waterway transportation essay

Transportation

Historically, societies have always located near water, due partly to the fact that water enables more efficient travel compared to going over land. Waterways are critically important to the transportation of people and goods throughout the world. The complex network of connections between coastal ports, inland ports, rail, air, and truck routes forms a foundation of material economic wealth worldwide.

Within the United States, waterways have been developed and integrated into a world-class transportation system that has been instrumental in the country's economic development. Today, there are more than 17,700 kilometers of commercially important navigation channels in the lower 48 states.

Early History of Water-based Transportation

From the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, small subsistence farms were prevalent among the American colonies. Eventually larger farms emerged and produced crops such as wheat, tobacco, rice, indigo, and cotton that were commercially marketable in Europe. Ocean vessels transported the bulk, low-value goods from the colonies to Europe and returned with high-value, low-density goods such as inks, linens, and finished products that had a much higher return on the investment per vessel trip.

Agricultural production continued to grow and support the growing colonies' economic development. The speed and low cost of transporting goods by water influenced the locations of population settlements near navigable water (rivers, lakes, canals, and oceans). Goods produced on inland farms were transported via inland waterways to the coastal ports. Goods shipped by smaller vessels from surrounding ports were transported to New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, and exported on larger oceangoing ships. These ships from the smaller ports then transported imported goods back to the surrounding ports.

During the 1700s, the British government passed many acts, such as the Navigation Acts and the Stamp Act of 1765, designed to collect taxes from the colonists. The acts affected trade, and were met with opposition from the colonist. In Philadelphia during the fall of 1774, the "Declarations and Resolves of the First Continental Congress" called for non-importation of British goods, and became a catalyst for the American Revolutionary War (1775–1784). The resulting independence for the United States allowed trade a free rein, and it flourished.

Westward Expansion.

The westward expansion of the United States exposed a wealth of natural resources and an increased production in agricultural goods. The inland transportation infrastructure of roads, railroads, canals, and rivers connected the early western settlers with the rest of the nation, and enabled goods to move from the west back to more populated areas in the east and onto other parts of the world. The River and Harbor (Appropriations) Act of 1876 established federal funding of waterways to promote national commerce but not to benefit any particular state nor to allow waterway tolls.

Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries

Increased levels of world trade resulted from the economic growth occurring since the end of World War II in 1945. The United States was in the position to take advantage of new trading opportunities as new world markets opened. Developing countries demanded capital goods, agricultural products, consumer goods, and commercial services, which the United States could provide. As these nations produced goods for export, the United States became a market for these goods.

A significant factor in the opening of the inland waterway system (and the resultant world trade superiority of the United States) was the advances in ship technology and the application of steam power to ships that traveled the extensive water network. Larger and faster ships emerged from the advances in ship and engine design and improvements in construction materials.

Methods of cargo handling evolved to keep pace with the larger vessel sizes. The introduction of palletization and roll-on/roll-off cargoes enabled vessels to be loaded and unloaded in less time. The emergence of containerization in the late 1950s dramatically affected the shipping industry and port infrastructure. The increasing size of containerized cargo vessels became a driving force in the demand for expanded ports and improved facilities.

Importance to Foreign Trade.

About 95 percent of U.S. foreign trade passes through its port system. Ports function as the transfer point between land and water transportation of cargo. * For vessels to transport the foreign traded cargo, they must be able to access the ports through established channels. The channels provide adequate water depths for the vessels and navigational aids.

Today's Global Trade.

Today the world economy has become globalized. The economic system is changing from one with distinct local and national markets, separated by trade barriers, distance, time, and culture, to one that is increasingly converging and integrating into a global economy.

According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the United States was the world's leading trader in 1998, accounting for about one billion tons of ocean-bound trade (about 20 percent of the world's total ocean-bound trade) out of about 2.4 billion tons of total foreign trade. In 2000, according to the U.S. Department of Transportation, approximately $736 billion of goods (about 40 percent of the total U.S. foreign trade by dollar amount) were shipped via ocean vessels and passed through U.S. ports. By 2020, international trade is estimated to more than double (by weight) within the United States, with the majority of this trade projected to move via ocean shipping.

Marine Transportation System.

According to the Department of Transportation, when cargo is transported by water within the United States, 95 percent of the time it involves the Marine Transportation System (MTS). This comprehensive system resulted from years of water transport development involving such U.S. organizations as the Coast Guard, Maritime Administration, Army Corps of Engineers, NOAA, and Environmental Protection Agency.

The MTS is a complex and diverse national network of waterways, ports, and intermodal landside connections that allows various modes of water-based transportation. The system includes: navigable waterways (such as the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway); publicly and privately owned commerce-carrying vessels; over 3,500 bulk oil transfer facilities; more than 350 ports located at approximately 4,000 marine terminals; about 40,000 kilometers of navigable channels; more than 235 locks and dams at over 190 locations; shipyards; rail yards; vessel repair facilities, over 10,000 recreational marinas; and a trained labor staff that operates and maintains the entire infrastructure. Users of the waterway system each year include 70,000 port calls for commercial vessels, 110,000 fishing vessels, and 20 million recreational vessels.

International Maritime Fleets and Law

Many nations around the world have built up their fleets to become very profitable. Since World War II, the size of the U.S. flag merchant fleet has declined, partly due to improved technologies and partly due to foreign competition among fleets. But while this number of ships has declined, the productivity has greatly increased. Since 1970, these fewer ships carry 42 percent more cargo. However, the U.S. fleet accounts for less than 5 percent of all commercial foreign trade by weight. Data from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Maritime Administration indicate the following composition and carrying capacity of the U.S.-flag fleet in 2000:

Composition Capacity

Passenger 1 : 1,265 Passenger: 368,000 passengers

Dry Bulk: 10 Dry Bulk: 2,124,000 metric tons

Dry Cargo/Offshore Support: Dry Cargo: 47,253,000 metric tons 2,910

Containership: 61——

Tanker: 173 Tanker: 19,172,000 metric tons

Vehicular/Railroad Car Ferry: Railroad/Car Float: 89,000 metric 229 tons

Towboat: 5,098——

Dredge: 570 Other 2 : 1,072,000 metric tons

Other 2 : 45 Total: 72,078,000 metric tons/

368,000 passengers

1 Includes ferries and day excursion vessels

2 Includes certain general cargo, roll-on/roll-off, multipurpose, LASH (Lighter Aboard Ship) vessels, and deck barges

All ships must be registered to one of the world's nations so that responsibility for violations of international laws and conventions may be assigned. This causes many shipping companies to shop around for nations that give them the best values on taxes, wages, and legal restrictions.

