operant conditioning reflective essay

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What Is Operant Conditioning?

How Reinforcement and Punishment Modify Behavior

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

• Behavior Types

Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as  instrumental conditioning , is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior.

For example, when lab rats press a lever when a green light is on, they receive a food pellet as a reward. When they press the lever when a red light is on, they receive a mild electric shock. As a result, they learn to press the lever when the green light is on and avoid the red light.

But operant conditioning is not just something that takes place in experimental settings while training lab animals. It also plays a powerful role in everyday learning. Reinforcement and punishment take place in natural settings all the time, as well as in more structured settings such as classrooms or therapy sessions.

The History of Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning was first described by behaviorist  B.F. Skinner , which is why you may occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning. As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that it was not really necessary to look at internal thoughts and motivations in order to explain behavior. Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human behavior.

Through the first part of the 20th century, behaviorism became a major force within psychology. The ideas of  John B. Watson  dominated this school of thought early on. Watson focused on the principles of  classical conditioning , once famously suggesting that he could take any person regardless of their background and train them to be anything he chose.

Early behaviorists focused their interests on associative learning. Skinner was more interested in how the  consequences  of people's actions influenced their behavior.

Skinner used the term  operant  to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences." Skinner's theory explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit every day.

His theory was heavily influenced by the work of psychologist  Edward Thorndike , who had proposed what he called the  law of effect .   According to this principle, actions that are followed by desirable outcomes are more likely to be repeated while those followed by undesirable outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

Operant conditioning relies on a fairly simple premise: Actions that are followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to occur again in the future. If you tell a funny story in class and everybody laughs, you will probably be more likely to tell that story again in the future.

If you raise your hand to ask a question and your teacher praises your polite behavior, you will be more likely to raise your hand the next time you have a question or comment. Because the behavior was followed by reinforcement, or a desirable outcome, the preceding action is strengthened.

Conversely, actions that result in punishment or undesirable consequences will be weakened and less likely to occur again in the future. If you tell the same story again in another class but nobody laughs this time, you will be less likely to repeat the story again in the future. If you shout out an answer in class and your teacher scolds you, then you might be less likely to interrupt the class again.

Types of Behaviors

Skinner distinguished between two different types of behaviors

• Respondent behaviors are those that occur automatically and reflexively, such as pulling your hand back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on your knee. You don't have to learn these behaviors. They simply occur automatically and involuntarily.
• Operant behaviors , on the other hand, are those under our conscious control. Some may occur spontaneously and others purposely, but it is the consequences of these actions that then influence whether or not they occur again in the future. Our actions on the environment and the consequences of that action make up an important part of the  learning process .

While classical conditioning could account for respondent behaviors, Skinner realized that it could not account for a great deal of learning. Instead, Skinner suggested that operant conditioning held far greater importance.

Skinner invented different devices during his boyhood and he put these skills to work during his studies on operant conditioning. He created a device known as an operant conditioning chamber, often referred to today as a  Skinner box . The chamber could hold a small animal, such as a rat or pigeon. The box also contained a bar or key that the animal could press in order to receive a reward.

In order to track responses, Skinner also developed a device known as a cumulative recorder. The device recorded responses as an upward movement of a line so that response rates could be read by looking at the slope of the line.

Components of Operant Conditioning

There are several key concepts in operant conditioning. The type of reinforcement or punishment that is used can have an effect on how the individual responds and the effect of conditioning. There are four types of operant conditioning that can be utilized to change behavior: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment.

Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

• Positive reinforcers  are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In positive reinforcement situations, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of praise or a direct reward. If you do a good job at work and your manager gives you a bonus, that bonus is a positive reinforcer.
• Negative reinforcers  involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. For example, if your child starts to scream in the middle of a restaurant, but stops once you hand them a treat, your action led to the removal of the unpleasant condition, negatively reinforcing your behavior (not your child's).

Punishment in Operant Conditioning

Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment. In both of these cases, the behavior decreases.

• Positive punishment , sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Spanking for misbehavior is an example of punishment by application.
• Negative punishment , also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a child's video game following misbehavior is an example of negative punishment.

The five principles of operant conditioning are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment, and extinction. Extinction occurs when a response is no longer reinforced or punished, which can lead to the fading and disappearance of the behavior.

Operant Conditioning Reinforcement Schedules

Reinforcement is not necessarily a straightforward process, and there are a number of factors that can influence how quickly and how well new things are learned. Skinner found that when and how often behaviors were reinforced played a role in the speed and strength of acquisition . In other words, the timing and frequency of reinforcement influenced how new behaviors were learned and how old behaviors were modified.

