two main principles of critical thinking

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The seven key steps of critical thinking.

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As leaders, it is our job to get the very best out of our workforce. We focus on how best to motivate, inspire and create an environment in which employees are satisfied, engaged and productive. This leads us to deliver an excellent customer/client experience.

But all in all, the effort we put into growing our workforce, we often forget the one person who is in constant need of development: ourselves. In particular, we neglect the soft skills that are vital to becoming the best professional possible — one of them being critical thinking.

When you're able to critically think, it opens the door for employee engagement, as you become the go-to person for assistance with issues, challenges and problems. In turn, you teach your workforce how to critically think and problem solve.

Let’s take a look at the key steps in developing critical thinking skills.

What Is Critical Thinking?

One of my favorite definitions of critical thinking comes from Edward Glaser. He said , “The ability to think critically, as conceived in this volume, involves three things:

1. An attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come within the range of one’s experiences

2. Knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning

3. Some skill in applying those methods."

In short, the ability to think critically is the art of analyzing and evaluating data for a practical approach to understanding the data, then determining what to believe and how to act.

The three characteristics of critical thinking include:

•  Being quick and decisive:  One of the most admirable leadership qualities the ability to be quick and decisive with decisions. There are times where an answer just needs to be given and given right now. But that doesn't mean you should make a decision just to make one. Sometimes, quick decisions can fall flat. I know some of mine have.

• Being resourceful and creative:  Over the years, members of my workforce have come to me with challenges and have needed some creativity and resourcefulness. As they spell out the situation, you listen to the issue, analyze their dilemma and guide them the best way possible. Thinking outside the box and sharing how to get there is a hallmark of a great leader.

• Being systematic and organized:  Martin Gabel is quoted as saying , “Don’t just do something, stand there.” Sometimes, taking a minute to be systematic and follow an organized approach makes all the difference. This is where critical thinking meets problem solving. Define the problem, come up with a list of solutions, then select the best answer, implement it, create an evaluation tool and fine-tune as needed.

Components Of Critical Thinking

Now that you know the what and why of becoming a critical thinker, let’s focus on the how best to develop this skill.

1. Identify the problem or situation, then define what influenced this to occur in the first place.

2. Investigate the opinions and arguments of the individuals involved in this process. Any time you have differences of opinions, it is vital that you research independently, so as not to be influenced by a specific bias.

3. Evaluate information factually. Recognizing predispositions of those involved is a challenging task at times. It is your responsibility to weigh the information from all sources and come to your own conclusions.

4. Establish significance. Figure out what information is most important for you to consider in the current situation. Sometimes, you just have to remove data points that have no relevance.

5. Be open-minded and consider all points of view. This is a good time to pull the team into finding the best solution. This point will allow you to develop the critical-thinking skills of those you lead.

6. Take time to reflect once you have gathered all the information. In order to be decisive and make decisions quickly, you need to take time to unwrap all the information and set a plan of attack. If you are taking time to think about the best solution, keep your workforce and leaders apprised of your process and timeline.

7. Communicate your findings and results. This is a crucial yet often overlooked component. Failing to do so can cause much confusion in the organization.

Developing your critical-thinking skills is fundamental to your leadership success. As you set off to develop these abilities, it will require a clear, sometimes difficult evaluation of your current level of critical thinking. From there you can determine the best way to polish and strengthen your current skill set and establish a plan for your future growth.

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11 principles of critical thinking  .

Our blog “ 25 In-Demand Jobs That Require Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills ” highlighted examples of critical thinking skills employers are seeking. Job applicants who are well versed in the principles of critical thinking, and are able to expertly describe those skills on their résumés and during job interviews bring added value to any organization.

Table of Contents

What are the main principles of critical thinking?

Back in 1994, professor Larry Larson at Ohio State University, gave his students added insight on the principles of critical thinking.

“Don’t mistake ignorance for perspective,” he advised. “Gather complete information.” In fact, lack of thoroughness in critical thinking is “one of the most important and violated principles.”

So, if critical thinking requires facts, “erroneous conclusions often stem from inadequate factual knowledge.”

Professor Larson’s 11 principles of critical thinking are listed below:

1. Understanding and defining all terms

2. gathering the most complete information, 3. questioning the source of facts, 4. questioning the ways and methods by which the facts were gathered or derived, 5. looking for hidden assumptions and biases, 6. understanding your own biases and values, 7. using thought stopping techniques, 8. questioning conclusions based on the available information.

9. Never expecting all of the answers

10. Examining the big picture

11. Examining multiple causes and effect

The Ultimate Guide To Critical Thinking

• Is Critical Thinking A Soft Skill Or Hard Skill?

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• 12 Common Barriers To Critical Thinking (And How To Overcome Them)

Principles of critical thinking explained:

Understanding and agreement on the definition of terms is one key to gathering factual information. Each organization has its own culture and, frequently, its special jargon. When the critical thinker encounters an unfamiliar term, the fact finding stops until the thinker arrives at a complete and unambiguous understanding of the term and any associated modifiers or contextual meanings.

The critical thinker must have both a starting and ending point for information gathering. The starting point has to be narrow enough to avoid information overload. Likewise, the end point has to meet an essential criterion of the word “complete.” That is, the information must consist of all relevant and appropriate data. The results of the fact gathering must form a solid foundation for higher order critical thinking.

The explosion of information on the worldwide web is both a blessing and a curse for researchers. For example, a Google search for the phrase “how to improve employee performance” will return over 540 million results in less than one second.

To make it to the top of the list, the websites, articles, white papers, and other linked data had to pass Google’s search algorithm. The Google search looks for structure and good web design—not authenticity or reliability. Even a so-called “neutral” source like  Consumer Reports  might rate a product or service based on the preference or bias of its editorial board.

So, always question the source of your facts. Is it a primary source or based on hearsay? Is there some hidden cultural or political agenda that fed its conclusions?

The blessing is that there is no shortage of information on any subject. The curse is that the validity of the information must pass the scrutiny of a human with experience and critical thinking skills.

Besides questioning the source of facts, the critical thinker must investigate and evaluate how the facts in a source were gathered or derived.

Were the findings based on reputable  survey methods ? What primary sources did the source reference, and did those primary sources have a good academic or professional standing? When a colleague begins a sentence with “According to…” the critical thinker says “Please show me.”

Imagine a critical thinking brainstorming session at the  The Flat Earth Society.  The basic assumption that the earth is a flat disk undoubtedly led to the society’s conclusion that gravity does not exist; objects simply fall. End of discussion. While the Flat Earth Society example is extreme, it does illustrate how unquestioned assumptions can mire critical thinking into a morass of inaccurate findings.

We discussed how confirmation bias and the halo effect can also influence judgment in our blog “ 5 creative and critical thinking examples in the Workplace .”

Self-knowledge is an important element of critical thinking. Biases and values are ingredients in both our psychological makeup and how we think. Biases are prejudices and values that can be skewed based on bias.

The value of critical thinking is that anyone can think critically about the way they think. It is one of those few tautologies that make complete sense. Critical thinkers recognize their bias and values and throughout their lives strive to shed bias in favor of positive values.

If you understand your biases and values, you’ll recognize the warning signs of anxiety and resentment when faced with challenging and dysfunctional thoughts. Thought stopping is a cognitive skill that employs  techniques  of distraction to stop the negative thoughts and direct them to a more positive (or neutral) orientation.

Conclusions are only as good as the available information. Why, for example, does the Flat Earth Society conclude that the earth is not a sphere? They look up and see the Sun. The Sun, they say, moves in circles around the North Pole, behaving like a spotlight.

It is, therefore, possible to come up with off-beat conclusions, as long as the “available information” matches a preconceived notion. Says one Boston University academic: “Flat-Earthers seem to have a very low standard of evidence for what they want to believe…”

The same applies when we come to either unexpected or counterintuitive conclusions in critical thinking. Our standards of evidence must be high and past the test of objectivity and validity.

9. Never expect all of the answers

To get all the answers, you must ask all the possible questions. Likewise, you must ask the right—or critical—questions, for example:

• What facts or elements of a problem or challenge am I taking for granted?
• Does cause A result in outcome B?
• What if outcome B is really a cause?
• What do independent researchers have to say about my assumptions and conclusions?
• Have I stopped looking for answers because of time constraints or burnout?

10. Examining multiple causes and effects

If problems and people were simple, most events, behaviors, and phenomena would result from a single cause. The APA Dictionary of Psychology has a more realistic view. It is known as multiple causation. Most events rarely result from a single cause. Rather, our problems are a result of multiple causes “working in complex combinations.”

So, even if only one causal factor appears to have contributed to a particular outcome, there are other factors that need to be identified and attended to.

Say that your organization is losing productivity because of chronic absenteeism. A critical thinking approach would look at all the factors surrounding employee absences: illness, malingering, working conditions, quality of supervision, employee compensation, etc.

The fact gathering and resulting analysis would be based on documented and verifiable attendance records as well as seasonal and other trends. The absenteeism might be the obvious cause of lowered productivity, but what are the multiple causes of absenteeism?

11. Examining the big picture

The most effective critical thinkers don’t get swamped in detail. What  big-picture thinking  allows you to do is:

• grasp abstract concepts, ideas and possibilities
• emphasize the rules and constraints of the existing system at work
• look at all players—customers, employees, investors, as well as competitors
• anticipate future social, economic, and technological trends (Think “COVID-19”)

So as a critical thinking strategy, big picture thinking looks at the entirety of a concept, rather than each individual detail. This enables you to see possibilities over a timespan that exceeds the duration of the problem at hand. The resulting solutions can be breathtaking in the scope—because you looked at the big picture.

