendor

It’s also important to note that while case studies are traditionally written as stories, they don’t have to be in a written format. Some companies choose to get more creative with their case studies and produce multimedia content, depending on their audience and objectives. Case study formats can include traditional print stories, interactive web or social content, data-heavy infographics, professionally shot videos, podcasts, and more.

5. Write your case study

We’ll go into more detail later about how exactly to write a case study, including templates and examples. Generally speaking, though, there are a few things to keep in mind when writing your case study.

• Be clear and concise. Readers want to get to the point of the story quickly and easily, and they’ll be looking to see themselves reflected in the story right from the start.
• Provide a big picture. Always make sure to explain who the client is, their goals, and how they achieved success in a short introduction to engage the reader.
• Construct a clear narrative. Stick to the story from the perspective of the customer and what they needed to solve instead of just listing product features or benefits.
• Leverage graphics. Incorporating infographics, charts, and sidebars can be a more engaging and eye-catching way to share key statistics and data in readable ways.
• Offer the right amount of detail. Most case studies are one or two pages with clear sections that a reader can skim to find the information most important to them.
• Include data to support claims. Show real results — both facts and figures and customer quotes — to demonstrate credibility and prove the solution works.

6. Promote your story

Marketers have a number of options for distribution of a freshly minted case study. Many brands choose to publish case studies on their website and post them on social media. This can help support SEO and organic content strategies while also boosting company credibility and trust as visitors see that other businesses have used the product or service.

Marketers are always looking for quality content they can use for lead generation. Consider offering a case study as gated content behind a form on a landing page or as an offer in an email message. One great way to do this is to summarize the content and tease the full story available for download after the user takes an action.

Sales teams can also leverage case studies, so be sure they are aware that the assets exist once they’re published. Especially when it comes to larger B2B sales, companies often ask for examples of similar customer challenges that have been solved.

Now that you’ve learned a bit about case studies and what they should include, you may be wondering how to start creating great customer story content. Here are a couple of templates you can use to structure your case study.

Template 1 — Challenge-solution-result format

• Start with an engaging title. This should be fewer than 70 characters long for SEO best practices. One of the best ways to approach the title is to include the customer’s name and a hint at the challenge they overcame in the end.
• Create an introduction. Lead with an explanation as to who the customer is, the need they had, and the opportunity they found with a specific product or solution. Writers can also suggest the success the customer experienced with the solution they chose.
• Present the challenge. This should be several paragraphs long and explain the problem the customer faced and the issues they were trying to solve. Details should tie into the company’s products and services naturally. This section needs to be the most relatable to the reader so they can picture themselves in a similar situation.
• Share the solution. Explain which product or service offered was the ideal fit for the customer and why. Feel free to delve into their experience setting up, purchasing, and onboarding the solution.
• Explain the results. Demonstrate the impact of the solution they chose by backing up their positive experience with data. Fill in with customer quotes and tangible, measurable results that show the effect of their choice.
• Ask for action. Include a CTA at the end of the case study that invites readers to reach out for more information, try a demo, or learn more — to nurture them further in the marketing pipeline. What you ask of the reader should tie directly into the goals that were established for the case study in the first place.

Template 2 — Data-driven format

• Start with an engaging title. Be sure to include a statistic or data point in the first 70 characters. Again, it’s best to include the customer’s name as part of the title.
• Create an overview. Share the customer’s background and a short version of the challenge they faced. Present the reason a particular product or service was chosen, and feel free to include quotes from the customer about their selection process.
• Present data point 1. Isolate the first metric that the customer used to define success and explain how the product or solution helped to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Present data point 2. Isolate the second metric that the customer used to define success and explain what the product or solution did to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Present data point 3. Isolate the final metric that the customer used to define success and explain what the product or solution did to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Summarize the results. Reiterate the fact that the customer was able to achieve success thanks to a specific product or service. Include quotes and statements that reflect customer satisfaction and suggest they plan to continue using the solution.
• Ask for action. Include a CTA at the end of the case study that asks readers to reach out for more information, try a demo, or learn more — to further nurture them in the marketing pipeline. Again, remember that this is where marketers can look to convert their content into action with the customer.

While templates are helpful, seeing a case study in action can also be a great way to learn. Here are some examples of how Adobe customers have experienced success.

Juniper Networks

One example is the Adobe and Juniper Networks case study , which puts the reader in the customer’s shoes. The beginning of the story quickly orients the reader so that they know exactly who the article is about and what they were trying to achieve. Solutions are outlined in a way that shows Adobe Experience Manager is the best choice and a natural fit for the customer. Along the way, quotes from the client are incorporated to help add validity to the statements. The results in the case study are conveyed with clear evidence of scale and volume using tangible data.

The story of Lenovo’s journey with Adobe is one that spans years of planning, implementation, and rollout. The Lenovo case study does a great job of consolidating all of this into a relatable journey that other enterprise organizations can see themselves taking, despite the project size. This case study also features descriptive headers and compelling visual elements that engage the reader and strengthen the content.

Tata Consulting

When it comes to using data to show customer results, this case study does an excellent job of conveying details and numbers in an easy-to-digest manner. Bullet points at the start break up the content while also helping the reader understand exactly what the case study will be about. Tata Consulting used Adobe to deliver elevated, engaging content experiences for a large telecommunications client of its own — an objective that’s relatable for a lot of companies.

Case studies are a vital tool for any marketing team as they enable you to demonstrate the value of your company’s products and services to others. They help marketers do their job and add credibility to a brand trying to promote its solutions by using the experiences and stories of real customers.

When you’re ready to get started with a case study:

• Think about a few goals you’d like to accomplish with your content.
• Make a list of successful clients that would be strong candidates for a case study.
• Reach out to the client to get their approval and conduct an interview.
• Gather the data to present an engaging and effective customer story.

Adobe can help

There are several Adobe products that can help you craft compelling case studies. Adobe Experience Platform helps you collect data and deliver great customer experiences across every channel. Once you’ve created your case studies, Experience Platform will help you deliver the right information to the right customer at the right time for maximum impact.

To learn more, watch the Adobe Experience Platform story .

Keep in mind that the best case studies are backed by data. That’s where Adobe Real-Time Customer Data Platform and Adobe Analytics come into play. With Real-Time CDP, you can gather the data you need to build a great case study and target specific customers to deliver the content to the right audience at the perfect moment.

Watch the Real-Time CDP overview video to learn more.

Finally, Adobe Analytics turns real-time data into real-time insights. It helps your business collect and synthesize data from multiple platforms to make more informed decisions and create the best case study possible.

Request a demo to learn more about Adobe Analytics.

https://business.adobe.com/blog/perspectives/b2b-ecommerce-10-case-studies-inspire-you

https://business.adobe.com/blog/basics/business-case

https://business.adobe.com/blog/basics/what-is-real-time-analytics

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

Definition and Introduction

Case analysis is a problem-based teaching and learning method that involves critically analyzing complex scenarios within an organizational setting for the purpose of placing the student in a “real world” situation and applying reflection and critical thinking skills to contemplate appropriate solutions, decisions, or recommended courses of action. It is considered a more effective teaching technique than in-class role playing or simulation activities. The analytical process is often guided by questions provided by the instructor that ask students to contemplate relationships between the facts and critical incidents described in the case.

Cases generally include both descriptive and statistical elements and rely on students applying abductive reasoning to develop and argue for preferred or best outcomes [i.e., case scenarios rarely have a single correct or perfect answer based on the evidence provided]. Rather than emphasizing theories or concepts, case analysis assignments emphasize building a bridge of relevancy between abstract thinking and practical application and, by so doing, teaches the value of both within a specific area of professional practice.

Given this, the purpose of a case analysis paper is to present a structured and logically organized format for analyzing the case situation. It can be assigned to students individually or as a small group assignment and it may include an in-class presentation component. Case analysis is predominately taught in economics and business-related courses, but it is also a method of teaching and learning found in other applied social sciences disciplines, such as, social work, public relations, education, journalism, and public administration.

Ellet, William. The Case Study Handbook: A Student's Guide . Revised Edition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2018; Christoph Rasche and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Analysis . Writing Center, Baruch College; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

How to Approach Writing a Case Analysis Paper

The organization and structure of a case analysis paper can vary depending on the organizational setting, the situation, and how your professor wants you to approach the assignment. Nevertheless, preparing to write a case analysis paper involves several important steps. As Hawes notes, a case analysis assignment “...is useful in developing the ability to get to the heart of a problem, analyze it thoroughly, and to indicate the appropriate solution as well as how it should be implemented” [p.48]. This statement encapsulates how you should approach preparing to write a case analysis paper.

Before you begin to write your paper, consider the following analytical procedures:

• Review the case to get an overview of the situation . A case can be only a few pages in length, however, it is most often very lengthy and contains a significant amount of detailed background information and statistics, with multilayered descriptions of the scenario, the roles and behaviors of various stakeholder groups, and situational events. Therefore, a quick reading of the case will help you gain an overall sense of the situation and illuminate the types of issues and problems that you will need to address in your paper. If your professor has provided questions intended to help frame your analysis, use them to guide your initial reading of the case.
• Read the case thoroughly . After gaining a general overview of the case, carefully read the content again with the purpose of understanding key circumstances, events, and behaviors among stakeholder groups. Look for information or data that appears contradictory, extraneous, or misleading. At this point, you should be taking notes as you read because this will help you develop a general outline of your paper. The aim is to obtain a complete understanding of the situation so that you can begin contemplating tentative answers to any questions your professor has provided or, if they have not provided, developing answers to your own questions about the case scenario and its connection to the course readings,lectures, and class discussions.
• Determine key stakeholder groups, issues, and events and the relationships they all have to each other . As you analyze the content, pay particular attention to identifying individuals, groups, or organizations described in the case and identify evidence of any problems or issues of concern that impact the situation in a negative way. Other things to look for include identifying any assumptions being made by or about each stakeholder, potential biased explanations or actions, explicit demands or ultimatums , and the underlying concerns that motivate these behaviors among stakeholders. The goal at this stage is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the situational and behavioral dynamics of the case and the explicit and implicit consequences of each of these actions.
• Identify the core problems . The next step in most case analysis assignments is to discern what the core [i.e., most damaging, detrimental, injurious] problems are within the organizational setting and to determine their implications. The purpose at this stage of preparing to write your analysis paper is to distinguish between the symptoms of core problems and the core problems themselves and to decide which of these must be addressed immediately and which problems do not appear critical but may escalate over time. Identify evidence from the case to support your decisions by determining what information or data is essential to addressing the core problems and what information is not relevant or is misleading.
• Explore alternative solutions . As noted, case analysis scenarios rarely have only one correct answer. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that the process of analyzing the case and diagnosing core problems, while based on evidence, is a subjective process open to various avenues of interpretation. This means that you must consider alternative solutions or courses of action by critically examining strengths and weaknesses, risk factors, and the differences between short and long-term solutions. For each possible solution or course of action, consider the consequences they may have related to their implementation and how these recommendations might lead to new problems. Also, consider thinking about your recommended solutions or courses of action in relation to issues of fairness, equity, and inclusion.
• Decide on a final set of recommendations . The last stage in preparing to write a case analysis paper is to assert an opinion or viewpoint about the recommendations needed to help resolve the core problems as you see them and to make a persuasive argument for supporting this point of view. Prepare a clear rationale for your recommendations based on examining each element of your analysis. Anticipate possible obstacles that could derail their implementation. Consider any counter-arguments that could be made concerning the validity of your recommended actions. Finally, describe a set of criteria and measurable indicators that could be applied to evaluating the effectiveness of your implementation plan.

Use these steps as the framework for writing your paper. Remember that the more detailed you are in taking notes as you critically examine each element of the case, the more information you will have to draw from when you begin to write. This will save you time.

NOTE : If the process of preparing to write a case analysis paper is assigned as a student group project, consider having each member of the group analyze a specific element of the case, including drafting answers to the corresponding questions used by your professor to frame the analysis. This will help make the analytical process more efficient and ensure that the distribution of work is equitable. This can also facilitate who is responsible for drafting each part of the final case analysis paper and, if applicable, the in-class presentation.

Framework for Case Analysis . College of Management. University of Massachusetts; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Rasche, Christoph and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Study Analysis . University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center; Van Ness, Raymond K. A Guide to Case Analysis . School of Business. State University of New York, Albany; Writing a Case Analysis . Business School, University of New South Wales.

Structure and Writing Style

A case analysis paper should be detailed, concise, persuasive, clearly written, and professional in tone and in the use of language . As with other forms of college-level academic writing, declarative statements that convey information, provide a fact, or offer an explanation or any recommended courses of action should be based on evidence. If allowed by your professor, any external sources used to support your analysis, such as course readings, should be properly cited under a list of references. The organization and structure of case analysis papers can vary depending on your professor’s preferred format, but its structure generally follows the steps used for analyzing the case.

Introduction

The introduction should provide a succinct but thorough descriptive overview of the main facts, issues, and core problems of the case . The introduction should also include a brief summary of the most relevant details about the situation and organizational setting. This includes defining the theoretical framework or conceptual model on which any questions were used to frame your analysis.

Following the rules of most college-level research papers, the introduction should then inform the reader how the paper will be organized. This includes describing the major sections of the paper and the order in which they will be presented. Unless you are told to do so by your professor, you do not need to preview your final recommendations in the introduction. U nlike most college-level research papers , the introduction does not include a statement about the significance of your findings because a case analysis assignment does not involve contributing new knowledge about a research problem.

Background Analysis

Background analysis can vary depending on any guiding questions provided by your professor and the underlying concept or theory that the case is based upon. In general, however, this section of your paper should focus on:

• Providing an overarching analysis of problems identified from the case scenario, including identifying events that stakeholders find challenging or troublesome,
• Identifying assumptions made by each stakeholder and any apparent biases they may exhibit,
• Describing any demands or claims made by or forced upon key stakeholders, and
• Highlighting any issues of concern or complaints expressed by stakeholders in response to those demands or claims.

These aspects of the case are often in the form of behavioral responses expressed by individuals or groups within the organizational setting. However, note that problems in a case situation can also be reflected in data [or the lack thereof] and in the decision-making, operational, cultural, or institutional structure of the organization. Additionally, demands or claims can be either internal and external to the organization [e.g., a case analysis involving a president considering arms sales to Saudi Arabia could include managing internal demands from White House advisors as well as demands from members of Congress].

Throughout this section, present all relevant evidence from the case that supports your analysis. Do not simply claim there is a problem, an assumption, a demand, or a concern; tell the reader what part of the case informed how you identified these background elements.

Identification of Problems

In most case analysis assignments, there are problems, and then there are problems . Each problem can reflect a multitude of underlying symptoms that are detrimental to the interests of the organization. The purpose of identifying problems is to teach students how to differentiate between problems that vary in severity, impact, and relative importance. Given this, problems can be described in three general forms: those that must be addressed immediately, those that should be addressed but the impact is not severe, and those that do not require immediate attention and can be set aside for the time being.

All of the problems you identify from the case should be identified in this section of your paper, with a description based on evidence explaining the problem variances. If the assignment asks you to conduct research to further support your assessment of the problems, include this in your explanation. Remember to cite those sources in a list of references. Use specific evidence from the case and apply appropriate concepts, theories, and models discussed in class or in relevant course readings to highlight and explain the key problems [or problem] that you believe must be solved immediately and describe the underlying symptoms and why they are so critical.

Alternative Solutions

This section is where you provide specific, realistic, and evidence-based solutions to the problems you have identified and make recommendations about how to alleviate the underlying symptomatic conditions impacting the organizational setting. For each solution, you must explain why it was chosen and provide clear evidence to support your reasoning. This can include, for example, course readings and class discussions as well as research resources, such as, books, journal articles, research reports, or government documents. In some cases, your professor may encourage you to include personal, anecdotal experiences as evidence to support why you chose a particular solution or set of solutions. Using anecdotal evidence helps promote reflective thinking about the process of determining what qualifies as a core problem and relevant solution .

Throughout this part of the paper, keep in mind the entire array of problems that must be addressed and describe in detail the solutions that might be implemented to resolve these problems.

Recommended Courses of Action

In some case analysis assignments, your professor may ask you to combine the alternative solutions section with your recommended courses of action. However, it is important to know the difference between the two. A solution refers to the answer to a problem. A course of action refers to a procedure or deliberate sequence of activities adopted to proactively confront a situation, often in the context of accomplishing a goal. In this context, proposed courses of action are based on your analysis of alternative solutions. Your description and justification for pursuing each course of action should represent the overall plan for implementing your recommendations.

For each course of action, you need to explain the rationale for your recommendation in a way that confronts challenges, explains risks, and anticipates any counter-arguments from stakeholders. Do this by considering the strengths and weaknesses of each course of action framed in relation to how the action is expected to resolve the core problems presented, the possible ways the action may affect remaining problems, and how the recommended action will be perceived by each stakeholder.