Skinner identified several different schedules of reinforcement that impact the operant conditioning process:

• Continuous reinforcement  involves delivering a reinforcement every time a response occurs. Learning tends to occur relatively quickly, yet the response rate is quite low. Extinction also occurs very quickly once reinforcement is halted.
• Fixed-ratio schedules are a type of partial reinforcement. Responses are reinforced only after a specific number of responses have occurred. This typically leads to a fairly steady response rate.
• Fixed-interval schedules are another form of partial reinforcement. Reinforcement occurs only after a certain interval of time has elapsed. Response rates remain fairly steady and start to increase as the reinforcement time draws near, but slow immediately after the reinforcement has been delivered.
• Variable-ratio schedules are also a type of partial reinforcement that involve reinforcing behavior after a varied number of responses. This leads to both a high response rate and slow extinction rates.
• Variable-interval schedules  are the final form of partial reinforcement Skinner described. This schedule involves delivering reinforcement after a variable amount of time has elapsed. This also tends to lead to a fast response rate and slow extinction rate.

Examples of Operant Conditioning

We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing projects to receive praise or promotions. More examples of operant conditioning in action include:

• After performing in a community theater play, you receive applause from the audience. This acts as a positive reinforcer , inspiring you to try out for more performance roles.
• You train your dog to fetch by offering him praise and a pat on the head whenever he performs the behavior correctly. This is another positive reinforcer .
• A professor tells students that if they have perfect attendance all semester, then they do not have to take the final comprehensive exam. By removing an unpleasant stimulus (the final test), students are negatively reinforced to attend class regularly.
• If you fail to hand in a project on time, your boss becomes angry and berates your performance in front of your co-workers. This acts as a positive punisher , making it less likely that you will finish projects late in the future.
• A teen girl does not clean up her room as she was asked, so her parents take away her phone for the rest of the day. This is an example of a negative punishment in which a positive stimulus is taken away.

In some of these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior. Operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior via the removal of a desirable outcome or the application of a negative outcome.

For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.

A Word From Verywell

While behaviorism may have lost much of the dominance it held during the early part of the 20th century, operant conditioning remains an important and often used tool in the learning and behavior modification process. Sometimes natural consequences lead to changes in our behavior. In other instances, rewards and punishments may be consciously doled out in order to create a change.

Operant conditioning is something you may immediately recognize in your own life, whether it is in your approach to teaching your children good behavior or in training the family dog. Remember that any type of learning takes time. Consider the type of reinforcement or punishment that may work best for your unique situation and assess which type of reinforcement schedule might lead to the best results.

Staddon JE, Cerutti DT. Operant conditioning . Annu Rev Psychol. 2003;54:115-44. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145124

Rilling M. How the challenge of explaining learning influenced the origins and development of John B. Watson's behaviorism . Am J Psychol . 2000;113(2):275-301.

Athalye VR, Santos FJ, Carmena JM, Costa RM. Evidence for a neural law of effect . Science . 2018;359(6379):1024-1029. doi:10.1126/science.aao6058

Killeen PR, Posadas-Sanchez D, Johansen EB, Thrailkill EA. Progressive ratio schedules of reinforcement . J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process. 2009;35(1):35-50. doi:10.1037/a0012497

Coon, D & Mitterer, JO. Psychology: A Journey. Wadsworth, 2014.

Domjan, M. The Principles of Learning and Behavior, Seventh Edition. Cengage Learning, 2015.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

What Is Operant Conditioning? Definition and Examples

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• Ph.D., Psychology, Fielding Graduate University
• M.A., Psychology, Fielding Graduate University
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Operant conditioning occurs when an association is made between a particular behavior and a consequence for that behavior. This association is built upon the use of reinforcement and/or punishment to encourage or discourage behavior. Operant conditioning was first defined and studied by behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner, who conducted several well-known operant conditioning experiments with animal subjects.

Key Takeaways: Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning is the process of learning through reinforcement and punishment.
• In operant conditioning, behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on the consequences of that behavior.
• Operant conditioning was defined and studied by behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner.

B.F. Skinner was a behaviorist , which means he believed that psychology should be limited to the study of observable behaviors. While other behaviorists, like John B. Watson, focused on classical conditioning, Skinner was more interested in the learning that happened through operant conditioning.

He observed that in classical conditioning responses tend to be triggered by innate reflexes that occur automatically. He called this kind of behavior respondent . He distinguished respondent behavior from operant behavior . Operant behavior was the term Skinner used to describe a behavior that is reinforced by the consequences that follow it. Those consequences play an important role in whether or not a behavior is performed again.

