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What Exactly is an Abstract, and How Do I Write One?

An abstract is a short summary of your completed research. It is intended to describe your work without going into great detail. Abstracts should be self-contained and concise, explaining your work as briefly and clearly as possible. Different disciplines call for slightly different approaches to abstracts, as will be illustrated by the examples below, so it would be wise to study some abstracts from your own field before you begin to write one.

General Considerations

Probably the most important function of an abstract is to help a reader decide if he or she is interested in reading your entire publication. For instance, imagine that you’re an undergraduate student sitting in the library late on a Friday night. You’re tired, bored, and sick of looking up articles about the history of celery. The last thing you want to do is reading an entire article only to discover it contributes nothing to your argument. A good abstract can solve this problem by indicating to the reader if the work is likely to be meaningful to his or her particular research project. Additionally, abstracts are used to help libraries catalogue publications based on the keywords that appear in them.

An effective abstract will contain several key features:

• Motivation/problem statement: Why is your research/argument important? What practical, scientific, theoretical or artistic gap is your project filling?
• Methods/procedure/approach: What did you actually do to get your results? (e.g. analyzed 3 novels, completed a series of 5 oil paintings, interviewed 17 students)
• Results/findings/product: As a result of completing the above procedure, what did you learn/invent/create?
• Conclusion/implications: What are the larger implications of your findings, especially for the problem/gap identified previously? Why is this research valuable?

In Practice

Let’s take a look at some sample abstracts, and see where these components show up. To give you an idea of how the author meets these “requirements” of abstract writing, the various features have been color-coded to correspond with the numbers listed above. The general format of an abstract is largely predictable, with some discipline-based differences. One type of abstract not discussed here is the “Descriptive Abstract,” which only summarizes and explains existing research, rather than informing the reader of a new perspective. As you can imagine, such an abstract would omit certain components of our four-colored model.

SAMPLE ABSTRACTS

ABSTRACT #1: History / Social Science

"Their War": The Perspective of the South Vietnamese Military in Their Own Words Author: Julie Pham

Despite the vast research by Americans on the Vietnam War, little is known about the perspective of South Vietnamese military, officially called the Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces (RVNAF). The overall image that emerges from the literature is negative: lazy, corrupt, unpatriotic, apathetic soldiers with poor fighting spirits. This study recovers some of the South Vietnamese military perspective for an American audience through qualititative interviews with 40 RVNAF veterans now living in San José, Sacramento, and Seattle, home to three of the top five largest Vietnamese American communities in the nation. An analysis of these interviews yields the veterans' own explanations that complicate and sometimes even challenge three widely held assumptions about the South Vietnamese military: 1) the RVNAF was rife with corruption at the top ranks, hurting the morale of the lower ranks; 2) racial relations between the South Vietnamese military and the Americans were tense and hostile; and 3) the RVNAF was apathetic in defending South Vietnam from communism. The stories add nuance to our understanding of who the South Vietnamese were in the Vietnam War. This study is part of a growing body of research on non-American perspectives of the war. In using a largely untapped source of Vietnamese history—oral histories with Vietnamese immigrants—this project will contribute to future research on similar topics.

That was a fairly basic abstract that allows us to examine its individual parts more thoroughly.

Motivation/problem statement: The author identifies that previous research has been done about the Vietnam War, but that it has failed to address the specific topic of South Vietnam’s military. This is good because it shows how the author’s research fits into the bigger picture. It isn’t a bad thing to be critical of other research, but be respectful from an academic standpoint (i.e. “Previous researchers are stupid and don’t know what they’re talking about” sounds kind of unprofessional).

Methods/procedure/approach: The author does a good job of explaining how she performed her research, without giving unnecessary detail. Noting that she conducted qualitative interviews with 40 subjects is significant, but she wisely does not explicitly state the kinds of questions asked during the interview, which would be excessive.

Results/findings/product: The results make good use of numbering to clearly indicate what was ascertained from the research—particularly useful, as people often just scan abstracts for the results of an experiment.

Conclusion/implications: Since this paper is historical in nature, its findings may be hard to extrapolate to modern-day phenomena, but the author identifies the importance of her work as part of a growing body of research, which merits further investigation. This strategy functions to encourage future research on the topic.

ABSTRACT #2: Natural Science “A Lysimeter Study of Grass Cover and Water Table Depth Effects on Pesticide Residues in Drainage Water” Authors: A. Liaghat, S.O. Prasher

A study was undertaken to investigate the effect of soil and grass cover, when integrated with water table management (subsurface drainage and controlled drainage), in reducing herbicide residues in agricultural drainage water. Twelve PVC lysimeters, 1 m long and 450 mm diameter, were packed with a sandy soil and used to study the following four treatments: subsurface drainage, controlled drainage, grass (sod) cover, and bare soil. Contaminated water containing atrazine, metolachlor, and metribuzin residues was applied to the lysimeters and samples of drain effluent were collected. Significant reductions in pesticide concentrations were found in all treatments. In the first year, herbicide levels were reduced significantly (1% level), from an average of 250 mg/L to less than 10 mg/L . In the second year, polluted water of 50 mg/L, which is considered more realistic and reasonable in natural drainage waters, was applied to the lysimeters and herbicide residues in the drainage waters were reduced to less than 1 mg/L. The subsurface drainage lysimeters covered with grass proved to be the most effective treatment system.

Motivation/problem statement: Once again, we see that the problem—more like subject of study —is stated first in the abstract. This is normal for abstracts, in that you want to include the most important information first. The results may seem like the most important part of the abstract, but without mentioning the subject, the results won’t make much sense to readers. Notice that the abstract makes no references to other research, which is fine. It is not obligatory to cite other publications in an abstract, and in fact, doing so might distract your reader from YOUR experiment. Either way, it is likely that other sources will surface in your paper’s discussion/conclusion.

Methods/procedure/approach: Notice that the authors include pertinent numbers and figures in describing their methods. An extended description of the methods would probably include a long list of numerical values and conditions for each experimental trial, so it is important to include only the most important values in your abstract—ones that might make your study unique. Additionally, we see that a methodological description appears in two different parts of the abstract. This is fine. It may work better to explain your experiment by more closely connecting each method to its result. One last point: the author doesn’t take time to define—or give any background information about—“atrazine,” “metalachlor,” “lysimeter,” or “metribuzin.” This may be because other ecologists know what these are, but even if that’s not the case, you shouldn’t take time to define terms in your abstract.

Results/findings/product: Similar to the methods component of the abstract, you want to condense your findings to include only the major result of the experiment. Again, this study focused on two major trials, so both trials and both major results are listed. A particularly important word to consider when sharing results in an abstract is “significant.” In statistics, “significant” means roughly that your results were not due to chance. In your paper, your results may be hundreds of words long, and involve dozens of tables and graphs, but ultimately, your reader only wants to know: “What was the main result, and was that result significant?” So, try to answer both these questions in the abstract.

Conclusion/implications: This abstract’s conclusion sounds more like a result: “…lysimeters covered with grass were found to be the most effective treatment system.” This may seem incomplete, since it does not explain how this system could/should/would be applied to other situations, but that’s okay. There is plenty of space for addressing those issues in the body of the paper.

ABSTRACT #3: Philosophy / Literature [Note: Many papers don’t precisely follow the previous format, since they do not involve an experiment and its methods. Nonetheless, they typically rely on a similar structure.]

“Participatory Legitimation: A Reply to Arash Abizadeh” Author: Eric Schmidt, Louisiana State University, 2011

Arash Abizadeh’s argument against unilateral border control relies on his unbounded demos thesis, which is supported negatively by arguing that the ‘bounded demos thesis’ is incoherent. The incoherency arises for two reasons: (1) Democratic principles cannot be brought to bear on matters (border control) logically prior to the constitution of a group, and (2), the civic definition of citizens and non-citizens creates an ‘externality problem’ because the act of definition is an exercise of coercive power over all persons. The bounded demos thesis is rejected because the “will of the people” fails to legitimate democratic political order because there can be no pre-political political will of the people. However, I argue that “the will of the people” can be made manifest under a robust understanding of participatory legitimation, which exists concurrently with the political state, and thus defines both its borders and citizens as bounded , rescuing the bounded demos thesis and compromising the rest of Abizadeh’s article.

This paper may not make any sense to someone not studying philosophy, or not having read the text being critiqued. However, we can still see where the author separates the different components of the abstract, even if we don’t understand the terminology used.

Motivation/problem statement: The problem is not really a problem, but rather another person’s belief on a subject matter. For that reason, the author takes time to carefully explain the exact theory that he will be arguing against.

Methods/procedure/approach: [Note that there is no traditional “Methods” component of this abstract.] Reviews like this are purely critical and don’t necessarily involve performing experiments as in the other abstracts we have seen. Still, a paper like this may incorporate ideas from other sources, much like our traditional definition of experimental research.

Results/findings/product: In a paper like this, the “findings” tend to resemble what you have concluded about something, which will largely be based on your own opinion, supported by various examples. For that reason, the finding of this paper is: “The ‘will of the people,’ actually corresponds to a ‘bounded demos thesis.’” Even though we aren’t sure what the terms mean, we can plainly see that the finding (argument) is in support of “bounded,” rather than “unbounded.”

Conclusion/implications: If our finding is that “bounded” is correct, then what should we conclude? [In this case, the conclusion is simply that the initial author, A.A., is wrong.] Some critical papers attempt to broaden the conclusion to show something outside the scope of the paper. For example, if A.A. believes his “unbounded demos thesis” to be correct (when he is actually mistaken), what does this say about him? About his philosophy? About society as a whole? Maybe people who agree with him are more likely to vote Democrat, more likely to approve of certain immigration policies, more likely to own Labrador retrievers as pets, etc.

Applying These Skills

Now that you know the general layout of an abstract, here are some tips to keep in mind as you write your own:

1. The abstract stands alone

• An abstract shouldn’t be considered “part” of a paper—it should be able to stand independently and still tell the reader something significant.

2. Keep it short

• A general rule of abstract length is 200-300 words, or about 1/10th of the entire paper.

3. Don’t add new information

• If something doesn’t appear in your actual paper, then don’t put it in the abstract.

4. Be consistent with voice, tone, and style

• Try to write the abstract in the same style as your paper (i.e. If you’re not using contractions in your paper, the do not use them in your abstract).

5. Be concise

• Try to shorten your sentences as often as possible. If you can say something clearly in five words rather than ten, then do it.

6. Break up its components

• If allowed, subdivide the components of your abstract with bolded headings for “Background,” “Methods,” etc.