Let’s Recap

Hone your critical thinking skills, and employers will be eager to hire you. Critical thinking skills involve the gathering and evaluating of information in a complete and thorough manner, adhering to the following principles:

• You must fully understand and define the terms you are working with.
• You must gather facts that are the rock-solid foundation of your critical thinking.
• Your research must take into account the validity of the facts you gather.
• Survey methods involved in your research must be valid.
• Hidden assumptions and biases can lead to wrong conclusions.
• Understand your own biases and values, and don’t let them interfere with logical thought.
• Use thought stopping to overcome skewed values and bias.
• Always question your conclusions and reexamine the information that led to those conclusions.
• Your critical thinking will never result in all the available answers, because you don’t know all the questions.
• Be aware that most problems, situations, and events have more than one cause, and sometimes multiple effects.
• Becoming a big-picture thinker can broaden your horizons and effectiveness as a critical thinker.
• How To Promote Critical Thinking In The Workplace
• Critical Thinking vs Problem Solving: What’s the Difference?
• What Is The Role Of Communication In Critical Thinking?  
• How To Improve Critical Thinking Skills At Work And Make Better Decisions
• Brainstorming: Techniques Used To Boost Critical Thinking and Creativity

Jenny Palmer

Founder of Eggcellentwork.com. With over 20 years of experience in HR and various roles in corporate world, Jenny shares tips and advice to help professionals advance in their careers. Her blog is a go-to resource for anyone looking to improve their skills, land their dream job, or make a career change.

Further Reading...

Brainstorming: Techniques Used To Boost Critical Thinking and Creativity  

How To Become a Polymath in 4 Steps  

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Critical Thinking Definition, Skills, and Examples

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Critical thinking refers to the ability to analyze information objectively and make a reasoned judgment. It involves the evaluation of sources, such as data, facts, observable phenomena, and research findings.

Good critical thinkers can draw reasonable conclusions from a set of information, and discriminate between useful and less useful details to solve problems or make decisions. Employers prioritize the ability to think critically—find out why, plus see how you can demonstrate that you have this ability throughout the job application process. 

Why Do Employers Value Critical Thinking Skills?

Employers want job candidates who can evaluate a situation using logical thought and offer the best solution.

 Someone with critical thinking skills can be trusted to make decisions independently, and will not need constant handholding.

Hiring a critical thinker means that micromanaging won't be required. Critical thinking abilities are among the most sought-after skills in almost every industry and workplace. You can demonstrate critical thinking by using related keywords in your resume and cover letter, and during your interview.

Examples of Critical Thinking

The circumstances that demand critical thinking vary from industry to industry. Some examples include:

• A triage nurse analyzes the cases at hand and decides the order by which the patients should be treated.
• A plumber evaluates the materials that would best suit a particular job.
• An attorney reviews evidence and devises a strategy to win a case or to decide whether to settle out of court.
• A manager analyzes customer feedback forms and uses this information to develop a customer service training session for employees.

Promote Your Skills in Your Job Search

If critical thinking is a key phrase in the job listings you are applying for, be sure to emphasize your critical thinking skills throughout your job search.

Add Keywords to Your Resume

You can use critical thinking keywords (analytical, problem solving, creativity, etc.) in your resume. When describing your  work history , include top critical thinking skills that accurately describe you. You can also include them in your  resume summary , if you have one.

For example, your summary might read, “Marketing Associate with five years of experience in project management. Skilled in conducting thorough market research and competitor analysis to assess market trends and client needs, and to develop appropriate acquisition tactics.”

Mention Skills in Your Cover Letter

Include these critical thinking skills in your cover letter. In the body of your letter, mention one or two of these skills, and give specific examples of times when you have demonstrated them at work. Think about times when you had to analyze or evaluate materials to solve a problem.

Show the Interviewer Your Skills

You can use these skill words in an interview. Discuss a time when you were faced with a particular problem or challenge at work and explain how you applied critical thinking to solve it.

Some interviewers will give you a hypothetical scenario or problem, and ask you to use critical thinking skills to solve it. In this case, explain your thought process thoroughly to the interviewer. He or she is typically more focused on how you arrive at your solution rather than the solution itself. The interviewer wants to see you analyze and evaluate (key parts of critical thinking) the given scenario or problem.

Of course, each job will require different skills and experiences, so make sure you read the job description carefully and focus on the skills listed by the employer.

Top Critical Thinking Skills

Keep these in-demand critical thinking skills in mind as you update your resume and write your cover letter. As you've seen, you can also emphasize them at other points throughout the application process, such as your interview. 

Part of critical thinking is the ability to carefully examine something, whether it is a problem, a set of data, or a text. People with  analytical skills  can examine information, understand what it means, and properly explain to others the implications of that information.

• Asking Thoughtful Questions
• Data Analysis
• Interpretation
• Questioning Evidence
• Recognizing Patterns

Communication

Often, you will need to share your conclusions with your employers or with a group of colleagues. You need to be able to  communicate with others  to share your ideas effectively. You might also need to engage in critical thinking in a group. In this case, you will need to work with others and communicate effectively to figure out solutions to complex problems.

• Active Listening
• Collaboration
• Explanation
• Interpersonal
• Presentation
• Verbal Communication
• Written Communication

Critical thinking often involves creativity and innovation. You might need to spot patterns in the information you are looking at or come up with a solution that no one else has thought of before. All of this involves a creative eye that can take a different approach from all other approaches.

• Flexibility
• Conceptualization
• Imagination
• Drawing Connections
• Synthesizing

Open-Mindedness

To think critically, you need to be able to put aside any assumptions or judgments and merely analyze the information you receive. You need to be objective, evaluating ideas without bias.

• Objectivity
• Observation

Problem Solving

Problem-solving is another critical thinking skill that involves analyzing a problem, generating and implementing a solution, and assessing the success of the plan. Employers don’t simply want employees who can think about information critically. They also need to be able to come up with practical solutions.

• Attention to Detail
• Clarification
• Decision Making
• Groundedness
• Identifying Patterns

More Critical Thinking Skills

• Inductive Reasoning
• Deductive Reasoning
• Noticing Outliers
• Adaptability
• Emotional Intelligence
• Brainstorming
• Optimization
• Restructuring
• Integration
• Strategic Planning
• Project Management
• Ongoing Improvement
• Causal Relationships
• Case Analysis
• Diagnostics
• SWOT Analysis
• Business Intelligence
• Quantitative Data Management
• Qualitative Data Management
• Risk Management
• Scientific Method
• Consumer Behavior

Key Takeaways

• Demonstrate that you have critical thinking skills by adding relevant keywords to your resume.
• Mention pertinent critical thinking skills in your cover letter, too, and include an example of a time when you demonstrated them at work.
• Finally, highlight critical thinking skills during your interview. For instance, you might discuss a time when you were faced with a challenge at work and explain how you applied critical thinking skills to solve it.

University of Louisville. " What is Critical Thinking ."

American Management Association. " AMA Critical Skills Survey: Workers Need Higher Level Skills to Succeed in the 21st Century ."

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A Crash Course in Critical Thinking

What you need to know—and read—about one of the essential skills needed today..

Posted April 8, 2024 | Reviewed by Michelle Quirk

• In research for "A More Beautiful Question," I did a deep dive into the current crisis in critical thinking.
• Many people may think of themselves as critical thinkers, but they actually are not.
• Here is a series of questions you can ask yourself to try to ensure that you are thinking critically.

Conspiracy theories. Inability to distinguish facts from falsehoods. Widespread confusion about who and what to believe.

These are some of the hallmarks of the current crisis in critical thinking—which just might be the issue of our times. Because if people aren’t willing or able to think critically as they choose potential leaders, they’re apt to choose bad ones. And if they can’t judge whether the information they’re receiving is sound, they may follow faulty advice while ignoring recommendations that are science-based and solid (and perhaps life-saving).

Moreover, as a society, if we can’t think critically about the many serious challenges we face, it becomes more difficult to agree on what those challenges are—much less solve them.

On a personal level, critical thinking can enable you to make better everyday decisions. It can help you make sense of an increasingly complex and confusing world.

In the new expanded edition of my book A More Beautiful Question ( AMBQ ), I took a deep dive into critical thinking. Here are a few key things I learned.

First off, before you can get better at critical thinking, you should understand what it is. It’s not just about being a skeptic. When thinking critically, we are thoughtfully reasoning, evaluating, and making decisions based on evidence and logic. And—perhaps most important—while doing this, a critical thinker always strives to be open-minded and fair-minded . That’s not easy: It demands that you constantly question your assumptions and biases and that you always remain open to considering opposing views.

In today’s polarized environment, many people think of themselves as critical thinkers simply because they ask skeptical questions—often directed at, say, certain government policies or ideas espoused by those on the “other side” of the political divide. The problem is, they may not be asking these questions with an open mind or a willingness to fairly consider opposing views.

When people do this, they’re engaging in “weak-sense critical thinking”—a term popularized by the late Richard Paul, a co-founder of The Foundation for Critical Thinking . “Weak-sense critical thinking” means applying the tools and practices of critical thinking—questioning, investigating, evaluating—but with the sole purpose of confirming one’s own bias or serving an agenda.