Liberia has the largest shipping fleet in the world. Relatively smaller countries like the Bahamas, Honduras, the Marshall Islands, Panama, and Vanuatu have large fleets as well. The United Nation's International Maritime Organization (IMO) is responsible for improving the safety of international shipping, preventing marine pollution, and facilitating international maritime traffic. The Department of Transportation has the overall lead on all maritime issues for the United States, and works with the IMO on these issues.

Economics, National Security, and the Environment

The United States dependence on seas and waterways has been vital to its economic success and national security. The pool of skilled labor working on U.S. flag vessels is also a national security asset. This workforce is relied upon to meet surges in shipping needs in the advent of emergencies. The merchant marine has played a historical role in military conflicts. In 1996, the Maritime Security Act established the maritime security program to support a fleet of U.S. commercial vessels with American crews to support the military and economic security of the country; approximately 47 vessels participate in this program.

The inland waterways are also a national security asset. The 1920 Jones Act required domestic waterborne commerce to be transported in vessels built in the United States, documented under U.S. laws, and owned by U.S. citizens. The Jones Act covers over 42,000 commercial vessels, 124,000 jobs, and $15 billion in economic activity. Many other countries have similar laws restricting foreign access to domestic trade shipped via waterways.

The MTS is also vital to national security. The ability to rapidly deploy troops and materials worldwide is critical to the country's defense. The Voluntary Intermodal Sealift Agreement (VISA) is a standby agreement intended to make commercial, intermodal dry cargo capacity and supporting infrastructure available to meet contingency deployment needs of the Department of Defense. Since World War II, approximately 95 percent of all military equipment and material sent to combat and crisis areas was ship cargo transported by ocean vessels. For example, during the Persian Gulf War (1990–1991), nearly all domestic supplies intended for U.S. military forces traveled by ship.

Marine transportation is an important use of the ocean. Increased demands will be placed on U.S. ports and waterways as domestic and international trade continues to expand. These increases in the use of waterways and port facilities must be achieved while still protecting human health and the environment.

SEE ALSO Navigation at Sea, History of ; Ports and Harbors.

Terri A. Thomas

and William Arthur Atkins

Bibliography

Bauer, K. Jack. A Maritime History of the United States: The Role of America's Seas and Waterways. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1988.

Hershman, Marc J. Urban Ports and Harbors Management. New York: Taylor & Francis, 1988.

Hill, Forest G. Roads, Rails, and Waterways: The Army Engineers and Early Transportation. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1957.

Kendall, Lane C. The Business of Shipping. Centreville, MD: Cornell Maritime Press, 1979.

Marcus, Henry et al. Federal Port Policy in the United States. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1976.

Internet Resources

Great Lakes and Seaway Shipping. N. Schultheiss. <http://www.boatnerd.com> .

Navigation Data Center. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. <http://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/ndc/index.htm> .

U.S. Port Totals by Type Service. U.S. Foreign Waterborne Transportation Statistics Program, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and Department of Transportation. <http://www.marad.dot.gov/statistics/usfwts/index.html> .

What is the Marine Transportation System? U.S. Department of Transportation. <http://www.dot.gov/mts/about.htm> .

* See "Oil Spills: Impact on the Ocean" and "Ports and Harbors" for photographs of busy U.S. ports.

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Water transportation is an important part of comprehensive transportation and plays a critical role in a country’s economic development. The world’s cargo transportation is dominated by waterway transportation, and maritime transportation Systems (MTS) are the main part of the waterway transportation system. The flow of goods plays a key role in the economic development of the ports along the route. The sustainable development of maritime transportation, the maritime transportation economy and the environment have great practical significance.

1. Introduction

2. waterway cargo transportation.

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Essay on Water Transport

Students are often asked to write an essay on Water Transport in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Water Transport

Introduction.

Water transport refers to the movement of people and goods by waterways. It’s one of the oldest means of transport that has played a crucial role in trade and commerce.

Types of Water Transport

There are two main types of water transport: inland and ocean transport. Inland includes rivers, canals, and lakes, while ocean transport involves seas and oceans.

Advantages of Water Transport

Water transport is cost-effective and suitable for transporting heavy and bulky goods. It also causes less environmental pollution compared to other modes of transport.

Despite its slow speed, water transport remains vital due to its capacity and environmental friendliness.

Also check:

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250 Words Essay on Water Transport

Introduction to water transport.

Water transport, one of the oldest means of conveyance, has played a pivotal role in the development of human civilizations. It encompasses various modes, ranging from canoes, ships, and boats to modern vessels like container ships, ferries, and cruise liners.

Significance of Water Transport

Water transport is a vital component of global commerce and trade. It is the backbone of international trade, facilitating the exchange of goods and commodities on an unprecedented scale. Its cost-effectiveness and capacity to carry large volumes of goods make it an indispensable mode of transport.

Water transport can be divided into two main categories: inland and ocean transport. Inland water transport includes rivers, canals, and lakes, primarily used for domestic or short-distance transportation. Ocean transport, on the other hand, involves international trade and travel, utilizing the vast expanse of seas and oceans.

Environmental Impact

Despite its significance, water transport has environmental implications. Large vessels contribute to pollution and the degradation of marine ecosystems. However, compared to other modes of transport, it is considered more environmentally friendly as it emits fewer greenhouse gases.

In conclusion, water transport, with its historical significance and modern relevance, is an integral part of our global infrastructure. Despite its environmental impacts, its role in facilitating international trade and travel is undeniable. As we move towards a more sustainable future, it is crucial to develop strategies that reduce the environmental footprint of water transport.

500 Words Essay on Water Transport

Water transport, one of the oldest means of conveyance, has been instrumental in shaping human civilization by facilitating trade, exploration, and cultural exchange. It is a mode of transportation that involves moving goods and people over bodies of water such as oceans, rivers, canals, and lakes.

The Evolution of Water Transport

The history of water transport dates back to prehistoric times when early humans used rudimentary rafts and canoes. The ancient Egyptians further developed this mode of transport by building large ships for trade and warfare. The Middle Ages witnessed the advent of advanced sailing technologies, and the Age of Discovery was marked by extensive sea voyages. In the modern era, water transport has evolved into a sophisticated industry with massive cargo ships, high-speed ferries, and luxurious cruise liners.