7. The abstract should be part of your writing process

• Consider writing your abstract after you finish your entire paper.
• There’s nothing wrong with copying and pasting important sentences and phrases from your paper … provided that they’re your own words.
• Write multiple drafts, and keep revising. An abstract is very important to your publication (or assignment) and should be treated as such.

"Abstracts." The Writing Center. The University of North Carolina, n.d. Web. 1 Jun 2011. http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/abstracts.html "Abstracts." The Writing Center. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, n.d. Web. 1 Jun 2011. http://www.rpi.edu/web/writingcenter/abstracts.html

Last updated August 2013

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 3. The Abstract
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
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• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
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An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions.

Writing an Abstract. The Writing Center. Clarion University, 2009; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century . Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010;

Importance of a Good Abstract

Sometimes your professor will ask you to include an abstract, or general summary of your work, with your research paper. The abstract allows you to elaborate upon each major aspect of the paper and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Therefore, enough key information [e.g., summary results, observations, trends, etc.] must be included to make the abstract useful to someone who may want to examine your work.

How do you know when you have enough information in your abstract? A simple rule-of-thumb is to imagine that you are another researcher doing a similar study. Then ask yourself: if your abstract was the only part of the paper you could access, would you be happy with the amount of information presented there? Does it tell the whole story about your study? If the answer is "no" then the abstract likely needs to be revised.

Farkas, David K. “A Scheme for Understanding and Writing Summaries.” Technical Communication 67 (August 2020): 45-60;  How to Write a Research Abstract. Office of Undergraduate Research. University of Kentucky; Staiger, David L. “What Today’s Students Need to Know about Writing Abstracts.” International Journal of Business Communication January 3 (1966): 29-33; Swales, John M. and Christine B. Feak. Abstracts and the Writing of Abstracts . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2009.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Types of Abstracts

To begin, you need to determine which type of abstract you should include with your paper. There are four general types.

Critical Abstract A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and information, a judgment or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or completeness. The researcher evaluates the paper and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical abstracts are generally 400-500 words in length due to the additional interpretive commentary. These types of abstracts are used infrequently.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarized. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less. Informative Abstract The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Highlight Abstract A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader’s attention to the study. No pretense is made of there being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in fact, incomplete and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader’s interest. In that a highlight abstract cannot stand independent of its associated article, it is not a true abstract and, therefore, rarely used in academic writing.

II.  Writing Style

Use the active voice when possible , but note that much of your abstract may require passive sentence constructions. Regardless, write your abstract using concise, but complete, sentences. Get to the point quickly and always use the past tense because you are reporting on a study that has been completed.

Abstracts should be formatted as a single paragraph in a block format and with no paragraph indentations. In most cases, the abstract page immediately follows the title page. Do not number the page. Rules set forth in writing manual vary but, in general, you should center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page with double spacing between the heading and the abstract. The final sentences of an abstract concisely summarize your study’s conclusions, implications, or applications to practice and, if appropriate, can be followed by a statement about the need for additional research revealed from the findings.

Composing Your Abstract

Although it is the first section of your paper, the abstract should be written last since it will summarize the contents of your entire paper. A good strategy to begin composing your abstract is to take whole sentences or key phrases from each section of the paper and put them in a sequence that summarizes the contents. Then revise or add connecting phrases or words to make the narrative flow clearly and smoothly. Note that statistical findings should be reported parenthetically [i.e., written in parentheses].

Before handing in your final paper, check to make sure that the information in the abstract completely agrees with what you have written in the paper. Think of the abstract as a sequential set of complete sentences describing the most crucial information using the fewest necessary words. The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

• A catchy introductory phrase, provocative quote, or other device to grab the reader's attention,
• Lengthy background or contextual information,
• Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and repetitive information;
• Acronyms or abbreviations,
• References to other literature [say something like, "current research shows that..." or "studies have indicated..."],
• Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences,
• Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
• Citations to other works, and
• Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.

Abstract. Writing Center. University of Kansas; Abstract. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Abstracts. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Borko, Harold and Seymour Chatman. "Criteria for Acceptable Abstracts: A Survey of Abstracters' Instructions." American Documentation 14 (April 1963): 149-160; Abstracts. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Hartley, James and Lucy Betts. "Common Weaknesses in Traditional Abstracts in the Social Sciences." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60 (October 2009): 2010-2018; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century. Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010; Procter, Margaret. The Abstract. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Riordan, Laura. “Mastering the Art of Abstracts.” The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 115 (January 2015 ): 41-47; Writing Report Abstracts. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing Abstracts. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-First Century . Oxford, UK: 2010; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Writing Tip

Never Cite Just the Abstract!

Citing to just a journal article's abstract does not confirm for the reader that you have conducted a thorough or reliable review of the literature. If the full-text is not available, go to the USC Libraries main page and enter the title of the article [NOT the title of the journal]. If the Libraries have a subscription to the journal, the article should appear with a link to the full-text or to the journal publisher page where you can get the article. If the article does not appear, try searching Google Scholar using the link on the USC Libraries main page. If you still can't find the article after doing this, contact a librarian or you can request it from our free i nterlibrary loan and document delivery service .

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Writing an Abstract: Why and How, with Expert Tips for Researchers

An abstract is a short summary of your research manuscript, typically around 200–250 words, briefly presenting why and how you did your study, and what you found. That’s a simple definition, but the structure and style of an abstract are where there are certain rules to follow.

Even more, you’ll increase your chances of publication and of getting cited when you know what to do and not do. That’s what we’ll get into in this article.

What you’ll learn in this post

• All the basics of what goes into a research abstract for academic and scientific publication.

• What the abstract’s role is, and why it should never be overlooked or a simple repeat of text in your paper.

• The types of abstracts.

• What grammar and tense to use in an abstract.

• Expert tips on the abstract from Edanz’s science director.

• Where to get expert guidance for your abstract.

What is an abstract and why is it important?

Along with the title, the abstract is the first thing most readers will look at. It’s where they should get a clear and factual summary of your paper. This is also where readers usually decide to continue reading or to move on to something else. It’s like an elevator pitch .

The abstract should also be attractive enough to to get readers to read the entire paper. The content of the abstract, along with the title and keywords, is essential for the discoverability of your paper. This means you should prepare it carefully, revise it, and ideally have others read (and maybe edit ) it to be sure it says what you intend.

We’ll also note, right from the start, that it’s best to write our abstract LAST – after you’ve written your full manuscript. Only then can it be a truly accurate description of your work. And take your time with it. We’ll dig into more details in this article.

What does an abstract look like? What’s the structure?

The length of the abstract may vary depending on the type of paper and journal requirements. Most abstracts are around 200–250 words, but they can range from 100 (for a short summary like in mathematical papers) to 300 for certain journals, like PLOS ONE .

Abstracts can be any of the following:

• Unstructured: A single paragraph with no subheadings
• Structured: Divided subsections with headings such as Objective or Background, Methods, Results, and Conclusions. Clinical journals may require additional or alternative sections, such as Patients, Interventions, or Outcomes.

We can’t tell you why. It’s just a matter of journal preference , so check the guidelines carefully.

The good news is it’s pretty easy to turn an unstructured abstract into a structured one – just add subheadings and reword a bit. Or vice versa – just take out the subheadings and make sure it’s still readable. Edit accordingly.

There are also graphical and video abstracts , which give you the chance to visually explain your work, but we’ll cover those separately.

What writing style do you use for an abstract?

First of all, an abstract should not copy-paste text from the body of the manuscript. It should paraphrase your work and then be sharpened to make it easier to read.

Abstracts parts related to the aims, methods, and results are in the past tense. That’s because they tell what already happened – you already did the study.

Present tense

The background and conclusion are often in the present tense. That’s because they’re talking about ongoing things, like research activity and areas the study affects.

Active voice

Many journals also allow, and even encourage, use of the active voice and first-person plural pronoun (we, if there are 2 or more authors) – e.g., “We found…”

Abstracts for research proposals or funding applications, however, use future tense when discussing the study’s specifics. Why? That’s easy – because you haven’t done the work yet.

Journals in some disciplines have different styles. They may use the present tense throughout, especially for chemical synthesis or mathematical/computer modeling studies. They may also use passive voice throughout and not allow “We” even if these are allowed in the text of the main article.

Conference abstracts may have different styles. For example, the conference organizers may allow you to include references and small figures or tables.

References and abbreviations

Basically – no and no for references and abbreviations, but there are (always) exceptions.

Abstracts normally should not include reference citations or references to tables and figures in the main text. There’s simply no need unless your study is centered on a specific work.

Abstracts should “stand alone” – your reader should be able to understand the contents without having to refer to the rest of your paper. So…

Abbreviations should be avoided. They take up space and your readers may not understand them. Remember, an abstract isn’t only written for specialists in your field. For example, HIV is probably OK in abbreviated form. but even though RT-PCR is fine for a journal reporting molecular biology techniques, even there, it would probably need to be spelled out in the abstract.

Jargon and technical language should also be avoided whenever possible. If it’s impractical to avoid such terms, they should be defined clearly.

Descriptive vs. informative abstracts

Based on their content, abstracts can be descriptive or informative.

Abstracts of scientific papers are usually informative: that is, they include specific information related to the objective, methods, and results.

To be sure your abstract includes all the necessary information, try to answer the following questions:

• What’s the reason you did the study? (State what’s known and why the study is needed. Some journals and peer reviewers , even if they don’t overtly state it, may also reject submissions without a clear, testable hypothesis statement. It’s best to include one.)
• What did you do to fulfill the objective/prove the hypotheses?
• What were the main findings? (Make sure these are directly related to the stated objectives)
• What are the meaning, implications, and relevance of the findings?

You may recognize that abstracts follow an IMRaD format similar to the path you follow in a typical manuscript. But in the abstract, you only have space for the key methods and results. There’s no space for a real discussion, so the final section is simply the Conclusion.

Even if the abstract you’re preparing is unstructured (just one paragraph and without subheadings, but check the journal guidelines, because sometimes there’s more than one paragraph), the content should still include the same core elements as a structured abstract.

Try stating the answers to the above questions in a logical order, and you’ll be on your way to writing a complete, effective abstract. It should be possible to clearly identify the abstract’s different parts.

Some clinical journals also require additional standalone sections to highlight a particular aspect of the work. Often, this content should normally be included in any abstract anyway: 

For example:

• Clinical learning point
• What we knew before / What we know now

Finally, make sure the final abstract is consistent with the main text of the manuscript in terms of data, results, and general wording. And, even though we’re repeating ourselves here, be sure it satisfies what the journal guidelines ask for!