In AMBQ , I lay out a series of questions you can ask yourself to try to ensure that you’re thinking critically. Here are some of the questions to consider:

• Why do I believe what I believe?
• Are my views based on evidence?
• Have I fairly and thoughtfully considered differing viewpoints?
• Am I truly open to changing my mind?

Of course, becoming a better critical thinker is not as simple as just asking yourself a few questions. Critical thinking is a habit of mind that must be developed and strengthened over time. In effect, you must train yourself to think in a manner that is more effortful, aware, grounded, and balanced.

For those interested in giving themselves a crash course in critical thinking—something I did myself, as I was working on my book—I thought it might be helpful to share a list of some of the books that have shaped my own thinking on this subject. As a self-interested author, I naturally would suggest that you start with the new 10th-anniversary edition of A More Beautiful Question , but beyond that, here are the top eight critical-thinking books I’d recommend.

The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark , by Carl Sagan

This book simply must top the list, because the late scientist and author Carl Sagan continues to be such a bright shining light in the critical thinking universe. Chapter 12 includes the details on Sagan’s famous “baloney detection kit,” a collection of lessons and tips on how to deal with bogus arguments and logical fallacies.

Clear Thinking: Turning Ordinary Moments Into Extraordinary Results , by Shane Parrish

The creator of the Farnham Street website and host of the “Knowledge Project” podcast explains how to contend with biases and unconscious reactions so you can make better everyday decisions. It contains insights from many of the brilliant thinkers Shane has studied.

Good Thinking: Why Flawed Logic Puts Us All at Risk and How Critical Thinking Can Save the World , by David Robert Grimes

A brilliant, comprehensive 2021 book on critical thinking that, to my mind, hasn’t received nearly enough attention . The scientist Grimes dissects bad thinking, shows why it persists, and offers the tools to defeat it.

Think Again: The Power of Knowing What You Don't Know , by Adam Grant

Intellectual humility—being willing to admit that you might be wrong—is what this book is primarily about. But Adam, the renowned Wharton psychology professor and bestselling author, takes the reader on a mind-opening journey with colorful stories and characters.

Think Like a Detective: A Kid's Guide to Critical Thinking , by David Pakman

The popular YouTuber and podcast host Pakman—normally known for talking politics —has written a terrific primer on critical thinking for children. The illustrated book presents critical thinking as a “superpower” that enables kids to unlock mysteries and dig for truth. (I also recommend Pakman’s second kids’ book called Think Like a Scientist .)

Rationality: What It Is, Why It Seems Scarce, Why It Matters , by Steven Pinker

The Harvard psychology professor Pinker tackles conspiracy theories head-on but also explores concepts involving risk/reward, probability and randomness, and correlation/causation. And if that strikes you as daunting, be assured that Pinker makes it lively and accessible.

How Minds Change: The Surprising Science of Belief, Opinion and Persuasion , by David McRaney

David is a science writer who hosts the popular podcast “You Are Not So Smart” (and his ideas are featured in A More Beautiful Question ). His well-written book looks at ways you can actually get through to people who see the world very differently than you (hint: bludgeoning them with facts definitely won’t work).

A Healthy Democracy's Best Hope: Building the Critical Thinking Habit , by M Neil Browne and Chelsea Kulhanek

Neil Browne, author of the seminal Asking the Right Questions: A Guide to Critical Thinking, has been a pioneer in presenting critical thinking as a question-based approach to making sense of the world around us. His newest book, co-authored with Chelsea Kulhanek, breaks down critical thinking into “11 explosive questions”—including the “priors question” (which challenges us to question assumptions), the “evidence question” (focusing on how to evaluate and weigh evidence), and the “humility question” (which reminds us that a critical thinker must be humble enough to consider the possibility of being wrong).

Warren Berger is a longtime journalist and author of A More Beautiful Question .

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Introducing principles of critical thinking

This presentation synthesizes the academic literature to define critical thinking. My discussion: ● Explores core scholarly principles of critical thinking practices; ● Uses examples to explain the different degrees of support that a scholar may express towards an issue or opinion. This presentation centers on three scenarios where a person may need to show evidence of critical thinking in their scholarly work: ● Writing a college or scholarship application essay; ● Preparing an answer for a test such as the GRE exam; ● Preparing an assessment for a college or university subject.

Related Papers

Mark Weinstein

American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences

MUHAMMAD MUMTAZ ALI

Studies in Higher Education 38, 4: pp 506-522

The article reports a study that investigated ideas about critical thinking as held by academics working in three disciplines: history, philosophy and cultural studies. At least seven definitional strands were identified in the informants’ commentaries, namely critical thinking: (i) as judgement; (ii) as skepticism; (iii) as a simple originality; (iv) as sensitive readings; (v) as rationality; (vi) as an activist engagement with knowledge; and (vii) as self-reflexivity. This multiplicity of meanings is thought to have important implications for university teaching and learning. The design of the study and the conclusions drawn from it draw heavily on Wittgenstein’s idea of meaning as use.

Harvey Siegel

Peter A Facione

The landmark 1990 APA Delphi Report presents the findings of the two year project to articulate an international expert consensus definition of “critical thinking. Over the past 25 years this report has been adopted by educators at every level and in every discipline, as well as by business, military, healthcare, and technology professionals seeking to make the idea of “critical thinking” practical, positive, and applicable. Today the Delphi conceptualization grounds is used throughout the world. It grounds academic requirements, courses, textbooks, peer-reviewed research, dissertations, competitively funded grants, institutional accreditation projects, and numerous assessment tools used for educational and employment purposes when evaluating an individual’s or a group’s reasoning skills and mindset attributes are important. The international panel of experts who participated in the APA Delphi research project come to the consensus that critical thinking is best understood, taught, and modeled for students as the process of purposeful and reflective judgment. When engaging in critical thinking we solve problems and make decisions by considering the questions, evidence, conceptualizations, context, and standards to apply to the problem or issue at hand. The process is non-linear and the application of our specific critical thinking skills can be recursive, for we can analyze our interpretations, evaluate our inferences, or explain our analyses. The key, of course, is that we are being reflective and fair-minded and truth-seeking throughout the process of determining what to believe or what to do in any given context. Defined in this way, critical thinking is a powerful tool for learning as well as for our professional and civic lives. We all may have different beliefs, values, perspectives, and experiences influencing our problem solving and decision making. But we share the human capacity to be reflective, analytical, open-minded, and systematic about thinking through our problems and choices, so that we can make the best judgments possible about what to believe or what to do. That human process of well-reasoned, reflective judgment is critical thinking. In the Delphi Report the international panel of experts identify the attributes of ideal critical thinker as well as the specific skills that are engaged in the process of purposeful, reflective judgment. The report includes detailed pedagogically focused tables and specific recommendations relating to critical thinking instruction and assessment.

Educational Theory

Higher Education Research & Development

Martin Davies

Journal of Accounting Education

Susan Wolcott

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1: Basic Concepts of Critical Thinking

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• Page ID 94992

• Jason Southworth & Chris Swoyer
• Fort Hays State & University University of Oklahoma
• 1.1: Basic Concepts
• 1.2: A Role for Reason
• 1.3: Improving Reasoning
• 1.4: Chapter Exercises

Critical thinking definition

Critical thinking, as described by Oxford Languages, is the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgement.

Active and skillful approach, evaluation, assessment, synthesis, and/or evaluation of information obtained from, or made by, observation, knowledge, reflection, acumen or conversation, as a guide to belief and action, requires the critical thinking process, which is why it's often used in education and academics.

Some even may view it as a backbone of modern thought.

However, it's a skill, and skills must be trained and encouraged to be used at its full potential.

People turn up to various approaches in improving their critical thinking, like:

• Developing technical and problem-solving skills
• Engaging in more active listening
• Actively questioning their assumptions and beliefs
• Seeking out more diversity of thought
• Opening up their curiosity in an intellectual way etc.

Is critical thinking useful in writing?

Critical thinking can help in planning your paper and making it more concise, but it's not obvious at first. We carefully pinpointed some the questions you should ask yourself when boosting critical thinking in writing:

• What information should be included?
• Which information resources should the author look to?
• What degree of technical knowledge should the report assume its audience has?
• What is the most effective way to show information?
• How should the report be organized?
• How should it be designed?
• What tone and level of language difficulty should the document have?

Usage of critical thinking comes down not only to the outline of your paper, it also begs the question: How can we use critical thinking solving problems in our writing's topic?

Let's say, you have a Powerpoint on how critical thinking can reduce poverty in the United States. You'll primarily have to define critical thinking for the viewers, as well as use a lot of critical thinking questions and synonyms to get them to be familiar with your methods and start the thinking process behind it.

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Supplement to Critical Thinking

This supplement elaborates on the history of the articulation, promotion and adoption of critical thinking as an educational goal.

John Dewey (1910: 74, 82) introduced the term ‘critical thinking’ as the name of an educational goal, which he identified with a scientific attitude of mind. More commonly, he called the goal ‘reflective thought’, ‘reflective thinking’, ‘reflection’, or just ‘thought’ or ‘thinking’. He describes his book as written for two purposes. The first was to help people to appreciate the kinship of children’s native curiosity, fertile imagination and love of experimental inquiry to the scientific attitude. The second was to help people to consider how recognizing this kinship in educational practice “would make for individual happiness and the reduction of social waste” (iii). He notes that the ideas in the book obtained concreteness in the Laboratory School in Chicago.