Skinner’s ideas were based on Edward Thorndike’s law of effect, which stated that behavior that elicits positive consequences will probably be repeated, while behavior that elicits negative consequences will probably not be repeated. Skinner introduced the concept of reinforcement into Thorndike’s ideas, specifying that behavior that is reinforced will probably be repeated (or strengthened).

To study operant conditioning, Skinner conducted experiments using a “Skinner Box,” a small box that had a lever at one end that would provide food or water when pressed. An animal, like a pigeon or rat, was placed in the box where it was free to move around. Eventually the animal would press the lever and be rewarded. Skinner found that this process resulted in the animal pressing the lever more frequently. Skinner would measure learning by tracking the rate of the animal’s responses when those responses were reinforced.

Reinforcement and Punishment

Through his experiments, Skinner identified the different kinds of reinforcement and punishment that encourage or discourage behavior.

Reinforcement

Reinforcement that closely follows a behavior will encourage and strengthen that behavior. There are two types of reinforcement:

• Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior results in a favorable outcome, e.g. a dog receiving a treat after obeying a command, or a student receiving a compliment from the teacher after behaving well in class. These techniques increase the likelihood that the individual will repeat the desired behavior in order to receive the reward again.
• Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior results in the removal of an unfavorable experience, e.g. an experimenter ceasing to give a monkey electric shocks when the monkey presses a certain lever. In this case, the lever-pressing behavior is reinforced because the monkey will want to remove the unfavorable electric shocks again.

In addition, Skinner identified two different kinds of reinforcers.

• Primary reinforcers naturally reinforce behavior because they are innately desirable, e.g. food.
• Conditioned reinforcers reinforce behavior not because they are innately desirable, but because we learn to associate them with primary reinforcers. For example, Paper money is not innately desirable, but it can be used to acquire innately desirable goods, such as food and shelter.

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. When punishment follows a behavior, it discourages and weakens that behavior. There are two kinds of punishment.

• Positive punishment (or punishment by application) occurs when a behavior is followed by an unfavorable outcome, e.g. a parent spanking a child after the child uses a curse word.
• Negative punishment (or punishment by removal) occurs when a behavior leads to the removal of something favorable, e.g. a parent who denies a child their weekly allowance because the child has misbehaved.

Although punishment is still widely used, Skinner and many other researchers found that punishment is not always effective. Punishment can suppress a behavior for a time, but the undesired behavior tends to come back in the long run. Punishment can also have unwanted side effects. For example, a child who is punished by a teacher may become uncertain and fearful because they don’t know exactly what to do to avoid future punishments.

Instead of punishment, Skinner and others suggested reinforcing desired behaviors and ignoring unwanted behaviors. Reinforcement tells an individual what behavior is desired, while punishment only tells the individual what behavior isn’t desired.

Behavior Shaping

Operant conditioning can lead to increasingly complex behaviors through shaping , also referred to as the “method of approximations.” Shaping happens in a step-by-step fashion as each part of a more intricate behavior is reinforced. Shaping starts by reinforcing the first part of the behavior. Once that piece of the behavior is mastered, reinforcement only happens when the second part of the behavior occurs. This pattern of reinforcement is continued until the entire behavior is mastered.

For example, when a child is taught to swim, she may initially be praised just for getting in the water. She is praised again when she learns to kick, and again when she learns specific arm strokes. Finally, she is praised for propelling herself through the water by performing a specific stroke and kicking at the same time. Through this process, an entire behavior has been shaped. 

Schedules of Reinforcement

In the real world, behavior is not constantly reinforced. Skinner found that the frequency of reinforcement can impact how quickly and how successfully one learns a new behavior. He specified several reinforcement schedules, each with different timing and frequencies.

• Continuous reinforcement occurs when a particular response follows each and every performance of a given behavior. Learning happens rapidly with continuous reinforcement. However, if reinforcement is stopped, the behavior will quickly decline and ultimately stop altogether, which is referred to as extinction.
• Fixed-ratio schedules reward behavior after a specified number of responses. For example, a child may get a star after every fifth chore they complete. On this schedule, the response rate slows right after the reward is delivered.
• Variable-ratio schedules vary the number of behaviors required to get a reward. This schedule leads to a high rate of responses and is also hard to extinguish because its variability maintains the behavior. Slot machines use this kind of reinforcement schedule.
• Fixed-interval schedules provide a reward after a specific amount of time passes. Getting paid by the hour is one example of this kind of reinforcement schedule. Much like the fixed-ratio schedule, the response rate increases as the reward approaches but slows down right after the reward is received.
• Variable-interval schedules vary the amount of time between rewards. For example, a child who receives an allowance at various times during the week as long as they’ve exhibited some positive behaviors is on a variable-interval schedule. The child will continue to exhibit positive behavior in anticipation of eventually receiving their allowance.