This means: check the word count, structure, subheadings, use of abbreviations, rules about active vs. passive tense, and so on. If you need some help, ask a pro editor to proofread it. Then you can be sure you don’t miss anything.

It’s an awful shame for a great study to get rejected just because you didn’t spend a little extra time (and in some cases a little extra money) to be sure your abstract shines.

Dr. McGowan on abstracts

We asked our Chief Science Officer, Daniel McGowan, PhD CMPP , for his thoughts on abstracts.

Most readers will read an article’s Abstract to decide whether the study is relevant to them and whether the full paper should be downloaded (which may need payment).

Some journals send only the abstract of a paper to editorial staff or editorial board members to decide if the paper should be sent for peer review.

Your abstract should therefore reflect the high quality of your study and summarize its most important findings and conclusions.  

Your abstract should:

• be clear, concise, and accurate 
• be easily understood: avoid uncommon abbreviations and jargon; in general, use abbreviations only if the abbreviation appears three times or more after its initial definition 
• be independent (stand-alone), without referring to the main text or any of the illustrations (tables or figures) 
• not contain illustrations, although some journals now ask for an additional “graphical abstract” 
• not contain any citations, but if they are allowed, the references are usually included within the text rather than as a footnote 
• contain some keywords 

You may find it useful to draft your abstract early on (a “working abstract”) as a guide for your paper’s structure and message, and then revise it at the end. Check the guidelines of your target journal for the word count, format, and style of its abstracts.  

There may or may not be a heading, and there may be subheadings (such as Background, Methods, Results, and Conclusions, in a “structured abstract”) or just one or two paragraphs without subheadings (in an “unstructured abstract”). 

Regardless of the format, your abstract should answer the following four questions: 

• Why was this research conducted? 
• What was the specific aim/objective and main approach of the study? 
• What were the main findings? 
• Why are these findings useful and important? 

Check your target journal for special instructions—for example: 

• Do different article types have different styles of abstract? 
• Should non-technical language be used or a non-technical abstract also prepared? 
• Is the style descriptive (topic, aim, and only a preview of the paper’s contents) or informative (including results and conclusion)? 
• Are key data and statistics expected in the results? 
• Should extra information (e.g., limitations or implications) be added? 
• Is only passive voice or a mixture of active and passive allowed, and what tenses are expected?

So let’s look at an example.

Example of a good abstract

This is broken down into three sections that are contain the substance of the abstract.

Depending on the journal, a couple more subheadings, such as Results, may be added. Their content is still included in this example 

1. Background

The placement of medical research news on a newspaper’s front page is intended to gain the public’s attention, so it is important to understand the source of the news in terms of research maturity and evidence level.

Explanation:  Subheadings are used because this journal requires a structured abstract. Note that the authors have mainly used the active voice. The Background provides the reader with the major research question . 

2. Methodology/Principal Findings

We searched LexisNexis to identify medical research reported on front pages of major newspapers published from January 1, 2000 to December 31, 2002. We used MEDLINE and Google Scholar to find journal articles corresponding to the research, and determined their evidence level. 

Of 734 front-page medical research stories identified, 417 (57%) referred to mature research published in peer-reviewed journals. The remaining 317 stories referred to preliminary findings presented at scientific or press meetings; 144 (45%) of those stories mentioned studies that later matured (i.e. were published in journals within 3 years after news coverage). The evidence-level distribution of the 515 journal articles quoted in news stories reporting on mature research (3% level I, 21% level II, 42% level III, 4% level IV, and 31% level V) differed from that of the 170 reports of preliminary research that later matured (1%, 19%, 35%, 12%, and 33%, respectively; chi-square test, P = .0009). No news stories indicated evidence level. Fewer than 1 in 5 news stories reporting preliminary findings acknowledged the preliminary nature of their content.

Explanation: In this combined Methods/Results section, the Methods subsection is quite short and the Results subsection makes up the largest proportion of the Abstract, because the reader is most interested in what you discovered. The order of the results goes from general to specific facts, and key data are included.  The verb tense is the simple past because the study and analyses have finished. However, theoretical and modeling studies often use present tense throughout the abstract.

3. Conclusions/Significance

Only 57% of front-page stories reporting on medical research are based on mature research, which tends to have a higher evidence level than research with preliminary findings. Medical research news should be clearly referenced and state the evidence level and limitations to inform the public of the maturity and quality of the source. 

Explanation: The major conclusion should be the first thing presented in this section. Here, the journal requires that the implications of the findings are also stated.

A final note from Dr. McGowan

If you keep the above tips in mind, you can write an effective abstract that will attract more readers (and journal editors!) to your research. Good luck!

Abstracts are usually followed by a list of keywords (or “key words”) that you, as the author, will choose. These shouldn’t be an afterthought – they serve a valuable function in helping your publication get indexed, especially on Google Scholar and Google itself.

That, in turn, helps potential readers find your work, read it, and maybe even refer to it or cite it.

Keywords supplement the title; they don’t replace it. So choosing them can actually be quite hard.

Always check your target journal’s instructions for authors as often journals will specify that terms used in the title shouldn’t be used as keywords.

Journals’ instructions for authors will state how many keywords are required and may even provide a list of recommended ones. Some clinical journals, for standardization, require you to choose from Medical Subject Heading (MeSH) keywords.

Excellent choices for keywords are:

• The main theme (of course, but in slightly different wording from the title if necessary)
• An odd or quirky area of your field; i.e., a specific niche term
• Regions and/or climactic conditions
• Applications of the research
• Techniques of the research

Another perspective: Four key questions for your abstract

That’s plenty of info already. Here’s a bit more if you want a simple way to look at writing your abstract.

All good abstracts answer four questions.

• Why did you do the study?
• What did you do?
• What did you find? and…
• What did you conclude? What’s the significance of the study?

This video from our publication expert explains this in greater detail:

Graphical abstracts

A graphical abstract is a single visual summary of the main findings of the article. This can be a figure from the article or a new, specially designed figure. 

Some journals request that authors provide a graphical abstract in addition to the traditional written abstract. In most cases, submission of a graphical abstract is optional; But in the future it may become a preferred style for abstracts because readers can understand the important message of the paper quickly. 

The following sites provide some excellent examples of graphical abstracts in different fields of study:

• Elsevier : Biology, medicine, materials science
• Thieme : Chemistry

Have an expert guide your abstract writing

What we call Abstract Development is one of our longest-running and most-popular author guidance services. Within as little as a day, you can hire an Edanz academic expert to write you, an abstract that accurately conveys your work in clear, accessible English. Explore Abstract Development and other services here .

What this handout is about

This handout provides definitions and examples of the two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. It also provides guidelines for constructing an abstract and general tips for you to keep in mind when drafting. Finally, it includes a few examples of abstracts broken down into their component parts.

What is an abstract?

An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components vary according to discipline. An abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rather than an excerpted passage.

Why write an abstract?

You may write an abstract for various reasons. The two most important are selection and indexing. Abstracts allow readers who may be interested in a longer work to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it. Also, many online databases use abstracts to index larger works. Therefore, abstracts should contain keywords and phrases that allow for easy searching.

Say you are beginning a research project on how Brazilian newspapers helped Brazil’s ultra-liberal president Luiz Ignácio da Silva wrest power from the traditional, conservative power base. A good first place to start your research is to search Dissertation Abstracts International for all dissertations that deal with the interaction between newspapers and politics. “Newspapers and politics” returned 569 hits. A more selective search of “newspapers and Brazil” returned 22 hits. That is still a fair number of dissertations. Titles can sometimes help winnow the field, but many titles are not very descriptive. For example, one dissertation is titled “Rhetoric and Riot in Rio de Janeiro.” It is unclear from the title what this dissertation has to do with newspapers in Brazil. One option would be to download or order the entire dissertation on the chance that it might speak specifically to the topic. A better option is to read the abstract. In this case, the abstract reveals the main focus of the dissertation:

This dissertation examines the role of newspaper editors in the political turmoil and strife that characterized late First Empire Rio de Janeiro (1827-1831). Newspaper editors and their journals helped change the political culture of late First Empire Rio de Janeiro by involving the people in the discussion of state. This change in political culture is apparent in Emperor Pedro I’s gradual loss of control over the mechanisms of power. As the newspapers became more numerous and powerful, the Emperor lost his legitimacy in the eyes of the people. To explore the role of the newspapers in the political events of the late First Empire, this dissertation analyzes all available newspapers published in Rio de Janeiro from 1827 to 1831. Newspapers and their editors were leading forces in the effort to remove power from the hands of the ruling elite and place it under the control of the people. In the process, newspapers helped change how politics operated in the constitutional monarchy of Brazil.

From this abstract you now know that although the dissertation has nothing to do with modern Brazilian politics, it does cover the role of newspapers in changing traditional mechanisms of power. After reading the abstract, you can make an informed judgment about whether the dissertation would be worthwhile to read.

Besides selection, the other main purpose of the abstract is for indexing. Most article databases in the online catalog of the library enable you to search abstracts. This allows for quick retrieval by users and limits the extraneous items recalled by a “full-text” search. However, for an abstract to be useful in an online retrieval system, it must incorporate the key terms that a potential researcher would use to search. For example, if you search Dissertation Abstracts International using the keywords “France” “revolution” and “politics,” the search engine would search through all the abstracts in the database that included those three words. Without an abstract, the search engine would be forced to search titles, which, as we have seen, may not be fruitful, or else search the full text. It’s likely that a lot more than 60 dissertations have been written with those three words somewhere in the body of the entire work. By incorporating keywords into the abstract, the author emphasizes the central topics of the work and gives prospective readers enough information to make an informed judgment about the applicability of the work.

When do people write abstracts?

• when submitting articles to journals, especially online journals
• when applying for research grants
• when writing a book proposal
• when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or M.A. thesis
• when writing a proposal for a conference paper
• when writing a proposal for a book chapter

Most often, the author of the entire work (or prospective work) writes the abstract. However, there are professional abstracting services that hire writers to draft abstracts of other people’s work. In a work with multiple authors, the first author usually writes the abstract. Undergraduates are sometimes asked to draft abstracts of books/articles for classmates who have not read the larger work.

Types of abstracts

There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. They have different aims, so as a consequence they have different components and styles. There is also a third type called critical, but it is rarely used. If you want to find out more about writing a critique or a review of a work, see the UNC Writing Center handout on writing a literature review . If you are unsure which type of abstract you should write, ask your instructor (if the abstract is for a class) or read other abstracts in your field or in the journal where you are submitting your article.

Descriptive abstracts

A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. Some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short—100 words or less.