Dewey’s ideas were put into practice by some of the schools that participated in the Eight-Year Study in the 1930s sponsored by the Progressive Education Association in the United States. For this study, 300 colleges agreed to consider for admission graduates of 30 selected secondary schools or school systems from around the country who experimented with the content and methods of teaching, even if the graduates had not completed the then-prescribed secondary school curriculum. One purpose of the study was to discover through exploration and experimentation how secondary schools in the United States could serve youth more effectively (Aikin 1942). Each experimental school was free to change the curriculum as it saw fit, but the schools agreed that teaching methods and the life of the school should conform to the idea (previously advocated by Dewey) that people develop through doing things that are meaningful to them, and that the main purpose of the secondary school was to lead young people to understand, appreciate and live the democratic way of life characteristic of the United States (Aikin 1942: 17–18). In particular, school officials believed that young people in a democracy should develop the habit of reflective thinking and skill in solving problems (Aikin 1942: 81). Students’ work in the classroom thus consisted more often of a problem to be solved than a lesson to be learned. Especially in mathematics and science, the schools made a point of giving students experience in clear, logical thinking as they solved problems. The report of one experimental school, the University School of Ohio State University, articulated this goal of improving students’ thinking:

Critical or reflective thinking originates with the sensing of a problem. It is a quality of thought operating in an effort to solve the problem and to reach a tentative conclusion which is supported by all available data. It is really a process of problem solving requiring the use of creative insight, intellectual honesty, and sound judgment. It is the basis of the method of scientific inquiry. The success of democracy depends to a large extent on the disposition and ability of citizens to think critically and reflectively about the problems which must of necessity confront them, and to improve the quality of their thinking is one of the major goals of education. (Commission on the Relation of School and College of the Progressive Education Association 1943: 745–746)

The Eight-Year Study had an evaluation staff, which developed, in consultation with the schools, tests to measure aspects of student progress that fell outside the focus of the traditional curriculum. The evaluation staff classified many of the schools’ stated objectives under the generic heading “clear thinking” or “critical thinking” (Smith, Tyler, & Evaluation Staff 1942: 35–36). To develop tests of achievement of this broad goal, they distinguished five overlapping aspects of it: ability to interpret data, abilities associated with an understanding of the nature of proof, and the abilities to apply principles of science, of social studies and of logical reasoning. The Eight-Year Study also had a college staff, directed by a committee of college administrators, whose task was to determine how well the experimental schools had prepared their graduates for college. The college staff compared the performance of 1,475 college students from the experimental schools with an equal number of graduates from conventional schools, matched in pairs by sex, age, race, scholastic aptitude scores, home and community background, interests, and probable future. They concluded that, on 18 measures of student success, the graduates of the experimental schools did a somewhat better job than the comparison group. The graduates from the six most traditional of the experimental schools showed no large or consistent differences. The graduates from the six most experimental schools, on the other hand, had much greater differences in their favour. The graduates of the two most experimental schools, the college staff reported:

… surpassed their comparison groups by wide margins in academic achievement, intellectual curiosity, scientific approach to problems, and interest in contemporary affairs. The differences in their favor were even greater in general resourcefulness, in enjoyment of reading, [in] participation in the arts, in winning non-academic honors, and in all aspects of college life except possibly participation in sports and social activities. (Aikin 1942: 114)

One of these schools was a private school with students from privileged families and the other the experimental section of a public school with students from non-privileged families. The college staff reported that the graduates of the two schools were indistinguishable from each other in terms of college success.

In 1933 Dewey issued an extensively rewritten edition of his How We Think (Dewey 1910), with the sub-title “A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process”. Although the restatement retains the basic structure and content of the original book, Dewey made a number of changes. He rewrote and simplified his logical analysis of the process of reflection, made his ideas clearer and more definite, replaced the terms ‘induction’ and ‘deduction’ by the phrases ‘control of data and evidence’ and ‘control of reasoning and concepts’, added more illustrations, rearranged chapters, and revised the parts on teaching to reflect changes in schools since 1910. In particular, he objected to one-sided practices of some “experimental” and “progressive” schools that allowed children freedom but gave them no guidance, citing as objectionable practices novelty and variety for their own sake, experiences and activities with real materials but of no educational significance, treating random and disconnected activity as if it were an experiment, failure to summarize net accomplishment at the end of an inquiry, non-educative projects, and treatment of the teacher as a negligible factor rather than as “the intellectual leader of a social group” (Dewey 1933: 273). Without explaining his reasons, Dewey eliminated the previous edition’s uses of the words ‘critical’ and ‘uncritical’, thus settling firmly on ‘reflection’ or ‘reflective thinking’ as the preferred term for his subject-matter. In the revised edition, the word ‘critical’ occurs only once, where Dewey writes that “a person may not be sufficiently critical about the ideas that occur to him” (1933: 16, italics in original); being critical is thus a component of reflection, not the whole of it. In contrast, the Eight-Year Study by the Progressive Education Association treated ‘critical thinking’ and ‘reflective thinking’ as synonyms.

In the same period, Dewey collaborated on a history of the Laboratory School in Chicago with two former teachers from the school (Mayhew & Edwards 1936). The history describes the school’s curriculum and organization, activities aimed at developing skills, parents’ involvement, and the habits of mind that the children acquired. A concluding chapter evaluates the school’s achievements, counting as a success its staging of the curriculum to correspond to the natural development of the growing child. In two appendices, the authors describe the evolution of Dewey’s principles of education and Dewey himself describes the theory of the Chicago experiment (Dewey 1936).

Glaser (1941) reports in his doctoral dissertation the method and results of an experiment in the development of critical thinking conducted in the fall of 1938. He defines critical thinking as Dewey defined reflective thinking:

Critical thinking calls for a persistent effort to examine any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the evidence that supports it and the further conclusions to which it tends. (Glaser 1941: 6; cf. Dewey 1910: 6; Dewey 1933: 9)

In the experiment, eight lesson units directed at improving critical thinking abilities were taught to four grade 12 high school classes, with pre-test and post-test of the students using the Otis Quick-Scoring Mental Ability Test and the Watson-Glaser Tests of Critical Thinking (developed in collaboration with Glaser’s dissertation sponsor, Goodwin Watson). The average gain in scores on these tests was greater to a statistically significant degree among the students who received the lessons in critical thinking than among the students in a control group of four grade 12 high school classes taking the usual curriculum in English. Glaser concludes:

The aspect of critical thinking which appears most susceptible to general improvement is the attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come within the range of one’s experience. An attitude of wanting evidence for beliefs is more subject to general transfer. Development of skill in applying the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning, however, appears to be specifically related to, and in fact limited by, the acquisition of pertinent knowledge and facts concerning the problem or subject matter toward which the thinking is to be directed. (Glaser 1941: 175)

Retest scores and observable behaviour indicated that students in the intervention group retained their growth in ability to think critically for at least six months after the special instruction.

In 1948 a group of U.S. college examiners decided to develop taxonomies of educational objectives with a common vocabulary that they could use for communicating with each other about test items. The first of these taxonomies, for the cognitive domain, appeared in 1956 (Bloom et al. 1956), and included critical thinking objectives. It has become known as Bloom’s taxonomy. A second taxonomy, for the affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia 1964), and a third taxonomy, for the psychomotor domain (Simpson 1966–67), appeared later. Each of the taxonomies is hierarchical, with achievement of a higher educational objective alleged to require achievement of corresponding lower educational objectives.

Bloom’s taxonomy has six major categories. From lowest to highest, they are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Within each category, there are sub-categories, also arranged hierarchically from the educationally prior to the educationally posterior. The lowest category, though called ‘knowledge’, is confined to objectives of remembering information and being able to recall or recognize it, without much transformation beyond organizing it (Bloom et al. 1956: 28–29). The five higher categories are collectively termed “intellectual abilities and skills” (Bloom et al. 1956: 204). The term is simply another name for critical thinking abilities and skills:

Although information or knowledge is recognized as an important outcome of education, very few teachers would be satisfied to regard this as the primary or the sole outcome of instruction. What is needed is some evidence that the students can do something with their knowledge, that is, that they can apply the information to new situations and problems. It is also expected that students will acquire generalized techniques for dealing with new problems and new materials. Thus, it is expected that when the student encounters a new problem or situation, he will select an appropriate technique for attacking it and will bring to bear the necessary information, both facts and principles. This has been labeled “critical thinking” by some, “reflective thinking” by Dewey and others, and “problem solving” by still others. In the taxonomy, we have used the term “intellectual abilities and skills”. (Bloom et al. 1956: 38)

Comprehension and application objectives, as their names imply, involve understanding and applying information. Critical thinking abilities and skills show up in the three highest categories of analysis, synthesis and evaluation. The condensed version of Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom et al. 1956: 201–207) gives the following examples of objectives at these levels:

• analysis objectives : ability to recognize unstated assumptions, ability to check the consistency of hypotheses with given information and assumptions, ability to recognize the general techniques used in advertising, propaganda and other persuasive materials
• synthesis objectives : organizing ideas and statements in writing, ability to propose ways of testing a hypothesis, ability to formulate and modify hypotheses
• evaluation objectives : ability to indicate logical fallacies, comparison of major theories about particular cultures

The analysis, synthesis and evaluation objectives in Bloom’s taxonomy collectively came to be called the “higher-order thinking skills” (Tankersley 2005: chap. 5). Although the analysis-synthesis-evaluation sequence mimics phases in Dewey’s (1933) logical analysis of the reflective thinking process, it has not generally been adopted as a model of a critical thinking process. While commending the inspirational value of its ratio of five categories of thinking objectives to one category of recall objectives, Ennis (1981b) points out that the categories lack criteria applicable across topics and domains. For example, analysis in chemistry is so different from analysis in literature that there is not much point in teaching analysis as a general type of thinking. Further, the postulated hierarchy seems questionable at the higher levels of Bloom’s taxonomy. For example, ability to indicate logical fallacies hardly seems more complex than the ability to organize statements and ideas in writing.

A revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson et al. 2001) distinguishes the intended cognitive process in an educational objective (such as being able to recall, to compare or to check) from the objective’s informational content (“knowledge”), which may be factual, conceptual, procedural, or metacognitive. The result is a so-called “Taxonomy Table” with four rows for the kinds of informational content and six columns for the six main types of cognitive process. The authors name the types of cognitive process by verbs, to indicate their status as mental activities. They change the name of the ‘comprehension’ category to ‘understand’ and of the ‘synthesis’ category to ’create’, and switch the order of synthesis and evaluation. The result is a list of six main types of cognitive process aimed at by teachers: remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create. The authors retain the idea of a hierarchy of increasing complexity, but acknowledge some overlap, for example between understanding and applying. And they retain the idea that critical thinking and problem solving cut across the more complex cognitive processes. The terms ‘critical thinking’ and ‘problem solving’, they write:

are widely used and tend to become touchstones of curriculum emphasis. Both generally include a variety of activities that might be classified in disparate cells of the Taxonomy Table. That is, in any given instance, objectives that involve problem solving and critical thinking most likely call for cognitive processes in several categories on the process dimension. For example, to think critically about an issue probably involves some Conceptual knowledge to Analyze the issue. Then, one can Evaluate different perspectives in terms of the criteria and, perhaps, Create a novel, yet defensible perspective on this issue. (Anderson et al. 2001: 269–270; italics in original)

In the revised taxonomy, only a few sub-categories, such as inferring, have enough commonality to be treated as a distinct critical thinking ability that could be taught and assessed as a general ability.

A landmark contribution to philosophical scholarship on the concept of critical thinking was a 1962 article in the Harvard Educational Review by Robert H. Ennis, with the title “A concept of critical thinking: A proposed basis for research in the teaching and evaluation of critical thinking ability” (Ennis 1962). Ennis took as his starting-point a conception of critical thinking put forward by B. Othanel Smith:

We shall consider thinking in terms of the operations involved in the examination of statements which we, or others, may believe. A speaker declares, for example, that “Freedom means that the decisions in America’s productive effort are made not in the minds of a bureaucracy but in the free market”. Now if we set about to find out what this statement means and to determine whether to accept or reject it, we would be engaged in thinking which, for lack of a better term, we shall call critical thinking. If one wishes to say that this is only a form of problem-solving in which the purpose is to decide whether or not what is said is dependable, we shall not object. But for our purposes we choose to call it critical thinking. (Smith 1953: 130)

Adding a normative component to this conception, Ennis defined critical thinking as “the correct assessing of statements” (Ennis 1962: 83). On the basis of this definition, he distinguished 12 “aspects” of critical thinking corresponding to types or aspects of statements, such as judging whether an observation statement is reliable and grasping the meaning of a statement. He noted that he did not include judging value statements. Cutting across the 12 aspects, he distinguished three dimensions of critical thinking: logical (judging relationships between meanings of words and statements), criterial (knowledge of the criteria for judging statements), and pragmatic (the impression of the background purpose). For each aspect, Ennis described the applicable dimensions, including criteria. He proposed the resulting construct as a basis for developing specifications for critical thinking tests and for research on instructional methods and levels.

In the 1970s and 1980s there was an upsurge of attention to the development of thinking skills. The annual International Conference on Critical Thinking and Educational Reform has attracted since its start in 1980 tens of thousands of educators from all levels. In 1983 the College Entrance Examination Board proclaimed reasoning as one of six basic academic competencies needed by college students (College Board 1983). Departments of education in the United States and around the world began to include thinking objectives in their curriculum guidelines for school subjects. For example, Ontario’s social sciences and humanities curriculum guideline for secondary schools requires “the use of critical and creative thinking skills and/or processes” as a goal of instruction and assessment in each subject and course (Ontario Ministry of Education 2013: 30). The document describes critical thinking as follows:

Critical thinking is the process of thinking about ideas or situations in order to understand them fully, identify their implications, make a judgement, and/or guide decision making. Critical thinking includes skills such as questioning, predicting, analysing, synthesizing, examining opinions, identifying values and issues, detecting bias, and distinguishing between alternatives. Students who are taught these skills become critical thinkers who can move beyond superficial conclusions to a deeper understanding of the issues they are examining. They are able to engage in an inquiry process in which they explore complex and multifaceted issues, and questions for which there may be no clear-cut answers (Ontario Ministry of Education 2013: 46).

Sweden makes schools responsible for ensuring that each pupil who completes compulsory school “can make use of critical thinking and independently formulate standpoints based on knowledge and ethical considerations” (Skolverket 2011: 15). Subject syllabi incorporate this requirement, and items testing critical thinking skills appear on national tests in history, Swedish, mathematics and physics that are a required step toward university admission. For example, the physics syllabus emphasizes the importance of “critical examination of information and arguments which students meet in sources and social discussions related to physics” (Skolverket 2011: 124). Correspondingly, the 2013 national test on physics included a question asking students to provide arguments for a recommendation to the Swedish minister of energy on what energy sources to use for electricity production. Other jurisdictions similarly embed critical thinking objectives in curriculum guidelines.

At the college level, a new wave of introductory logic textbooks, pioneered by Kahane (1971), applied the tools of logic to contemporary social and political issues. In their wake, colleges and universities in North America transformed their introductory logic course into a general education service course with a title like ‘critical thinking’ or ‘reasoning’. In 1980, the trustees of California’s state university and colleges approved as a general education requirement a course in critical thinking, described as follows:

Instruction in critical thinking is to be designed to achieve an understanding of the relationship of language to logic, which should lead to the ability to analyze, criticize, and advocate ideas, to reason inductively and deductively, and to reach factual or judgmental conclusions based on sound inferences drawn from unambiguous statements of knowledge or belief. The minimal competence to be expected at the successful conclusion of instruction in critical thinking should be the ability to distinguish fact from judgment, belief from knowledge, and skills in elementary inductive and deductive processes, including an understanding of the formal and informal fallacies of language and thought. (Dumke 1980)

Since December 1983, the Association for Informal Logic and Critical Thinking has sponsored sessions at the three annual divisional meetings of the American Philosophical Association. In December 1987, the Committee on Pre-College Philosophy of the American Philosophical Association invited Peter Facione to make a systematic inquiry into the current state of critical thinking and critical thinking assessment. Facione assembled a group of 46 other academic philosophers and psychologists to participate in a multi-round Delphi process, whose product was entitled Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction (Facione 1990a). The statement listed abilities and dispositions that should be the goals of a lower-level undergraduate course in critical thinking.

Contemporary political and business leaders express support for critical thinking as an educational goal. In his 2014 State of the Union address (Obama 2014), U.S. President Barack Obama listed critical thinking as one of six skills for the new economy targeted with his Race to the Top program. An article in the business magazine Forbes reported that the number one job skill, found in nine out of 10 of the most in-demand jobs, was critical thinking, defined as “using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative solutions, conclusions or approaches to problems” (Casserly 2012). In response to such claims, the European Commission has funded “Critical Thinking across the European Higher Education Curricula”, a nine-country research project to develop guidelines for quality in critical thinking instruction in European institutions of higher education, on the basis of the researchers’ findings of the critical thinking skills and dispositions that employers expect of recent graduates (Dominguez 2018a; 2018b). The Centre for Educational Research and Innovation of the Organization for Economic Development (OECD) in early 2018 issued a call for institutions of higher education to participate in a two-year study, with control groups, of interventions in undergraduate or teacher education designed to improve creative and critical thinking (OECD Centre for Educational Research and Innovation 2018).

Copyright © 2018 by David Hitchcock < hitchckd @ mcmaster . ca >

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5CO02 Evidence-based Practice Guideline Task One

AC 1.1 Provide evaluation of the concept of evidence-based practice and assess how evidencebased practice approaches can be used to provide insight to support sound decision-making and judgments for people practitioners across a range of people practices and organisational issues

Learners will explain evidence-based practice concept and its effectiveness in helping people professionals make sound organisational and personal decisions. The use of evidence focuses on analysing the strategies and models that help in the decision-making process. Examples of models that students should explain include;-

• Rational model
• Bounded rationality model
• Group think model

students explain the strengths and weaknesses of each of the above-mentioned approaches, and how the approaches support sound decision-making.

The learners should be in a position to select evidence and interpret effectively before making decisions. Professionals make decisions when they have evidence that is obtained from a variety of sources. The information collected should not be biased and it should be used to form judgements and conclusions that are based on theory of professional opinions.

Additionally, students will give examples of people practice or organisational issues where people practice professionals use evidence to make sound decisions at work. Examples of these issues include Learning and development (L&D) processes, absenteeism, turnover and skills shortage.

AC 1.2 Evaluate micro and macro analysis tools that can be used in people practice to explore an organisation’s micro and macro environment and how those identified might be applied to diagnose future issues, challenges and opportunities.