In addition, you should describe the criteria needed to measure how well the implementation of these actions is working and explain which individuals or groups are responsible for ensuring your recommendations are successful. In addition, always consider the law of unintended consequences. Outline difficulties that may arise in implementing each course of action and describe how implementing the proposed courses of action [either individually or collectively] may lead to new problems [both large and small].

Throughout this section, you must consider the costs and benefits of recommending your courses of action in relation to uncertainties or missing information and the negative consequences of success.

The conclusion should be brief and introspective. Unlike a research paper, the conclusion in a case analysis paper does not include a summary of key findings and their significance, a statement about how the study contributed to existing knowledge, or indicate opportunities for future research.

Begin by synthesizing the core problems presented in the case and the relevance of your recommended solutions. This can include an explanation of what you have learned about the case in the context of your answers to the questions provided by your professor. The conclusion is also where you link what you learned from analyzing the case with the course readings or class discussions. This can further demonstrate your understanding of the relationships between the practical case situation and the theoretical and abstract content of assigned readings and other course content.

Problems to Avoid

The literature on case analysis assignments often includes examples of difficulties students have with applying methods of critical analysis and effectively reporting the results of their assessment of the situation. A common reason cited by scholars is that the application of this type of teaching and learning method is limited to applied fields of social and behavioral sciences and, as a result, writing a case analysis paper can be unfamiliar to most students entering college.

After you have drafted your paper, proofread the narrative flow and revise any of these common errors:

• Unnecessary detail in the background section . The background section should highlight the essential elements of the case based on your analysis. Focus on summarizing the facts and highlighting the key factors that become relevant in the other sections of the paper by eliminating any unnecessary information.
• Analysis relies too much on opinion . Your analysis is interpretive, but the narrative must be connected clearly to evidence from the case and any models and theories discussed in class or in course readings. Any positions or arguments you make should be supported by evidence.
• Analysis does not focus on the most important elements of the case . Your paper should provide a thorough overview of the case. However, the analysis should focus on providing evidence about what you identify are the key events, stakeholders, issues, and problems. Emphasize what you identify as the most critical aspects of the case to be developed throughout your analysis. Be thorough but succinct.
• Writing is too descriptive . A paper with too much descriptive information detracts from your analysis of the complexities of the case situation. Questions about what happened, where, when, and by whom should only be included as essential information leading to your examination of questions related to why, how, and for what purpose.
• Inadequate definition of a core problem and associated symptoms . A common error found in case analysis papers is recommending a solution or course of action without adequately defining or demonstrating that you understand the problem. Make sure you have clearly described the problem and its impact and scope within the organizational setting. Ensure that you have adequately described the root causes w hen describing the symptoms of the problem.
• Recommendations lack specificity . Identify any use of vague statements and indeterminate terminology, such as, “A particular experience” or “a large increase to the budget.” These statements cannot be measured and, as a result, there is no way to evaluate their successful implementation. Provide specific data and use direct language in describing recommended actions.
• Unrealistic, exaggerated, or unattainable recommendations . Review your recommendations to ensure that they are based on the situational facts of the case. Your recommended solutions and courses of action must be based on realistic assumptions and fit within the constraints of the situation. Also note that the case scenario has already happened, therefore, any speculation or arguments about what could have occurred if the circumstances were different should be revised or eliminated.

Bee, Lian Song et al. "Business Students' Perspectives on Case Method Coaching for Problem-Based Learning: Impacts on Student Engagement and Learning Performance in Higher Education." Education & Training 64 (2022): 416-432; The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Georgallis, Panikos and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching using Case-Based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Georgallis, Panikos, and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching Using Case-based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; .Dean,  Kathy Lund and Charles J. Fornaciari. "How to Create and Use Experiential Case-Based Exercises in a Management Classroom." Journal of Management Education 26 (October 2002): 586-603; Klebba, Joanne M. and Janet G. Hamilton. "Structured Case Analysis: Developing Critical Thinking Skills in a Marketing Case Course." Journal of Marketing Education 29 (August 2007): 132-137, 139; Klein, Norman. "The Case Discussion Method Revisited: Some Questions about Student Skills." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 30-32; Mukherjee, Arup. "Effective Use of In-Class Mini Case Analysis for Discovery Learning in an Undergraduate MIS Course." The Journal of Computer Information Systems 40 (Spring 2000): 15-23; Pessoa, Silviaet al. "Scaffolding the Case Analysis in an Organizational Behavior Course: Making Analytical Language Explicit." Journal of Management Education 46 (2022): 226-251: Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Schweitzer, Karen. "How to Write and Format a Business Case Study." ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-and-format-a-business-case-study-466324 (accessed December 5, 2022); Reddy, C. D. "Teaching Research Methodology: Everything's a Case." Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 18 (December 2020): 178-188; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

Writing Tip

Ca se Study and Case Analysis Are Not the Same!

Confusion often exists between what it means to write a paper that uses a case study research design and writing a paper that analyzes a case; they are two different types of approaches to learning in the social and behavioral sciences. Professors as well as educational researchers contribute to this confusion because they often use the term "case study" when describing the subject of analysis for a case analysis paper. But you are not studying a case for the purpose of generating a comprehensive, multi-faceted understanding of a research problem. R ather, you are critically analyzing a specific scenario to argue logically for recommended solutions and courses of action that lead to optimal outcomes applicable to professional practice.

To avoid any confusion, here are twelve characteristics that delineate the differences between writing a paper using the case study research method and writing a case analysis paper:

• Case study is a method of in-depth research and rigorous inquiry ; case analysis is a reliable method of teaching and learning . A case study is a modality of research that investigates a phenomenon for the purpose of creating new knowledge, solving a problem, or testing a hypothesis using empirical evidence derived from the case being studied. Often, the results are used to generalize about a larger population or within a wider context. The writing adheres to the traditional standards of a scholarly research study. A case analysis is a pedagogical tool used to teach students how to reflect and think critically about a practical, real-life problem in an organizational setting.
• The researcher is responsible for identifying the case to study; a case analysis is assigned by your professor . As the researcher, you choose the case study to investigate in support of obtaining new knowledge and understanding about the research problem. The case in a case analysis assignment is almost always provided, and sometimes written, by your professor and either given to every student in class to analyze individually or to a small group of students, or students select a case to analyze from a predetermined list.
• A case study is indeterminate and boundless; a case analysis is predetermined and confined . A case study can be almost anything [see item 9 below] as long as it relates directly to examining the research problem. This relationship is the only limit to what a researcher can choose as the subject of their case study. The content of a case analysis is determined by your professor and its parameters are well-defined and limited to elucidating insights of practical value applied to practice.
• Case study is fact-based and describes actual events or situations; case analysis can be entirely fictional or adapted from an actual situation . The entire content of a case study must be grounded in reality to be a valid subject of investigation in an empirical research study. A case analysis only needs to set the stage for critically examining a situation in practice and, therefore, can be entirely fictional or adapted, all or in-part, from an actual situation.
• Research using a case study method must adhere to principles of intellectual honesty and academic integrity; a case analysis scenario can include misleading or false information . A case study paper must report research objectively and factually to ensure that any findings are understood to be logically correct and trustworthy. A case analysis scenario may include misleading or false information intended to deliberately distract from the central issues of the case. The purpose is to teach students how to sort through conflicting or useless information in order to come up with the preferred solution. Any use of misleading or false information in academic research is considered unethical.
• Case study is linked to a research problem; case analysis is linked to a practical situation or scenario . In the social sciences, the subject of an investigation is most often framed as a problem that must be researched in order to generate new knowledge leading to a solution. Case analysis narratives are grounded in real life scenarios for the purpose of examining the realities of decision-making behavior and processes within organizational settings. A case analysis assignments include a problem or set of problems to be analyzed. However, the goal is centered around the act of identifying and evaluating courses of action leading to best possible outcomes.
• The purpose of a case study is to create new knowledge through research; the purpose of a case analysis is to teach new understanding . Case studies are a choice of methodological design intended to create new knowledge about resolving a research problem. A case analysis is a mode of teaching and learning intended to create new understanding and an awareness of uncertainty applied to practice through acts of critical thinking and reflection.
• A case study seeks to identify the best possible solution to a research problem; case analysis can have an indeterminate set of solutions or outcomes . Your role in studying a case is to discover the most logical, evidence-based ways to address a research problem. A case analysis assignment rarely has a single correct answer because one of the goals is to force students to confront the real life dynamics of uncertainly, ambiguity, and missing or conflicting information within professional practice. Under these conditions, a perfect outcome or solution almost never exists.
• Case study is unbounded and relies on gathering external information; case analysis is a self-contained subject of analysis . The scope of a case study chosen as a method of research is bounded. However, the researcher is free to gather whatever information and data is necessary to investigate its relevance to understanding the research problem. For a case analysis assignment, your professor will often ask you to examine solutions or recommended courses of action based solely on facts and information from the case.
• Case study can be a person, place, object, issue, event, condition, or phenomenon; a case analysis is a carefully constructed synopsis of events, situations, and behaviors . The research problem dictates the type of case being studied and, therefore, the design can encompass almost anything tangible as long as it fulfills the objective of generating new knowledge and understanding. A case analysis is in the form of a narrative containing descriptions of facts, situations, processes, rules, and behaviors within a particular setting and under a specific set of circumstances.
• Case study can represent an open-ended subject of inquiry; a case analysis is a narrative about something that has happened in the past . A case study is not restricted by time and can encompass an event or issue with no temporal limit or end. For example, the current war in Ukraine can be used as a case study of how medical personnel help civilians during a large military conflict, even though circumstances around this event are still evolving. A case analysis can be used to elicit critical thinking about current or future situations in practice, but the case itself is a narrative about something finite and that has taken place in the past.
• Multiple case studies can be used in a research study; case analysis involves examining a single scenario . Case study research can use two or more cases to examine a problem, often for the purpose of conducting a comparative investigation intended to discover hidden relationships, document emerging trends, or determine variations among different examples. A case analysis assignment typically describes a stand-alone, self-contained situation and any comparisons among cases are conducted during in-class discussions and/or student presentations.

The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017; Crowe, Sarah et al. “The Case Study Approach.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 11 (2011):  doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-11-100; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing; 1994.

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How to Write a Great Business Case

Explore more.

• Case Teaching

C ase studies are powerful teaching tools. “When you have a good case, and students who are well prepared to learn and to teach each other, you get some magical moments that students will never forget,” says James L. Heskett, UPS Foundation Professor of Business Logistics, emeritus, at Harvard Business School (HBS). “They will remember the lessons they learn in that class discussion and apply them 20 years later.”

Yet, for many educators who want to pen their own case, the act of writing a great business case seldom comes easily or naturally. For starters, it’s time consuming. Case writers can spend substantial time visiting companies, securing a willing site, conducting interviews, observing operations, collecting data, reviewing notes, writing the case, revising the narrative, ensuring that teaching points come through, and then getting executives to approve the finished product.

The question, then, becomes: Where do you begin? How do you approach case writing? How do you decide which company to use as the subject of the case? And what distinguishes a well-written case from a mediocre one?

We asked three expert HBS case writers—who collectively have written and supported hundreds of cases—to share their insights on how to write a great business case study that will inspire passionate classroom discussion and transmit key educational concepts.

Insights from James L. Heskett

UPS Foundation Professor of Business Logistics, Emeritus, Harvard Business School

Keep your eyes open for a great business issue.

“I’m always on the prowl for new case material. Whenever I’m reading or consulting, I look for interesting people doing interesting things and facing interesting challenges. For instance, I was reading a magazine and came across a story about how Shouldice Hospital treated patients undergoing surgery to fix inguinal hernias—how patients would get up from the operating table and walk away on the arm of the surgeon.

6 QUALITIES OF GREAT CASE WRITERS

Comfort with ambiguity, since cases may have more than one “right” answer

Command of the topic or subject at hand

Ability to relate to the case protagonists

Enthusiasm for the case teaching method

Capacity for finding the drama in a business situation and making it feel personal to students

Build relationships with executives.

“When writing a case, it’s helpful to start as high in the organization as possible. It helps assure mid-level managers that they can share the information you need with an outsider. It also helps when it comes to getting the case cleared for use. Serving on corporate boards can help in building relationships with senior executives, but there are other ways to make those connections. For instance, you can approach speakers at business conferences if you think their presentations could form the basis for a good business case. If you want to write about a company where you don’t have any personal connections, you can always check with your colleagues to see if any of them have a personal relationship with the CEO or sit on a board where they could introduce you to the right person who would be able to facilitate the case. My colleagues and I make a lot of these introductions for each other.”

“If you make the case into a crossword puzzle that takes five hours to solve, it’s not really fair to the students and will most likely cause them to lose focus.” James L. Heskett

Skip the curveballs and focus on key issues.

“Cases don’t have to be obvious. As a pedagogical objective, you might want students to look beyond a superficial issue to say this is the underlying topic that we need to address, and these are the questions we need to pose. Still, I think it’s unhelpful if cases contain real curveballs where ‘unlocking’ the case depends on finding some small piece of information hidden in an exhibit. Give students a break! They may have to read and digest three cases per day, so they probably won’t be able to devote more than a couple of hours to each one. If you make the case into a crossword puzzle that takes five hours to solve, it’s not really fair to the students and will most likely cause them to lose focus.”

Build a discussion plan while writing the case.

“In case method teaching, the teacher is not in complete control. Students teach each other and learn from each other. On any given day, there will likely be somebody in the room who knows more about the company featured in the case than the professor does. So a professor can’t walk into the classroom and expect to impose a lesson plan that goes in a strict linear way from A to B to C to D. The case ought to be written to allow students to jump from A to D and then come back later to B if that’s how the discussion plays out. At the same time, the case should be structured so that the instructor can collect student comments on a board, organizing them as a coherent set of related ideas, and then deliver a 5-to-10-minute summary that communicates whatever essential concepts the case has covered. This summation can be a very powerful teaching and learning experience.”

Focus on quality over quantity.

“Cases don’t have to be too long. Some good cases are only two or three pages. Students may give more scrutiny to these brief cases than they would a 20-page case.”

Advice from Benson P. Shapiro

Malcolm P. McNair Professor of Marketing, Emeritus, Harvard Business School

Take out the chaff in advance.

“You don’t want students to spend too much time separating the wheat from the chaff. If a case has 12 pages of text and 10 pages of exhibits, even the smartest MBA students will likely lose interest. Writers who try to capture a situation from every angle and in every detail end up with sprawling narratives that usually do not make a good case. When writing cases, you need to set good, strong boundaries. Avoid superfluous, flowery, or poetic material that may contain interesting anecdotes or factoids, but that could distract readers from the case’s core topics. Include only those important and useful details that can help students make decisions and understand key issues that the case explores.”

Work in layers and metaphors—subtly.

“The best cases work on multiple levels. A case should focus on a specific situation—for example, whether or not to introduce a certain product. But it should also serve as a metaphor for broader issues in the background: How do we think about introducing new products? Are we introducing enough products? Are new product introductions a source of competitive advantage in our industry? How should we organize and manage new product development? You want the case to encourage students to think broadly about the various cultural, financial, and strategic impacts that managerial decisions have on a company.”

“Writers who try to capture a situation from every angle and in every detail end up with sprawling narratives that usually do not make a good case.” Benson P. Shapiro

Encourage emotional engagement.

“Case writing is an interesting literary form—it needs to be very engaging, but also educational. Great cases revolve around points of contention on which intelligent people can hold different points of view: What should you do? Why? How do you get it done? Ideally, students should have to choose between two very attractive alternatives or two terrible alternatives. The best cases involve questions that get students emotionally engaged so that they really care about choices and outcomes. When you see students physically leaning forward and following what their peers are saying, you know that they have a visceral feel for the importance of the subject. When you hear them debating after class— You were out in left field! You missed what was really important here! —that’s how you can tell you succeeded in developing a great case.”

Lessons from Carin-Isabel Knoop

Executive Director of the Case Research & Writing Group, Harvard Business School

Don’t forget the classroom component.

“Cases are deliberately incomplete documents. What a case writer leaves out of a case is often just as important as what he or she puts into it. Cases are designed to be completed through classroom instruction and discussion. While drafting the case, try to develop the classroom process in parallel. Work on the assignment questions and classroom content. Keep in mind that the case should be able to adapt to your classroom and course needs.”

Hone your elevator pitch.

“Before getting started, always have clear, succinct learning objectives in mind. Don’t start developing the case until you are able to summarize these objectives in less than five minutes.”

Case writing is a relationship, not a transaction.

When choosing a case site, be clear with executives that you are developing a teaching tool and that you will require their time and candor—and eventually their data. Put them at ease, and manage the authorization process, right from the start. Indicate that quotes will be cleared before publication and there will be time for individual review. During the creation process, ask their advice. This creates a process of engagement and helps bring home that this is a pedagogical tool, not gotcha journalism. At HBS, we oftentimes invite someone from the company to attend class. Finally, once the case is done, stay in touch with your case protagonists. They will move to other organizations and spread the good word about their experience with case writing.