Informative abstracts

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of a longer work, it may be much less.

Here are examples of a descriptive and an informative abstract of this handout on abstracts . Descriptive abstract:

The two most common abstract types—descriptive and informative—are described and examples of each are provided.

Informative abstract:

Abstracts present the essential elements of a longer work in a short and powerful statement. The purpose of an abstract is to provide prospective readers the opportunity to judge the relevance of the longer work to their projects. Abstracts also include the key terms found in the longer work and the purpose and methods of the research. Authors abstract various longer works, including book proposals, dissertations, and online journal articles. There are two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. A descriptive abstract briefly describes the longer work, while an informative abstract presents all the main arguments and important results. This handout provides examples of various types of abstracts and instructions on how to construct one.

Which type should I use?

Your best bet in this case is to ask your instructor or refer to the instructions provided by the publisher. You can also make a guess based on the length allowed; i.e., 100-120 words = descriptive; 250+ words = informative.

How do I write an abstract?

The format of your abstract will depend on the work being abstracted. An abstract of a scientific research paper will contain elements not found in an abstract of a literature article, and vice versa. However, all abstracts share several mandatory components, and there are also some optional parts that you can decide to include or not. When preparing to draft your abstract, keep the following key process elements in mind:

• Reason for writing: What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
• Problem: What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is the scope of the project? What is the main argument/thesis/claim?
• Methodology: An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches used in the larger study. Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence used in the research.
• Results: Again, an abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that indicates the results of the project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more general way.
• Implications: What changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work? How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

(This list of elements is adapted with permission from Philip Koopman, “How to Write an Abstract.” )

All abstracts include:

• A full citation of the source, preceding the abstract.
• The most important information first.
• The same type and style of language found in the original, including technical language.
• Key words and phrases that quickly identify the content and focus of the work.
• Clear, concise, and powerful language.

Abstracts may include:

• The thesis of the work, usually in the first sentence.
• Background information that places the work in the larger body of literature.
• The same chronological structure as the original work.

How not to write an abstract:

• Do not refer extensively to other works.
• Do not add information not contained in the original work.
• Do not define terms.

If you are abstracting your own writing

When abstracting your own work, it may be difficult to condense a piece of writing that you have agonized over for weeks (or months, or even years) into a 250-word statement. There are some tricks that you could use to make it easier, however.

Reverse outlining:

This technique is commonly used when you are having trouble organizing your own writing. The process involves writing down the main idea of each paragraph on a separate piece of paper– see our short video . For the purposes of writing an abstract, try grouping the main ideas of each section of the paper into a single sentence. Practice grouping ideas using webbing or color coding .

For a scientific paper, you may have sections titled Purpose, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each one of these sections will be longer than one paragraph, but each is grouped around a central idea. Use reverse outlining to discover the central idea in each section and then distill these ideas into one statement.

Cut and paste:

To create a first draft of an abstract of your own work, you can read through the entire paper and cut and paste sentences that capture key passages. This technique is useful for social science research with findings that cannot be encapsulated by neat numbers or concrete results. A well-written humanities draft will have a clear and direct thesis statement and informative topic sentences for paragraphs or sections. Isolate these sentences in a separate document and work on revising them into a unified paragraph.

If you are abstracting someone else’s writing

When abstracting something you have not written, you cannot summarize key ideas just by cutting and pasting. Instead, you must determine what a prospective reader would want to know about the work. There are a few techniques that will help you in this process:

Identify key terms:

Search through the entire document for key terms that identify the purpose, scope, and methods of the work. Pay close attention to the Introduction (or Purpose) and the Conclusion (or Discussion). These sections should contain all the main ideas and key terms in the paper. When writing the abstract, be sure to incorporate the key terms.

Highlight key phrases and sentences:

Instead of cutting and pasting the actual words, try highlighting sentences or phrases that appear to be central to the work. Then, in a separate document, rewrite the sentences and phrases in your own words.

Don’t look back:

After reading the entire work, put it aside and write a paragraph about the work without referring to it. In the first draft, you may not remember all the key terms or the results, but you will remember what the main point of the work was. Remember not to include any information you did not get from the work being abstracted.

Revise, revise, revise

No matter what type of abstract you are writing, or whether you are abstracting your own work or someone else’s, the most important step in writing an abstract is to revise early and often. When revising, delete all extraneous words and incorporate meaningful and powerful words. The idea is to be as clear and complete as possible in the shortest possible amount of space. The Word Count feature of Microsoft Word can help you keep track of how long your abstract is and help you hit your target length.

Example 1: Humanities abstract

Kenneth Tait Andrews, “‘Freedom is a constant struggle’: The dynamics and consequences of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984” Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998

This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. The time period studied includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Now let’s break down this abstract into its component parts to see how the author has distilled his entire dissertation into a ~200 word abstract.

What the dissertation does This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so.

How the dissertation does it The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies.

What materials are used Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports.

Conclusion This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Keywords social movements Civil Rights Movement Mississippi voting rights desegregation

Example 2: Science Abstract

Luis Lehner, “Gravitational radiation from black hole spacetimes” Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998

The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search for and analysis of detected signals. The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

This science abstract covers much of the same ground as the humanities one, but it asks slightly different questions.

Why do this study The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis of the detected signals.

What the study does The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm.

Results This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

Keywords gravitational radiation (GR) spacetimes black holes

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Belcher, Wendy Laura. 2009. Writing Your Journal Article in Twelve Weeks: A Guide to Academic Publishing Success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Press.

Koopman, Philip. 1997. “How to Write an Abstract.” Carnegie Mellon University. October 1997. http://users.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/essays/abstract.html .

Lancaster, F.W. 2003. Indexing And Abstracting in Theory and Practice , 3rd ed. London: Facet Publishing.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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• How to Write an Abstract

Expedite peer review, increase search-ability, and set the tone for your study

The abstract is your chance to let your readers know what they can expect from your article. Learn how to write a clear, and concise abstract that will keep your audience reading.

How your abstract impacts editorial evaluation and future readership

After the title , the abstract is the second-most-read part of your article. A good abstract can help to expedite peer review and, if your article is accepted for publication, it’s an important tool for readers to find and evaluate your work. Editors use your abstract when they first assess your article. Prospective reviewers see it when they decide whether to accept an invitation to review. Once published, the abstract gets indexed in PubMed and Google Scholar , as well as library systems and other popular databases. Like the title, your abstract influences keyword search results. Readers will use it to decide whether to read the rest of your article. Other researchers will use it to evaluate your work for inclusion in systematic reviews and meta-analysis. It should be a concise standalone piece that accurately represents your research. 

What to include in an abstract

The main challenge you’ll face when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND fitting in all the information you need. Depending on your subject area the journal may require a structured abstract following specific headings. A structured abstract helps your readers understand your study more easily. If your journal doesn’t require a structured abstract it’s still a good idea to follow a similar format, just present the abstract as one paragraph without headings. 

Background or Introduction – What is currently known? Start with a brief, 2 or 3 sentence, introduction to the research area. 

Objectives or Aims – What is the study and why did you do it? Clearly state the research question you’re trying to answer.

Methods – What did you do? Explain what you did and how you did it. Include important information about your methods, but avoid the low-level specifics. Some disciplines have specific requirements for abstract methods. 

• CONSORT for randomized trials.
• STROBE for observational studies
• PRISMA for systematic reviews and meta-analyses

Results – What did you find? Briefly give the key findings of your study. Include key numeric data (including confidence intervals or p values), where possible.

Conclusions – What did you conclude? Tell the reader why your findings matter, and what this could mean for the ‘bigger picture’ of this area of research. 

Writing tips

The main challenge you may find when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND convering all the information you need to.

• Keep it concise and to the point. Most journals have a maximum word count, so check guidelines before you write the abstract to save time editing it later.
• Write for your audience. Are they specialists in your specific field? Are they cross-disciplinary? Are they non-specialists? If you’re writing for a general audience, or your research could be of interest to the public keep your language as straightforward as possible. If you’re writing in English, do remember that not all of your readers will necessarily be native English speakers.
• Focus on key results, conclusions and take home messages.
• Write your paper first, then create the abstract as a summary.
• Check the journal requirements before you write your abstract, eg. required subheadings.
• Include keywords or phrases to help readers search for your work in indexing databases like PubMed or Google Scholar.
• Double and triple check your abstract for spelling and grammar errors. These kind of errors can give potential reviewers the impression that your research isn’t sound, and can make it easier to find reviewers who accept the invitation to review your manuscript. Your abstract should be a taste of what is to come in the rest of your article.

Don’t

• Sensationalize your research.
• Speculate about where this research might lead in the future.
• Use abbreviations or acronyms (unless absolutely necessary or unless they’re widely known, eg. DNA).
• Repeat yourself unnecessarily, eg. “Methods: We used X technique. Results: Using X technique, we found…”
• Contradict anything in the rest of your manuscript.
• Include content that isn’t also covered in the main manuscript.
• Include citations or references.

Tip: How to edit your work

Editing is challenging, especially if you are acting as both a writer and an editor. Read our guidelines for advice on how to refine your work, including useful tips for setting your intentions, re-review, and consultation with colleagues.

• How to Write a Great Title
• How to Write Your Methods
• How to Report Statistics
• How to Write Discussions and Conclusions
• How to Edit Your Work

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The contents of the Writing Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

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Abstract Writing: A Step-by-Step Guide With Tips & Examples

Table of Contents

Introduction

Abstracts of research papers have always played an essential role in describing your research concisely and clearly to researchers and editors of journals, enticing them to continue reading. However, with the widespread availability of scientific databases, the need to write a convincing abstract is more crucial now than during the time of paper-bound manuscripts.

Abstracts serve to "sell" your research and can be compared with your "executive outline" of a resume or, rather, a formal summary of the critical aspects of your work. Also, it can be the "gist" of your study. Since most educational research is done online, it's a sign that you have a shorter time for impressing your readers, and have more competition from other abstracts that are available to be read.

The APCI (Academic Publishing and Conferences International) articulates 12 issues or points considered during the final approval process for conferences & journals and emphasises the importance of writing an abstract that checks all these boxes (12 points). Since it's the only opportunity you have to captivate your readers, you must invest time and effort in creating an abstract that accurately reflects the critical points of your research.

With that in mind, let’s head over to understand and discover the core concept and guidelines to create a substantial abstract. Also, learn how to organise the ideas or plots into an effective abstract that will be awe-inspiring to the readers you want to reach.