Examples of analysis tools used in people practice include;-

• Porter’s Five Forces model
• Ansoff Matrix
• Cause and effect analysis tool
• McKinsey 7S analysis tool
• Balanced scorecard

Organisations can diagnose future issues such as organisational competitors, organisational growth and new legislations by using either of the above analysis tools and the methods discussed below. Examples of analysis methods that students should apply to diagnose future issues and opportunities include;-

• Questionnaires
• Observation
• Work sampling

AC 1.3. Explain the main principles of critical thinking and describe how these might apply to individual and work colleagues’ ideas to assist objective and rational debate.

Learners explain either of the following principles relating to critical thinking. Examples of the principles that the learners should discuss are questioning the sources of data, explaining the validity of the evidence that the professionals use in making decisions, engagement in objective thinking to understand the arguments, and evaluating the possibilities of having the evidence being biased. Students apply principles of critical thinking to their own ideas with the intention to develop rational debates.

Learners then explain how they can apply the principles to other people’s ideas. Considerations in these case include the claims and facts from other people’s ideas, the credibility of the information that they bring forth and considerations for further reading.

The learners explain how they can use different methodologies in applying the above-mentioned principles. They also consider the clarity of terminologies that they use in developing new agendas and managing complex information.

AC 1.4 • Assess a range of different ethical theories and perspectives and explain how understanding of these can be used to inform and influence moral decision-making.

Learners may explain either of the following ethical theories;-

• Utilitarian theory
• Deontology/Kantianism theory
• Communitarianism theory
• Altruism theory

The learners should also mention the ethical values that influence decision-making, and the examples of these values include; – honesty, fairness, and consideration of the ethical outcomes and dilemmas that affect the kind of decisions made in an organisation.

AC 2.3 Explain a range of approaches that could be taken by people practitioners to identify possible solutions to a specific issue relating to people practice

Examples of the processes that the learners explain when answering this question include;-

• Problem-outcome frame
• Future pacing approach
• Best fit approach
• Action learning approaches
• De Bono approach (six thinking hats)

AC 2.4 As a worked example to illustrate the points made in 2.3, take the same people to practice issues, explain the relevant evidence that you have reviewed and use one or more decision-making tools

Considering the identified approaches to identify solutions to people practices issues, learners explain the relevance of the approaches in identifying the benefits, risks and financial implications of the decisions.

Examples of the benefits of using evidence to make rational decisions include;-

• Improved worker productivity
• Developed positive organisational culture
• Increased customer engagements
• Increased people and organisational capabilities
• High organisation compliance to legal issues

Learners also evaluate the risks relating to the decisions made in solving problems to the people practice issues. Possible risks include financial challenges, negative organisational reputation, health and safety issues, legal challenges, and negative impacts related to people and organisational capabilities in creating high levels of engagements.

Financial implications relate to the evidence realised on the costs of implementing the solutions and solving the people practices solutions. Indirect financial costs relate to the evaluation of the working time that professionals take in gaining the skills to solve and manage the problems. Other financial implications associate with budget limitations and the costs associated to returns on investment and other short or long-term benefits of the realised solutions.

AC 3.1 Appraise one approach an organisation can take to measure financial and non-financial performance

Students should compare financial performance measures such as:

• Gross and net profit
• Return on investment

Students also explain the non-financial measures such as:

• Customer satisfaction
• Key performance indicators (KPIs)
• Stakeholder benefits and feedback
• Organisational legal compliance.

AC 3.4 Explain how a variety of people practices add value in an organisation and identify a range of methods that might be used to measure the impact of a range of people practices

Students explain ways through which people practices such as recruitment, improved L&D capability and increased employee retention among others, add value to organisations. For example, effective recruitment attracts more talent, enhances employee productivity and increases employee retention.

Additionally, students explain the methods that measure people practices’ impacts to organisations, such as cost-benefit analysis, return on investment, validation and evaluation.

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Helen Lee Bouygues

Reboot Foundation

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Improving the workplace through critical thinking

A lot of the problems in business — and in human resources — can be traced back to a single root: bad thinking. Over the course of my career as a consultant, I’ve seen business leaders make abysmal decisions based on faulty reasoning, and I’ve seen HR managers fail to recognise their own innate biases when addressing employee complaints and hiring decisions.

Let me give you an example. I was once asked to help turn around a large, but faltering, lingerie company in Europe. It didn’t take too long for me to see what the problem was: the company’s strategy assumed that all their customers everywhere pretty much wanted the same products.

Company leaders hadn’t done their research and didn’t really understand how their customers’ preferences varied from country to country.

In the UK, for example, lacy bras in bright colours sold the best; Italians seemed to prefer beige bras without lace; and Americans opted for sports bras in much, much larger numbers.

Transformations and turnarounds:

What to do when leadership fails

How HR can prioritise procedure using automation and digital processes

How to transform dysfunctional teams

Without realising it, they were making business decisions on faulty assumptions and bad information. However, a new strategy based on market-dependent research quickly helped turn things around.

Using feedback to get outside of your own head

One huge advantage consultants have over internal employees is simply that they are outsiders. Consultants obviously won’t know the ins and outs of the business as well as internal managers, but because of that, they also haven’t developed the biases and assumptions that can constrain employee thinking. In short, employees are sometimes too close to the problem.

Now, there are a lot of exercises and routines you can employ to make sure you don’t have blinders on when you’re confronting new problems or challenges.

Perhaps the easiest way to do this is through feedback. Of course, feedback can be tricky. No one likes to be evaluated harshly, and without the proper mechanisms in place the value of feedback may be lost amid negative interpersonal dynamics.

One of the best things an organisation can do is to implement clear and explicit practices and guidelines for feedback between managers and employees.

Feedback should be cooperative rather than antagonistic. It should give both parties the opportunity to reflect on, explain, and refine their reasoning. And it should be explicit, preferably using both written and oral communication to find flaws in reasoning and tease out new solutions.

Making conflict productive

Conflict is inevitable in a workplace. It’s how conflict is managed that can determine whether an organisation thrives. The key to good decision-making in group settings is productive, rather than destructive, conflict.

The best decisions emerge from a process in which ideas have to do battle with one another and prove their worth in group discussions. Without some conflict, organisations fall prey to group-think , where everyone goes along with the consensus.

Again, process is crucial here. The best organisations have clear guidelines and structures in place to ensure decision-making proceeds productively.

Decision-making practices should also include mechanisms for avoiding groupthink, by, for example, soliciting opinions in writing before a discussion and by composing groups with a diverse range of backgrounds and opinions.

Finally, leaders must truly value dissenting opinions. Special consideration should be given to ideas that go against the grain. Even if they lose out in the end, dissenting opinions make the final decision stronger.

Dissenters will also be more likely to buy into a decision that goes against their views if they feel their voice has been genuinely heard.

Thinking through individual goals critically and creatively

A key component of workplace happiness is employees’ sense that they are working toward something , both in terms of overall organisational goals and in terms of personal and professional growth.

Regular reflection on individual goals is vital to sustaining a healthy workplace culture. It also encourages more thoughtful work and allows employees to see day-to-day tasks in a broader context, helping them avoid burnout and monotony .

HR professionals can implement regular systems that allow employees to intentionally formulate these types of goals and understand how their work can be integrated more fully into achieving those goals.

Organisations can also grant employees time to pursue passion projects, like Google has, to give workers the freedom to develop ideas and products beneficial to both themselves and the company.

Creative and critical thinking is integral to organisational success, but it is too often assumed that employees and organisations either have it or they don’t.

The truth is that good thinking can be fostered with intentional, structured systems in place for feedback, argument, and reflection.

Helen Lee Bouygues is founder of the Reboot Foundation

Further reading

Managing the upside-down: lessons from Stranger Things

LinkedIn’s dyslexic thinking skill: de-stigmatisation or discrimination?

When the workplace needs love contracts

What’s in a name: supporting workplace inclusivity through #MyNameIs

The power of design thinking

Black inclusion in the workplace – the art of inclusive recruitment

Why we need to ditch the job description

Why microclimates have the power to change workplace culture

• Tutoring Coming Soon

5CO02 Assignment Example

• December 19, 2021
• Posted by: Harry King
• Category: CIPD Level 5

Task One: Briefing Paper

You have been asked to prepare a briefing paper that is to be given to people practitioners at a regional event, to share insights and good practice. The paper needs to provide understanding of approaches that can be taken to support effective critical thinking and decision-making within the HR remit.

Your Briefing Paper needs to:

• provide an evaluation of the concept of evidence-based practice and assess how evidence- based practice approaches can be used to support sound decision-making and judgments for people practitioners across a range of people practices and organisational issues. (1.1)
• evaluate two micro and two macro analysis tools or methods that can be used in people practice to explore an organisation’s micro and macro environment, and how those identified might be applied to diagnose future issues, challenges and opportunities. (1.2)
• explain the principles of critical thinking and give examples of how you apply these yourself when relating to your own and others’ ideas, to assist objective and rationale debate. (1.3)
• assess at least two different ethical theories and perspectives and explain how an understanding of these can be used to inform and influence effective decision-making. (1.4)
• explain a range of decision-making approaches that could be used to identify possible solutions to a specific issue relating to people practice. (2.3)
• as a worked example to illustrate the points made in 2.3, take this same people practice issue, explain the relevant evidence that you have reviewed, and use one or more decision- making tools to determine a recommended course of action, explaining the rationale for that decision and identifying the benefits, risks and financial implications of the suggested solution. (2.2 & 4)
• compare and contrast a range of different ways and approaches that are used to measure financial and non-financial performance within organisations. (3.1)

It is essential that you refer to academic concepts, theories and professional practice for the tasks to ensure that your work is supported by analysis. Please ensure that any references and sources drawn upon are acknowledged correctly and supported by a bibliography.