Invite disagreement in case discussions.

“The case study method is based on participant-centered learning. The students all start from the same base of 11 (or however many) pages in the case, but they bring different knowledge and experiences into the classroom. So they can take the same facts and disagree about what course of action to pursue. We want students to behave like decision makers, and it can be painful to make decisions. Some critics deride the case teaching method as being unrealistic, but someone who just lectures about marketing doesn’t help students realize how difficult it is to choose between two plausible options to meet the same marketing objectives. For students, a big part of the education process is learning from discussions with classmates who think differently and advocate for different solutions. Witnessing a robust case discussion reminds us of the potential for collective learning to emerge from contrasting views.”

“Faculty don’t just write cases for teaching purposes, they write them to learn.” Carin-Isabel Knoop

The Case Writing Process Is a Worthy Effort

Researching, writing, and publishing cases is well worth the time and effort. “The case research and writing process is important for faculty development,” Knoop adds. “While developing field cases, faculty go to site visits and meet with decision makers. The case writing process helps connect scholars to practitioners and practitioners to the academic world. Faculty case writers get to explore and test how their academic theories work in practice. So faculty don’t just write cases for teaching purposes, they write them to learn. The case method is an integral part of faculty development.”

There’s another big bonus to becoming a case writer, especially for younger educators. “Young business instructors face a credibility gap with their students,” says Heskett. “It’s not uncommon to have MBA students in a class who have more experience than the instructor on a particular subject. Once you go into the field and write a case, you will know more about that subject than anyone else in the class. A primary way for professors to establish their credibility on a topic is to have written the case the class is discussing that day.”

James L. Heskett is UPS Foundation Professor of Business Logistics, emeritus, at Harvard Business School. He completed his Ph.D. at the Graduate School of Business, Stanford University, and has been a faculty member at The Ohio State University as well as president of Logistics Systems, Inc. Since 2000, he has authored a blog on Harvard Business School’s Working Knowledge website .

Benson P. Shapiro is the Malcolm P. McNair Professor of Marketing, emeritus, at Harvard Business School where he taught full time from 1970 to 1997. Since 1997, Shapiro has concentrated his professional time on consulting, giving speeches, serving on boards, and writing. He continues to teach at Harvard and has taught in many executive programs and has chaired the Sustainable Marketing Leadership for Mid-Sized Firms Program.

Carin-Isabel Knoop is the executive director of the Case Research & Writing Group at Harvard Business School. She is also coauthor of Compassionate Management of Mental Health in the Modern Workplace .

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Other assessments: Case studies

• Scientific writing style
• Case studies
• Journal critique
• Research proposals
• Dissertations
• Literature reviews
• Assessed discussion
• Video assignments

On this page:

“For knowledge you will use in the real world - in business, for example, or in engineering or medicine - the "what" [to think] isn't sufficient. You must know how to apply the knowledge to the real world.” William Ellet, The Case Study Handbook

Case study assignments are common in some disciplines. Their main purpose is to show that you can relate theory to real-life situations. You also need to be able to recommend practical solutions to real-life problems.

This page is dedicated to writing case studies for undergraduate assignments, it does not tackle case studies as a research method/approach.

What is a case study?

A case study is an assignment where you analyse a specific case (organisation, group, person, event, issue) and explain how the elements and complexities of that case relate to theory . You will sometimes have to come up with solutions to problems or recommendations for future action.

You may be asked to write a case study as an essay, as part of a longer assignment or as a report.

Examples of cases

An organisation.  For example a company, a business, a school, a sports club, a health body.

A group. For example a class of pupils, an individual team within an organisation, a project group, a sports club.

An individual.  For example a patient, a client, a specific student/pupil, a manager/leader.

An event.  For example a sporting occasion, a cultural event, a news story, an historical event.

An issue.  For example a dilemma, problem, critical event, change of practice.

Analysing a case

What are you being asked to do.

It is important be sure about the purpose of analysing the case before you begin. Refer back to your assignment brief and make sure you are clear about this. It could be:

• To answer a specific question using examples from the case to support your argument
• To explore what happened and why (no recommendations needed)
• To make recommendations or identify solutions
• To write a plan that takes the issues into consideration

Examining the case

In order to be thoroughly familiar with the case you are going to need to read through* the case several times during the analysis process. Start by simply reading it without asking too many questions in your mind. Get a feel for it as a whole. After that, you will need to read through it several times to identify the following:

• What are the facts? List information you are sure about.
• What happened/is happening? List definite actions that occurred/are occurring.
• Who was/is involved? List people by job role and what their involvement was/is.

You will now need to read additional material to help you analyse. In business, for example, you will perhaps want to read the financial statements for the company you are investigating; in nursing, the background of the treatment for the disorder from which “your” patient is suffering.

* Sometimes cases are presented to you as videos to watch. In which case you are going to have to watch it many times!

Theoretical approaches

You may have to ask yourself which theoretical approaches that you have covered in your course are relevant to the particular case you have before you. In some instances this may be obvious but in others it may be less so. A theoretical approach is useful as it can give you  specific questions to answer ; specific things to look for. For example, in business, this may take the form of a SWOT analysis - Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) or you may look at the Porter's Five Forces model. There are similar models in other disciplines which you may have been introduced to already - or the brief may tell you which to use.

No obvious theoretical approach?

If you have not been provided with a theoretical approach don't worry. You can still ask questions. For example: 

What is this case study about in general? What is the big picture - the main issue that this case study is an example of?

What specific issues are associated with it? What makes this case interesting?

What do I already know about these issues?

How do they link with the theories we have studied? (See below.)

What alternative approaches to dealing with the issues would be appropriate?

If an alternative approach were used, what impact might it have?

Linking to theory

The most crucial element about a case study is your ability to link the real world example to theory. This gives you more insight into both because

• The real life example will mean you can see how theory works in practice .
• Theory can help you see why things happened as they did and help you come up with alternative approaches and find solutions/make recommendations.

Real life is complex and messy. Do not expect it to nicely fit into theories which are by their very nature best guesses (albeit well researched) and generalisations. However, you will have been given the case specifically because it does relate to some theories you have learned or need to be aware of.

So you need to:

• Look back through your lecture notes and reading lists to see if anything seems to fit with the case.
• Search for research that relates to the issues you identified during your analysis. Note these will not necessarily be labelled as 'theories'. Claims made in research papers can all be described as theories. 

Now consider some or all of the questions below:

• Do the facts and issues raised in the case support any theories?
• Do the fact and issues raised in the case invalidate or undermine any theories?
• Can any of the theories explain why issues arose?
• Can any of the theories back up the actions taken?
• Can any of the theories suggest alternative courses of action?
• Do you think any of these alternatives would work best in your case? Why?

Armed with the answers to many of these questions, you are ready to start writing up your case study.

Writing up your case study

The most common ways to write up a case study are as essays or reports . The main differences between the two will be how you structure your work.

Structuring a case study essay

Case study essays usually have to answer a specific question using examples from your case study. They are written in continuous prose (a series of paragraphs with no subheadings). They should be structured much like any other essay with an introduction, main body and conclusion. 

Introduction

This needs to have three things:

• An introduction to your case (you don't need to rewrite it, just summarise it giving the important parts for your essay).
• A position statement (your answer to the overall question).
• An indication of how the rest of the essay is structured.

These do not have to be in that particular order but they do all need to be included.

Generally you will organise this thematically . Each paragraph needs to make a point and then use information from your case to illustrate and back up that point . You will also bring in theory (other reading) to strengthen your argument. It is acceptable to start with the example from your case and then show how this links to theory and the conclusion this leads you to; however, it is best if you first let your reader know the point you are making, as then they are not having to second guess this until the end of the paragraph. 

Each point in your main body should be leading back to the position statement you made in the introduction.

What are the main lessons you learned from the case study? How well did the theory fit with the real world example? Have you been asked to provide solutions or recommendations? If so, give them here.

Reference list

Include all the sources you have cited in your essay.

Structuring a case study report

These can vary between disciplines so check your assignment guidance. A typical case study would include:

Table of contents

See our MS Word pages  or our MS Office Software SkillsGuide for instructions on how to create these automatically.

Executive summary - optional, check if required

Give an overview of your whole report including main approaches, findings and recommendations. This is a bit like the abstract of a journal article.

• Context (Background)
• Purpose - what is the case study trying to achieve? 
• Approach - are you using any particular theoretical tools or research approaches?

Discussion/Analysis

• Identification of issues and problems
• Links to theories that help you explain the case
• Explanation of causes or implications of the issues identified
• Possible solutions (if required, check your instructions)

These depends on what you were asked to do but could include:

• Main lessons learned
• Best solutions and reasons why
• Recommendations (may have their own section)
• Action plan (may have its own section)
• Include all the sources you have cited in the report.

Appendices if required

Recommended books and ebooks from our collection, related books and ebooks from our collection.

Recommended external resources

• Writing a case study From Monash University
• Writing a case study analysis From The University of Arizona
• Case studies From the University of South Australia - includes useful sample case studies
• Writing a case study PDF to download from the University of Bedfordshire
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• Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible. 

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

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15 Best Case Study Templates to Use in Word and ClickUp

Praburam Srinivasan

Growth Marketing Manager

February 14, 2024

Case studies are valuable tools for sharing customer success stories and analyzing problem-solving approaches in a structured and informative manner. They can be used to provide detailed insights into specific projects, strategies, or challenges and offer valuable lessons and best practices for professionals across various fields. 

Content marketing teams often create case studies as a way to gain more customers and get new business. Case studies can give potential customers a better understanding of your company brand , what it does and how you could potentially help them. 

However, creating a compelling case study from scratch can be a time-consuming task. That’s where marketing case study examples and templates can help. 

What is a Case Study Template?

What makes a good case study template, 1. clickup case study template, 2. clickup case study design template, 3. clickup research report template, 4. clickup market research template, 5. clickup user research plan template, 6. clickup data analysis findings template, 7. clickup campaign report template, 8. clickup research whiteboard, 9. google docs case study template by wordstream, 10. word case study report template by template.net, 11. word case brief summary template by template.net, 12. word case study report template by template.net, 13. word case study research template by template.net, 14. word psychology case study template by template.net, 15. word media case study template by template.net.

A case study template is a pre-designed framework that serves as a starting point for creating comprehensive and structured case study documents. It provides a standardized, traditional case study format for organizing and presenting information about a particular project, problem-solving scenario, success story, or real-life situation.

Case study templates typically include sections for outlining the background and context of the case study, project documentation , describing the methodology or approach used, presenting data and analysis, and highlighting key findings and recommendations that tell the entire story. 

Business case study examples like templates can work as a guide to help content marketers, blog post writers, and anyone else creating quality content that’s customer-facing, focus on important aspects and maintain a logical flow while telling a compelling story.

Some key elements that make a case study template stand out include:

• Clarity and organization: A well-designed template should be easy to navigate. Each section should be labeled appropriately, enabling readers to quickly find the information they seek
• Flexibility: A good case study template should be easily customizable and able to accommodate diverse scenarios. It should be adaptable to different industries, research methodologies, and presentation styles
• Visual appeal: Incorporating visual elements like charts, graphs, and other images can enhance a case study template’s look and make it more visually appealing. They can also aid in the comprehension of complex data. A visually engaging template can captivate readers and make the case study more impactful

15 Case Study Templates to Use in 2024

You don’t have to start from scratch when making your next case study. Instead, take a look at these carefully curated case study templates from ClickUp and Microsoft Word.

ClickUp’s Case Study Template can provide a great start for just about any type of case study you and your team want to write. It kicks off with a section for introducing both your business and the client or customer that the case study focuses on. 

After introducing both yourself and the customer, you briefly highlight the customer’s experience and the successes you achieved before delivering a more detailed description of the work you performed and the measurable results you achieved. 

The next section focuses on the objective of the case study—what the client’s goal and pain point was and why they decided you were the right company to help them achieve these goals. 

The case study template then launches into a section describing the solutions you presented and the data that backs up your success. We created this marketing case study template for a marketing agency that helps customers achieve growth through paid media campaigns, but it can easily be edited to highlight any type of solution.

One of the best ways of telling a customer story using a case study is by allowing the customer to do most of the work themselves. When a case study is written by current or even previous customers, it feels more sincere and honest, especially to potential customers in the evaluation process. 

If you want to try this technique out, use this ClickUp Study Design Template . You can send your customer this great case study template and allow them to fill it out themselves and basically write a case study for you. This gives you unfiltered and unbiased answers to the questions you want answered in the case study. 

The case study template helps them understand what you want the case study to look like and how the customer’s story should be described. It also helps you get great customer quotes. 

A template makes it easier for your customer to frame their experiences with you and easily explain how your product or service helped them. Hearing a peer’s success story from a firsthand perspective can be a more convincing read for prospective customers. 

Manage customers with customer database software !

Case studies are essentially customer stories, which can be told in many ways and come in many formats. A research report is another excellent way to frame a case study. 

This ClickUp Research Report Template is a step-by-step guide that can help your team create an easy-to-follow research report that allows you to clearly detail your research methods, findings, and the insights that you’ve gained from the research being presented. 

This template has a very clear structure, allowing you to simply add the following: an executive summary (brief description), introduction, the methodology used, your results, references, and any necessary appendices if supplementary material needs to be referenced in your research report. 

If you need more templates like this, check out this list of research plan templates .

Companies perform market research in order to define what their customers want and need from them. This type of research also helps you to improve product and service offers and learn more about what your competitors are doing and where the success of other businesses stems from. 

ClickUp’s Market Research Template gives you a simple-to-follow document that helps you gather and present information related to your target audience, the state of your product/service, and the state of your industry at large. 

When you perform marketing research, you are aiming to confirm your hunches about customer needs through scientific research and tangible data. 

Marketing case study examples like this are perfect because they’re very simplified and easily customizable. It offers you a section for presenting your company and why you are performing marketing research first.

The template then guides you in describing the type of research you’re doing, how you went about performing market research, data collection techniques, and what insights were garnered—whether it was from existing or potential customers.

Check out these research management tools !

Another type of customer-centric report that you can put together is a user research report. ClickUp’s User Research Plan Template makes it easy for you to define all of the goals and details that you want included in your user research.

The template is particularly useful for user experience (UX) teams that want to perform user persona research in order to better understand what users need and how they behave when using their product, in order to deliver a better experience to them and to new clients. 

The template starts with a “ problem statement ” where you can define the problem that the user research report is aiming to solve. Next, you’ll list the goals that you want to achieve and then clearly define the research process.

This type of marketing case study template and report can show you what a satisfied customer looks like and give you insights that help to attract and retain future customers.

Check out these user persona templates !

Another important study that your business can perform in order to make smarter decisions is data analysis. ClickUp’s Data Analysis Findings template makes it easy for your team to perform data analysis and present it clearly to key stakeholders. 

This template also starts by setting the stage for the study and explaining it, first with a problem statement and then by explaining the significance of the study. 

Next, the template recommends that you define the scope and limitations of the study to set expectations for its potential impact. The next step is to frame your analysis methods and provide the data sources that you used in the analysis, as well as the statistical methods used.

Finally, you can present your findings in a clear and concise way. The template also includes charts and other data visualization tools you can use to make the study more engaging.

This ClickUp Campaign Report template is pre-built to make it incredibly easy to present the results of any ad campaign to stakeholders very easily. 

It starts with a section describing your strategy in detail, including the total costs, and the total revenue, conversions, and clicks that you expect to achieve with the campaign. 

The marketing case study template then provides charts and graphs that you can use to detail the performance of your campaigns on every single channel that you use. Case study templates like this are great for detailing information on potential customers to know how to better run your campaigns in the future.

Make your next user research project a collaborative, visual experience. Give everyone on your team a chance to add their thoughts and findings with virtual sticky notes using the ClickUp Research Whiteboard Template .

This is one of the more flexible case study templates in this list. Its user research tool makes it easy to take all the random bits of information your team gathers through interviews, surveys, user sessions, and other methods of feedback into one location.

Then, you can quickly organize all of that data into clear categories that make this case study template easy to see at a glance what direction you need to take your project to satisfy your customers.

If you’re writing many case studies, it’s a good idea to try out a bunch of templates over time for added inspiration. Even if you’ve found one structure works great for your case studies, changing your structure up every now and then can give you a fresh perspective on how to present a featured client. 

Another good case study you can check out is Wordstream’s Case Study Template. It has an excellent structure and provides pre-built visual cues that give you some ideas for breaking up business case study examples and making them more appealing with pictures and charts. 

Use this template to showcase particular customers’ results and share customer pain points and how they were solved. This will help you provide clear evidence to potential customers that you will be able to help them as well.

Template.net is one of the biggest websites if you’re looking for business templates. It’s especially popular for businesses that prefer creating documents in Microsoft Word and Excel.

This Case Study Template from Template.net is sparse, but it gets right to the point and is very well-structured and easy to follow.