What is Abstract? Definition and Overview

The word "Abstract' is derived from Latin abstractus meaning "drawn off." This etymological meaning also applies to art movements as well as music, like abstract expressionism. In this context, it refers to the revealing of the artist's intention.

Based on this, you can determine the meaning of an abstract: A condensed research summary. It must be self-contained and independent of the body of the research. However, it should outline the subject, the strategies used to study the problem, and the methods implemented to attain the outcomes. The specific elements of the study differ based on the area of study; however, together, it must be a succinct summary of the entire research paper.

Abstracts are typically written at the end of the paper, even though it serves as a prologue. In general, the abstract must be in a position to:

• Describe the paper.
• Identify the problem or the issue at hand.
• Explain to the reader the research process, the results you came up with, and what conclusion you've reached using these results.
• Include keywords to guide your strategy and the content.

Furthermore, the abstract you submit should not reflect upon any of  the following elements:

• Examine, analyse or defend the paper or your opinion.
• What you want to study, achieve or discover.
• Be redundant or irrelevant.

After reading an abstract, your audience should understand the reason - what the research was about in the first place, what the study has revealed and how it can be utilised or can be used to benefit others. You can understand the importance of abstract by knowing the fact that the abstract is the most frequently read portion of any research paper. In simpler terms, it should contain all the main points of the research paper.

What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

Abstracts are typically an essential requirement for research papers; however, it's not an obligation to preserve traditional reasons without any purpose. Abstracts allow readers to scan the text to determine whether it is relevant to their research or studies. The abstract allows other researchers to decide if your research paper can provide them with some additional information. A good abstract paves the interest of the audience to pore through your entire paper to find the content or context they're searching for.

Abstract writing is essential for indexing, as well. The Digital Repository of academic papers makes use of abstracts to index the entire content of academic research papers. Like meta descriptions in the regular Google outcomes, abstracts must include keywords that help researchers locate what they seek.

Types of Abstract

Informative and Descriptive are two kinds of abstracts often used in scientific writing.

A descriptive abstract gives readers an outline of the author's main points in their study. The reader can determine if they want to stick to the research work, based on their interest in the topic. An abstract that is descriptive is similar to the contents table of books, however, the format of an abstract depicts complete sentences encapsulated in one paragraph. It is unfortunate that the abstract can't be used as a substitute for reading a piece of writing because it's just an overview, which omits readers from getting an entire view. Also, it cannot be a way to fill in the gaps the reader may have after reading this kind of abstract since it does not contain crucial information needed to evaluate the article.

To conclude, a descriptive abstract is:

• A simple summary of the task, just summarises the work, but some researchers think it is much more of an outline
• Typically, the length is approximately 100 words. It is too short when compared to an informative abstract.
• A brief explanation but doesn't provide the reader with the complete information they need;
• An overview that omits conclusions and results

An informative abstract is a comprehensive outline of the research. There are times when people rely on the abstract as an information source. And the reason is why it is crucial to provide entire data of particular research. A well-written, informative abstract could be a good substitute for the remainder of the paper on its own.

A well-written abstract typically follows a particular style. The author begins by providing the identifying information, backed by citations and other identifiers of the papers. Then, the major elements are summarised to make the reader aware of the study. It is followed by the methodology and all-important findings from the study. The conclusion then presents study results and ends the abstract with a comprehensive summary.

In a nutshell, an informative abstract:

• Has a length that can vary, based on the subject, but is not longer than 300 words.
• Contains all the content-like methods and intentions
• Offers evidence and possible recommendations.

Informative Abstracts are more frequent than descriptive abstracts because of their extensive content and linkage to the topic specifically. You should select different types of abstracts to papers based on their length: informative abstracts for extended and more complex abstracts and descriptive ones for simpler and shorter research papers.

What are the Characteristics of a Good Abstract?

• A good abstract clearly defines the goals and purposes of the study.
• It should clearly describe the research methodology with a primary focus on data gathering, processing, and subsequent analysis.
• A good abstract should provide specific research findings.
• It presents the principal conclusions of the systematic study.
• It should be concise, clear, and relevant to the field of study.
• A well-designed abstract should be unifying and coherent.
• It is easy to grasp and free of technical jargon.
• It is written impartially and objectively.

What are the various sections of an ideal Abstract?

By now, you must have gained some concrete idea of the essential elements that your abstract needs to convey . Accordingly, the information is broken down into six key sections of the abstract, which include:

An Introduction or Background

Research methodology, objectives and goals, limitations.

Let's go over them in detail.

The introduction, also known as background, is the most concise part of your abstract. Ideally, it comprises a couple of sentences. Some researchers only write one sentence to introduce their abstract. The idea behind this is to guide readers through the key factors that led to your study.

It's understandable that this information might seem difficult to explain in a couple of sentences. For example, think about the following two questions like the background of your study:

• What is currently available about the subject with respect to the paper being discussed?
• What isn't understood about this issue? (This is the subject of your research)

While writing the abstract’s introduction, make sure that it is not lengthy. Because if it crosses the word limit, it may eat up the words meant to be used for providing other key information.

Research methodology is where you describe the theories and techniques you used in your research. It is recommended that you describe what you have done and the method you used to get your thorough investigation results. Certainly, it is the second-longest paragraph in the abstract.

In the research methodology section, it is essential to mention the kind of research you conducted; for instance, qualitative research or quantitative research (this will guide your research methodology too) . If you've conducted quantitative research, your abstract should contain information like the sample size, data collection method, sampling techniques, and duration of the study. Likewise, your abstract should reflect observational data, opinions, questionnaires (especially the non-numerical data) if you work on qualitative research.

The research objectives and goals speak about what you intend to accomplish with your research. The majority of research projects focus on the long-term effects of a project, and the goals focus on the immediate, short-term outcomes of the research. It is possible to summarise both in just multiple sentences.

In stating your objectives and goals, you give readers a picture of the scope of the study, its depth and the direction your research ultimately follows. Your readers can evaluate the results of your research against the goals and stated objectives to determine if you have achieved the goal of your research.

In the end, your readers are more attracted by the results you've obtained through your study. Therefore, you must take the time to explain each relevant result and explain how they impact your research. The results section exists as the longest in your abstract, and nothing should diminish its reach or quality.

One of the most important things you should adhere to is to spell out details and figures on the results of your research.

Instead of making a vague assertion such as, "We noticed that response rates varied greatly between respondents with high incomes and those with low incomes", Try these: "The response rate was higher for high-income respondents than those with lower incomes (59 30 percent vs. 30 percent in both cases; P<0.01)."

You're likely to encounter certain obstacles during your research. It could have been during data collection or even during conducting the sample . Whatever the issue, it's essential to inform your readers about them and their effects on the research.

Research limitations offer an opportunity to suggest further and deep research. If, for instance, you were forced to change for convenient sampling and snowball samples because of difficulties in reaching well-suited research participants, then you should mention this reason when you write your research abstract. In addition, a lack of prior studies on the subject could hinder your research.

Your conclusion should include the same number of sentences to wrap the abstract as the introduction. The majority of researchers offer an idea of the consequences of their research in this case.

Your conclusion should include three essential components:

• A significant take-home message.
• Corresponding important findings.
• The Interpretation.

Even though the conclusion of your abstract needs to be brief, it can have an enormous influence on the way that readers view your research. Therefore, make use of this section to reinforce the central message from your research. Be sure that your statements reflect the actual results and the methods you used to conduct your research.

Good Abstract Examples

Abstract example #1.

Children’s consumption behavior in response to food product placements in movies.

The abstract:

"Almost all research into the effects of brand placements on children has focused on the brand's attitudes or behavior intentions. Based on the significant differences between attitudes and behavioral intentions on one hand and actual behavior on the other hand, this study examines the impact of placements by brands on children's eating habits. Children aged 6-14 years old were shown an excerpt from the popular film Alvin and the Chipmunks and were shown places for the item Cheese Balls. Three different versions were developed with no placements, one with moderately frequent placements and the third with the highest frequency of placement. The results revealed that exposure to high-frequency places had a profound effect on snack consumption, however, there was no impact on consumer attitudes towards brands or products. The effects were not dependent on the age of the children. These findings are of major importance to researchers studying consumer behavior as well as nutrition experts as well as policy regulators."

Abstract Example #2

Social comparisons on social media: The impact of Facebook on young women’s body image concerns and mood. The abstract:

"The research conducted in this study investigated the effects of Facebook use on women's moods and body image if the effects are different from an internet-based fashion journal and if the appearance comparison tendencies moderate one or more of these effects. Participants who were female ( N = 112) were randomly allocated to spend 10 minutes exploring their Facebook account or a magazine's website or an appearance neutral control website prior to completing state assessments of body dissatisfaction, mood, and differences in appearance (weight-related and facial hair, face, and skin). Participants also completed a test of the tendency to compare appearances. The participants who used Facebook were reported to be more depressed than those who stayed on the control site. In addition, women who have the tendency to compare appearances reported more facial, hair and skin-related issues following Facebook exposure than when they were exposed to the control site. Due to its popularity it is imperative to conduct more research to understand the effect that Facebook affects the way people view themselves."

Abstract Example #3

The Relationship Between Cell Phone Use and Academic Performance in a Sample of U.S. College Students

"The cellphone is always present on campuses of colleges and is often utilised in situations in which learning takes place. The study examined the connection between the use of cell phones and the actual grades point average (GPA) after adjusting for predictors that are known to be a factor. In the end 536 students in the undergraduate program from 82 self-reported majors of an enormous, public institution were studied. Hierarchical analysis ( R 2 = .449) showed that use of mobile phones is significantly ( p < .001) and negative (b equal to -.164) connected to the actual college GPA, after taking into account factors such as demographics, self-efficacy in self-regulated learning, self-efficacy to improve academic performance, and the actual high school GPA that were all important predictors ( p < .05). Therefore, after adjusting for other known predictors increasing cell phone usage was associated with lower academic performance. While more research is required to determine the mechanisms behind these results, they suggest the need to educate teachers and students to the possible academic risks that are associated with high-frequency mobile phone usage."

Quick tips on writing a good abstract

There exists a common dilemma among early age researchers whether to write the abstract at first or last? However, it's recommended to compose your abstract when you've completed the research since you'll have all the information to give to your readers. You can, however, write a draft at the beginning of your research and add in any gaps later.

If you find abstract writing a herculean task, here are the few tips to help you with it:

1. Always develop a framework to support your abstract

Before writing, ensure you create a clear outline for your abstract. Divide it into sections and draw the primary and supporting elements in each one. You can include keywords and a few sentences that convey the essence of your message.