Water transport can be broadly classified into three categories: inland water transport, ocean transport, and coastal shipping. Inland water transport involves navigation on inland waterways like rivers and canals and is primarily used for transporting heavy and bulky goods. Ocean transport, which includes both liner and tramp services, is the backbone of international trade, carrying the majority of the world’s cargo. Coastal shipping, on the other hand, refers to the transport of goods along the coastlines, serving as a link between the port and the inland transport system.

Water transport offers several advantages over other modes of transport. Firstly, it is the most cost-effective means of transporting large volumes of goods over long distances. It also has a high carrying capacity, making it ideal for transporting heavy and bulky goods. Furthermore, waterways are natural and do not require significant capital investment for their creation or maintenance as roads or railways do. Lastly, it is environmentally friendly, producing fewer emissions compared to road or air transport.

Challenges and Future Directions

Despite its advantages, water transport faces several challenges. These include the slow speed of transport, susceptibility to weather conditions, and limited geographical coverage. Additionally, the growth of the industry is often hindered by regulatory constraints and infrastructure bottlenecks.

However, the future of water transport looks promising with the advent of technological innovations. Autonomous ships, powered by artificial intelligence, are expected to revolutionize the industry by improving efficiency and reducing human error. Moreover, the adoption of renewable energy sources like wind and solar power for propulsion could make water transport more sustainable.

In conclusion, water transport, despite its challenges, remains a crucial part of the global transportation network. Its role in facilitating trade and cultural exchange is undeniable. As we move forward, it is essential to address the challenges facing the industry and embrace technological innovations to ensure that water transport continues to serve as a sustainable and efficient means of transportation.

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• Where We Work

Developing India's First Modern Inland Waterway

The waterway’s stretch between Kolkata and Delhi passes through one of India’s most densely populated areas.  A sizeable forty percent of all India’s traded goods either originate from this resource-rich region or are destined for its teeming markets.  While the region is estimated to generate about 370 million tonnes of freight annually, only a tiny fraction of this - about 5 million tonnes - currently travels by water.

Currently, cargo from the Gangetic states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh takes circuitous land routes to reach the sea ports of Mumbai in Maharashtra and Kandla in Gujarat, rather than going to the much-closer port at Kolkata.  The development of NW1 will help these states direct some of their freight to the Kolkata-Haldia complex, making the movement of freight more reliable and reducing logistics costs significantly.

The World Bank is financing the development of the Ganga waterway with a loan of $ 375 million.  The Capacity Augmentation of National Waterway 1 Project will help put in place the infrastructure and services needed to ensure that NW1 emerges as an efficient transport artery in this important economic region.  

Once operational, the waterway will form part of the larger multi-modal transport network being planned along the river.  It will link up with the Eastern Dedicated Rail Freight Corridor, as well as with the area’s existing network of highways.  This web of water, road and rail arteries will help the region’s industries and manufacturing units switch seamlessly between different modes of transport as they send their goods to markets in India and abroad. Farmers in the agriculturally-rich Gangetic plain will also benefit, as the waterway opens up markets further afield. 

Setting up Navigational Infrastructure

Since the absence of essential infrastructure such as cargo terminals and jetties has been one of the reasons for the slow development of water transport in the region, the Project will help establish six multi-modal freight terminals - at Varanasi, Ghazipur, Kalughat, Sahibgunj, Triveni and Haldia.  In addition, five new Roll On-Roll Off (RO-RO) crossings at different locations will help trucks and other vehicles transfer from road to river and vice versa. The six new cargo terminals have the potential to evolve into thriving logistics hubs, providing jobs for thousands of people in one of the poorest and most populous parts of the country. The Project will also help set up a vessel repair and maintenance facility at Doriganj.

In addition, the Project will support the modernization of the ageing Farakka lock, built some 40 years ago.  At present, vessels often have to wait for up to six hours to cross the lock; nor is two-way traffic possible through its narrow gates.  To facilitate the faster and smoother passage of boats through the passage, the lock will not only be upgraded but a new lock will also be built, allowing barges to travel both upstream and downstream simultaneously.  These improvements will dramatically reduce the time taken to cross the lock.

Furthermore, the Project will help set up a state-of-the-art River Information System (RIS). Among its many benefits, the RIS will enable barge-operators and cargo-owners to track their vessels, locate berths in advance in terminals and better plan their logistics.  To make navigation safe both day and night, the Project will help mark out the central channel for boats to ply in and install night navigation facilities. Besides, detailed protocols are being laid down for dealing with emergencies, including for tackling the spillage of oil from boats. 

‘Working with Nature’

Since the Ganga occupies a special place in the social, cultural and environmental landscape of the country, the Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) has sought to adopt the least intrusive methods of making the river navigable. It has therefore followed the principle of ‘working with nature’ while planning the Ganga waterway.

Unlike many of the world’s major watercourses, the Ganga is a seasonal river that swells with the monsoon rains and recedes in the dry winters.  While small boats can indeed ply along this seasonal river, large cargo barges need a minimum depth to sail in.  Shipping on the Ganga has thus been limited by the varying depths of water found in the river. Currently, traffic is largely limited to the river’s downstream stretch between Farakka and the Haldia where the water is deep enough - 2.5 m to 3.0 m - for boats to sail in throughout the year.  

Typically, making such a river navigable would call for large scale dredging of the riverbed to attain the depth needed by larger boats, especially for large barges carrying up to 2,000 tonnes of cargo. In the Ganga’s case, special care has been taken to accommodate such vessels while keeping the need for dredging to the minimum.

A 45 metre-wide channel has been earmarked in the river’s deepest part, and the Least Available Depths (LAD) needed for navigation has been determined keeping in mind the need to reduce dredging.  The channel’s depth thus follows the river’s natural gradient in different stretches and is sufficient to support the two-way movement of large barges.

These measures will reduce the need for dredging to just 1.5 percent of the river’s annual silt load of 10-11 million cubic metres.  Even this limited dredging will only be done when absolutely necessary and then too using modern, less intrusive technologies. Among these technologies is the proposed water injection method that will use water pressure to liquefy silt deposits and wash them away. The dense slurry that results will then be deposited - either naturally or through induced currents - into depressions along the riverbed, ensuring that sediments remain within the river’s ecosystem.

Where large shoals and islands exist, temporary structures made of natural materials such as bamboo will be erected to channelize the water flow. These temporary structures – or ‘ bandals ’ as they are known – will be especially erected near aquatic sanctuaries to protect the Ganga’s diverse fauna.  

Contracts will also be tailored to reduce the need for dredging.