This Microsoft Word case study template is a great way to get right down to business! It features a clean and organized layout with clear headings and subheadings, making it easy for readers to navigate. This template also includes space for a brief summary of the case study, perfect for giving readers an overview before diving into the details.

This Microsoft Word case study template is a great option for creating an in-depth report on your findings. The template includes sections for an executive summary, introduction, methodology, results, references, and appendices. It also features a clear structure to make it easy to gather and present information in a cohesive manner. The template also includes sections for an introduction, methodology, findings, and recommendations, ensuring that all the essential elements of a case study are covered.

This Word case study template features a professional and organized design with clearly labeled sections for the introduction, methodology, findings, and conclusion. It also includes space for charts and graphs to visually represent data.

Psychology case studies can be complex and detailed, making it important to have a well-organized template to present the information. The Psychology Case Study Template is perfect for this task, with clear headings and subheadings that guide readers through each section of the study. It also includes sections for summarizing key points and providing recommendations based on the findings.

This media case study template from Template.net is perfect for showcasing the success of a marketing or advertising campaign! It includes space for key metrics, such as reach and engagement, and also has sections for outlining the challenges faced and solutions implemented. With its clean design and easy-to-follow layout, this template is ideal for presenting media case studies to clients or stakeholders.

It’s Easy to Make a Case for Using ClickUp Case Study Templates

People trust other people. That’s why personal recommendations are one of the most effective marketing tactics. A case study provides your company with just that—a personal recommendation from a client you’ve helping, telling others that you can do the same for them. 

In the selection process of choosing a product or service to go with, companies will always look at the experiences of other organizations similar to them. Marketing case studies are sincere yet persuasive and clearly show how you help others and can be a very effective differentiator.

ClickUp was designed to serve teams in any industry and of any size. So it makes sense the case study templates we offer are just as diverse and customizable.

Best of all, they are completely free to use!  Sign up for free to ClickUp to get immediate access to a massive amount of templates, free cloud storage, and of course, industry-leading project and team management features.

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Writing A Case Study

Case Study Examples

Brilliant Case Study Examples and Templates For Your Help

15 min read

People also read

A Complete Case Study Writing Guide With Examples

Simple Case Study Format for Students to Follow

Understand the Types of Case Study Here

It’s no surprise that writing a case study is one of the most challenging academic tasks for students. You’re definitely not alone here!

Most people don't realize that there are specific guidelines to follow when writing a case study. If you don't know where to start, it's easy to get overwhelmed and give up before you even begin.

Don't worry! Let us help you out!

We've collected over 25 free case study examples with solutions just for you. These samples with solutions will help you win over your panel and score high marks on your case studies.

So, what are you waiting for? Let's dive in and learn the secrets to writing a successful case study.

• 1. An Overview of Case Studies
• 2. Case Study Examples for Students
• 3. Business Case Study Examples
• 4. Medical Case Study Examples
• 5. Psychology Case Study Examples 
• 6. Sales Case Study Examples
• 7. Interview Case Study Examples
• 8. Marketing Case Study Examples
• 9. Tips to Write a Good Case Study

An Overview of Case Studies

A case study is a research method used to study a particular individual, group, or situation in depth. It involves analyzing and interpreting data from a variety of sources to gain insight into the subject being studied. 

Case studies are often used in psychology, business, and education to explore complicated problems and find solutions. They usually have detailed descriptions of the subject, background info, and an analysis of the main issues.

The goal of a case study is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject. Typically, case studies can be divided into three parts, challenges, solutions, and results. 

Here is a case study sample PDF so you can have a clearer understanding of what a case study actually is:

Case Study Sample PDF

How to Write a Case Study Examples

Learn how to write a case study with the help of our comprehensive case study guide.

Case Study Examples for Students

Quite often, students are asked to present case studies in their academic journeys. The reason instructors assign case studies is for students to sharpen their critical analysis skills, understand how companies make profits, etc.

Below are some case study examples in research, suitable for students:

Case Study Example in Software Engineering

Qualitative Research Case Study Sample

Software Quality Assurance Case Study

Social Work Case Study Example

Ethical Case Study

Case Study Example PDF

These examples can guide you on how to structure and format your own case studies.

Struggling with formatting your case study? Check this case study format guide and perfect your document’s structure today.

Business Case Study Examples

A business case study examines a business’s specific challenge or goal and how it should be solved. Business case studies usually focus on several details related to the initial challenge and proposed solution. 

To help you out, here are some samples so you can create case studies that are related to businesses: 

Here are some more business case study examples:

Business Case Studies PDF

Business Case Studies Example

Typically, a business case study discovers one of your customer's stories and how you solved a problem for them. It allows your prospects to see how your solutions address their needs. 

Medical Case Study Examples

Medical case studies are an essential part of medical education. They help students to understand how to diagnose and treat patients. 

Here are some medical case study examples to help you.

Medical Case Study Example

Nursing Case Study Example

Want to understand the various types of case studies? Check out our types of case study blog to select the perfect type.

Psychology Case Study Examples 

Case studies are a great way of investigating individuals with psychological abnormalities. This is why it is a very common assignment in psychology courses. 

By examining all the aspects of your subject’s life, you discover the possible causes of exhibiting such behavior. 

For your help, here are some interesting psychology case study examples:

Psychology Case Study Example

Mental Health Case Study Example

Sales Case Study Examples

Case studies are important tools for sales teams’ performance improvement. By examining sales successes, teams can gain insights into effective strategies and create action plans to employ similar tactics.

By researching case studies of successful sales campaigns, sales teams can more accurately identify challenges and develop solutions.

Sales Case Study Example

Interview Case Study Examples

Interview case studies provide businesses with invaluable information. This data allows them to make informed decisions related to certain markets or subjects.

Interview Case Study Example

Marketing Case Study Examples

Marketing case studies are real-life stories that showcase how a business solves a problem. They typically discuss how a business achieves a goal using a specific marketing strategy or tactic.

They typically describe a challenge faced by a business, the solution implemented, and the results achieved.

This is a short sample marketing case study for you to get an idea of what an actual marketing case study looks like.

 Here are some more popular marketing studies that show how companies use case studies as a means of marketing and promotion:

“Chevrolet Discover the Unexpected” by Carol H. Williams

This case study explores Chevrolet's “ DTU Journalism Fellows ” program. The case study uses the initials “DTU” to generate interest and encourage readers to learn more. 

Multiple types of media, such as images and videos, are used to explain the challenges faced. The case study concludes with an overview of the achievements that were met.

Key points from the case study include:

• Using a well-known brand name in the title can create interest.
• Combining different media types, such as headings, images, and videos, can help engage readers and make the content more memorable.
• Providing a summary of the key achievements at the end of the case study can help readers better understand the project's impact.

“The Met” by Fantasy

“ The Met ” by Fantasy is a fictional redesign of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, created by the design studio Fantasy. The case study clearly and simply showcases the museum's website redesign.

The Met emphasizes the website’s features and interface by showcasing each section of the interface individually, allowing the readers to concentrate on the significant elements.

For those who prefer text, each feature includes an objective description. The case study also includes a “Contact Us” call-to-action at the bottom of the page, inviting visitors to contact the company.

Key points from this “The Met” include:

• Keeping the case study simple and clean can help readers focus on the most important aspects.
• Presenting the features and solutions with a visual showcase can be more effective than writing a lot of text.
• Including a clear call-to-action at the end of the case study can encourage visitors to contact the company for more information.

“Better Experiences for All” by Herman Miller

Herman Miller's minimalist approach to furniture design translates to their case study, “ Better Experiences for All ”, for a Dubai hospital. The page features a captivating video with closed-captioning and expandable text for accessibility.

The case study presents a wealth of information in a concise format, enabling users to grasp the complexities of the strategy with ease. It concludes with a client testimonial and a list of furniture items purchased from the brand.

Key points from the “Better Experiences” include:

• Make sure your case study is user-friendly by including accessibility features like closed captioning and expandable text.
• Include a list of products that were used in the project to guide potential customers.

“NetApp” by Evisort 

Evisort's case study on “ NetApp ” stands out for its informative and compelling approach. The study begins with a client-centric overview of NetApp, strategically directing attention to the client rather than the company or team involved.

The case study incorporates client quotes and explores NetApp’s challenges during COVID-19. Evisort showcases its value as a client partner by showing how its services supported NetApp through difficult times. 

• Provide an overview of the company in the client’s words, and put focus on the customer. 
• Highlight how your services can help clients during challenging times.
• Make your case study accessible by providing it in various formats.

“Red Sox Season Campaign,” by CTP Boston

The “ Red Sox Season Campaign ” showcases a perfect blend of different media, such as video, text, and images. Upon visiting the page, the video plays automatically, there are videos of Red Sox players, their images, and print ads that can be enlarged with a click.

The page features an intuitive design and invites viewers to appreciate CTP's well-rounded campaign for Boston's beloved baseball team. There’s also a CTA that prompts viewers to learn how CTP can create a similar campaign for their brand.

Some key points to take away from the “Red Sox Season Campaign”: 

• Including a variety of media such as video, images, and text can make your case study more engaging and compelling.
• Include a call-to-action at the end of your study that encourages viewers to take the next step towards becoming a customer or prospect.

“Airbnb + Zendesk” by Zendesk

The case study by Zendesk, titled “ Airbnb + Zendesk : Building a powerful solution together,” showcases a true partnership between Airbnb and Zendesk. 

The article begins with an intriguing opening statement, “Halfway around the globe is a place to stay with your name on it. At least for a weekend,” and uses stunning images of beautiful Airbnb locations to captivate readers.

Instead of solely highlighting Zendesk's product, the case study is crafted to tell a good story and highlight Airbnb's service in detail. This strategy makes the case study more authentic and relatable.

Some key points to take away from this case study are:

• Use client's offerings' images rather than just screenshots of your own product or service.
• To begin the case study, it is recommended to include a distinct CTA. For instance, Zendesk presents two alternatives, namely to initiate a trial or seek a solution.

“Influencer Marketing” by Trend and WarbyParker

The case study "Influencer Marketing" by Trend and Warby Parker highlights the potential of influencer content marketing, even when working with a limited budget. 

The “Wearing Warby” campaign involved influencers wearing Warby Parker glasses during their daily activities, providing a glimpse of the brand's products in use. 

This strategy enhanced the brand's relatability with influencers' followers. While not detailing specific tactics, the case study effectively illustrates the impact of third-person case studies in showcasing campaign results.

Key points to take away from this case study are:

• Influencer marketing can be effective even with a limited budget.
• Showcasing products being used in everyday life can make a brand more approachable and relatable.
• Third-person case studies can be useful in highlighting the success of a campaign.

Marketing Case Study Example

Marketing Case Study Template

Now that you have read multiple case study examples, hop on to our tips.

Tips to Write a Good Case Study

Here are some note-worthy tips to craft a winning case study 

• Define the purpose of the case study This will help you to focus on the most important aspects of the case. The case study objective helps to ensure that your finished product is concise and to the point.
• Choose a real-life example. One of the best ways to write a successful case study is to choose a real-life example. This will give your readers a chance to see how the concepts apply in a real-world setting.
• Keep it brief. This means that you should only include information that is directly relevant to your topic and avoid adding unnecessary details.
• Use strong evidence. To make your case study convincing, you will need to use strong evidence. This can include statistics, data from research studies, or quotes from experts in the field.
• Edit and proofread your work. Before you submit your case study, be sure to edit and proofread your work carefully. This will help to ensure that there are no errors and that your paper is clear and concise.

There you go!

We’re sure that now you have secrets to writing a great case study at your fingertips! This blog teaches the key guidelines of various case studies with samples. So grab your pen and start crafting a winning case study right away!

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Dr. Barbara is a highly experienced writer and author who holds a Ph.D. degree in public health from an Ivy League school. She has worked in the medical field for many years, conducting extensive research on various health topics. Her writing has been featured in several top-tier publications.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Writing a Case Study

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Reading Research Effectively
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Bibliography

The term case study refers to both a method of analysis and a specific research design for examining a problem, both of which are used in most circumstances to generalize across populations. This tab focuses on the latter--how to design and organize a research paper in the social sciences that analyzes a specific case.

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or among more than two subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in this writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a single case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• Does the case represent an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• Does the case provide important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• Does the case challenge and offer a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in practice. A case may offer you an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to the study a case in order to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• Does the case provide an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings in order to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• Does the case offer a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for exploratory research that points to a need for further examination of the research problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of Uganda. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a particular village can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community throughout rural regions of east Africa. The case could also point to the need for scholars to apply feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation.

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work. In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What was I studying? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why was this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the research problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would include summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to study the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in the context of explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular subject of analysis to study and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that frames your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; c) what were the consequences of the event.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experience he or she has had that provides an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of his/her experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using him or her as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, cultural, economic, political, etc.], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, why study Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research reveals Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks from overseas reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should be linked to the findings from the literature review. Be sure to cite any prior studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for investigating the research problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is more common to combine a description of the findings with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps to support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings It is important to remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations for the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and needs for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1)  restate the main argument supported by the findings from the analysis of your case; 2) clearly state the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in and your professor's preferences, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented applied to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were on social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood differently than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis.

Case Studies . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical (context-dependent) knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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A Longitudinal Mixed Methods Case Study Investigation of the Academic, Athletic, Psychosocial and Psychological Impacts of Being of a Sport School Student Athlete

• Original Research Article
• Open access
• Published: 18 April 2024

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Ffion Thompson   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5515-7633 1 , 2 ,
• Fieke Rongen 3 ,
• Ian Cowburn 1 &
• Kevin Till 1 , 4  

Sport schools are popular environments for simultaneously delivering education and sport to young people. Previous research suggests sport school involvement to have impact (i.e. the positive/negative, intended/unintended and long/short-term outcomes, results and effects) on student athlete’s holistic (i.e. academic, athletic, psychosocial and psychological) development. However, previous research is limited by (1) cross-sectional methods, (2) limited multidimensional assessments, (3) lack of consideration for athlete characteristics (e.g. sex) and (4) failure to evaluate how sport school features affect student-athlete impacts.

The study, using a mixed methods case study approach, aims to (1) longitudinally evaluate the impact of sport school involvement on the holistic development of student athletes, (2) evaluate the impact on holistic development by student-athlete characteristics and (3) explore the features and processes of the sport–school programme that drive/facilitate holistic impacts.

A longitudinal mixed methods design was employed across one full academic school year (33 weeks). Six data-collection methods (i.e. online questionnaire, physical fitness testing battery, academic assessment grades, log diaries, field notes/observation and timeline diagram/illustration) were used to assess the academic, athletic, psychosocial and psychological impacts for 72 student athletes from one sport school in the United Kingdom (UK).

Student athletes developed positive long-term holistic overall impacts (i.e. academically, athletically and personally), including maintaining stable and relatively high levels of sport confidence, academic motivation, general recovery, life skills, resilience and friends, family and free time scores. Despite positive impacts, juggling academic and sport workload posed challenges for student athletes, having the potential to lead to negative holistic impacts (e.g. fatigue, stress and injury). Positive and negative impacts were linked to many potential features and processes of the sport school (e.g. academic and athletic support services versus insufficient training load build-up, communication, coordination, flexibility and planning). Furthermore, when considering student-athlete characteristics, females had lower sport confidence, higher general stress and body image concerns and less general recovery than males and student athletes who played sport outside the school had lower general recovery.

Conclusions

This mixed method, longitudinal study demonstrated sport school involvement resulted in many positive academic (e.g. good grades), athletic (e.g. fitness development), psychosocial (e.g. enhanced confidence) and psychological (e.g. improved resilience) impacts attributed to the academic and athletic support services provided. However, juggling heavy academic and athletic workloads posed challenges leading to negative impacts including fatigue, pressure, stress and injury. Furthermore, holistic impacts may be sex dependent and further support may be required for female student athletes in sport school environments. Overall, these findings demonstrate the complex nature of combining education and sport commitments and how sport schools should manage, monitor and evaluate the features of their programme to maximise the holistic impacts of sport–school student athletes.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

In response to the potential negative consequences associated with the intensification of youth sports programmes [e.g. 1 , 2 ] and the drive for a more holistic approach to youth athlete development [e.g. 3 ], there has been a cultural shift towards combining sport and education in supportive environments to appropriately prepare individuals for working life if they do not become professional athletes [ 4 ]. This type of approach is referred to as a ‘dual career’ (DC) approach (i.e. combining sporting pursuits alongside education or vocational endeavours). A DC approach has long been evident in the USA, where collegiate athletes pursue university education alongside elite performance in Olympic sports or before entering the draft system for professional sports (Ryba et al. 2015). However, it has recently become more prominent in the United Kingdom (UK, [ 5 ]). Morris et al. [ 6 ] further distinguishes between different dual career development environments (DCDEs; i.e. environments that support DC approaches) based on the different structures and approaches used to provide both athlete development and academic support.