2. Review Other Abstracts

Abstracts are among the most frequently used research documents, and thousands of them were written in the past. Therefore, prior to writing yours, take a look at some examples from other abstracts. There are plenty of examples of abstracts for dissertations in the dissertation and thesis databases.

3. Avoid Jargon To the Maximum

When you write your abstract, focus on simplicity over formality. You should  write in simple language, and avoid excessive filler words or ambiguous sentences. Keep in mind that your abstract must be readable to those who aren't acquainted with your subject.

4. Focus on Your Research

It's a given fact that the abstract you write should be about your research and the findings you've made. It is not the right time to mention secondary and primary data sources unless it's absolutely required.

Conclusion: How to Structure an Interesting Abstract?

Abstracts are a short outline of your essay. However, it's among the most important, if not the most important. The process of writing an abstract is not straightforward. A few early-age researchers tend to begin by writing it, thinking they are doing it to "tease" the next step (the document itself). However, it is better to treat it as a spoiler.

The simple, concise style of the abstract lends itself to a well-written and well-investigated study. If your research paper doesn't provide definitive results, or the goal of your research is questioned, so will the abstract. Thus, only write your abstract after witnessing your findings and put your findings in the context of a larger scenario.

The process of writing an abstract can be daunting, but with these guidelines, you will succeed. The most efficient method of writing an excellent abstract is to centre the primary points of your abstract, including the research question and goals methods, as well as key results.

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Frequently asked questions

What is the purpose of an abstract.

An abstract is a concise summary of an academic text (such as a journal article or dissertation ). It serves two main purposes:

• To help potential readers determine the relevance of your paper for their own research.
• To communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper.

Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your work more easily findable. Since the abstract is the first thing any reader sees, it’s important that it clearly and accurately summarizes the contents of your paper.

Frequently asked questions: Academic writing

A rhetorical tautology is the repetition of an idea of concept using different words.

Rhetorical tautologies occur when additional words are used to convey a meaning that has already been expressed or implied. For example, the phrase “armed gunman” is a tautology because a “gunman” is by definition “armed.”

A logical tautology is a statement that is always true because it includes all logical possibilities.

Logical tautologies often take the form of “either/or” statements (e.g., “It will rain, or it will not rain”) or employ circular reasoning (e.g., “she is untrustworthy because she can’t be trusted”).

You may have seen both “appendices” or “appendixes” as pluralizations of “ appendix .” Either spelling can be used, but “appendices” is more common (including in APA Style ). Consistency is key here: make sure you use the same spelling throughout your paper.

The purpose of a lab report is to demonstrate your understanding of the scientific method with a hands-on lab experiment. Course instructors will often provide you with an experimental design and procedure. Your task is to write up how you actually performed the experiment and evaluate the outcome.

In contrast, a research paper requires you to independently develop an original argument. It involves more in-depth research and interpretation of sources and data.

A lab report is usually shorter than a research paper.

The sections of a lab report can vary between scientific fields and course requirements, but it usually contains the following:

• Title: expresses the topic of your study
• Abstract: summarizes your research aims, methods, results, and conclusions
• Introduction: establishes the context needed to understand the topic
• Method: describes the materials and procedures used in the experiment
• Results: reports all descriptive and inferential statistical analyses
• Discussion: interprets and evaluates results and identifies limitations
• Conclusion: sums up the main findings of your experiment
• References: list of all sources cited using a specific style (e.g. APA)
• Appendices: contains lengthy materials, procedures, tables or figures

A lab report conveys the aim, methods, results, and conclusions of a scientific experiment . Lab reports are commonly assigned in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.

The abstract is the very last thing you write. You should only write it after your research is complete, so that you can accurately summarize the entirety of your thesis , dissertation or research paper .

If you’ve gone over the word limit set for your assignment, shorten your sentences and cut repetition and redundancy during the editing process. If you use a lot of long quotes , consider shortening them to just the essentials.

If you need to remove a lot of words, you may have to cut certain passages. Remember that everything in the text should be there to support your argument; look for any information that’s not essential to your point and remove it.

To make this process easier and faster, you can use a paraphrasing tool . With this tool, you can rewrite your text to make it simpler and shorter. If that’s not enough, you can copy-paste your paraphrased text into the summarizer . This tool will distill your text to its core message.

Revising, proofreading, and editing are different stages of the writing process .

• Revising is making structural and logical changes to your text—reformulating arguments and reordering information.
• Editing refers to making more local changes to things like sentence structure and phrasing to make sure your meaning is conveyed clearly and concisely.
• Proofreading involves looking at the text closely, line by line, to spot any typos and issues with consistency and correct them.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

Avoid citing sources in your abstract . There are two reasons for this:

• The abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others.
• The abstract should be self-contained and fully understandable without reference to other sources.

There are some circumstances where you might need to mention other sources in an abstract: for example, if your research responds directly to another study or focuses on the work of a single theorist. In general, though, don’t include citations unless absolutely necessary.

In a scientific paper, the methodology always comes after the introduction and before the results , discussion and conclusion . The same basic structure also applies to a thesis, dissertation , or research proposal .

Depending on the length and type of document, you might also include a literature review or theoretical framework before the methodology.

Whether you’re publishing a blog, submitting a research paper , or even just writing an important email, there are a few techniques you can use to make sure it’s error-free:

• Take a break : Set your work aside for at least a few hours so that you can look at it with fresh eyes.
• Proofread a printout : Staring at a screen for too long can cause fatigue – sit down with a pen and paper to check the final version.
• Use digital shortcuts : Take note of any recurring mistakes (for example, misspelling a particular word, switching between US and UK English , or inconsistently capitalizing a term), and use Find and Replace to fix it throughout the document.

If you want to be confident that an important text is error-free, it might be worth choosing a professional proofreading service instead.

Editing and proofreading are different steps in the process of revising a text.

Editing comes first, and can involve major changes to content, structure and language. The first stages of editing are often done by authors themselves, while a professional editor makes the final improvements to grammar and style (for example, by improving sentence structure and word choice ).

Proofreading is the final stage of checking a text before it is published or shared. It focuses on correcting minor errors and inconsistencies (for example, in punctuation and capitalization ). Proofreaders often also check for formatting issues, especially in print publishing.

The cost of proofreading depends on the type and length of text, the turnaround time, and the level of services required. Most proofreading companies charge per word or page, while freelancers sometimes charge an hourly rate.

For proofreading alone, which involves only basic corrections of typos and formatting mistakes, you might pay as little as $0.01 per word, but in many cases, your text will also require some level of editing , which costs slightly more.

It’s often possible to purchase combined proofreading and editing services and calculate the price in advance based on your requirements.

There are many different routes to becoming a professional proofreader or editor. The necessary qualifications depend on the field – to be an academic or scientific proofreader, for example, you will need at least a university degree in a relevant subject.

For most proofreading jobs, experience and demonstrated skills are more important than specific qualifications. Often your skills will be tested as part of the application process.

To learn practical proofreading skills, you can choose to take a course with a professional organization such as the Society for Editors and Proofreaders . Alternatively, you can apply to companies that offer specialized on-the-job training programmes, such as the Scribbr Academy .

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• How to Write An Abstract For Research Papers: Tips & Examples

In many ways, an abstract is like a trailer of a movie or the synopsis of your favorite book. Its job is to whet the reader’s appetite by sharing important information about your work. After reading a well-written abstract, one should have enough interest to explore the full research thesis. 

So how do you write an interesting abstract that captures the core of your study? First, you need to understand your research objectives and match them with the key results of your study. In this article, we will share some tips for writing an effective abstract, plus samples you can learn from. 

What is an Abstract in Research Writing?

In simple terms, an abstract is a concise write-up that gives an overview of your systematic investigation. According to Grammarly, it is a self-contained summary of a larger work, and it serves as a preview of the bigger document. 

It usually appears at the beginning of your thesis or research paper and helps the reader to have an overview of your work without going into great detail. This means that when someone reads your abstract, it should give them a clear idea of the purpose of your systematic investigation, your problem statement, key results, and any gaps requiring further investigation. 

So how long should your abstract be to capture all of these details? The reality is you don’t need a lot of words to capture key pieces of information in your abstract. Typically, 6–7 sentences made up of 150–250 words should be just right. 

Read: Writing Research Proposals: Tips, Examples & Mistakes

What are the Characteristics of a Good Abstract? 

• A good abstract clearly states the aims and objectives of the research.
• It outlines the research methodology for data gathering , processing and analysis. 
• A good abstract summarizes specific research results.
• It states the key conclusions of the systematic investigation.
• It is brief yet straight to the point. 
• A good abstract is unified and coherent. 
• It is easy to understand and devoid of technical jargon. 
• It is written in an unbiased and objective manner. 

What is the Purpose of an Abstract? 

Every abstract has two major purposes. First, it communicates the relevance of your systematic investigation to readers. After reading your abstract, people can determine how relevant your study is to their primary or secondary research purpose. 

The second purpose of an abstract is to communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper. Research papers typically run into tens of pages so it takes time to read and digest them. To help readers grasp the core ideas in a systematic investigation, it pays to have a well-written abstract that outlines important information concerning your study. 

In all, your abstract should accurately outline the most important information in your research. Many times, it determines whether people would go ahead to read your dissertation. Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your thesis easily findable.

Learn About: How to Write a Problem Statement for your Research

What are the Sections of an Abstract?

You already know the key pieces of information that your abstract should communicate. These details are broken into six important sections of the abstract which are: 

• The Introduction or Background
• Research Methodology
• Aims and Objectives 
• Limitations

Let’s discuss them in detail. 

• The Introduction or Background 

The introduction or background is the shortest part of your abstract and usually consists of 2–3 sentences. In fact, some researchers write a single sentence as the introduction of their abstract. The whole idea here is to take the reader through the important events leading to your research. 

Understandably, this information may appear difficult to convey in a few sentences. To help out, consider answering these two questions in the background to your study : 

• What is already known about the subject, related to the paper in question? 
• What is not known about the subject (this is the focus of your study)? 

As much as possible, ensure that your abstract’s introduction doesn’t eat into the word count for the other key information. 

• Research Methodology 

This is the section where you spell out any theories and methods adopted for your study. Ideally, you should cover what has been done and how you went about it to achieve the results of your systematic investigation. It is usually the second-longest section in the abstract. 

In the research methodology section, you should also state the type of research you embarked on; that is, qualitative research or quantitative research —this will inform your research methods too. If you’ve conducted quantitative research, your abstract should contain information like the sample size, data collection methods , sampling technique, and duration of your experiment. 