Protecting Aquatic Biodiversity

IWAI is also ensuring that water traffic does not impact the two aquatic wildlife sanctuaries that fall along this stretch of the river -- the Kashi Turtle Sanctuary at Varanasi and the Vikramshila Dolphin Sanctuary at Bhagalpur.

As a first step, information about these protected aquatic habitats and other sensitive areas such as wetlands will be fed into the new River Information System being developed under the World Bank-supported Project.  This will ensure that vessels plying in these areas comply with the operational framework that has been put into place for minimizing impacts in sensitive zones. This framework includes:

·         A ban on dredging in protected habitat areas

·         In other areas that are known to be the habitat of valued aquatic species, no dredging will be allowed in the breeding and spawning seasons. 

·         The speed of barges travelling along the protected areas of the sanctuaries will be restricted to 5km per hour. 

·         All vessels plying on the Ganga will be fitted with noise control and animal exclusion devices so that aquatic life is not unduly disturbed. 

·         All vessels will also have to comply with `zero discharge’ standards to prevent solid or liquid waste from flowing into the river and affecting its biodiversity.  

• Project Documents
• Board Approval Press Release

• Kristina Čižiūnienė 13  

Part of the book series: International Series in Operations Research & Management Science ((ISOR,volume 330))

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Water transport is divided into inland waterway and maritime transport. However, not every country has access to the sea and not every country has a well-developed inland waterway network to carry goods. In any case, the choice of each of these modes of water transport to carry freight is subject to proper management of information and material flows, with information technologies playing an important role in its successful development. Application of information technology tools in water transport can also help to optimize routes and to better plan the fleet and freight carriage. This is actually one of the objectives of electronic marine and river information service system. Reduction of administrative maritime costs is one of the advantages of the e-maritime initiative. This section will address issues related to waterborne (inland and maritime) transport and the IT systems used in it.

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Čižiūnienė, K. (2022). Information Technology Used in the Water Transport Sector. In: Development of Smart Context-Aware Services for Cargo Transportation. International Series in Operations Research & Management Science, vol 330. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07199-7_16

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Land Transport – History, Evolution, and Development Essay

Can you imagine how far humanity got with the historical and technological advancements of land transportation? Check out our essay example to discover the early forms of land transportation, such as horses and carriages, and learn about the invention of the steam engine and the internal combustion engine. An emphasis is made on the impact of the intense use of automobiles on society and the environment, as well as current developments in the field of electric and autonomous vehicles. Additionally, the author touches on the future of land transport, including potential advancements in sustainable technologies.

• Introduction

Land Transportation Negative Effects

• Vehicles with Less Emissions
• How to Lessen the Traffic
• The Case of the UAE – Dubai Metro

Introduction. History of Land Transportation

Land transportation has evolved throughout the human history. It started from simple strides, taming wild horses and invention of the wheel. History puts it that the initial invention of man-made transportation occurred in the Mesopotamia or Asia. This was the time when man invented the wheel at around 4000-3500 BC (Bardou, Jean-Pierre et al, 1982). The combination of the horse and the wheel made transportation system simple as it facilitated exchange of crops. It eventually led to mass movement of people and goods, and the wheel became advanced means of land transportation.

The use of the wheel eventually led to chariots. Sumerians were the first men to first experience wheel transportation. Chariot had the ability to enhance the speed of movement. Man soon invented a four-wheeled cart that improved efficiency in movement.

There were significant improvements in land transportation as automation development took place through steam engine. This was the origin of movement of a large number of people in the 18 th century (Bardou et al, 1982). However, the locomotive steam engine was slow and majorities considered it unsafe. Man soon invented locomotive steam engines. They had the power to drag many cars. This was an obvious improvement in the land transportation development.

As time progressed, man advanced the development of the locomotive system. This resulted into improved speed and safe travel than earlier attempts. The period of the World War II marked the introduction of a diesel-powered engine. Initially man had attempted to power trains through electricity as early as 1895. However, lack of efficiency made that discovery unreliable and expensive invention. Soon, the development in subway led to dependence on electricity as the method of underground movements.

Some studies suggest that there were attempts to “use steam engine in the East during the period of 800 BC” (Bardou et al, 1982). However, man limited this discovery to personal travel and not mass movement of people.

The period of 1860 marked a milestone in the development of land transportation. This was the time when Lenoir Jean Etienne of France made an engine powered by gas. Since then, there are advancements in land transport. Automobile discovery remains significant development since the period of the wheel. Automotive is responsible for distance traveling, rise of suburbs, and mass movements of people and goods at increased speeds (Davies, 1992).

Road Congestion

Road congestion results from increased use of the road network which results into increased time of traveling. Road congestion occurs due increased usages of vehicles and urban development. Road congestion has peak and off-peak hours. Occasionally, some factors may result into road congestion. These are mainly “unpredictable accidents, incidents, road works, severe weather conditions, or some major public events, and emergency cases” (Harry and Chang-Hee, 2008). In addition, other causes of road congestion can result from different approaches to control traffic flow such as junctions, signage, and traffic lights. These factors may influence the flow of traffic significantly.

Kerner Boris attempts to explain causes of road congestion using a mathematical approach. He talks of freeway traffic to explain causes of road congestion. This highlights that a traffic can either be in a state of “a free-flow condition, or in a congested condition” (Kerner, 2004). Congestion in traffic can still have a free-flow but heavy traffic. Conversely, there can also be wide-moving jams where traffic flow is generally slow. Such theoretical approaches to explaining causes of traffic help in designing less congested roads in urban development (Kerner, 2004).

There are several factors responsible for road congestion. Some studies have classified causes of road congestion in their own ways depending on the field. For instance, economists, road engineers and authorities may look at recurrent causes of road congestion. On the other hand, other specialist may look at both recurrent and none recurrent causes of road congestion (Kerner, 2004).

Studies in America about causes of road congestion established that 25 percent of causes of road congestion were mainly accident and incident related. About 15 percent of road congestion was as a result of bad weather. In addition, 10 percent occurred due to maintenance of roads. Emergencies, poor timing of traffic signals, and special events were responsible for five percent of road congestion. Recurrent causes of road congestion accounted for 40 percent. These were incapability and insufficiencies of the existing infrastructures.

Recurrent causes of road congestion due to insufficient capacity depend on the existing road networks. Limited capacity of urban roads implies that such existing road networks can no longer accommodate growing demands as a result of many private vehicles. There has also been growing purchases of private vehicles as many people improve their economic statuses. Such changes in commuter behaviors have resulted into unrestrained demand for roads among commuters in city suburbs. There are also cases where traffic management systems are ineffective, lack of sufficient knowledge, poor placement, out of order, or lack proper timing.