One example of a DCDE that aims to cater for youth athletes’ holistic development is a sports school. Sport schools are a key environment for DC development in many countries and are considered an increasingly integral part of a nations’ elite sport performance strategy [ 7 ]. Sport schools aim to combine sport and education to offer student athletes considerable academic flexibility (e.g. adaptation of school and training schedules and lighter load by one subject) and athletic support (e.g. high-quality coaches and physiotherapy) [ 8 ]. Recently, Morris et al. [ 6 ] categorised two types of sport schools: sport-friendly and elite. Both sport-friendly schools and elite sport schools are situated in lower and upper general and vocational secondary education (i.e. International Standard Classification of Education level 2–5). However, unlike a sport-friendly school, an elite sport school has formal communication with a sport federation, often receiving funding [ 6 ].

While a DC approach holds promise for enhancing the development of school-aged athletes, it brings forth various potential challenges. These challenges include managing academic study and training alongside competition schedules, dealing with fatigue/lack of sleep and being forced to make personal sacrifices [ 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Consequently, despite the intention of sport schools to provide a platform for athletes to balance sport and education, the reality is that they introduce heightened demands, potentially subjecting student athletes to risks of burnout and injury, as identified in previous research on intensified youth sports (e.g. [ 1 , 12 ]).

The process of youth athletic development within a school is complex, as athletes experience psychological, physical and psychosocial growth in an environment where they are navigating competing sport, academic and social demands [ 13 ]. Consequently, sport school involvement will impact (i.e. the positive/negative, intended/unintended and long/short-term outcomes, results and effects) an individual’s holistic development across academic, athletic, psychosocial and psychological dimensions [ 3 , 14 ]. Recognizing the diverse and extensive potential impacts of DCDEs (such as sport schools), aligns with the overarching idea of examining student athletes holistically. This comprehensive perspective is vital in understanding and navigating the multifaceted impacts of sport schools on the developmental trajectory of individuals [ 3 , 14 ].

Increasingly, research has explored such impacts on holistic athlete development. A recent mixed methods systematic review [ 8 ] highlighted there are a multitude of immediate, short- and long-term positive (e.g. physical development, more stable levels of general health and well-being, status/popularity and life skills) and negative (e.g. lower higher education attainment, limited experience with ordinary life outside of competitive sport, high number of injuries and performance pressure) impacts associated with the athletic, academic, psychosocial and psychological development of sport school student athletes. However, this systematic review identified several limitations within the current evidence base, including: (1) limited research examining how sport-friendly school features are operationalised in different contexts (e.g. UK), (2) a failure to evaluate multi-dimensional domains of athlete impact, often focussing on one or two dimensions and (3) limited research evaluating how features affect athlete impacts (i.e. causal relationship between the characteristics and features of sport school and holistic athlete impacts).

Subsequently, two studies [ 15 , 16 ] assessed the impacts of a UK sport-friendly school on student athletes across all four domains of holistic athlete development (i.e. academic, athletic, psychosocial and psychological). Overall, the findings of both studies demonstrated a multitude of positive impacts associated with being a sport school student athlete but, also, impacts of concern. However, both studies were cross-sectional in nature (i.e. use of a single moment of measurement), where exposure and impacts were simultaneous. Consequently, these studies oppose the nature of ‘transition’ as a process and the dynamic nature of sport-friendly school environments. Therefore, longitudinal research designs are required to investigate student-athlete development or changes over time. Additionally, although Thompson et al. [ 15 , 16 ] provided a general overview of the features and multiple possible impacts of sport school involvement, it is important to note that not every athlete experienced every potential impact. Instead, impacts varied across individuals and were driven by their individual characteristics and experiences of sport school features over time. Sport schools would benefit from an approach that is aware of individual differences and how they may impact a student athlete’s journey. Accordingly, it is important to explore the specificity of athlete characteristics/variables (e.g. biological sex) as holistic impacts may vary considerably depending upon an athlete's sex, sport requirements and boarding status [ 17 , 18 , 19 ].

Finally, given the complex and dynamic nature of DC environments [ 20 ], where student athletes have to interact with coaches, programme culture and practices, research needs to explore the features and processes (i.e. the context-individual interactions) of sport-friendly school programmes that drive and facilitate positive and negative holistic impacts described by Thompson and colleagues [ 15 , 16 ]. Moreover, within the UK, there are substantially more sport-friendly schools, with only one identified example of an elite sport school found in Scotland [ 5 ]. Sport-friendly schools in the UK tend to be more independent than the systemic approach in other countries (e.g. Germany and Sweden [ 21 ]). In the UK, the development of a sport-friendly school is primarily a matter for individual schools and is often pursued as part of a strategy to create a distinct identity. As a result, it is important to investigate the individual context of a sport-friendly school within the UK as a case study.

Based on the above, this study, using a mixed methods longitudinal case study design, aims to (1) longitudinally evaluate the impact of sport-friendly school involvement on the holistic (i.e. academic, athletic, psychological and psycho-social) development of student athletes, (2) evaluate the impact on holistic development by athlete characteristics (i.e. sex, boarding status and external sport involvement) and (3) explore the features and processes of the sport-friendly school programme that drive/facilitate positive and negative holistic impacts.

2.1 Research Approach

This study was aligned with and guided by a critical realist (CR) perspective. In line with North’s [ 22 ] perspective on CR, this study was guided by the principles of developing theory (i.e. first understanding of sport schools impacts, then, second, developing an understanding of ‘how,’ ‘why’, ‘what’ and ‘for whom’). As such, the researcher first engaged in contextual description (aims 1 and 2), then, second, started to develop an understanding/explanation of how observed patterns were generated (aim 3). To help achieve the study aims, this study adopted a concurrent mixed methods approach (i.e. qualitative and quantitative data collected simultaneously [ 23 ]). This design aims to create mutually exclusive sets of data that inform each other [ 24 ]. Furthermore, the qualitative and quantitative data were analysed separately but then integrated to cross-validate findings. Finally, in line with the CR stance of establishing ‘how’, ‘why’, ‘what’ and ‘for whom’, Pawson and Tilley's [ 25 ] and Yin’s [ 26 ] guiding principles for an explorative case study approach were used.

2.2 Positionality of the Researchers

It is also important to acknowledge the collective roles of the researchers’ autobiographies, values and beliefs in describing, designing and interpreting the findings [ 27 ]. To acknowledge this, we consciously outline them to help appreciate and evaluate the results in nuanced ways [ 28 ]. The first author, F.T., collected the data and was lead on the analysis and writing. As the school’s lead strength and conditioning (SC) coach and a previous student athlete at a different sport-friendly school for 5 years, this would have inevitably shaped the primary researchers’ conceptions and influenced the study’s initial framing, design and analysis. Furthermore, the collective experiences of the remainder of the research team will have contributed to the interpretation of the data and shaping of the results. Combined, K.T., F.R. and I.C. have over 30 years of research and applied experience within athlete development systems.

2.3 Context of Study

One sport-friendly school (pseudonym ‘Nunwick High’) was selected for the study based on Morris et al.’s [ 6 ] definition of a sport-friendly school. The selection of ‘Nunwick High’ was information-oriented and opportunistic. ‘Nunwick High’ has 8 years of experience providing DC support through a performance sport pathway embedded within a UK independent school. ‘Nunwick High’ has eight performance sports as part of its performance programmes: athletics, basketball, cricket, football, hockey, netball, rugby and swimming, targeted at year groups 7–13 (aged 12–18 years). Each student athlete enrolled on ‘Nunwick High’ performance sport programme receives a place to study, train and, in some cases, live during their lower and upper secondary school years, including access to learning facilities, a sport science centre, a sport treatment centre, sport facilities, accommodation buildings and a canteen all in one proximity (single campus). Based on the information above, ‘Nunwick High’ represented an established and mature environment that should be a rich source of information.

2.4 Participants

Participants had to meet the following inclusion criteria: participate as a student athlete in one of the performance sport programmes within ‘Nunwick High’ and be aged 16 or above (years 12–13). Years 12–13 were chosen specifically, as during this stage student athletes are transitioning to a more intense and structured period of athletic development [ 29 , 30 ], and increased educational demands, with the consequence that the management of their DC, is a distinct concern. A total of 72 student athletes (mean age 17.29 ± 0.52 years, 48 male and 24 female) participated in the study. At baseline (T1) the student athletes had been attending and competing at ‘Nunwick High’ for an average of 1.2 ± 1.5 years (range from 2 weeks to 7 years). Out of the 72 student athletes, 31 were boarders (i.e. live at the school) and 41 were non-boarders, 31 played sport externally to the sport-friendly school and 41 only played sport for the sport-friendly school, representing the following sport: athletics ( n  = 4), cricket ( n  = 4), hockey ( n  = 12), netball ( n  = 9), football ( n  = 18), rugby ( n  = 15) and basketball ( n  = 10).

2.5 Study Design

A longitudinal mixed methods case study design was employed across one full academic school year (33 weeks). To engage in a comprehensive and holistic investigation of the impacts of being a sport-friendly school student athlete and the features and processes that drive/facilitate such impacts, six data-collection methods were utilised: (1) online questionnaire, (2) physical fitness testing battery, (3) academic assessment grades, (4) log diaries, (5) field notes/observation and (6) timeline diagram/illustration.

The online questionnaire occurred over five data collection periods (Q1, September; Q2, November/December; Q3, February; Q4, March; and Q5, May). The physical fitness testing battery occurred over three data collection periods (PFT1, September; PFT2, December; and PFT3, March/April). The academic assessment grades occurred across four data collection periods (A1, October; A2, December; A3, February; and A4, June). The log diary occurred over four data collection periods (L1, October; L2, December; L3, January; and L5, March). The observational research was ongoing throughout the whole academic year (33 weeks). Finally, the timeline diagram/illustration was collected once at the end of the academic year. Figure  1 provides an overview of the data collection timeline. The university sub-ethics committee granted this study (ref. 86728) with online informed assent and parental written consent obtained.

Overview of data collection points at the sport-friendly school

2.6 Measures

2.6.1 online questionnaire.

Data collection involved participants completing an online questionnaire (predicted completion time, 29 min) that provided a multi-dimensional assessment of holistic athlete impacts identified in previous literature [ 8 , 15 , 16 ]. The online questionnaire comprised of 12 domains (i.e. academic and sport workload, difficulty balancing sport and academics, academic support and satisfaction, injury and illness, rest and recovery, body image, family, free time and friends; sport competence; sport confidence; life skills, dual career motivation and resilience) as presented in Table  1 . The questionnaire was conducted in a quiet room, and student athletes were allowed sufficient breaks when required and were allowed to return to the questionnaire at a later time within the same day. Further, open-ended questions were used to help expand on responses to close-ended questions [ 31 ], providing further information on the features and processes that drove/facilitated specific impacts. All questionnaires were collected across all timepoints (T1–T5) apart from The Life Skills Scale for Sport (LSSS) questionnaire which was added in from T2 as the LSSS requires participants to rate how much their environmental exposure has taught them to perform the skills listed within the questionnaire and a baseline value was not appropriate. Completion rates: 97% for Q1, 90% for Q2, 94%for Q3, 93% for Q4 and 99% Q5.

2.6.2 Academic Assessments Grades

To assess educational attainment, termly academic subject assessment grades were extracted from the school administrative system. As all student athletes were in years 12–13, and grades were provided in the UK national curriculum grading format for Advanced level (A-level) and Business and Technology Education Council (BTEC) qualifications. To adequately compare BTEC and A-level grades, in addition to statistical purposes, academic assessment grades were converted to a number using a school grades translation matrix in Table  2 (similar to [ 58 ]). After conversion, an average of each individual’s subject score was calculated to get one overall academic assessment score for each student athletes. Completion rates: 96% for A1, 90% for A2, 94% for A3 and 94% for A4.

2.6.3 Physical Fitness Testing Battery

To assess physical development, a fitness testing battery which included; lower-body power, strength, speed and cardiovascular fitness tests were conducted in line with previous studies [ 59 ]. Speed was reported at 10 and 40 m distances [ 60 ], lower-body power was reported using countermovement jump (CMJ) height (m) and strength was reported using the isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) [ 61 , 62 ,– 63 ] peak force (kg) and relative peak force (kg −1 ) measures. The fitness testing battery was conducted over 2 weeks. In week 1, subjects performed measures of strength via the IMTP and power via the CMJ. In week 2, field-based measures of 10–40 m sprints were performed to measure acceleration and max velocity. On all testing days, the test causing the greatest strain on the neuromuscular system was performed first to enhance the reliability of all maximal testing procedures [ 64 ]. Completion rates: 97% for PFT1, 96% for PFT2 and 97% for PFT3.

2.6.4 Log Diary

Student athletes were asked to fill in a log diary across four timepoints in the academic year consisting of open-ended questions that explored the positive and negative holistic impacts and any features and processes of the sport-friendly school that caused, attributed or drove these impacts. Open-ended questions allowed the respondents to express opinions without being influenced by the researcher [ 65 ]. For example, student athletes were asked to reflect on the last month and outline the positive and negative impacts they had experienced on their athletic/physical, academic, psychosocial and psychological development. Furthermore, open-ended questions allowed respondents to include more contextual information, giving more feedback on the features and processes of the sport-friendly school programme that drove/facilitated positive student athlete holistic impacts [ 31 ]. For example, student athletes were asked to outline what caused, attributed or drove these impacts/outcomes to happen (e.g. what characteristics, features or processes?). Completion rates: 24% for L1, 42% for L2, 38% for L3 and 38% for L4.

2.6.5 Observational Field Notes

To achieve contextual sensitivity, emphasis was placed on participant observation of the daily lives of the student athletes in their natural setting as an essential method of data collection [ 66 ]. Over the 33-week academic term, the primary researcher completed observational field notes throughout each academic day relating to objective observations and conversations and subjective reflections of the actions, behaviours and interactions observed at ‘Nunwick High’ [ 67 , 68 ]. Observations were made from a holistic viewpoint, generally attuned to the broader context of the school, including context-individual interactions and processes between sport school features and holistic athlete impacts. Notes were also taken on specific coaching actions and behaviours, individual participant experiences and the interactions observed between student athletes, coaches and teachers. The observations enhanced the researcher’s understanding of the ‘Nunwick High’ context and student athletes’ holistic development [ 68 ].

2.6.6 Timeline Diagram/Illustration

At the end of the academic year, a convenience sample of 15 participants (mixture of sport and sex) were chosen to complete a timeline diagram/illustration visualising and displaying their personal experiences of the fluctuations in academic stress and sport workload across the academic year. Within the group, each individual was asked to draw a graph representing their academic stress and sport workload across different periods of the academic year (term 1 to term 6). In addition, they were asked to highlight the key academic assessment periods across this time period. After the student athletes completed their timeline, they described and discussed their diagrams as a group, providing personal explanations and rationale for the timelines they had drawn with the primary researcher who wrote down additional notes. Successively, findings (from both quantitative and qualitative data) were fed back to participants and an opportunity was given for participants to elaborate and provide more contextual information on the findings. The data were then integrated as part of the results, complementing and enriching the data generated in the TA [ 69 ]. Although the researcher made sure to keep the discussion on topic, as well as reiterate that there were no right or wrong viewpoints [ 70 ], the direction of the discussion was driven by the student athletes. This form of research has been used in previous studies [e.g., 71 ] and provided student athletes with a sense of engagement and ownership over the research process.

2.7 Data Analysis

2.7.1 aims 1 and 2 data analysis, 2.7.1.1 quantitative analysis.

To address research aims 1 and 2, two generalised mixed models were conducted using R (Version 4.1.3). The first model (addressing aim 1) assessed the changes in impacts across the school year (33 weeks). The change in score of each holistic variable was used as the dependent variable, with time (i.e. Q1–Q5, PFT1–PFT3 and A1–A3) added as the fixed factor. Individual participants and sport were used as covariates (random factors). The second model (addressing aim 2) considered the specificity of athlete characteristics. Each holistic variable was used as the dependent variable, with biological sex (female versus male), living status (border versus non-boarder) and external sport commitment (a student athlete who played sport externally to the sport-friendly school versus a student athlete who only played sport for the sport-friendly school) added as fixed factors. Individual participants and sport were again used as covariates (random factors). The p -value was set at 0.05. Injury and illness incidence rates were processed separately using Excel (Microsoft Office 2021) and described using percentages with frequencies due to being bi-nominal data.

2.7.1.2 Qualitative Analysis

Alongside the quantitative data, qualitative data were used to evaluate the impacts of sport-friendly school involvement. The data was coded using a largely deductive approach [ 72 ]. First, during the preparation phase, qualitative data was organised and managed into categories to be analysed together (i.e. log diaries, open-ended questionnaires and observation field notes and timeline diagram/illustration transcripts) and the primary researcher obtained a sense of the whole data through reading the transcripts several times. Next, during the organisational phase, data were generated through coding [ 73 ]. Our coding approach was deductive in nature as most codes were generated through the available systematic review [ 8 ] and the online questionnaire items (refer to Table  1 ). Inductive coding was used as new themes specific to the holistic impacts of student athletes and any specificity of athlete characteristics were identified during the coding process.