Explore: 21 Chrome Extensions for Academic Researchers in 2021

In the end, readers are most interested in the results you’ve achieved with your study. This means you should take time to outline every relevant outcome and show how they affect your research population . Typically, the results section should be the longest one in your abstract and nothing should compromise its range and quality. 

An important thing you should do here is spelled out facts and figures about research outcomes. Instead of a vague statement like, “we noticed that response rates differed greatly between high-income and low-income respondents”, try this: “The response rate was higher in high-income respondents than in their low-income counterparts (59% vs 30%, respectively; P

• Conclusion 

Like the introduction, your conclusion should contain a few sentences that wrap up your abstract. Most researchers express a theoretical opinion about the implications of their study, here. 

Your conclusion should contain three important elements: 

• The primary take-home message
• The additional findings of importance
• The perspective 

Although the conclusion of your abstract should be short, it has a great impact on how readers perceive your study. So, take advantage of this section to reiterate the core message in your systematic investigation. Also, make sure any statements here reflect the true outcomes and methods of your research. 

• Limitations 

Chances are you must have faced certain challenges in the course of your research—it could be at the data collection phase or during sampling . Whatever these challenges are, it pays to let your readers know about them, and the impact they had on your study. 

For example, if you had to switch to convenience sampling or snowball sampling due to difficulties in contacting well-suited research participants, you should include this in your abstract. Also, a lack of previous studies in the research area could pose a limitation on your study. Research limitations provide an opportunity to make suggestions for further research. 

Research aims and objectives speak to what you want to achieve with your study. Typically, research aims focus on a project’s long-term outcomes while the objectives focus on the immediate, short-term outcome of the investigation. You may summarize both using a single paragraph comprising a few sentences.

Stating your aims and objectives will give readers a clear idea of the scope, depth, and direction that your research will ultimately take. Readers would measure your research outcomes against stated aims and objectives to know if you achieved the purpose of your study. 

Use For Free: Research Form Templates

Abstract Writing Styles and General Guidelines 

Now that you know the different sections plus information that your abstract should contain, let’s look at how to write an abstract for your research paper.

A common question that comes up is, should I write my abstract first or last? It’s best to write your abstract after you’ve finished working on the research because you have full information to present to your readers. However, you can always create a draft at the beginning of your systematic investigation and fill in the gaps later.  

Does writing an abstract seem like a herculean task? Here are a few tips to help out. 

1. Always create a framework for your abstract 

Before you start writing, take time to develop a detailed outline for your abstract. Break it into sections and sketch the main and supporting points for each section. You can list keywords plus 1–2 sentences that capture your core messaging. 

2. Read Other Abstracts 

Abstracts are one of the most common research documents, and thousands of them have been written in time past. So, before writing yours, try to study a couple of samples from others. You can find lots of dissertation abstract examples in thesis and dissertation databases.

3. Steer Clear of Jargon As Much As Possible 

While writing your abstract, emphasize clarity over style. This means you should communicate in simple terms and avoid unnecessary filler words and ambiguous sentences. Remember, your abstract should be understandable to readers who are not familiar with your topic. 

4. Focus on Your Research

It goes without saying that your abstract should be solely focused on your research and what you’ve discovered. It’s not the time to cite primary and secondary data sources unless this is absolutely necessary. 

This doesn’t mean you should ignore the scholarly background of your work. You might include a sentence or two summarizing the scholarly background to show the relevance of your work to a broader debate, but there’s no need to mention specific publications. 

Going further, here are some abstract writing guidelines from the University of Bergen: 

• An abstract briefly explains the salient aspects of the content. 
• Abstracts should be accurate and succinct, self-contained, and readable.  
• The abstract should paraphrase and summarise rather than quote from the paper.
• Abstracts should relate only to the paper to be presented/assessed.

Types of Abstracts with Examples 

According to the University of Adelaide, there are two major types of abstracts written for research purposes. First, we have informative abstracts and descriptive abstracts. 

1. Informative Abstract  

An informative abstract is the more common type of abstract written for academic research. It highlights the most important aspects of your systematic investigation without going into unnecessary or irrelevant details that the reader might not find useful. 

The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of longer work, it may be much less.

In any informative abstract, you’d touch on information like the purpose, method, scope, results, and conclusion of your study. By now, you’re thinking, “this is the type of abstract we’ve been discussing all along”, and you wouldn’t be far from the truth. 

Advantages of Informative Abstracts

• These abstracts save time for both the researcher and the readers. 
• It’s easy to refer to these abstracts as secondary research sources. 

Disadvantages of Informative Abstracts

• These types of abstracts lack personality.

Example of an Informative Abstract

• Sample Informative Abstract Based on Experimental Work From Colorado State University
• Sample Informative Abstract Based on Non-experimental Work From Colorado State University

2. Descriptive Abstract 

A descriptive abstract reads like a synopsis and focuses on enticing the reader with interesting information. They don’t care as much for data and details, and instead read more like overviews that don’t give too much away. 

You’d find descriptive abstracts in artistic criticism pieces and entertainment research as opposed to scientific investigations. This type of abstract makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. They are usually written in 100 words or less. 

Advantages of Descriptive Abstracts

• It gives a very brief overview of the research paper. 
• It is easier to write descriptive abstracts compared to informational abstracts. 

Disadvantages of Descriptive Abstracts

• They are suitable for scientific research. 
• Descriptive abstracts might omit relevant information that deepens your knowledge of the systematic investigation.

Example of Descriptive Abstracts 

• Sample Descriptive Abstract From Colorado State University

FAQs About Writing Abstracts in Research Papers

1. How Long Should an Abstract Be?

A typical abstract should be about six sentences long or less than 150 words. Most universities have specific word count requirements that fall within 150–300 words. 

2. How Do You Start an Abstract Sentence?

There are several ways to start your abstract. Consider the following methods: 

• State a problem or uncertainty
• Make a general statement with the present research action.
• State the purpose or objective of your research
• State a real-world phenomena or a standard practice.

3. Should you cite in an abstract?

While you can refer to information from specific research papers, there’s no need to cite sources in your abstract. Your abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others. 

4. What should not be included in an abstract?

An abstract shouldn’t have numeric references, bibliographies, sections, or even footnotes. 

5. Which tense is used in writing an abstract?

An abstract should be written in the third-person present tense. Use the simple past tense when describing your methodology and specific findings from your study. 

Writing an abstract might appear challenging but with these steps, you should get it right. The easiest approach to writing a good abstract is centering it on key information including your research problem and objectives, methodology, and key results.

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What is the abstract of a paper?

What is an abstract?

The function of an abstract, abstract style, frequently asked questions about abstracts, related articles.

An abstract is a summary of the main contents of a paper.

An abstract provides an overview of a paper’s main arguments and conclusions. They provide the reader with a first glimpse at the paper’s contents. An abstract can influence the popularity of a paper: a well-written one will attract readers, while a poorly-written one may drive them away.

➡️ Abstracts are also used for conference submissions. If you’re preparing a presentation, take a look at our guide on how to make a scientific presentation .

The purpose of an abstract is to provide a concise description of the basic points of the paper. Researchers, academics, and general readers focus on reading abstracts before reading the rest of the paper. This way, they know what to expect in the following pages.

By reading an abstract, people decide if the paper’s information is useful for their own research or not. Therefore, it is imperative to include the most relevant aspects of the paper in the abstract.

➡️ Our guide on how to write an abstract features tips and strategies for writing and formatting abstracts.

Tip: Always wait until you’ve finished writing your paper before composing the abstract.

The exact format of an abstract depends on the citation style you implement. Whether it’s a known style (like APA, IEEE, etc.) or a journal's style, each format has its own guidelines, so make sure to know which style you are using before writing your abstract.

APA is one of the most commonly used styles to format an abstract. Therefore, we created a guide with exact instructions on how to write an abstract in APA style, and a template to download:

📕 APA abstract page: format and template

Additionally, you will find below an IEEE and ASA abstract guide by Purdue Online Writing Lab :

📗 IEEE General Format - Abstract

📘 ASA Manuscript Formatting - Abstract

You should always write an abstract last. Once you finish writing the whole paper, you are ready to write the abstract. This way you can include all important aspects of the paper, such as your aim of research, methodology, and conclusion.

The length of a abstract depends on the formatting style of the paper. For example, APA style calls for 150 to 250 words. Generally, you need between 150-300 words.

No. An abstract has an independent section after the title page and before the index, and should not be included in the table of contents.

Take a look at APA abstract page: format and template for exact details on how to format an abstract in APA style.

You can access any paper through Google Scholar or any other search engine, pick a paper and read the abstract. Abstracts are always freely available to read.

Role of an Abstract in Research Paper With Examples

Why does one write an abstract? What is so intriguing about writing an abstract in research paper after writing a full length research paper? How do research paper abstracts or summaries help a researcher during research publishing? These are the most common and frequently pondered upon questions that early career researchers search answers for over the internet!

Table of Contents

What does Abstract mean in Research?

In Research, abstract is “a well-developed single paragraph which is approximately 250 words in length”. Furthermore, it is single-spaced single spaced. Abstract outlines all the parts of the paper briefly. Although the abstract is placed in the beginning of the research paper immediately after research title , the abstract is the last thing a researcher writes.

Why Is an Abstract Necessary in Research Paper?

Abstract is a concise academic text that –

• Helps the potential reader get the relevance of your research study for their own research
• Communicates your key findings for those who have time constraints in reading your paper
• And helps rank the article on search engines based on the keywords on academic databases.

Purpose of Writing an Abstract in Research

Abstracts are required for –

• Submission of articles to journals
• Application for research grants
• Completion and submission of thesis
• Submission of proposals for conference papers.

Aspects Included in an Abstract

The format of your abstract depends on the field of research, in which you are working. However, all abstracts broadly cover the following sections:

Reason for Writing

One can start with the importance of conducting their research study. Furthermore, you could start with a broader research question and address why would the reader be interested in that particular research question.

Research Problem

You could mention what problem the research study chooses to address. Moreover, you could elaborate about the scope of the project, the main argument, brief about thesis objective or what the study claims.

• Methodology

Furthermore, you could mention a line or two about what approach and specific models the research study uses in the scientific work. Some research studies may discuss the evidences in throughout the paper, so instead of writing about methodologies you could mention the types of evidence used in the research.

The scientific research aims to get the specific data that indicates the results of the project. Therefore, you could mention the results and discuss the findings in a broader and general way.

Finally, you could discuss how the research work contributes to the scientific society and adds knowledge on the topic. Also, you could specify if your findings or inferences could help future research and researchers.

Types of Abstracts

Based on the abstract content —, 1. descriptive.