Task two: Data analysis and review

In preparing for the forthcoming department heads meeting your manager has asked you to prepare a range of information and interpretations for use at the meeting. Below are two sets of data that have been collected by a 360-degree review for Department ‘A’. Table 1, is the feedback that has been elicited from employees on their line-managers and table 2 is from the customers that use the services and goods from Department A.

Use one analytical tool to review the two data sets to reveal any themes, patterns and trends (2.1).

• From this analysis, graphically present your findings using three or more different methods (3.3).
• Identify the key systems and data used within effective people practices, to give insights by measuring work and people performance (3.2)
• Explain how people practices add value in an organisation and identify methods that might be used to measure the impact of people practices (3.4)

The annual performance reviews for Department ‘A’ last year were scored using a ratings scale from 6 = high performer to 1= low performer.

Any employee scoring 4 and above received a £400.00 bonus in their monthly pay. The budget allocation per department for bonuses last year was £75,000.

Figures from Department ‘A’ for last year were:

• 112 employees received a score of 6
• 98 employees received a score of 5
• 35 employees received a score of 4
• 43 employees received a score of 3 or below  
• Using a variety of measurement tools and techniques and the data provided in tables 1, 2 & 3, explain the likely impact and value of these aspects of people practice currently in place in Department ‘A’. What other people practice measures might usefully be employed in Department ‘A’? (3.4)

AC 1.1 provide an evaluation of the concept of evidence-based practice.

Evidence-based HR practice involves making a better decision and informing actions that have the desired outcome (Young, 2020). The concept of evidence-based practice entails finding solutions and approaches to dealing with people management practice based on a strong empirical basis. It is the process through which a decision is evaluated against data in an organisation. The evidence-based approach utilises critical thinking skills and the available evidence to decide on specific HR issues. According to Young (2020), a good decision-making process is based on critical thinking and drawing from the available evidence. Evidence-based decisions are more likely to result in the desired outcomes that will have a long-term impact on organisations practices.

Evidence-based practice also utilises different models of the decision-making process, such as the rational model. This model involves the use of factual information and step by step procedures to arrive at a decision (Uzonwanne, 2016). The figure below summarises the rational decision-making model.

How evidence-based approaches can be used to support sound decision-making and judgments

Evidence-based approaches are essential for supporting sound decision making because they reduce errors caused by judgements. Biased and unreliable management decisions are common in the absence of evidence. Managers are susceptible to bias and errors in their decision making when they base the decisions on previous experiences or popular management decisions. In an article published at the Center for Evidence-Based Management (CEBM), all individuals at all employment levels need to use the best available evidence when making decisions. Using evidence-based decisions is considered to be morally right (Rousseau et al., 2004).

An evidence-based approach can also be used to support sound decision making and judgement at an organisational level by increasing the accountability levels. Most of the decision made by managers have a positive or negative impact on the general organisational performance. Assessing the reliability and validity of evidence not only benefits individuals but also the organisation. This approach ensures that a manager takes the best available decision and can support the decisions with organisational data, professional expertise or insights from scientific research when called to justify the decision.

AC 1.2 Evaluate micro and macro analysis tools that can be used in people practice to explore an organisation’s micro and macro environment and how those identified might be applied to diagnose future issues, challenges and opportunities.

All organisations are affected by either internal or external factors. These factors are part of the general organisational environment, and they should be analysed to establish their impacts on the business. There is a range of tools used in people practice, and they include strategic reviews, future states analysis, SWOT analysis, Ansoff matrix, Fishbone analysis, among others. Analysis methods that can be used to assess an organisation’s micro and macro environments include observations, interviews, job analysis, work sampling and use of questionnaires.

An organisation’s micro-environment refers to the immediate factors or environment that comprises suppliers, customers, competitors and stakeholders (Summer, 2019). They are internal factors that are likely to impact an organisation. Micro-environments can be assessed using the microanalysis tools such as porter’s five forces analytical tool. Macro-environment, on the other side, refers to the more general factors influencing businesses (Summer, 2019). Macro- environments are external factors that impact an organisation’s activities and productivity, but that organisation has no control over it. The macro-environment factors include economic issues, political forces, technological advancements, natural and physical occurrences, and legal factors. An example of a tool used for the analysis of macro-environment factor is the PESTLE analysis tool.

The SWOT analysis tool evaluates both internal and external factors that can influence an organisation. SWOT stands for strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. While strengths and weaknesses focus on internal organisational aspects, threats and opportunities focus on external issues that can impact an organisation. The SWOT tool is simple to use and can be used in organisations making an entrance into new markets.

Porter’s five analysis tool was developed by Michael Porter to assess and evaluate the competitive strength of a business (Bruijl, 2018). The model is built on five principles that can be used to assess microenvironments within an organisation. Michael Porter described the five forces: Buyers bargaining power, the threat of entry, suppliers bargaining power, competition from rivalries, and threats by substitutes. Figure 1 below gives a summary of the five forces.

As the acronym suggests, the PESTLE analysis analyses the political, economic, social, technological, legal and environmental factors (Downey, 2007). Trade regulations and policies, and diplomatic tensions are some of the political factors likely to impact an organisation’s performance. It is essential to understand that organisations in the UK are governed by policies and regulations formulated by trade unions and other regulatory bodies. Therefore, the HR department must ensure that an organisation is compliant with all the regulations. HR should also be constantly updated on changes in regulations that are likely to impact an organisation.

One of the biggest external influences for any business is the state of the economy. HR should monitor the shifts in economic trends resulting from changes in global financial status. Economic factors such as inflation, demand and supply, interest rates and exchange rates have direct impacts on organisations. HR should notify the management of the existing economic trends to prepare them for any economic changes. Socially, an organisations performance can be affected by the availability of the workforce. It is HR’s responsibility to come up with a recruiting strategy that will attract the best talent to perform organisational duties. Technological factors include impacts of acquiring new technology, which may result in downsizing or recruiting a skilled workforce. HR is responsible for advising the management on the necessary changes that would make the technological changes beneficial to the organisation and retain a workforce that has adequate knowledge of the technological changes.

Legal factors comprise rules and regulations impacting people practice. HR practitioners should ensure that the organisation is compliant and the existing policies and procedures are compliant with the country’s regulatory standards (Friedman, 2013). The last ‘E’ of the PESTLE tool represents environmental factors, which refer to an all-natural occurring element that may influence people practice. The global market is stimulated to align with the sustainable development goals. It is the HR’s duty to ensure that the organisation is compliant and has environmental sustainability policies incorporated in its daily operations.

AC 1.3. Explain the principles of critical thinking and give examples of how you apply these yourself when relating to your own and others’ ideas to assist objective and rational debate.

Critical thinking is a skill that enables people to think well and reflect on ideas, opinions and arguments objectively (Howlett and Coburn, 2019). It involves objectively analysing and evaluating people practice issues to form a judgement. Based on the definition, various critical thinking principles are based on rational, unbiased analysis evaluation of factual information and sceptical analysis. Objective, rational thinking relates to being logically correct. This principle allows for the differentiation between issues and statements that are logically true or false. Walters adds that rational, objective thinking utilises logic and other cognitive acts such as imagination, creativity, and insights.

In people practice, various principles of critical thinking can be applied to different situations. When applying critical thinking to the decision-making process, HR practitioners must ensure that they understand the issue and differentiate between facts and opinions. Evidence-based decisions are based on the critical thinking principle of validity of evidence to eliminate bias.

AC 1.4 Assess at least two different ethical theories and perspectives.

Utilitarianism ethical theory is used to determine right from wrong by focusing on the outcome (Driver, 2009). It is one of the most commonly used persuasive methods to normative ethics. This theory is based on the consequence, and it suggests that the most ethical choice is the one that will produce the greatest good. This theory can be used to inform and influence effective decision making when the decision made will result in a positive outcome for most employees or organisation at large. To illustrate this, Covid 19 pandemic has impacted many organisations and thus necessitated cheap labour. HR practitioners are faced with the dilemma of laying off employees and employees new employees at a cheaper cost. While this may not be ethically right, it will benefit organisational sustainability, especially for businesses affected by the pandemic.  This theory does not account for justice or any individual rights.

Kantianism or Kant’s moral theory, on the other hand, believes that certain actions are prohibited even if the consequence is happiness. It is an example of a deontological moral theory whose principle is not on the consequence of the action but on individual moral duty (Anscombe, 2005). The theory is based on an individual’s ability to act according to the categorical moral imperatives, which are universal. This theory suggests that decisions should be made based on the moral obligation to individuals and society. Thus the decision will be ethically correct (Chonko, 2012).

Use of Theories to inform and influence effective decision-making.

The decision making theories have a significant influence on the decision-making process. Sound ethical decisions need to be sensitive to good ethical practices. While the theories are divided into three frameworks, HR should be responsible for most ethical obligations in an organisation. The ethical frameworks built around ethical theories include the consequentialist framework, the duty framework and the virtue framework. Using the three frameworks to analyse a situation before making a decision allows the decision-maker to have a clearer perspective of the issue and thus come up with a sound decision sensitive to ethical implications and parties involved (Bonde and Firenze, 2011). The figure below gives a summary of different ethical theories, including their advantages and disadvantages.