Examples of Operant Conditioning

If you’ve ever trained a pet or taught a child, you have likely used operant conditioning in your own life. Operant conditioning is still frequently used in various real-world circumstances, including in the classroom and in therapeutic settings.

For example, a teacher might reinforce students doing their homework regularly by periodically giving pop quizzes that ask questions similar to recent homework assignments. Also, if a child throws a temper tantrum to get attention, the parent can ignore the behavior and then acknowledge the child again once the tantrum has ended.

Operant conditioning is also used in behavior modification , an approach to the treatment of numerous issues in adults and children, including phobias, anxiety, bedwetting, and many others. One way behavior modification can be implemented is through a token economy , in which desired behaviors are reinforced by tokens in the form of digital badges, buttons, chips, stickers, or other objects. Eventually these tokens can be exchanged for real rewards.

While operant conditioning can explain many behaviors and is still widely used, there are several criticisms of the process. First, operant conditioning is accused of being an incomplete explanation for learning because it neglects the role of biological and cognitive elements.

In addition, operant conditioning is reliant upon an authority figure to reinforce behavior and ignores the role of curiosity and an individual's ability to make his or her own discoveries. Critics object to operant conditioning's emphasis on controlling and manipulating behavior, arguing that they can lead to authoritarian practices. Skinner believed that environments naturally control behavior, however, and that people can choose to use that knowledge for good or ill.

Finally, because Skinner’s observations about operant conditioning relied on experiments with animals, he is criticized for extrapolating from his animal studies to make predictions about human behavior. Some psychologists believe this kind of generalization is flawed because humans and non-human animals are physically and cognitively different.

• Cherry, Kendra. “What is Operant Conditioning and How Does it Work?” Verywell Mind , 2 October 2018. https://www.verywellmind.com/operant-conditioning-a2-2794863
• Crain, William. Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. 5th ed., Pearson Prentice Hall. 2005.
• Goldman, Jason G. “What is Operant Conditioning? (And How Does It Explain Driving Dogs?)” Scientific American , 13 December 2012. https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/thoughtful-animal/what-is-operant-conditioning-and-how-does-it-explain-driving-dogs/
• McLeod, Saul. “Skinner – Operant Conditioning.” Simply Psychology , 21 January 2018. https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html#class
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Operant Conditioning Essay

Operant Conditioning

has developed, so has our understanding of how organisms learn and how we can apply that to our lives. One method of teaching is operant conditioning, giving either rewards or punishments after a certain behavior to promote or discourage it. This method could be used to teach children; for example, teaching children to say please when asking for items. Operant conditioning relies on consequences to behaviors, and one of the consequences is reinforcement. Reinforcement has two options: positive and

modification program based on the principles of operant conditioning which will get him started towards his goal. Explaine how you will measure your roommates progress and what schedules of reinforcement will be included in your program. Operant conditioning is one’s attempt to modify behaviors which are generally voluntary in nature and can be maintained by consequences/responses as opposed to classic conditioning that can deal with the conditioning of the automatic/reflexive behavior which are not

Operant Conditioning Paper

Introduction Operant conditioning is described as the way of learning in which the future likelihood of a particular behavior is affected by it consequences. Interested in animal intelligence, the first experimental studies of operant conditioning were attempted by Edwin L. Thorndike in the 1890s (Powell, Honey, & Symbaluk, 2013). Of the many experiments Thorndike conducted with animals, the most famous experiment involved cats (Powell, Honey, & Symbaluk, 2013). Thorndike placed cats in an enclosed

Operant Vs. Operant Conditioning

Operant Learning Model Operant conditioning is best described as the process that attempts to modify behavior through the use of positive and negative reinforcement. During this process the subject you are working with either animal or human learns to perform a specific task, through the use of positive or negative reinforcement (Chance, 2014). This model is best suited for teaching Ben the appropriate behavior as it relates to stealing. Operant conditioning will be used to teach Ben not to steal;

Example Of Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is one kind of learning process demonstrated by B.F. Skinner that changes the behavior through the use of reinforcement and punishment. A behavior can change as a result of the individual response to stimuli that occur in the environment. According to Staddon and Cerutti (2003), operant behavior described by Skinner as a behavior that “controlled by its consequences is in practice little different from what had previously been termed instrumental learning and what most people