There are general factors responsible for traffic snarl-ups in cities. Time of usage is similar across most cities. Majorities living in the city suburbs have morning and evening schedules for attending workplaces, schools and other places. Thus, most commuters need to get to their destinations almost at the same time. This implies that the demand for transport is high as certain period of the day than others.

Population increase is also a factor that has led to road congestion. Road infrastructures need to support the ever growing populations. Over time, such infrastructures reach their limits where even expansion is not possible. In addition, majorities occupy city suburbs where they need to commute to cities or other places for various reasons almost on a daily basis.

Over the past few decades, levels of household incomes have grown significantly. This implies that there is money to commute to places. Most people opt for comfort and safety of their own cars. Consequently, they do not rely on public transportation systems but rather their own cars. This increases the demand for road networks and carrying capacities.

Most people also blame traffic snarl-ups on poor urban planning. There are emerging settlements away from the cities to support the growing populations. City planners must contend with such challenges. Some areas lack public transport systems, such as areas of high income individuals, new settlements, and low populated areas. Such people may resort to personal means of transportation. These are contributing factors to road congestions in major cities of the world (Stover and Frank, 1988).

Traffic congestion has severe impacts in terms of losses, accidents, rage, pollution, and increased maintenance costs. Most people spend a lot of time in traffic during peak hours. This increases frustration levels among commuters and lost opportunities and work hours. Time lost in traffic jams influences income levels of individuals and economy in general. Most countries calculate the hours people spend in traffic snarl-ups and translate them into monetary values.

Time lost in traffic also have effects on fuel consumptions. As a result, some people opt to relocate their businesses or switch their jobs or places of residence in order to save time for use during the day. Traffic snarl-ups also affect choices of social amenities. For instance, most people would like neighborhood schools, close shopping centers and places of work. Physical distances affect choices of such facilities and individuals’ social life schedules. However, critics and town authorities maintain that people are responsible for road congestions due to their choices of lifestyle such as the choice of residential place, mode of transportation, and avoidance of public means.

Road congestions also results into economic and productivity losses. People suffer increased commuter prices due to long hours in traffic snarl-ups. In addition, individuals, organizations, and business entities suffer losses due to traffic congestions as people spend productivities hours in the jam. Consequently, there are persistent loss of opportunities, increasing costs of running business, pollution and rates of accident (Link et al, 1999). These factors affect individuals in terms increased taxes, prices of commodities, and health.

There are countries that have reached the peak of traffic snarl-ups. To this end, road congestion has become a threat to countries’ economic developments. Governments have purely based such claims on road congestion alone. Consequently, road congestion has prompted governments to act immediately so as to avoid the negative impacts of road congestion on the economy. In some case, reliance on private cars as means of transport is no longer attractive due charges and taxes that come with them. Such economic impacts have forced most governments to upgrade their urban transport systems to the world-class status, introduce transport management systems, construct freeways, expand train systems, and promote the use of public transportation systems.

Road congestion is also responsible for growing cases of road carnage and incidents. Studies base this observation on the idea that an “increase in traffic volume will increase the rate of road accidents and incidents” (Winston and Langer, 2006). Most records show that cases of road accidents and incidents are common during rush hours. In addition, there are instances of reduced visibility during morning and evening hours or strong sun’s rays that affect drivers’ visibility. Such cases are responsible for increased road accidents. Still, some drivers suffer fatigue or lose concentration due to long hours in traffic jams and working hours have increased the rate of road accidents. Cases of careless driving or driving while drunk have increased the rate of road accidents globally. We may attribute the main cause of growing rates of road accidents to increasing numbers of vehicles on the roads. To this end, we must remember that road accidents and incidents themselves are also contributing factors in road congestion. This is a case of cause and effect relations in road usages.

Road congestion leads to decreased lifetime of the road surface. Road layers have the elasticity so as to support the weight of different types of vehicles using them. Vehicles cause massive deflection of the road surfaces when they are standstill, moving slowly, or when their numbers are high. Over time, the road surface losses its elasticity as top layers become lesser effective. This results into frequent maintenance than expected (Winston and Langer, 2006). Most roads have 25 years of life expectancy with scheduled maintenance of three times for the top layers. Still, areas of high traffic experience early drops in quality of the road than expected.

Costs of vehicles maintenance are high in areas of heavy traffic. Traffic congestion is not ideal for high speed modern vehicles. Thus, sudden acceleration and brakes have negative effects on the vehicle engines. Engines run even if the vehicles are in traffic despite the fact that no movements take place. This calls for frequent servicing of vehicles even above the manufacturers’ recommendations. Maintenance costs also take into account wear and tear of vehicle parts such as brakes and clutch as their usages increase with acceleration and sudden brakes.

Psychologists observe that among the main causes of road rage occur as a result of frustrations due to traffic snarl-ups. The main culprits are people of predisposed outbursts personalities who may take such frustrations to strangers in order to vent their anger. They tend to change lanes frequently or follow other motorists closely.

Air & Noise Pollution

Increase in road congestion and pollution goes beyond air pollution alone. There is also noise pollution that environmentalists find as an emerging source of concern. There are exhaust emissions that are responsible for the rising quantity of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This takes place when vehicles are idle, but the engines are “in motion, sudden accelerating and braking within short distances” (Kerner, 2004). The issue of global warming has shifted focus from main industries to transportation system as significant contributors in emissions of greenhouse gases through combustion of fuels. As a result, vehicles manufacturers enhance technology in new vehicles to reduce emission of CO 2 and improve fuel efficiency.

The main sources of noise pollution mainly come from hooting, roaring vehicles engines, and radio and music systems in vehicles. The noise reaches the recipient through the normal transmission mode of air to ears. Noise levels depend on different factors such as “humidity, ambient temperature, air pressure, vehicle type, and the grade of the road surface” (Link et al, 1999). These factors are part of any road. However, slow movements of vehicles increase the level of noise as road congestion tends to concentrate such noise pollution in busy roads. Thus, noise pollution forms a part of concern for road users.

New Vehicles with Less CO2 Emissions

Most industry studies indicate that enhanced vehicle fuel efficiency has resulted into a drop of CO 2 emissions. According to Motor Industry Association (MIA), the National Average Carbon Emission (NACE) for new vehicles of 2011 had a figure of CO 2 emission below 200 grams to 197.1 grams for the first time (Motor Industry Association, 2012). This represented a drop of 2.3 percent from the previous year.