2.7.1.3 Triangulation

Given that quantitative and qualitative methods were used to investigate the same holistic student athlete impacts, the data for analysis were compatible for integration using the process of triangulation resulting in the creation of a number of themes [ 74 , 75 ]. As part of this process, the primary researcher compared the findings from the quantitative and qualitative analysis and considered where the findings from each method agree (converge), offer complementary information on the same issue (complementarity) or appear to contrast each other (discrepancy or dissonance) [ 75 ]. Subsequently, the assessment of convergency, complementary and discrepancy were discussed among the authors to (1) clarify interpretations of the findings and (2) determine the degree of agreement among researchers on triangulated findings [ 75 ]. Finally, after refining the themes, the primary researcher defined and named the themes.

2.7.2 Aim 3 Data Analysis

Aim 3 aimed to provide a more explanatory (i.e. seeking to explain the causes of phenomena) approach to research [ 76 ]. As such, Fryers’ [ 77 ] five-step CR approach to thematic analysis (TA) was used to analyse the qualitative data (i.e. log diaries, open-ended questionnaires, observation field notes and timeline diagram/illustration transcripts). As part of the first stage of TA, the primary author clearly outlined and refined the research aim and objective (i.e. explore the features and processes of the sport-friendly school programme that drive/facilitate positive and negative holistic impacts). In the second stage, the primary author immersed herself in the data by reading and re-reading texts to familiarise themselves with the findings and make notes on the initial thoughts and questions. Following familiarisation, stage three consisted of applying, developing and reviewing codes (step 3 [ 77 ]). Descriptive codes were applied to segments of qualitative text that were considered relevant to the research aims (e.g. features and processes of ‘Nunwick High’). Following the development of codes, step 4 entailed grouping all codes into themes [ 77 ]. Explanations were developed to suggest how particular features and processes of ‘Nunwick High’ produce the holistic impacts evidenced in the data (i.e., aims 1). Finally, within stage five [ 77 ], reflections on the overall analysis were discussed and reviewed among the research team, with a particular focus on checking the plausibility of the explanations against pre-existing evidence (i.e. in the data as well as existing theory).

2.8 Establishing Research Rigour

Following recent recommendations, Hirose and Creswell’s [ 78 ] six core quality criteria for mixed methods studies are proposed as useful in judging the rigour of the current study. First, the authors have outlined a clear rationale for the use and appropriateness of mixed methods methodology in this study (i.e. criteria 1). Second, throughout the design included specific quantitative (e.g. What are the impacts of sport school involvement on the physical development of athletes?), qualitative (e.g. Can you tell us about the balance between sport and school?) and mixed methods (e.g. How were changes in personal development brought about by the environment?) questions (i.e. criteria 2). Third, it has been clearly outlined which elements of data collection resulted in quantitative and qualitative data, as well as how each type of data was analysed. Furthermore, quantitative data are clearly presented in Table  3 , and qualitative data have been represented in direct quotes throughout the results (i.e. criteria 3). The mixed methods research design has been identified along with a diagram of data-collection moments (i.e. criterion 4). Fifth, the authors have clearly outlined how data-integration has taken place, this is then evidenced throughout the results and Fig.  3 captures a display of how findings have been integrated (i.e. criterion 5). The integration of data resulted in added value, as it allowed the authors to highlight similarities and differences between quantitative and qualitative findings throughout the results, providing a more nuanced understanding of the holistic impact of sport school involvement. Furthermore, the notion of meta-inferences (i.e. inferences that draw on both quantitative, qualitative and transcend both databases or what does it all mean together), fit very well with the CR stance of the study and the analytical process employed to formulate initial theories (i.e. explanations) as to how things worked within this sport school context (i.e. criterion 6). Finally, further in line with the CR philosophical underpinnings and aims [ 79 ], we also invite the reader to judge the findings presented in terms of their plausibility (i.e. do the offered explanations make sense, both in light of the presented data and the existing research literature) and utility (i.e. how well the research account offers predictions for likely outcomes and can be used to guide practical actions in the real world).

In line with the study’s aims, the results are presented in three higher-order themes: (3.1) longitudinal investigation of student-athlete holistic impacts, (3.2) specificity of athlete characteristics and (3.3) features and processes of the sport-friendly school program (i.e. what worked for whom and how).

3.1 Longitudinal Investigation of Student-Athlete Holistic Impacts

The triangulated holistic student-athlete impacts are presented below. Table 3 presents the quantitative statistical results for each impact at each timepoint. Furthermore, differences in student-athlete characteristics (i.e. sex, boarding and external sport) are presented. The descriptions below triangulate the quantitative and qualitative data within key themes to present the longitudinal holistic impacts.

3.1.1 Fluctuations in Academic and Sports Workload Over-time Culminate in a Variety of Impacts

Table 3 presents how sports training, competition frequency and the number of rest days changed across the academic year. Sport training and competition frequency significantly decreased in March and May (1.57–2.22 h/week and 0.49–1.14 competitions/week) compared with September–February (8.84–10.23 h/week and 1.86–2.26 competitions/week). Significantly more rest days were experienced during May (~ 2.00 per week) than in the other periods. This finding is supported by the student athletes’ timeline diagrams/illustrations whereby most student athletes’ sport workload was typically high across terms 1–4, with a drop off in terms 5 and 6. In contrast, for summer sports such as cricket and athletics, the highest sport workload appeared in term 6 when they were also doing their final academic examinations, as exemplified by a summer sport student athlete when talking about term 6: “I think for [summer sport] it is hard. We literally will have three games a week and two exams a week”.

Fluctuating patterns were also shown for academic hours (represented by hours spent in academic lessons plus hours doing home work) and number of lessons missed. Academic hours were significantly lower during November/December and February (23.6–26.7 h/week) and highest in September and May (~ 28 h/week), which coincided with the number of lessons missed (i.e. more lessons missed in November–February than September–May). Furthermore, when the student athletes were describing their timelines, they highlighted three time periods that could be considered the most stressful from an academic perspective: (1) the second week back after the Christmas break (mock exam week), (2) the final 2 weeks before Easter (final coursework deadlines) and (3) the whole of terms 5 and 6 (final academic examinations).

3.1.1.1 Periods of Difficulty Balancing Dual Demands and Changes in Stress and Recovery

Student athletes found balancing academic and sports workload significantly harder during November–March (3.22–3.34) and easiest during May (2.43). When student athletes were describing their timelines, they described a constant oscillation between periods of high academic stress (e.g. assessment time, mocks and exams) and high sport workload (e.g. busy fixture list, major tournaments and finals), with them often coinciding, resulting in increased stress and pressure.

“So, at the moment it is fine, but now gradually, academics are getting a lot more pressure on and the fixtures start to go like that again [demonstrated a steep incline with hand]. And then there is not really a break till March and by then should be absolutely ready for your A-levels and you are behind. Still revising some topics”.

Although student athletes’ general stress stayed stable across the academic year (no significant change across September to May), sport-specific stress levels varied across different time periods (highest in February and lowest in May). Regarding recovery, although general recovery stayed relatively stable across the academic year, sport-specific recovery was significantly lower in February compared with September (implying that student athletes were not recovering as well from sports during February compared with September).

3.1.1.2 Fatigue Accumulation, Culminating in Student-Athletic De-motivation

At the beginning of the academic year (September), student athletes were exposed to an immediate high academic and physical workload (i.e. 9.93 training hours/week and 28.1 academic hours/week). Additionally, from a physical fitness perspective, student athletes are physically less fit. Overall, the initial challenges (i.e. demanding schedule) and lack of physical fitness appeared to result in student athletes feeling fatigued, both mentally and physically at the start of the academic year. For example, a student athlete stated in their log diary 3 weeks into term 1:

“I’m keeping up with my school work but the workload is high due to not having free periods (because I play sport). I feel motivated to improve in both my academics and my sport. I am finding myself feeling more tired during the week but this is probably a combination of higher amounts of physical activity and not going to bed early enough.”

The feeling of fatigue was a common impact across the academic year. The student athletes frequently stated in their log diary that they were ‘always tired’, as exemplified by this student athlete: “I always want to sleep”. This impact was further exaggerated for student athletes with increased academic demands (e.g. undertaking four A-levels versus three), as exemplified by one student athlete’s log diary:

“The workload is high because I am taking 4 A-levels as well as doing my sport throughout the day- this means I have less time in school to complete work set and have to do the majority of it at home. This can build up and occasionally I find myself working until late which is leaving me feeling tired in the morning”.

Finally, there seemed to be an accumulative build-up of fatigue towards the end of each academic term and year. From a conversation with one of the coaches at the end of term 2, they stated: “This time of year everything changes. Kids getting tired, we are getting tired and boredom setting in”. The effect of fatigue on student athletes’ academic work was further elaborated on in a conversation with a student athlete: “I think there is enough time to do your work, it is just not enough time where you are not tired. You come home and you are knackered you don’t want to do work.” The student athletes described becoming demotivated during the end of term with a lack of physical development. “I plateaued. I started hating [sport]. I wasn’t improving, I was tired, I was stressed. To the point where I didn’t enjoy it”.

The feelings of de-motivation and mental and physical fatigue were further exaggerated in terms 5 and 6. A student athlete stated: “It is a bit burnout. You go, boom, boom, boom, boom, boom and now you just feel like flat”. By terms 5 and 6, student athletes appeared to have a lack of motivation and burnout for performance sports (consistent with student athletic motivation score, which was significantly lower in May), where student athletes wanted a period of unstructured training and time away from the performance environment.

“The last summer term with exams. I remember that first weekend after school finished, I literally couldn’t do anything else. I was so tired, like mentally and physically. And then I dunno, the feeling was awful”.

3.1.1.3 Immediate and Multiple Stresses

New student athletes at ‘Nunwick High’ experienced increased stress and pressure from an immediate intensive level of training and increased academic demands. In addition, they reported emotional and social stress from moving away from home, family and friends into a new environment. For example, from conversations with new student athletes who had transitioned into the school, they stated that they found the workload (both academic and physical) ‘a lot more’ than previous experiences. “You’re sort of chucked straight into it and expected to do everything basically. It is quite intense and a lot asked of you. Kind of have to do it and get it done”.

Then across the academic year at ‘Nunwick High’ there was evidence of three types of stressors: (1) Competitive stressors related to the demanding game schedules. “The upcoming matches that have been occurring have caused me to become more stressed”. (2) Organisational stressors from commitments to school sport balance.

“But I think sometimes, yeah it happens, but you are not enjoying it, it doesn’t become enjoyable it just becomes stressful. To go to a match and then come back and do your work. It is then not an enjoyable period”.

Finally, (3) Personal stressors when student athletes sacrifice social life for sport.

“I’m not as social as I was at the beginning of the year, I think this is due to the stress given by school. I feel as though I need to spend more time doing school work compared to socialising”.

However, contradictory to the personal stressors, student athletes’ friends and family and free time KIDSCREEN-27 Health Questionnaire scores stayed stable across the academic year.

3.1.1.4 Despite Challenges and Academic Pressure, Student Athletes Generally Achieved Good Academic Grades

As highlighted above, student athletes experienced challenges across the academic year (e.g. demanding schedule, fatigue and multiple stressors), in addition to academic pressure, as highlighted by a student athlete, “for me, academic pressure is a really big thing, because I am really scared, I am going to let it slip accidently”. Despite these challenges, overall, academic grades stayed relatively stable across the academic year (4.29–4.57), with only June significantly higher than October. This finding coincides with the fact that academic motivation also stayed stable across the academic year (4.78–4.88). This is further supported by the qualitative data which highlighted that student athletes at ‘Nunwick High’ generally achieved good academic grades. According to the log diaries, although some challenges around managing the multiple demands on their time were highlighted, most student athletes were generally happy with their academic development across the year: “I think I have developed academically in my exams; I have improved consistently throughout the year”.

3.1.2 Sport Performance Development and Well-Being Across the Year

As highlighted in the previous theme (3.1.1.2) student athletes are physically less fit at the beginning of the academic year. However, over time there were significant improvements in IMTP strength (123.3 kg September and 160.6 kg in March/April), CMJ height (34.3 cm in September and 36.5 cm in March/April) and 40 m max velocity (only September–December), whilst 10 m acceleration stayed stable.

Sport confidence was stable across the academic year (no significant change from September to May). However, there was a significant decrease in student athletes’ perceived sport competence during February (3.40) compared with September–December (3.59–3.58). Sport competence then recovered between February to May but not compared with September–December levels. This data contradicts the qualitative findings whereby student athletes largely expressed how being involved in the performance sports programme had resulted in them becoming better at their sport. They stated in their log diaries that they could see improvements in their physical, technical and tactical development and overall sporting performance across the academic year.

“My athletic development has gradually improved over time during all of the training and sessions. My physical development has improved slightly as well, especially with things like speed and size. My personal fitness has improved from the training and has encouraged me to do more out of the sessions”.

When evaluating injury and illness, injury incidence was higher than illness incidence. The greatest number of injuries occurred in November/December (47%), with the lowest injury incidence in May (23%). Illness incidence was highest in September (31%) and lowest in May (11%). Finally, although there was no significant difference or change in the student athletes’ EAT-26 score across the academic year and average scores were below 10, there were student athletes who scored ≥ 10, signifying disordered eating behaviour and attitude.

3.1.3 Personal Development

Student athletes also reported to have developed personally, although LSSS (3.51–3.56) and resilience (3.29–3.39) scores stayed stable across the academic year (no significant change across September–May). Through the qualitative data many student athletes emphasised they had developed a range of life skills and attitudes they could use both within and outside of sport. For example, they felt they had become more confident and developed their communication, social integration ability, social skills, work ethic, motivation, time-management skills, teamwork and leadership skills, in addition to becoming more independent, resilient, disciplined, mature and responsible adults. Student athletes highlighted these developments in their log diaries and through conversations with the primary researcher:

Student athlete 1: “Allowed me to develop my motivational skills. Training more and work in the gym helped to develop my social skills and my physical and mental abilities of perseverance during training and during my school work”.

Student athlete 2: “We talked about balancing a lot and if you are doing sport and academics, you kind of naturally build the skill of time-management and balancing stuff. I have got sport and A-levels as well, so I kind of have to think about time management as well. So, after I finish my sport, I know I need to go home and complete my prep. So, I kind of manage my day to get it all done”.

3.2 Specificity of Athlete Characteristics

There was no significant difference between boarders and non-boarders across all variables. For sex, females had significantly fewer weekly competitions than males. Female sport confidence scores and general recovery scores were significantly lower (− 0.68, − 0.47) and general stress and EAT-26 scores were significantly higher (+ 1.03, + 9.28) than males. Finally, females had significantly lower CMJ (− 10.49 cm) and IMTP (− 50.96 kg) and significantly slower 40 m max velocity (+ 0.93 s) scores than males. Internal sport-only student athletes had significantly less training (− 2.30 h/week) and competitions (− 1.42 number/week) and more rest days (0.52 number/week) per week compared with external sport student athletes. However, internal-only student athletes’ general recovery was significantly lower (− 0.32), which contradicts the qualitative findings where student athletes who played sports externally and for the sport-friendly school expressed feeling particularly fatigued and lacking rest and recovery.

3.3 Features and Processes of the Sport-Friendly School Program

While the primary aim of this study is to evaluate sports school holistic impacts, the third aim is to gain insight into the context-individual interactions underpinning them (i.e. features and processes). Accordingly, this section aims to provide a narrative overview describing insights into particular features and processes of ‘Nunwick High’.

3.3.1 Importance of Personal Motivation, Value of Education and Academic Support Services

Student athletes stated that they achieved good academic grades due to developing their personal motivation, organisational skills and commitment (i.e. hard work ethic, determination, self-motivation, developing a revision routine and creating a timetable of free time to balance workload), as highlighted in a student athletes log diary: “My work ethic and motivation have improved, which has caused me to work harder and put in more effort. I am not afraid to ask questions anymore to help me understand”.

Secondly, coach support was highlighted to assist student athletes’ academic development. There appeared to be flexibility with sports training and support from the coaches around the periods of high academic stress (i.e. student athletes were allowed to miss training sessions to do work), as exemplified by a student athlete: “Since my coaches have understood about me wanting to focus on my work, sometimes it has been helpful as I know that they support me”.

Finally, the student athletes received extra academic support. Teachers and fellow pupils provided extra tutoring (i.e. one-to-one help) in their own time. Teachers provided subject and revision clinics, and ‘Nunwick High’ had a learning development department. The extra academic support provided is demonstrated in the following quote from a student athlete’s log diary:

“Getting help from teachers—one-to-one help. Clinic revision—weekly revision after school to revise through any topics that I am not comfortable with. Microsoft Teams—online teams in which I can message my teachers directly whenever I am stuck”.