The Theory Of Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. For example, when a lab rat presses a blue button, he receives a food pellet as a reward, but when he presses the red button he receives a mild electric shock. As a result, he learns to press the blue button but avoid the red button. The

Advantages Of Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning has its weaknesses as it only focuses on visible reasons why a human would behave such. Skinner recommendation was only to focus on visible possibilities without studying the inside behaviour of one. Operant explanation of being such is, his belief that inner thinking and persuasion cannot be used to rationalise actions. I would disagree on this as, I personally belief that, how we think is how we act. Motivation and thoughts one has, would definitely affect ones behaviour be

Principle Of Operant Conditioning

Principle The psychology principle I want to elaborate is operant conditioning, also referred to as instrumental conditioning. Operant conditioning is defined as learned voluntary behavior that is increased by reinforcement or decreased by punishment. This behavior itself is known as operant behavior. Following the behavior there will be a reinforcer, which increases the reoccurrence of desired behavior. Alternatively, the behavior may result in a punisher, which decreases the reoccurrence of undesired

Operant Conditioning: Procrastination The principals of operant conditioning, teaches how having certain coping techniques can reward certain undesirable behaviors. Conditioning human behavior has been studied for many years, Psychologists Edward Thorndike and B.F. Skinner, have dedicated majority of their lives to the study. Thorndike’s theory Law of effect. Thorndike suggest that certain stimuli and response become connected or dissociated from each other. His experiment worked by placing a cat

Operant Conditioning Examples

EXAMPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING Example of Operant conditioning, is when you decided to snooze the alarm in the morning after partying all night long. Finally you decide to get up to go to work you are running 15 min late. And decide to step on gas pedal. You are now driving 50 mph on a 35 mph road. You think you are fine and won 't get caught because everyone else is driving fast also. All of sudden a cop is hidden in between the trees and bushes. You try to brake, in order to slow down a bit,

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6.1 What Is Learning?

Instincts and reflexes are innate behaviors—they occur naturally and do not involve learning. In contrast, learning is a change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience. There are three main types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning where associations are made between events that occur together. Observational learning is just as it sounds: learning by observing others.

6.2 Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s pioneering work with dogs contributed greatly to what we know about learning. His experiments explored the type of associative learning we now call classical conditioning. In classical conditioning, organisms learn to associate events that repeatedly happen together, and researchers study how a reflexive response to a stimulus can be mapped to a different stimulus—by training an association between the two stimuli. Pavlov’s experiments show how stimulus-response bonds are formed. Watson, the founder of behaviorism, was greatly influenced by Pavlov’s work. He tested humans by conditioning fear in an infant known as Little Albert. His findings suggest that classical conditioning can explain how some fears develop.

6.3 Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is based on the work of B. F. Skinner. Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the motivation for a behavior happens after the behavior is demonstrated. An animal or a human receives a consequence after performing a specific behavior. The consequence is either a reinforcer or a punisher. All reinforcement (positive or negative) increases the likelihood of a behavioral response. All punishment (positive or negative) decreases the likelihood of a behavioral response. Several types of reinforcement schedules are used to reward behavior depending on either a set or variable period of time.

6.4 Observational Learning (Modeling)

According to Bandura, learning can occur by watching others and then modeling what they do or say. This is known as observational learning. There are specific steps in the process of modeling that must be followed if learning is to be successful. These steps include attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Through modeling, Bandura has shown that children learn many things both good and bad simply by watching their parents, siblings, and others.

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Atozmath review, classical vs operant conditioning.

The following review example can serve as a guide for students trying to find inspiration when writing an assignment on “Classical and operant conditioning”.

Classical and operant conditioning are two core concepts in behavioral psychology, each playing a crucial role in understanding how humans and animals adapt to their environments. Despite some similarities, these forms of conditioning have distinct differences. Understanding these differences is key to utilizing them effectively in various settings, including education, parenting, and animal training.

Behavioral psychology has significantly advanced our understanding of learning and behavior. Central to this field are the concepts of classical and operant conditioning, each offering a unique perspective on how behavior is learned and modified. While they share the common goal of facilitating learning and adaptation, their approaches and mechanisms differ significantly. This article delves into these differences, providing definitions, explanations, and examples to illustrate their distinct roles in behavior modification.