AC 2.3 Explain a range of decision-making approaches that could be used to identify possible solutions to a specific issue relating to people practice

HR practitioners play a critical role in the decision-making process of an organisation. Based on HR practitioners’ different functions, different decision-making approaches could be used to find possible solutions for various problems. Some of the decision making processes used by HR include the best fit, future pacing, problem-outcome frame, action learning approaches and de Bono (Six Thinking hats). While one process can be used to solve various HR problems, different issues may require different decision-making approaches.

De Bono (six thinking hats) is a decision-making approach that Edward De Bono developed in 1985. It is a good decision-making approach for group discussions and personal thinking because it involves a combined parallel process. Each of the six hats is metaphors for six different ways of thinking. Mentally wearing different thinking hats results in people looking at problems differently and coming up with different solutions—the six different mind frames as elaborated by Edwards different shapes of the hat and different colours. The white colour represents decisions based on facts. The red colour represents decisions based on emotions. Black represents judgmental decisions, yellow positive view or decisions based on a positive perspective, green decisions based on creativity and blue are thinking decisions (Mulder, 2019). Managers and HR practitioners can switch from one hat to another during a decision making process. The thinking hats are essential for helping people think more deeply concerning specific issues and come up with informed decisions.

Framing problems and outcome is another decision-making approach that can be used to identify the various solution to people specific problems. Framing comprises a schema of interpretations that different individuals depend on to understand and respond to situations. Different diagnosis and framing of problems may result in difficulties when solving the problems. It is essential for HR practitioners to frame their organisational problems to achieve the desired outcome accurately. For example, turnover in an organisation may be framed as an individual problem, an HR problem or a management problem, depending on how it is evaluated.

AC 2.4 As a worked example to illustrate the points made in 2.3, take the same people to practice issues, explain the relevant evidence that you have reviewed and use one or more decision-making tools

Decision making in people practice is continuous throughout the employees’ lifecycle in an organisation. One issue in people practice that requires effective decision making is compensation. Increasing employee compensation is a decision that should be thought through because there are various factors that influence the decision. While performance analysis is essential for determining compensation, other factors such as minimum wage, external markets and industrial payment rates are other factors that should be considered.

Attracting and retaining talent is a people specific area that may face various challenges. Competition for the most talented and qualified employees is evident in both public and private industries. Recruiting a sustainable workforce is essential for effective organisational performance and sustainability. However, competitive wages and rewards may influence turnover and the loss of the best talent pool. The HR is tasked with tough decisions on the best approaches to enhance retention and attract the best talent pool during recruitment. The framing-outcome approach of decision making can be utilised to solve retention and recruitment challenges. The HR can identify specific issues causing turnover, ranging from salaries and wages, organisational culture to the need for career growth. Framing the cause of the problem will enable HR to develop a solution that will result in the desired outcome.

AC 3.1 Appraise different ways organisations measure financial and non-financial performance.

Good performance management is critical for an organisation’s success (Gifford, 2020). Performance management aims at monitoring, maintaining and improving employee performance and aligning them to organisational objectives. However, there are different ways through which organisations can measure their performance. Monitoring performance is essential for the decision-making process as it forms part of the evidence-based practice in people management.

Performance in an organisation can be measured by the use of financial and non-financial indicators. Financial indicators include revenues, gross and net profits, cash flows, return on investments, and productivity. Gross and net profit margins are profitability ratios used to identify a company’s profitability. The working capital is the measure of the available operating liquidity used to fund the daily operations. Cash flow is a financial indicator that indicates the amount of money a business has as a result of its operations. Operating cash flow is often found in the cash flow statements.

Non-financial performance indicators include customer feedback, legal compliance, sector ratings, employee feedback, among others. Customer feedback and customer retention are essential non-financial performance indicators because they directly impact customer retention. Customer retention is as necessary as customer attraction. Retention is essential for establishing the number of customers that are satisfied with a particular product or service, while feedback enables an organisation to identify areas for improvement. Human capital can also be used to measure organisational performance. Based on the employee survey, an organisation can establish its performance based on the skilled employees’ ratio against unskilled labour.

The primary advantage of using non-financial measures is that they result in better compliance with long-term corporate strategy. Non-financial measures take into account different intangible assets and provide adequate information on various operations’ effectiveness (Ahrens and Chapman, 2007). The disadvantages of no-financial measures are that they are expensive to conduct and can consume a lot of time. The advantages of using financial measures are that they are accurate and can be easily monitored. The disadvantage is that they are short –term in nature and are not effective for long term strategic planning.

TASK TWO: DATA ANALYSIS AND REVIEW

AC 2.1 Use one analytical tool to review the two data sets to reveal any themes, patterns and trends.

There are various HR analytical tools that can be used to assess and evaluate data. This section utilised Microsoft excel to conduct a data analysis of the provided information. Graph 1 below is a summary of feedback obtained from employees on their line managers. Of the 256 respondents 250 disagreed that line managers delegated authority, 245 were of the opinion that line managers do not communicate reasons for change and decisions. Two hundred nineteen respondents said that the line managers were not approachable. The three categories mentioned above had the highest numbers of respondents giving a negative review concerning their line managers. As indicated in graph 1 below, the highest number of respondents disagreed with the most positive attributes that were accorded to their line managers.

A pie chart representation of data is a circular graph, as shown above. The slices of the pie represent variables that, when combined, should produce the total number. For example, the total number of employees who responded to questions was 256. On the issue of support by line managers, 156 employees disagreed, and 100 agreed. The graph above provides a visual representation of this information in percentile. Pie charts are easy to read and understand. They also visually represent data as part a fractional part of the whole.

Analysis of Employee Feedback

Of the 145 responses from customers, 143 respondents agreed that the products’ packaging was good and acceptable in protecting the goods. One hundred forty-two customers had issues with how their initial enquiries were handled; 114 felt that the range of goods and products was insufficient to meet their needs

The general trend implied by the data collected indicates a performance gap between employees and their line managers. The gap impacts performance, as evidenced by customer feedback. Based on the findings, line managers need to incorporate employees in their decision-making process. Line managers should also promote a positive organisational culture where employees feel valued and appreciated.

AC 3.2 Identify the critical systems and data used within effective people practices to give insights by measuring work and people performance.

According to CIPD (2020), people data and analytics can help HR and other managers in an organisation to solve business problems and make decisions. There are different types of data that are effective for measuring and giving insight into people practice. Qualitative data contains information on the human observation of behaviours, habits, skills and other employee factors that may influence performance. This data offers an in-depth understanding of issues and descriptive information using words to express various issues. Qualitative data can be used to measure work and people performance by utilising tools such as brainstorming, surveys and interviews. Qualitative data on employee turnover can be obtained in brainstorming sessions or through exit interviews.

Quantitative data, on the other hand, uses numbers and figures to illustrate performance. While quantitative data may be more specific and dependable, it is short term in nature. Quantitative data can be used to establish and keep records of weekly work hours, retention rates, number of employees and their age.  This data can be collected by various HR analytical software’s that analyse the information.

AC 3.4 Explain how people practices add value in an organisation and identify methods that might be used to measure the impact of people practices.

The creation of value in an organisation may be influenced by the need to grow and expand, return on investment, or satisfy customer’s needs (Payal Sondhi, 2018). Creating value can be achieved by effectively utilising human potential. The primary objective of good people management practices is to create value for the organisation and its employees as well as the surrounding community. Value creation can be based on income earned or the development of a sense of purpose for the employees. The value created for the society could be attained as sustainability and high-quality life. Organisations capture the value they would like to attain in the organisations mission and strategy.  Real business value is captured in drivers that impact an organisation’s business objectives (Brugman and Dijk, 2020).

Other than 360 feedback, some other methods and tools can be used to measure the impact and value of people practice. Measuring value and impact is essential for ensuring that business objectives are being achieved. It can also ensure that there are people who practice contribution in an organisation, justify spending on various functions of HR, continuously improve people practice and identify organisational needs and gaps left to enable informed business decisions.

The cost-benefit analysis tool is essential for analysing the decision that should be implemented and should be foregone. It is the process that sums up potential rewards expected from an action then subtracts the total cost associated with that action (Hayes And Anderson, 2021). For example, all employees whose performance was considered high received a bonus of £400.00. According to the statistical data provided, a total of 245 employees are entitled to bonus payments. Therefore, the total amount of money that the company would spend on bonus is £ 98,000.00. However, the allocated budget was £75,000.00. If all employees received the bonus, the organisation would have spent £23,000.00 more than the intended amount.

Based on the cost-benefit analysis of the situation, the bonus amount should be reduced to fit the set budget. Alternatively, other reward packages, both intrinsic and extrinsic, can be used to reward high performing employees. The company can also enhance its performance by rewarding employees with a high five and six score. By doing so, employees with a score of five might enhance their performance, which influences organisational performance.

Return on investment is a measuring tool that can be used to measure the probability of gaining a return from a particular investment. ROI is a ratio that compares gains and losses in relation to cost. ROI is used for the evaluation of potential returns from an investment. In the case above, the return would be a loss because the allocated budget was exceeded. ROI is expressed as a percentage because it becomes easier to understand.

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