The effort among to reduce CO 2 emission among vehicle manufacturers started more than five years ago. The average drop of CO 2 emission has been 10 percent. Most new passenger vehicles form part of this calculation. Thus, the figures presented are representative in calculating the CO 2 measures. The drop is due to enhanced vehicles technology among main manufacturers in the world. The main is to meet CO 2 emissions in target markets that include the US, Europe, Australia, and other emerging economies. Consumers have also changed their purchasing habits to march the environmental requirements. This has improved due to government subsidies, especially in Europe where the government facilitate the purchase of environmental friendly cars by subsidizing the costs.

Most of these achievements are as a result of carbon trading scheme that aims at reducing the quantity of CO 2 in the atmosphere. The target has been on the transport sector for long-term agenda on reduction. These achievements from new vehicles show that manufacturers of motor vehicles are playing their roles of combating environmental degradation, reducing greenhouse emission, and pollutions from motor vehicles. Such efforts do not involve government interventions or regulations but are rather technological breakthroughs in vehicle manufacturing.

Ways to Lessen the Land Transportation Traffic

Developments in land transport have created issues of traffic in most urban centers. Every year, cases of road congestion increase as more vehicles use roads. Thus, such issues have led concerned individuals to look for alternative means of combating road congestion. Approaches to alleviate road traffic include improved public transport, charges and taxes, urban planning and development, and pool vehicles programs.

Developing public transit system is the basic approach to combating road congestion. This should include improving public access to public vehicles by creating new routes, and investing in efficient and safe vehicles such as subway lines, speedy trains, and modern public buses. These are basic methods of managing transport in urban cities.

Governments can also introduce charges and taxes to combat road congestion. This is the case in London whereby car owners pay charges to access central routes in the city and pay parking fees too. Such charges aim at making use of personal cars lesser attractive. Consequently, people will resort to public modes transport (Harry and Chang-Hee, 2008).

Urban traffic also results from poor planning. Most families tend to move to urban suburbs and commute either with personal vehicles or public means of transport to workplaces. Consequently, road congestion spread throughout the main routes. The fundamental aim is to focus on renewing urban planning, improving existing infrastructure, and reducing activities at the metropolis.

There are also car pool lanes in efforts to reduce road traffic jams. This initiative targets commuters to metropolises. In addition, commuters who use same routes can have ride sharing initiatives (Bonsall, 2002). This can work among government institutions, schools, universities, and other large organizations.

How to Improve the Land Transportation and Encourage the Use of Public Transportation – The Case of UAE

Dubai is a pioneer in developing the most extensive road network in the UAE. Thus, other emirates can learn from it. Dubai has been experiencing transport challenges until the year 2005. These were mainly road congestion, growing ownership of private vehicles, increased road accidents and deaths, low use of public transport systems, and heavy noise and air pollution. The country estimated that it losses roughly “AED 4.6 billion annually due to road congestion” (Chaudhry, 2012).

The government of Dubai was aiming at maintaining the growing economy through enhancing its road network, and acting as a role model for the UAE region. Consequently, the government created Roads Transport Authority (RTA) to handle issues of land transport.

The main approach involved improving the road network. The points of concentration were increasing capacity of the roads and reducing delays at the junctions. Specifically, RTA focused on enlarging the existing road networks, developing new roads, establishing ring roads at strategic developments, and establishing free flow junctions” (Chaudhry, 2012). These efforts have reduced commuting time for the public through reduction of road congestion. There are also bridges to reduce reliance on existing bridges and tunnels. These initiatives have both social and economic advantages to the public.

RTA also focuses on introducing policies to encourage “the use of public transport and eliminate the use of private cars, and make the best use of the available land transport facilities” (Eriksson, Garvill and Nordlund, 2008). The usages of policies have been effective in other places such as in the EU zone. However, policies can only be effective when planned and implemented well in order to enhance public acceptability. This is true in cases where change of behavior is mandatory. RTA can use push and pull measures to encourage the use of public transport systems. Successful approaches would involve increased tax and charges, and at the same time, providing alternative means of public transportation. This should come as a policy package.

RTA has also focused on public education through Mobility Management Plan, which covers international best practices on land transportation, enhancing the use of available facilities, and reducing time consumed in the traffic jam.

In UAE, the RTA of Dubai aims at developing integrated public transportation system (Chaudhry, 2012). This is the Dubai Metro project and road network for buses. Consequently, the public has begun to notice benefits of such initiatives. The integrated infrastructure aims at combining tram lines with road networks in order to increase access for the public.

The RTA has an ambitious plan of integrating the public transportation systems by creating many stations for different modes of transportation. This aims at enabling ease of transfers for commuters among “buses, water transport, and taxis” (Chaudhry, 2012).

According to Santos and associates, the RTA is working on a program of Transit Oriented Developments (TODs) (Santos, Behrendt and Teytelboym, 2010). The program aims at creating a coordinated urban planning that covers road networks for efficient and safe accessibility among the public. This is to address the needs for sustainable means of transport for the public in city suburbs.

Road transport has come a long way. The invention of the wheel and automotive engine changed revolutionized the way people and goods movement. Modern modes of land transport have their challenges. It is this challenges that men are trying to address in order to increase efficiency of land transport. The focus is mainly on road transport. This leads us to reflect on what lies ahead for land transport, future vehicles, environmental pollutions, congestion, and development plans for both transport systems and urban use.

Some observers believe that futures cars shall be fuel efficient. They shall depend on technological innovation for ensuring that they are free of CO 2 emission. Technology shall assist vehicles recognize different traffic signals, road signage, and other vehicles.

Still, some say that future transport shall utilize technology in every possible aspect. There are cases that vehicles of the future shall warn of bad weather and inform the occupant of possible collisions. In addition, such vehicles will let the drivers know if they are out of their lanes or fatigued. Differences in such cars will enhance driving experiences due to transformation from what is available today.

Further, there shall be a shift from petroleum cars to electric and hydrogen fuel cells powered cars. Such sources of car energy shall lead to low pollution of the environment because such fuels do not emit any CO 2 or pollutants.

Another area of focus shall be on land transport planning and development. The focus shall be on building secure and safe roads or land transport system that aims at serving every member of society. Focus on sustainability of land shall remain a key element on developing efficient land transport. In addition, any future developments of land transport will strive to create a link with other means of transport. Such developments shall take into account the environmental impacts of such developing road infrastructures.

Most countries shall put their priorities in building super highways, complex road networks, and enhanced road safety through education, facilities, and increased accessibility to the masses as the case of Dubai Metro. There shall be a well developed urban land transport information system, and the public shall rely on the public transport than on personal cars due to enhanced efficiency.