Operant vs Classical conditioning

Ever wonder if our actions are more like an echo or a choice? This question opens the door to understanding operant and classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is like an echo – an automatic response to a familiar sound. It’s a natural reaction, not chosen but developed through repeated experiences, like jumping at the sound of thunder. Operant conditioning, however, is about choices, like navigating a maze. It’s learning through trial and error, guided by the rewards and consequences of our actions, akin to choosing a path based on the signs of success or warning.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning, first described by Ivan Pavlov, focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors. It involves creating an association between a naturally occurring stimulus and a previously neutral one. In Pavlov’s famous experiment, dogs were conditioned to salivate in response to a bell, a neutral stimulus, after it was repeatedly paired with food, an unconditioned stimulus. This form of conditioning underlines how an involuntary response (salivation) can be elicited by a previously neutral stimulus (bell sound).

Examples of classical conditioning in everyday life

Classical conditioning occurs in everyday scenarios, often without our conscious awareness. For instance, if a person feels anxious every time they enter a doctor’s office due to past painful experiences, the doctor’s office (neutral stimulus) has become associated with discomfort (unconditioned stimulus), eliciting anxiety (conditioned response).

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning, introduced by B. F. Skinner, is centered around voluntary behaviors and their consequences. It involves the use of reinforcement or punishment to either increase or decrease a behavior. Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning requires active participation from the learner. For example, a dog is rewarded for fetching a ball, thereby increasing the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.

Examples of operant conditioning in everyday life 

Operant conditioning is widely used in educational settings, such as teachers rewarding students for good behavior to encourage its repetition. Similarly, parents might use time-outs (a form of punishment) to reduce undesirable behaviors in children.

Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning

While both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning, they differ in key aspects:

• Nature of Behavior: Classical conditioning deals with involuntary responses (e.g., salivating), while operant conditioning involves voluntary behaviors (e.g., fetching a ball).
• Role of the Learner: In classical conditioning, the learner is passive, responding to the association between stimuli. In contrast, operant conditioning requires active participation from the learner.
• Stimulus-Response Relationship: Classical conditioning links an involuntary response with a stimulus. Operant conditioning, however, associates a voluntary behavior with a consequence (reinforcement or punishment).

Final Thoughts

Understanding the nuances between classical and operant conditioning is essential for effectively applying these principles in various fields, from education to behavioral therapy. While they share similarities in their associative learning processes, their differences in addressing involuntary versus voluntary behaviors, the learner’s role, and the nature of stimulus-response relationships set them apart. This knowledge not only aids in practical applications but also enriches our understanding of the complex nature of learning and behavior modification.

What is an example of classical and operant conditioning?

An example of classical conditioning is Pavlov’s dogs, where dogs were conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, which initially had no relevance to salivation. This was achieved by repeatedly pairing the bell sound with the presentation of food. An example of operant conditioning is training a dog to sit. When the dog sits on command, it receives a treat (positive reinforcement), increasing the likelihood of the dog sitting on command in the future.

What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning extinction?

Extinction in classical conditioning occurs when the conditioned stimulus (e.g., a bell in Pavlov’s experiment) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food), leading to a decrease in the conditioned response (e.g., salivation). In operant conditioning, extinction happens when a behavior (e.g., pressing a lever) is no longer reinforced (e.g., by removing a food reward), which gradually reduces the frequency of that behavior. Essentially, classical conditioning extinction is the breaking of an association between two stimuli, while operant conditioning extinction involves the ceasing of reinforcement or punishment.

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Essay On Compare And Contrast Classical And Operant Conditioning Essay

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Psychology , Pets , Dog , Sound , Operant Conditioning , Behavior , Training , Food

Published: 01/30/2020

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Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two concepts of learning that are integral to behavioral psychology. Although the processes differ to quite an extent, they tend to complement one another, and the ultimate result of both concepts is learning. Although both conditioning practices were pioneered by different individuals, both believed in the general principle that investigating behaviors through experiments should be the basis of psychology. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist, was the one who unintentionally discovered the concept of classical conditioning while carrying out research on canine digestive patterns. According to his findings, His findings supported the idea that we may develop unnatural responses to some stimuli (Pavlov, 1927). B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist coined the term operant conditioning based on his belief that examining at the causes and consequences of an action reveal a lot about behavior (Skinner, 1953). Thus, in classical conditioning a neutral stimuli is placed before a reflex and it focuses on automatic, involuntary behaviors, while in operant conditioning punishment or reinforcement is applied after a behavior and it focuses on voluntary behaviors.

How Does Classical Conditioning Work?