3.3.2 Performance Sports Program with Direct Sport-Related Practices, Staff and Support Services

‘Nunwick High’ was reported and observed as having high-quality facilities, fixtures, coaching staff and training partners. Student athletes had access to professional, high-quality facilities (e.g. a fully equipped gym, pool, indoor three-court sports hall and numerous astroturfs and grass fields). The performance sports program arranged high-level fixtures against top opposition (e.g. academy teams, high-level clubs and top sports schools). As a result, the student athletes were challenged technically, tactically, physically and psychologically against high-level opposition, as attributed by a student athlete in their log diary: “Recent fixtures, tournaments and matches have positively impacted my development, lifting to my maximum potential and pushing myself in court sessions”. Moreover, ‘Nunwick High’ employed high-quality coaches who could provide expert coaching, support and education to enhance the sporting development of the student athletes further. ‘Nunwick High’ was also described as attracting a big pool of talented student athletes providing high-quality training partners/teammates who acted as influential mentors—providing a high-quality training and learning environment where student athletes pushed their peers to be better and develop from one another. For example, a student athlete stated in their log diary:

“My skill and physical capabilities have improved drastically over the past month as the combination of regular strength and conditioning sessions as well as daily access to an indoor basketball court and high-quality players and coaching staff has driven me to become a completely different basketball player”.

As highlighted in the qualitative and quantitative data, the student athletes trained regularly across the year. As a result, the student athletes had more opportunities to practice, play and develop in their sport. For example, a student athlete stated they had ‘developed as a player’ and that this was due to ‘training every day and having games regularly’.

‘Nunwick High’ also had a multi-disciplinary sports staff as part of the performance sports program (i.e. SC, physiotherapist and nutritionist). The student athletes had designated and regular SC sessions within their school timetable, where the SC staff provided them with tailored and sport-specific physical development programs. Additionally, the SC staff provided additional athletic and physical development resources (e.g. cardiovascular fitness sessions, advice on recovery, mobility sessions) and put on recovery sessions (e.g. stretching/yoga). This support was deemed to positively support the student athlete’s athletic and physical development. For example, a student athlete, when answering in their log diary what was the driving factor for their improved athletic and physical development, stated:

“I have had a personal SC programme fitted to what will help me make the biggest impact on my sport; this has been essential for me and helped me to push hard, knowing that my interests are being taken care of and frequently adapted to fit my needs and any progress that I make”.

Whilst another student athlete stated the support available when injured:

“Due to an injury, I haven’t been able to train as often as normal on the pitch; however, the programme has still been able to help me develop during this time. I have had a lot of physio sessions which have helped me understand what is wrong with me, and the physio works closely with the SC staff, who are then able to provide me with stretches related to my injury as well as exercises that help my performance whilst taking into consideration my injury/limitations”.

3.3.3 Because the Environment Demanded It

The requirement to take accountability and responsibility, live away from home, and the busy schedule of sports and academics required student athletes to manage themselves effectively, become better at managing multiple demands and be disciplined.

“Time-management as well. You don’t necessarily get taught it. But you learn it by having such a busy schedule. You have to work out what to do when”.

The school strongly focused on giving the players accountability and responsibility for their academic and sport development. As described above, an environment was witnessed where the student athletes were given the relevant tools to help aid their sporting development and academic development. The student athletes were responsible for using these resources and maximising the opportunities in their own time.

“Environment where everything the athletes need is available to them (e.g. video from games, SC, yoga, extra sessions, academic support, pastoral care), but although the athletes are encouraged to utilise everything that is on offer to them, it is the athlete’s responsibility on how they use their time and if they utilise their time here effectively”. [Field note, 03/02/2022]

However, there was a lack of upskilling to allow student athletes to maximise their development, particularly in managing their time effectively. The student athletes felt that sometimes, the staff presumed they had the relevant skills without providing them with the tools to facilitate appropriate ownership of their development (i.e. feeling left to their own devices). For example, student athletes stated the following comments when talking about taking responsibility:

Student athlete 1: “I think they just expect you to be more organised, to be able to fit your sport in”.

Student athlete 2: “What we get offered here, most of us haven't been exposed to it before coming here. Then you are expected to know how to use it. When a lot of people don’t. So, then they don’t get the most out of as they can do”.

Furthermore, the additional work student athletes were expected to do in their own time (e.g. clip their own video) adds to their workload, providing further conflicts with their academic study and personal time.

“Yeah, like no one tells you to go and watch the video. But I like to watch it and see what happens and see why we lost to [team]. But then that is an hour, hour and a half of Thursday when the video comes out. So that is when I should be working”.

3.3.4 Lack of Organisation and Planning of Training Load

When the student athletes first joined the performance sport programme in the sixth form, they transitioned into an intensive level of training. There was no preseason at the sport-friendly school, so the student athletes were immediately exposed to a high physical workload. Furthermore, first-team fixtures were organised within the second week of the term. When asked if the student athletes liked having fixtures within the second week of term, there was an overwhelming ‘no’ feeling. Student athletes stated they were ‘not adequately prepared’ and ‘had not had enough training time together’.

Additionally, from a physical fitness perspective, when student athletes transitioned into ‘Nunwick High’, or returned at the beginning of the academic year, they felt physically ill prepared for the immediate, intense training load. Through pre-season physical fitness testing, the primary researcher observed student athletes coming back from the summer holidays with lower physical fitness levels than expected.

“Just completed 30–15 running fitness test with [sport]. Generally, the student athlete’s cardiovascular fitness scores are lower than I would expect them to be at the beginning of the year in comparison to normative, expected data for their sport”. [Field note, 07/09/2021]

Coaches, in conversation with the researcher, emphasised that at the beginning of the year ‘students were not fit enough’. A student athlete further highlighted this comment when talking about the initial start of term: “And also, our fitness isn’t as good as it would have been after training all the time at school. So, I think we are lot more unfit as a lot of us don’t train outside of school”.

Within an academic year at ‘Nunwick High’, no periodised planning, tapering or deload was scheduled within the performance sport programme across a term. The primary researcher observed a lack of balance between high training loads followed by intentional low training loads (i.e. deload/tapering weeks).

“Season at [Nunwick High] is very full on and intense the whole time. There is no periodised planning, tapering or deload week within the term or season. This is resulting in kids being exhausted by the last 2 weeks”. [Field note, 15/03/2022] “Sometimes, I think we over train. Like having 2 h on Wednesday, then another 2 h on Thursday. Then an hour on Monday, SC on Tuesday and another SC on Friday. With no recovery. You know, it is really intense”.

Despite the benefit of offering high-quality competition from a sporting development point of view, ‘Nunwick High’ appeared to enter every competition, league and cup and has an extensive list of friendly competitions. As a result, some sports teams had two (on the rare occasion, three) internal sports fixtures a week (not considering the fixtures some student athletes have externally outside of school), leading to potential fixture congestion. Based on observations and log diaries, the extensive fixture list appeared to put further pressure on student athletes academically, as they missed many lessons and were fatigued. As exemplified by a student athlete in their log diary, “Having regular away fixtures has caused me to miss multiple lessons every week and afterschool training has limited time to catch up on homework”.

Finally, the primary researcher observed a lack of collaboration with external sports schedules. For example, based on her observations, the primary researcher reflected:

“Given that match play required a longer period of recovery than training, the school coach on Thursday often incorporated recovery sessions. However, unaware of the school match the previous day, one student athlete’s club team continued with an unmodified training session, including one to two hours of technical training on a Thursday night. As a result, negating the benefits of the recovery sessions within the school. The student athlete returned to school training on Friday, 24 h after the match, with the school coach presuming the fatigue from the match had largely dissipated. From chatting to the student athlete, they stated that they did not actually have the chance to recover from the match on Wednesday and entered the weekend fixtures feeling fatigued, which he believed compromised his performance”. [Field Note, 17/02/2022]

3.3.5 Lack of Coordination and Program Flexibility Between Academic and Sports Timetables

Although academic support services were available and some academic staff provided extra academic support and understanding for the student athletes when needed, there appeared to be a need for more understanding from all teachers. For example, in a conversation with two athletes, they stated:

Student athlete 1: “If you miss a lesson, then they just send you the work and expect you to do it yourself”.

Student athlete 2: “Sometimes I don't think my academic teachers understand. They are like ‘again, really’. I am like; it doesn’t change just because I did it last week”.

Moreover, although there appeared to be flexibility with physical training and support from the coaches around periods of high academic stress, there was a lack of planning, co-operation and compromise with scheduling, with sports fixtures clashing with periods of high academic stress (apart from in term 6). For example, as highlighted in Sect.  3.1.1 student athletes described a constant oscillation between periods of high academic stress and periods of high sport workload with them often coinciding, resulting in increased stress and pressure (as depicted in Fig.  2 which summarises the general patterns observed in the student athletes’ timeline diagrams/illustrations).

“I think my timetable doesn’t match up. So that means I get assessments and work I miss because I go to matches, and then I am still going to the gym and stuff like that. So, it feels like there is no compromise, and when it comes to assessments, I still feel like I need to do the match”.

Overview of oscillations in academic stress and sport workload across the school year

Despite academic flexibility/support by some coaches and teachers, due to the conflicts between academic and sport schedules, student athletes often felt conflicted, pressured and guilty towards both coaches and teachers if they chose one endeavour more than the other and were often reminded of it. “[Coach] will mention past things you have done. Like, yeah, but you didn't come to this one either, and you didn't come to this one, and now you are missing this one. So yeah, like the build-up of guilt”. Additionally, there seemed to be a lack of understanding and a conflict between what is a priority for student athletes regarding internal and external training, with student athletes feeling scared to come forward if they were tired.

“I feel like if I said to [coach], I can’t train as well on Wednesday as I was training for [club] on Tuesday. Then he would like to quit [club]. And I don’t want to quit it. But I don’t think I could come forward and say I was tired because I trained last night. As he would say that I am disrupting [school sport]. You are here to play [school sport]”.

There was little evidence of direct communication and alignment between sport coaches and teachers, where they worked together to ensure that their schedules were appropriately adjusted and aligned to the student’s academic (deadlines and submissions) and sport (tournaments and cup competitions) load. Instead, student athletes explained that they were the ‘middle ground’ for communication between coaches and teachers.

“I think the only thing that is hard about it is communication between your teachers and the coaches as well. As obviously, the teachers will have their say and be like, ‘You do too many matches’”.

Finally, student athletes at ‘Nunwick High’ had varying academic demands, extra-curricular activities and sporting commitments. Moreover, the performance sport teams’ schedules varied weekly (e.g. a team may compete in three competitions 1 week and no competitions the following week). Despite this, there appeared to be an overall ‘one size fits all’ approach to the overall planning, with a lack of adaptation to individual student athletes’ varying commitments and between-week team schedules, causing further competing demands and stress.

“Yeah. I think when we had gym and dance. That was sort of like a commitment. [Coach] would know we would have it after school but still expect me to go 100%, even though the night before we would have had a full run-through and everything went wrong and duh duh duh, school production itself. So it is sort of, I understand you have all this other stuff, but it doesn’t give you an excuse not to go 100% in training”.

4 Discussion

To our knowledge, this study is the first to longitudinally evaluate (1) the impact of sport-friendly school involvement on the holistic development (i.e. academic, athletic, psychosocial and psychological) of student athletes, (2) the holistic impact according to the specificity of student athlete characteristics (i.e. sex, boarding status and external sport involvement) and (3) the features and processes of the sport-friendly school programme that drive/facilitate positive and negative holistic impacts.

Overall, mixed-method data demonstrated that over-time student athletes, achieved good academic grades, enhanced their all-round sporting performance and developed personally, demonstrating positive short-term and potential long-term positive impacts of sport-friendly school involvement. In addition, student athletes’ sport confidence, academic motivation, academic grades, general recovery, life skills, resilience and friends, family and free time scores remained stable and relatively high across the academic year. Potential features and processes of ‘Nunwick High’ that contributed to these positive impacts included: high-quality facilities, fixtures, training partners and coaching staff, high frequency and extra training, multi-disciplinary sport support staff (e.g. SC, physiotherapist and nutritionist), academic support services, and self-reported motivation and hard work ethic to engage with training and academics. Despite these positive benefits, the simultaneous pursuit of academic and athletic achievements provided challenges for student athletes across an academic year. Potential negative impacts found included: increased stress and pressure at the beginning of the academic year, immediate accumulation of fatigue (both mentally and physically), competitive, organisational and personal stressors, high injury rates, potential body image concerns, conflicting demands and feeling “left to their own devices”. Furthermore, student athletes’ experienced significant fluctuations in their sport and academic workload, rest, academic lessons missed, sport-specific stress and recovery, sport competence and student-athletic motivation scores across the academic year. Many of the potential challenges/negative impacts student athletes experienced seemed to be attributed to a lack of (1) gradual increase in training exposure (intensity, frequency and volume) at the beginning of the academic year, (2) coordination and consideration between academic and sport timetables, (3) collaboration with external sport schedules, (4) direct communication and alignment between the coaches and teachers, (5) program flexibility and (6) periodised planning, tapering or deload scheduled within the sport timetable. However, it is worth noting that individual characteristics shaped the sport school experience and its impact on the holistic development of student athletes. Biological sex and external sport commitments were shown to influence student-athlete holistic impacts, however boarding status did not. Figure  3 summarises the longitudinal holistic impacts of sport-friendly school involvement, including the program’s features/processes driving positive and negative impacts.

Summary of the longitudinal holistic impacts of sport-friendly school involvement and the potential features and processes that drive/facilitate positive and negative holistic impacts

4.1 Longitudinal Investigation of Student Athlete Holistic Impacts

4.1.1 immediate and intermediate risk and challenges.

The student athletes faced numerous challenges at the onset of the academic year (e.g. high physical training loads, frequent sport fixtures and psychosocial adjustments) aligned to existing research [ 8 ]. Longitudinal data suggested these continued throughout the academic year. The workload challenges are similar to previous research in sport schools [ 80 , 81 , 82 ] and youth sport [ 12 , 83 ] but providing sport and academic load simultaneously emphasises the challenge of combining student athletes workload with external sporting commitments. These workload challenges potentially contribute to various other impacts experienced by student athletes, such as increased rates of missed academic lessons, heightened susceptibility to injuries, and the ongoing struggle to effectively balance their athletic commitments with academic responsibilities. Consequently, this confluence of demands often results in elevated levels of fatigue, persistent feelings of tiredness, and heightened stress among student athletes. This explanation is plausible given previous literature (e.g., [ 84 ] and [ 85 ]) has emphasised that the time commitments associated with combining education alongside sports training were a crucial contributor to fatigue accumulation and stress.

The longitudinal data highlights, student athletes’ need to negotiate many fluctuating academic and sport demands and expectations across a school year, which are often conflicting [ 84 , 86 , 87 ]. In parallel, student athletes seemed to find the sport–academic balance easier when they had increased rest and reduced training/competitions. These findings are unsurprising, as fewer competing demands exist. Previous research similarly demonstrates that the commitment (i.e. time and effort) to sport coincide with youth athletes’ education [ 21 ] and competitions/training, resulting in youth athletes missing school for several days or even weeks/months a year [ 88 ], making balancing both sport and education challenging [ 9 , 10 , 11 ].

Finally, the qualitative data reveal a consistent cycle between periods of high academic stress, such as assessment times and exams, and periods of intense sports workload, such as busy fixture lists and major tournaments. These overlapping demands potentially contribute to three main categories of stress: competitive stress due to game schedules, organizational stress from balancing school and sports, and personal stress involving social sacrifices. This pattern is supported by the correlation between changes in student athletes’ training loads and their sport-specific stress levels throughout the academic year. Competitive, organisation and personal stressors are supported by Kristiansen and Stensrud’s [ 85 ] study, which found evidence of all three stressors among youth female handball sport school athletes.

4.1.2 Long-Term Positive Impact

This study suggests that despite the challenges (e.g. balancing both sporting and academic commitments) student athletes within sport schools can excel in both sport and academics. Student athletes maintained stable and high academic grades throughout the year, supported by the qualitative data. These findings are congruent with broader youth sport research, which has indicated that student athletes excel in education (e.g., [ 89 ]). However, these findings contradict previous sports school literature [ 81 , 90 ], which suggested that sport participation negatively affected student athletes’ academic success.

Regarding athletic impacts, physical fitness data also demonstrated enhanced strength, speed and power. These results align with Beckmann et al. [ 91 ] study, showing increased fitness measures in student athletes enrolled in a sport school over 5 years. While the student athletes’ sport competence scores dipped compared with baseline throughout the academic year, qualitative findings demonstrated that student athletes felt they became better athletes (technical, tactically and physically). These findings may be explained by student athletes perceiving themselves as getting better but also had enhanced (different) perceptions and judgment as to where their own skills lay in comparison to others. Over time, student athletes may enhance their capacity for self-reflection and the evaluation of their abilities in comparison to others (i.e. their self-evaluation becomes increasingly more accurate but also more negative [ 92 ]), which could influence the self-perceived ratings of their own sport competence.