Governments shall increase their involvement in the development of land transport system. The main focus shall be on continuous investments through construction of new road networks or upgrading the existing ones. Future development in land transport shall attract private sector participation.

Further, the government shall develop policies to reduce the use of personal cars and allow road users use existing infrastructure wisely. The focus shall be on enhancing public access to such transport facilities. Such policies may aim at introducing taxes to make use of personal cars lesser attractive. In addition, there shall also be pull measures that strive to create many alternatives for the use of personal cars. They can achieve this by enhancing public transport and transport infrastructure. These efforts shall aim at creating the best international practices on land transport and reduce road congestion, at the same time, reduce environmental pollution from too many vehicles.

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IvyPanda. (2023, February 18). Land Transport – History, Evolution, and Development Essay. https://ivypanda.com/essays/land-transport-evolution-and-development/

"Land Transport – History, Evolution, and Development Essay." IvyPanda , 18 Feb. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/land-transport-evolution-and-development/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'Land Transport – History, Evolution, and Development Essay'. 18 February.

IvyPanda . 2023. "Land Transport – History, Evolution, and Development Essay." February 18, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/land-transport-evolution-and-development/.

1. IvyPanda . "Land Transport – History, Evolution, and Development Essay." February 18, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/land-transport-evolution-and-development/.

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IvyPanda . "Land Transport – History, Evolution, and Development Essay." February 18, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/land-transport-evolution-and-development/.

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Essay on Importance of Transportation (900 Words)

February 18, 2018 by Study Mentor 2 Comments

Transport or transportation is the means for movement of humans, animals, goods, etc. for one place to another for some purpose.

It is transportation that enables communication, trade, exchange, etc. between societies and localities and therefore, it is extremely important for the development of it.

Transportation contributes to the development of economic, social, political and cultural fields of a civilization and leads to the betterment of their conditions.

The revolutions that happened throughout history, such as the Industrial Revolution, or the Russian Revolutions, etc. would have been incomplete and ineffective without good means of transportation’s.

It may also be said that having better and more effective means and lines of transportation than other countries, makes a country more powerful or prosperous. Thus, it becomes a criterion to assess the development of a country.

Table of Contents

Functions of transportation

There are various functions of transportation, because of which it is important. These are:

Physical Supply of Products

Transportation becomes a means to carry necessary raw materials from raw material providers to factories where it is used to for production of goods.

From there, these products are carried to wholesalers and then markets, when it finally reaches in the hands of consumers.

In this process, it is transportation that plays the primary role. Without it, this process of supply of product to the market would not have been possible.

In fact, transport is such a key of marketing, which helps in carrying goods to the scattered consumers in different places, narrows the gap between producers and consumers and facilitates to distribute goods to the consumers at minimum cost and time.

Specialization: Transportation leads to specialization or division of labor. It leads to commercial prosperity of those involved in it, and proved an alternative opportunity for employment for those looking for it.

Stabilization in Price

  Transportation helps to bring stability in prices of different commodities. It helps in relocation of goods from more supplied places to scarcely supplied areas.

This results in coherence between demand and supply, and thus brings stability in prices of the commodities. Transportation also encourages healthy competition amongst suppliers, which results in the ultimate development of the society and community.

Modes of transportation

There are various modes of transportation that are employed in its process. These are:

Land Transport System

Land transport is the oldest and most practiced system. The means, which are used to carry people and goods through land transport are called land transportation.

Land transportation is divided in two modes as road transport and railway transport. Road transport has been used since ancient time and it is very useful and important.

The means of road transport are: a). men and labors, b). animals such as mule, horse, sheep, goat, camel etc. c). cart, lorry etc. d). the modern automobile such as motor, bus, truck, tractor, tempo, trolley bus, jeep etc. are also used to transport people and goods.

People, cloths, paper materials, books, machines and machinery, animals, fresh fruits and other goods are transported from one place to another.

On the other hand, railways are used to transport goods and people from one place to another much faster and more efficiently than by road.

Development of railway transport helps much to develop industry, commerce and whole economy of any country.

It is very useful in transporting big and heavy goods and materials such as big machines, coal, food grain, chemicals, automobiles, iron, steel etc.

Water Transport System

Water transport is as an ancient means of transport, it was developed and used to transport goods and people from one country to another before the development of air transport.

It is also operated to transport goods from one part to another of any country through big canals, rivers or sea.

Water transport is a system of transporting goods and people from one place to another by ship, boat, steamer, motorboat etc. through canals, rivers, lake, sea, ocean etc.

Air Transport System

Air transport is a much more modern and faster means of transport. The importance of air transport has gradually growing.

This is the fastest speed means for transporting passengers and goods to different parts within a country and different countries of the world.

Pipeline Transport System

Pipeline is another important means of transport. Raw oil, Petroleum products, processed coal, drinking water, natural gas etc. are transported from one place to another place.

Pipeline transport may be constructed underground or underwater.

Rope-way Transport System

Rope-way is another means of transport. It can transport people and goods. It can be operated in the places where road construction is impractical and costly.

Certain limit of goods or people can be transported with the help of electricity. In the hilly remote countries, rope-way transport system may be suitable means.

Thus, the means of efficient transportation are an indispensable component of modern civilization. The economic development of a country depends largely on an efficient and adequate system of transport.

They form a very important way of gaining instrumental wealth.

No country in the world today can build up its prosperity unless it has a highly developed system of communication and transport. Development of an efficient transport system is a pre-condition of our economic development.

Transportation and Communication have an important bearing on the development of exchange and markets.

It results in increase land values, breaking of economic circles, and thus tend to equalize prices, making labor more mobile, enabling a greater division of labor among different industries and countries, determining the geographical distribution of industries, playing a very important part in relieving distress in the famine-stricken areas by rapid distribution of food-stuffs, resulting in the effectiveness of administration and national defense are inseparably connected with the advancement of transport system.

Thus, importance of transport cannot be denied. Therefore, it is the need of modern times to enhance, innovate, develop and make effective the modes of transportation mentioned above.

Reader Interactions

March 14, 2021 at 7:01 am

Other things are good but its too hard to understand.

February 1, 2022 at 5:13 pm

great writeup. .i have a view to adding up here. transport is one of the most lucrative businesses for any country and for people of that country as well. But looking at the future of automatic cars I believe transportation will going to see a massive change in their way of working. many drivers will get unemployed due to driveless trucks and would help decrease accidents as well on top of the cake.