In Pavlov’s famous experiment, Pavlov observed that repeatedly pairing the sound of bell while presenting his dogs with food caused them to salivate (Pavlov, 1927). In classical conditioning, a stimulus in the learning process that was previously neutral is paired with a stimulus that is unconditioned. The unconditioned stimulus triggers a natural response, for instance, the dog had always salivated whenever the food was presented to them. However, when the neutral and unconditioned response is paired, it triggers an unnatural response; for instance, eventually the dogs began salivating merely to the sound of the bell.

How Does Operant Conditioning Work?

In operant conditioning a behavior is encouraged or discouraged by using either punishment or reinforcement. This process ends up establishing a bond between the behavior and its consequences. For instance, a trainer who is trying to teach a dog how to fetch a ball praises the dog as a reward whenever it successfully chases and brings back the ball. The trainer does not praise the dog whenever it is unsuccessful in bringing back the ball. Ultimately, the dog understands that the praise it is receiving is somehow associated with its behavior of fetching the ball successfully.

How Are Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning Different From Each Other?

Whether the behavior is involuntary or voluntary is the major aspect that distinguishes classical and operant conditioning from each other. According to classical conditioning, we tend to pair certain stimuli (Pavlov, 1927), for instance, a song to a person or a situation, and listening to the song may trigger unintentional response, in the form of perhaps happiness or sadness, merely based on the person or situation it was associated with. According to operant conditioning, we learn from our consequences in our everyday life and they shape our voluntary behavior (Skinner, 1953). For instance, we often make mistakes in life, but we usually do not voluntarily make the same mistake again because of the consequence that had occurred as a result of that mistake. These days, classical and operant conditioning are employed for numerous purposes, such as animal training, parenting, psychology, teaching, etc. While training an animal, a trainer may make use of classical conditioning by pairing the taste of food with the sound of a clicker, almost like Pavlov did. Eventually, the dog will began responding to the clicker just as it would to the taste of food. In a classroom, a teacher may use operant conditioning reward students that behave well by giving them tokens. Students will learn that they can earn behavior by behaving properly and will be encouraged to do so. A recent breakthrough in classical conditioning include that animals, especially invertebrates such as fish, use classical conditioning for reproduction and survival ("Psychologist Karen Hollis"). A major breakthrough in operant conditioning is the discovery that affective disorders, such as borderline personality disorder and reactive attachment disorder, can be treated using operant conditioning (Othmer, 2002). Despite their differences, both classical conditioning and operant conditioning are psychological theories that are often used in behavioral therapy. In both theories, the focus is to learn associations to behaviors, whether involuntary or voluntary. Certain stimuli in the environment always control the responses. Reinforcement of both types of conditioning is necessary because neither is capable of lasting forever. Both classical and operant conditioning allows new behaviors to be built on ones that are previously established.

Othmer, S. (2002, Feb). On the use of EEG operant conditioning as a treatment for affective disorders, including reactive attachment disorder and borderline personality disorder. Retrieved from http://www.eeginfo.com/research/articles/general_12.htm Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes. Mineola, New York: Courier Dover Publications. Psychologist Karen Hollis "goes fishing" and nets a research breakthrough. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.mtholyoke.edu/offices/comm/csj/970221/hollis.html Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York, NY: Free Press.

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Classical Conditioning Essay

Introduction, describe the theory of classical conditioning, scenario for classical conditioning application, implementation, conditioning chart.

Learning, which is defined as the process of human beings gaining knowledge and expertise is an important aspect of man’s life and continues throughout his existence. Learning theories propose mechanisms that account for the changes that occur as a result of our learning experiences.

Learning theories have resulted in the identification of mechanisms through which experiences in the environment would alter and sustain changes in behavior. These changes are of a relatively permanent nature, and Newman and Philip (2007) affirm that the changes in human behavior are as a result of human beings’ extensive capacity for learning.

Classical conditioning is one of the most popular learning theories developed in the late 1920s. This theory has been reviewed and applied in many areas and has helped in understanding learning. This paper will give a brief description of the theory of classical conditioning and how it works. A scenario whereby this theory could be applied in real life situations will be given and a detailed description of how one would implement classical conditioning demonstrated.

The Russian Scientist, Ivan Pavlov, is hugely credited for coming up with the classical conditioning theory and demonstrating its working. Pavlov’s experimental works led him to discover classical conditioning and its laws which he demonstrated using his famous Pavlov’s dog experiment. By definition, classical conditioning is the “pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response” (Levin, 1995, p.175).