Finally, although student athletes’ psychosocial scores did not improve across the school year, they were relatively high at baseline and remained stable. Qualitative data highlighted the development of life skills and attitudes applicable in and beyond sport, reinforcing this trend. Previous sport school literature [ 82 , 93 , 94 ] supports the idea that sport school involvement fosters qualities and skills applicable to various aspects of life. Furthermore, overall LSSS scores were similar to that of British youth sport [ 95 ] and sport high school [ 96 ] student athletes. As such, sport-friendly schools should continue to develop student athletes technical, tactical, physical and academic capabilities but additionally develop their personal, social and life skill capabilities [ 97 ], to ensure student athletes develop transferable skills for life beyond the sport-friendly school environment [ 98 ].

4.2 Specificity of Athlete Characteristics

Sex and external sport commitments were shown to influence student athlete holistic impacts, however boarding status did not. In accordance with O’Connor et al. [ 99 ], females demonstrated lower levels of sport confidence and perceived competence compared with males, along with higher general stress, lower general recovery and greater body image concerns. Literature suggests that youth athletes, particularly females, are becoming concerned about their body image at increasingly early ages [ 100 ] and body-related shame and guilt are increasing over time among female youth athletes [ 101 ]. Looking at the inter-relationship between variables, previous research has found a significant relationship between body image and sport-related variables (e.g. sport confidence [ 102 ]). Furthermore, Murray et al.’s [ 103 ] study found a significant association between higher body dissatisfaction and higher ratings of peer stress and lower self-esteem. Given the potential heightened vulnerability in females, further research should explore the holistic development of female student athletes in sport schools.

Student athletes (such as those at ‘Nunwick High’) often participate in multiple sport or for various teams within the same sport [ 33 , 104 ]. External sport involvement increased student athletes’ time commitments (more training hours and competitions and less rest), intensifying the competing demands between academic and athletic pursuits. The additional demands link with lower general recovery scores for external sport student athletes. Research demonstrates that student athletes with higher weekly training loads have higher recovery-stress states than student athletes with lower weekly loads [ 105 ]. Furthermore, the qualitative data highlighted further fatigue and recovery challenges amongst this group, exacerbated by unsynchronized schedules between external and internal sport commitments. Previous research supports this conclusion, which demonstrates the ‘tug of war’ scenario of various weekly sport commitments, which can result from separate and contrasting athlete-focused training plans and goals [ 33 , 104 ]. Collaborative management of training schedules among the various stakeholders (i.e. coaches) is crucial to prevent fatigue, overreaching and injury risks among this specific group [ 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 ], requiring aligned training aims, load management, fixture lists and flexible programming [ 33 ].

4.3 Features and Processes of the Sport-Friendly School Program

As DC environments are complex and dynamic, whereby student athletes have to interact with many features and processes of a sport school, this study aims to advance on existing research to understand what facilitated and drove the positive and negative impacts. This approach was a unique and novel aspect of this study resulting in five key findings as discussed below.

4.3.1 Importance of Personal Motivation, Value of Education and Academic Support Services

One clear positive impact was that student athletes’ academic performance was high and stable consistent with previous research [ 89 , 110 ]. These findings may be explained by the student athletes displaying stable and relatively high levels of academic motivation across the school year and personal attributes aligned to academic work (e.g. hard work, organisation skills and commitment). Research (e.g. [ 111 ]) supports the associations between individual traits (e.g. AM, educational goals and commitment) and academic achievement demonstrating that student athletes’ academic motivation is important to achieving academic success. Furthermore, academic performance may reflect the importance of the additional support offered by sport schools (e.g. extra tutoring, revision clinics and consistent check-ups from academic and sport staff) in protecting academic success [ 8 ]. Mentorship, monitoring and extra tutoring were some of the academic support services provided at ‘Nunwick High’, which are consistent with previous sport school literature [ 7 , 8 , 93 , 112 , 113 ] and recognised as essential for encouraging academic success [ 114 ]. Finally, coach support (e.g. flexibility with sport training and support around the periods of high academic stress) was highlighted to assist student athletes academic development. This result is similar to Knight and colleagues [ 115 ], who underscored the need for an athlete’s support network to consistently reinforce the importance of education and the value of maintaining a DC. Ensuring the support staff are on the same page and everyone’s expectations are aligned, eases tensions within the group and prevents the student athletes from feeling conflicted [ 115 ].

4.3.2 Performance Sport Program with Direct Sport-Related Practices, Staff and Support Services

The current study provides additional evidence of Thompson et al. [ 15 ] cross-sectional study, demonstrating that student athletes will improve their all-round sport performance across an academic year and this change may be facilitated by a multi-disciplinary sport staff, high quality facilities, fixtures, training partners and coaching staff, high frequency of training, individualised support and a positive team culture. High-quality coaches and multi-disciplinary teams (e.g. SC coaches, sports psychologists, nutritionists and physiotherapists) are raised in the wider literature as aiding talent development [ 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 ]. Accordingly, it seems plausible that sport-friendly school programmes should employ high-quality coaches and support sport staff to provide high-quality training programmes and sessions. However, whilst this study demonstrates the value of high-quality coaches and support staff, future research should explore how coaches achieved performance education and development in practice. Having high-level fixtures and training partners is supported by Henriksen’s research [ 120 ], which supports a culture where you foster competition between members of the same institution and challenge them externally. However, although frequent and additional training opportunities were deemed a positive in this study, future research should explore the workload of the sport-friendly school student athletes objectively and their subsequent correlation with rest, recovery and injury.

4.3.3 Lack of Organisation and Planning of Training Load

Student athletes at ‘Nunwick High’ attributed their initial hard transition partly to inadequate physical preparation. Likewise, student athletes in Andersson and Barker-Ruchti’s [ 80 ] study attributed the initial stress they experienced due to the lower level of physical training that had taken place in their previous club communities. ‘Nunwick High’ student athletes faced an immediate, intense training load (with no preseason), possibly contributing to a high November/December (T2) injury rate. Similar findings in prior research (e.g. [ 121 ]) noted increased injuries after school holidays (e.g. summer). These findings suggest that more careful consideration of return to training planning and monitoring of appropriate training loads may be warranted [ 122 , 123 ]. From a fatigue, illness and injury prevention perspective, student athletes (particularly those new to a performance sport program) may benefit from a gradual, sequential increase in intensity, frequency, and volume early in the academic year. Furthermore, student athletes may benefit from support to help them prepare for and cope with the challenges and changes of moving into or transitioning through the sport-friendly school environment [ 81 , 85 ].

A recurring ‘tiredness’ theme emerged among ‘Nunwick High’ student athletes, with subsequent mental and physical fatigue accumulation. Across an academic term, ‘Nunwick High’ lacked planned deloading or periodization, with no systematic high-to-low load transitions to facilitate recovery [ 104 ]. As such, the issue may not be the overall load buts its organisation and lack of external sport workload coordination [ 104 ]. Scantlebury et al. [ 33 ] highlighted that a failure to provide appropriate periods of recovery between training sessions and within programmes could lead to lowered training capacity [ 124 , 125 ] or increased incidence of injury, illness and overtraining [ 126 , 127 , 128 ]. Furthermore, the lack of periodised planning may explain the fact that ~ 30% of student athletes had sustained an injury. To provide a sufficient stimulus for progressive overload, student athletes need be exposed to periods of high training volume and/or intensity [ 2 , 129 ], reflected in the increase in physical fitness testing data. However, recovery must be implemented after periods of intensified or voluminous training to allow the athlete to dissipate fatigue, adapt and avoid maladaptive responses such as overuse injury [ 108 ]. Accordingly, in sport schools, planned high-load/low-load periods are crucial to facilitate recovery and adaptations [ 33 , including periodised tapering or deload weeks aligned with high academic stress periods (e.g. assessments or mock exams).

4.3.4 Lack of Coordination and Program Flexibility Between Academic and Sport Timetables

Competing demands can be stressful when activities across the school timetable are insufficiently coordinated [ 85 ]. ‘Nunwick High’ lacked coordination between academic and sport timetables (e.g. fixtures scheduled throughout high academic stress periods, where student athletes missed lessons). Although some academic staff offered extra support and coaches were somewhat flexible and supportive (although may subconsciously emphasise sport within their communication with student athletes), better program planning, communication and alignment between coaches and teachers are needed. Previous research has highlighted that flexibility and planning are key to managing student athletes’ schedules [ 33 ] and alignment between coaches and teachers is crucial [ 84 ]. Consequently, coaches and teachers should adopt an athlete-centred approach, coordinating to recognise periods of high academic stress (e.g. exams and coursework deadlines) and high sport workload (e.g. competitions, finals) before adjusting schedules to ensure student athletes can manage both demands [ 33 ]. However, this may be more difficult for some sport (e.g. summer sport, such as cricket), where timetable clashes may be unavoidable. Previous research supports such integrated efforts as critical features of successful talent development environments [ 20 , 115 ], alleviating tensions and helping prevent dual career demands conflict [ 115 ].

It appeared hard for practitioners within ‘Nunwick High’ to plan effective training loads, efficient recovery and sufficient academic time due to the ‘individualised chaos’ within and between studentathletes varying weekly schedules [ 130 ]. Qualitative and quantitative (95% CI) data confirmed this variability. The challenges of within and between youth-athlete variance in weekly training load has been previously shown [ 33 , 131 ]. Individual needs differ based on sport, academic path and circumstances [ 132 ]. Consequently, in addition to program flexibility, sport-friendly schools may consider monitoring sport school student athletes’ varying weekly schedules, coaches/teachers should monitor student athletes’ physical and academic loads (e.g. training/work diaries), wellness (e.g. daily wellness questionnaire [ 133 ], the profile of mood states questionnaire for adolescents [ 134 ]) and recovery states (e.g. perceived recovery scale [ 135 ]) on an individual basis.

4.3.5 Because the Environment Demanded It

A clear positive impact was that student athletes’ developed life skills and attitudes applicable in and beyond sport. The requirement to take accountability and responsibility, live away from home and balance the busy schedule of sport and academics enabled student athletes to manage themselves effectively (i.e. become better at managing multiple demands) and be disciplined. However, it is also important to acknowledge the skills required to negotiate these challenges (e.g. psychological characteristics and competencies [ 136 ]). As such, there appeared to be a need for upskilling to allow student athletes to maximise their development earlier, particularly when managing their time effectively. Collins and Macnamara [ 136 ] proposed that skills development in an appropriately challenging environment is a big factor in the pursuit of ‘super-champ’ status. As such, sport-friendly schools may consider educating the student athletes with essential skills that would aid the challenges they face during their time at the sport school (e.g. time-management skills, developing coping strategies, a programme focused on understanding the most efficient way to maximise their learning) to allow them to exploit their development by understanding the most efficient way to maximize their learning and balance the issues arising from their restricted time schedules [ 33 , 86 ].

4.4 Balance Between Optimising Experience and Appropriate Challenge

It is worth noting that while student athletes encountered many challenges throughout the school year (e.g. oscillations in stress and demanding schedules), longer-term they reported largely positive impacts, potentially preparing them for the multiple demands of being a professional athlete or adult in the future. Research emphasises the value of incorporating challenges into talent development pathways (e.g., [ 137 ] and [ 138 ]). Overcoming challenges is increasingly seen as favourable for aspiring student athletes [ 137 , 138 ] but developing skills to navigate these challenges (e.g. psychological characteristics and competencies) should be planned and managed too. As such, while helping manage some of the physical overloading and scheduling (e.g. to prevent harm through injury, stress and emotional/physical fatigue), helping coaches understand progressive tolerance to the stresses experienced and upskilling student athletes is clearly warranted, there may be a need for some of these challenges to develop long-term positive holistic impacts (i.e. where the immediate/short term negative impacts could have medium-longer term positive impacts). So, while potential recommendations within this study may help optimise the experience, they should be carefully considered regarding their impact on the student athletes’ development in other areas (e.g. resilience, independence and self-motivation). Consequently, future research needs to explore what short-term impacts and processes are needed for long-term positive impacts.

5 Limitations and Future Research

Although the longitudinal design, mixed methods approach (triangulation), and generalised mixed modelling analysis are key strengths, it is also important to be aware of the study’s limitations. Some would argue that due to the first-hand experiences of the primary author, they already had their preconceived ideas, potentially narrowing the analytic lens of the study. However, the quantitative statistical analysis alongside the use of critical friends and frequent peer-debriefing and reflection sessions among co-authors, to minimise any potential biases [ 69 ]. Self-reported measures introduce another limitation, including the potential influence of social desirability. Moreover, different questionnaires were necessary to capture diverse impacts, potentially impacting response quality due to the questionnaire’s length [ 139 ]. However, the questionnaire was conducted in a quiet room, student athletes were allowed sufficient breaks when required and were allowed to return to the questionnaire at a later time within the same day. Furthermore, while participant concerns might not have been openly expressed in front of an institution member, the primary author's rapport with student athletes and staff fostered positive interactions, emphasising confidentiality and encouraging open, honest responses. Finally, in the academic year, term 6 was only 3 weeks long, and most upper-sixth student athletes had already left after final exams, leading to the decision to omit the online questionnaire during this term. Despite this, observational research covered the full 33 weeks, with the timeline diagram conducted at the study’s conclusion, though the lack of log diary assessment in terms 5 and 6 is a limitation.

While this study offers an initial insight into sport–school student athletes’ holistic impacts and trajectories, future research could explore this further using longitudinal methods, such as Cobley et al. [ 140 ], tracking the comprehensive development of select youth players and employing different statistical techniques such as multivariate latent growth models (e.g. [ 141 ]). Moreover, while this study provides an initial insight into how individual characteristics shape the sport school experience and its impact on the holistic development of youth athletes, further research is needed to gain a more in-depth understanding. For example, exploring additional individual characteristics like sport-by-sport analysis, age, injury status and training cycles could further enrich understanding. Finally, while preliminary discussions about potential correlations between impacts were included (e.g. academic attainment and AM), these relationships lack statistical exploration, necessitating further modelling and investigation of direct impact relationships.

6 Conclusions

Overall, ‘Nunwick High’ student athletes developed positive long-term holistic impacts (i.e. academically, athletically and personally), including maintaining stable and relatively high levels of sport confidence, academic motivation, general recovery, life skills, resilience and friends, family and free time scores. Development was generally attributed to the sport school’s athletic and academic support services and personal traits of the student athletes and staff. Moreover, accountability, responsibility, independence and navigating busy schedules fostered crucial life skills. Despite positive impacts, juggling academic and sport workload posed challenges for student athletes, potentially leading to negative holistic impacts (e.g. fatigue, pressure, stress, injury and lessons missed). These issues were linked to insufficient training load build-up, communication, coordination, flexibility and planning. While addressing physical overloading and coach understanding is important, future research should evaluate other environments and explore what short-term impacts are needed for long-term positive impacts.

Additionally, individual characteristics (e.g. biological sex) influenced sport school impact. Females had lower sport confidence, higher general stress and body image concerns and less general recovery compared with males. This vulnerability warrants detailed research on female student athletes. Furthermore, engagement in external sport introduces additional time and workload commitments, prompting sport schools to collaborate with broader sporting partners to harmonise student athletes’ training schedules and create coordinated athlete-focused training plans and goals. In summary, these findings demonstrate the complex nature of combining education and sport commitments and how sport schools should manage, monitor and evaluate the features of their programme to maximise the holistic impacts of sport–school student athletes.

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Correspondence to Ffion Thompson .

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Approval was obtained (29/07/2021) from the ethics committee of Leeds Beckett University (Ref. 86728). The study was performed in accordance with the standards of ethics outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki.

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Consent for publication was obtained electronically from all participants, parents and gatekeeper.

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The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation of this article.

Conflict of Interest

The authors (Ffion Thompson, Fieke Rongen, Ian Cowburn, and Kevin Till) all declared no potential conflicts of interest concerning the research, the content, authorship, and/or publication of the review.

Authors' Contributions

The first author, FT, collected the data and was the lead on the analysis and writing. FR, IC and KT contributed to the conception and design of the study, drafting and critically revising the manuscript, and approval for publication. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Online informed assent and parental consent were obtained from all participants.

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Thompson, F., Rongen, F., Cowburn, I. et al. A Longitudinal Mixed Methods Case Study Investigation of the Academic, Athletic, Psychosocial and Psychological Impacts of Being of a Sport School Student Athlete. Sports Med (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-024-02021-4

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Accepted : 11 March 2024

Published : 18 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-024-02021-4

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Resolving Workforce Skills Gaps with AI-Powered Insights

Ongoing digital transformation requires a workforce that is proficient in a wide variety of new skills. This briefing explores the use of AI in quantifying such proficiency, through a process known as skills inference. We introduce this concept by means of a case study of Johnson & Johnson, showing how skills inference can provide detailed insight into workforce skills gaps and thereby guide employees’ career development and leaders’ strategic workforce planning.

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Nick van der Meulen, Research Scientist, MIT Center for Information Systems Research (CISR)

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