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International Trade and Inland Waterway Transportation

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International Commercial Terms, known as “Incoterms”, are internationally accepted terms defining the responsibilities of exporters and importers in the arrangement of shipments and the transfer of liability involved in their international sales. Incoterms do not cover ownership or the transfer of title of goods. It is crucial to know which Incoterm is being used at the start of a negotiation/quotation of a sale, as it will affect the costs and responsibilities involved in shipping, insurance and tariffs. Incoterms are reviewed and published by the International Chamber of Commerce, and a list of all 13 Incoterms is included in the following pages of this document.In any sales transaction, it is important for the seller and buyer to understand the terms of sale and know precisely what is included in the sale price. Exporters should determine the Incoterm that works best for their company and be prepared to quote on those terms.

See VEDP Issues FastFact - Responding to Inquiries. For example, relatively inexperienced exporters may use the Incoterm “Ex Works” (abbreviated as ExW), because among the 13 Incoterms, this term carries the least burden.Under ExW, an exporter’s responsibility ends at their facility’s loading dock, which includes making the goods available for pick up and providing any product information needed for filing the Electronic Export Information, or EEI (formerly the SED, or Shipper’s Export Declaration). The importer’s agent (such as their designated freight forwarder) will arrange and pay for the pre-carriage, shipping, insurance and any additional costs from the exporter’s door.

A sale based on the Incoterm “CIF”, on the other hand, requires the exporter to arrange and pay for the pre-carriage, shipping, and insurance to a named port. In this case, the sale price (invoice) includes not only the (C)ost of goods, but also (I)nsurance and (F)reight costs that the importing buyer pays the exporting seller. When designating the Incoterm on a commercial invoice or a quotation to the buyer, the term should be followed by the city or port of load/discharge, such as “ExW Factory, Richmond, VA” or “CIF Rotterdam” to avoid any confusion or misinterpretation of the Incoterm.Communication throughout the entire process is crucial. For example, under Ex Works, the shipper should notify the importer when the goods are ready and after they have been picked up by the importer’s selected carrier. The exporter’s freight forwarder often provides the vessel and sail date, or air cargo service used, and any ocean bill of lading or airway bill number to keep the parties informed of the arrangements and status of the shipment (even though technically under Ex Works the exporter’s responsibility ends at their loading dock).

The most burdensome Incoterm for the exporter is Delivered Duty Paid (DDP) because all arrangements and costs are borne by the exporter, usually with the assistance of agents (freight forwarders and customs house brokers).With DDP, the exporter bears all risks and costs of transportation, including duties and tariffs, until the goods are received by the importer, usually at the importer’s factory or warehouse. Example: Four palletized drums of chemicals at US$ 40,000, DDP Santiago, Chile. This means the exporter is telling the importer that for $40,000 the importer will get the merchandise delivered to the importer’s facility in Santiago, Chile. The exporter arranges and pays for all transit costs, including delivery to the importer’s designated facility in Santiago, including any insurance coverage and duties/tariff charges.

While these costs are added to the product’s price and are sometimes itemized on the commercial invoice, the exporter takes full responsibility for the added logistics costs and headaches, such as delays at customs, demurrage or detention, or changes in inland or ocean transportation costs. Shipping DDP should only be assumed by the most experienced exporters. Many details must be considered, such as duties, currency exchange, reputability of service providers, and delivery to the final destination. For example, if your product is a large, custom made piece of machinery for a factory: Are there local out-of-gauge, heavy lift service providers? Does the road to the factory allow access by an oversized truck? What are the dimensions and capability of the buyer’s receiving dock? How will you repair any damage that may occur during transit?Incoterms consist of 4 groups (E,F,C,D) and are listed below in order of increasing risk/liability to the exporter. Some Incoterms only apply to ocean/inland, not air, transportation modes.

EXW - Ex Works -- The only Incoterm in Group E, represents the minimum liability to the seller. Risk and expenses are borne by the buyer, including payment of all transportation and insurance costs from the seller's door. EXW is used for any mode of transportation. GROUP “F” - Seller pays for pre-carriage at origin but does not pay for main carriage. FCA - Free Carrier -- Risk passes to buyer, including transportation and insurance costs on the buyer's collecting vehicle; it is the buyer's obligation to receive the seller's arriving vehicle unloaded.

FAS - Free Alongside Ship -- Risk passes to buyer, including payment of all transportation and insurance costs, once delivered alongside ship by the seller. Used for sea or inland waterway transportation.The export clearance obligation rests with the seller. FOB - Free On Board -- Risk passes to buyer, including payment of all transportation and insurance costs, once delivered on board the ship by the seller. Used for sea or inland waterway transportation. (Most commonly used of F Group) GROUP “C” - Seller arranges and pays for main carriage but does not assume risk.

CFR - Cost and Freight -- Risk and insurance cost pass to buyer when delivered on board the ship by seller, who pays the transportation costs to the destination port. Used for sea or inland waterway transportation. CIF - Cost, Insurance and Freight -- Risk passes to buyer when delivered on board the ship by seller, who pays transportation and insurance costs to destination port.Used for sea or inland waterway transportation.

CPT - Carriage Paid To -- Risk and insurance costs pass to buyer when delivered to carrier by seller, who pays transportation costs to destination. Used for any mode of transportation. CIP - Carriage and Insurance Paid To -- Risk passes to buyer when delivered to carrier by seller, who pays transportation and insurance costs to destination. Used for any mode of transportation.

2“D” - Seller assumes the most cost/risk because goods must be made available upon arrival at agreed destination. DAF - Delivered at Frontier -- Risk and responsibility for import clearance passes to buyer when delivered to named border point by seller. Used for any mode of transportation. DES - Delivered Ex Ship -- Risk and responsibility for vessel discharge and import clearance pass to buyer when seller delivers goods on board the ship to destination port. Used for sea or inland waterway transportation.

DEQ - Delivered Ex Quay (Duty Paid) -- Risk passes to buyer when delivered on board the ship at the destination point by the seller, who delivers goods on dock at destination point cleared for import.Used for sea or inland waterway transportation. DDU - Delivered Duty Unpaid -- Risk and responsibility of import clearance pass to buyer when seller delivers goods to named destination point. Buyer is obligated to import clearance.

Seller fulfills their obligation when goods have been made available at the named place in the country of importation. Used for any mode of transportation. DDP - Delivered Duty Paid -- Risk passes to buyer when seller delivers goods to named destination point cleared for import. Used for any mode of transportation.

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