In classical conditioning, there is already a preexisting bond between the stimulus and some physiological response in the learner. Classical conditioning has since its formulation been overlooked as being fairly simple and easy to understand and only applicable in limited areas. However, there has been a renewed interest in classical conditioning due to the realization that this theory has a much wider application that was previously assumed. ,

In Pavlov’s classic example, when a hungry dog is presented with food, it salivates. If this presentation of food is linked to another unconnected event (ringing of the bell in Pavlov’s case) once conditioned, the dog will automatically salivate even at being presented with the event without food. The food is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) while salivation is an unconditioned response (UCR) since it is a naturally occurring reflex (Gines et al, 2000).

This learned response to a neutral event (since ringing of a bell would previously only have evoked interest from the dog, not salivation) is called the conditioned response. As such, classical conditioning is “a type of learning that occurs when two different events happen at the same time and one of the events takes on the quality of eliciting the other event” (Salkind, 2004. p.165).

The classical conditioning paradigm can be seen to contain two important attributes which are: the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the conditioned response (CR). In Pavlov’s example, after the pairing of the food and the ringing of the bell, a presentation of the bell alone will result in the unconditioned response of salivation from the dog. The bell’s role is that of the conditioned stimulus while salivation is the conditioned response.

Levin (1995) demonstrates that classical conditioning can be used as a form of treatment for alcoholism known as aversive therapy. In this treatment, punishment (such as an electric shock) is paired with drinking whereby the alcohol becomes the conditioned stimulus for the anticipation of pain. This results in a behavioral change in the drinker so long as the association between pain and drinking holds.

Other factors affect the strength of the conditioned reflex created through classical conditioning. These factors are reinforcement and extinction. Reinforcement is whereby the relationship between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned response is strengthened through repeated association (Salkind, 2004). Extinction is the process by which a conditioned response is lost due to lack of reinforcement.

As has been illustrated in the above paragraphs, classical conditioning theory can be used to help someone learn or unlearn a habit. In my specific situation, I aim to use classical conditioning to make a friend unlearn a habit I find unacceptable in my house.

My friend always smokes in my living room despite my numerous calls for him to stop this habit. I propose to use classical conditioning theory to train my friend to stop smoking in my house altogether by making him associate smoking to an unpleasant blaring noise.

Before conditioning, the irritating blaring sound is a neutral stimulus. Newman and Philip (2007) note that such a stimulus on its own elicits a response of interest or attention but nothing more. Cigarettes are an unconditioned stimulus that evokes a natural reaction resulting in smoking from my friend.

My classical conditioning implementation will, therefore, involve pairing the irritating blaring music with smoking. As such, cigarettes will become the conditioned stimulus for the anticipation of an irritating noise whenever my friend is in my house. For this to work, I will have to make my friend associate two different events (smoking and the blaring sounds) with each other.

I shall, therefore, ensure that each time my friend starts smoking in my house, I shall turn the irritating blaring sounds on. Once my friend has finished smoking, I shall turn to noises off. Newman and Philip (2007) assert that a conditioned response is only established to the degree that there is a meaningful relationship between the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.

This means that the NS and US must occur together many times before conditioning is established. For this reason, I shall make sure that I continue will this activity (turning on the blaring noise as soon as smoking begins) indefinitely.

With repeated association of the NS (blaring noise) and the US (cigarettes), the blaring noise will become a conditioned stimulus and will be associated with smoking, which will now become the conditioned response.

As such, my friend will relate cigarette smoking in my house to loud irritating noises, and for this reason, he will stop smoking to avoid experiencing the irritating noises which he will have grown to associate with cigarettes. To avoid this conditioning from becoming extinct, I would keep on reinforcing the relationship between the blaring noise and smoking so as to strengthen the association in my friend.

Gines, Et AL. (2000). Educational Psychology. Rex Bookstore.

Levin, D. L. (1995). Introduction to Alcoholism Counseling: a Bio-Psycho-Social Approach. Taylor & Francis.

Newman, B. M. Philip, R. N. (2007). Theories of Human Development. Routledge.

Salkind, J. N. (2004 ). An Introduction to Theories of Human Development. Sage.

• NS = Neutral Stimulus
• UR = Unconditioned Response
• NR = Neutral Response
• CS = Conditioned Stimulus
• US = Unconditioned Stimulus
• CR = Conditioned Response
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2023, November 1). Classical Conditioning. https://ivypanda.com/essays/classical-conditioning-essay/

"Classical Conditioning." IvyPanda , 1 Nov. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/classical-conditioning-essay/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'Classical Conditioning'. 1 November.

IvyPanda . 2023. "Classical Conditioning." November 1, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/classical-conditioning-essay/.

1. IvyPanda . "Classical Conditioning." November 1, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/classical-conditioning-essay/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Classical Conditioning." November 1, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/classical-conditioning-essay/.

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