This abstract in research paper is usually short (50-100 words). These abstracts have common sections, such as –

• Focus of research
• Overview of the study.

This type of research does not include detailed presentation of results and only mention results through a phrase without contributing numerical or statistical data . Descriptive abstracts guide readers on the nature of contents of the article.

2. Informative

This abstract gives the essence of what the report is about and it is usually about 200 words. These abstracts have common sections, such as –

• Aim or purpose

This abstract provides an accurate data on the contents of the work, especially on the results section.

Based on the writing format —

1. structured.

This type of abstract has a paragraph for each section: Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Conclusion. Also, structured abstracts are often required for informative abstracts.

2. Semi-structured

A semi-structured abstract is written in only one paragraph, wherein each sentence corresponds to a section. Furthermore, all the sections mentioned in the structured abstract are present in the semi-structured abstract.

3. Non-structured

In a non-structured abstract there are no divisions between each section. The sentences are included in a single paragraph. This type of presentation is ideal for descriptive abstracts.

Examples of Abstracts

Abstract example 1: clinical research.

Neutralization of Omicron BA.1, BA.2, and BA.3 SARS-CoV-2 by 3 doses of BNT162b2 vaccine

Abstract: The newly emerged Omicron SARS-CoV-2 has several distinct sublineages including BA.1, BA.2, and BA.3. BA.1 accounts for the initial surge and is being replaced by BA.2, whereas BA.3 is at a low prevalence at this time. Here we report the neutralization of BNT162b2-vaccinated sera (collected 1 month after dose 3) against the three Omicron sublineages. To facilitate the neutralization testing, we have engineered the complete BA.1, BA.2, or BA.3 spike into an mNeonGreen USA-WA1/2020 SARS-CoV-2. All BNT162b2-vaccinated sera neutralize USA-WA1/2020, BA.1-, BA.2-, and BA.3-spike SARS-CoV-2s with titers of >20; the neutralization geometric mean titers (GMTs) against the four viruses are 1211, 336, 300, and 190, respectively. Thus, the BA.1-, BA.2-, and BA.3-spike SARS-CoV-2s are 3.6-, 4.0-, and 6.4-fold less efficiently neutralized than the USA-WA1/2020, respectively. Our data have implications in vaccine strategy and understanding the biology of Omicron sublineages.

Type of Abstract: Informative and non-structured

Abstract Example 2: Material Science and Chemistry

Breaking the nanoparticle’s dispersible limit via rotatable surface ligands

Abstract: Achieving versatile dispersion of nanoparticles in a broad range of solvents (e.g., water, oil, and biofluids) without repeatedly recourse to chemical modifications are desirable in optoelectronic devices, self-assembly, sensing, and biomedical fields. However, such a target is limited by the strategies used to decorate nanoparticle’s surface properties, leading to a narrow range of solvents for existing nanoparticles. Here we report a concept to break the nanoparticle’s dispersible limit via electrochemically anchoring surface ligands capable of sensing the surrounding liquid medium and rotating to adapt to it, immediately forming stable dispersions in a wide range of solvents (polar and nonpolar, biofluids, etc.). Moreover, the smart nanoparticles can be continuously electrodeposited in the electrolyte, overcoming the electrode surface-confined low throughput limitation of conventional electrodeposition methods. The anomalous dispersive property of the smart Ag nanoparticles enables them to resist bacteria secreted species-induced aggregation and the structural similarity of the surface ligands to that of the bacterial membrane assists them to enter the bacteria, leading to high antibacterial activity. The simple but massive fabrication process and the enhanced dispersion properties offer great application opportunities to the smart nanoparticles in diverse fields.

Type of Abstract: Descriptive and non-structured

Abstract Example 3: Clinical Toxicology

Evaluation of dexmedetomidine therapy for sedation in patients with toxicological events at an academic medical center

Introduction: Although clinical use of dexmedetomidine (DEX), an alpha2-adrenergic receptor agonist, has increased, its role in patients admitted to intensive care units secondary to toxicological sequelae has not been well established.

Objectives: The primary objective of this study was to describe clinical and adverse effects observed in poisoned patients receiving DEX for sedation.

Methods: This was an observational case series with retrospective chart review of poisoned patients who received DEX for sedation at an academic medical center. The primary endpoint was incidence of adverse effects of DEX therapy including bradycardia, hypotension, seizures, and arrhythmias. For comparison, vital signs were collected hourly for the 5 h preceding the DEX therapy and every hour during DEX therapy until the therapy ended. Additional endpoints included therapy duration; time within target Richmond Agitation Sedation Score (RASS); and concomitant sedation, analgesia, and vasopressor requirements.

Results: Twenty-two patients were included. Median initial and median DEX infusion rates were similar to the commonly used rates for sedation. Median heart rate was lower during the therapy (82 vs. 93 beats/minute, p < 0.05). Median systolic blood pressure before and during therapy was similar (111 vs. 109 mmHg, p = 0.745). Five patients experienced an adverse effect per study definitions during therapy. No additional adverse effects were noted. Median time within target RASS and duration of therapy was 6.5 and 44.5 h, respectively. Seventeen patients (77%) had concomitant use of other sedation and/or analgesia with four (23%) of these patients requiring additional agents after DEX initiation. Seven patients (32%) had concomitant vasopressor support with four (57%) of these patients requiring vasopressor support after DEX initiation.

Conclusion: Common adverse effects of DEX were noted in this study. The requirement for vasopressor support during therapy warrants further investigation into the safety of DEX in poisoned patients. Larger, comparative studies need to be performed before the use of DEX can be routinely recommended in poisoned patients.

Keywords: Adverse effects; Alpha2-adrenergic receptor agonist; Overdose; Safety.

Type of Abstract: Informative and structured .

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Writing an Abstract

What is an abstract.

An abstract is a summary of your paper and/or research project. It should be single-spaced, one paragraph, and approximately 250-300 words. It is NOT an introduction to your paper; rather, it should highlight your major points, explain why your work is important, describe how you researched your problem, and offer your conclusions.

How do I prepare an abstract?

An abstract should be clear and concise, without any grammatical mistakes or typographical errors. You may wish to have it reviewed by the  Writing Center , who are  happy to work with you on your abstract and are available via  appointments , as well as a writing instructor, tutor, or other writing specialist. 

For the purposes of the symposium, the wording of an abstract should be understandable to a well-read, interdisciplinary audience. Specialized terms should be either defined or avoided.

A successful abstract addresses the following points:

• Problem:  What is the central problem or question you investigated?
• Purpose : Why is your study important? How it is different from other similar investigations? Why we should care about your project?
• Methods : What are the important methods you used to perform your research?
• Results : What are the major results of the research project? (You do not have to detail all of the results, highlight only the major ones.)
• Interpretation : How do your results relate back to your central problem?
• Implications : Why are your results important? What can we learn from them?

It should not include any charts, tables, figures, footnotes, references or other supporting information.

Finally, please note that your abstract  must have the approval of your research mentor or advisor.

Samples of Abstracts

Browse through past volumes of WUSHTA and WUURD available via  WashU Open Scholarship  to view samples of abstracts in all disciplines, or take a look at the samples below:

Sample abstract: Social Sciences

Sample abstract: Natural Sciences

Sample abstract: Humanities

Chapter 7: Writing Abstracts

Defining Abstracts

A recent handbook on academic writing defines abstract as “a short form, or synopsis, of a larger text or project, describing work that is proposed, in development, or completed” [1] . This definition underscores the chronology of an abstract’s use – future work, current work, or finished products. These varied uses of an abstract contribute to its diverse forms because what is included in an abstract is heavily influenced by its intended function. Basically, a good abstract should have the following features: accurate, self-contained, concise and specific, non-evaluative, and coherent and readable (American Psychological Association, 2001).Other scholars have defined abstracts in other ways, including, but not limited to, the following:

• a description or factual summary of the much longer report, and is meant to give the reader an exact and concise knowledge of the full article [2]
• an abbreviated, accurate representation of the contents of a document [3]

Still others have noted what an abstract should contain, including descriptors such as accurate, concise, non-evaluative,   coherent and readable [4] by categorizing them into sub-types [5] or functional purposes [6] . Categories of abstracts include:

• Informative (summary of an article)
• Indicative/descriptive (explains general information but usually excludes results)
• Structured (summary that uses headings for each section of the RA)

As the first type (informative abstract) is the most common form of abstract [7] , and the one most closely associated with the topic of this book (research articles), we will focus our attention on this type. Nevertheless, it is important to point out that the third type (structured abstracts) could be a sub-classification for either the informative or indicative type. In other words, either type 1 or type 2 could be presented in a structured format.

So, now that we have narrowed down the type of abstract that we are referring to, let’s examine the purpose of that type. In their seminal book on academic writing, Swales and Feak (2009) note two major functions of this particular kind of abstract:

• Previewing or summarizing academic work
• Proposing academic work

That work may be a research article, a thesis or dissertation, a conference presentation, or a chapter of a book. In order to determine what is included in your abstract, you’ll need to first answer some wh -question s :

• Who is the audience for the abstract and what is their level of expertise on the topic or within the discipline?
• Why was the research undertaken (e.g., w hat is the motivation/justification for the study)?
• What are the research questions or hypotheses?
• What methods were used?
• What were the general findings/conclusions?
• What are the implications for the subject matter or field?
• Where will the abstract be published?
• How should the abstract be formatted?

A successful abstract answers these questions as a way of becoming a stand-alone document [8] .

Now that we’ve explored the basic definition of an abstract and explained what it contains, we’ll divide our discussion into two parts:

•  Functions of an abstract (examining the purposes and goals for writing one); and
• Forms of an abstract (emphasizing the various language issues that might arise as you’re writing).
• Curry, M. J., He, F., Weijia, L., Zhang, T., Zuo, Y., Altalouli, M., and Ayesh, J. (2021). An A to W of Academic Literacy: Key Concepts and Practices for Graduate Students.   Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ↵
• Bhatia, V. K. (1993). Analyzing genre: Language use in professional settings. London: Longman. ↵
• ANSI. (1979). The American standard for writing abstracts. New York: ANSI Publication. ↵
• American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American psychological association (6th ed.). https://www. apa.org/pubs/books/4200066 ↵
• Gladon, R. J., Graves, W. R., & Kelly, J. M. (2011). Getting published in the life sciences . John Wiley & Sons. ↵
• Swales, J. M., & Feak, C. B. (2004).  Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills  (Vol. 1). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. ↵
• Gladon, R. J., Graves, W. R., & Kelly, J. M. (2011).  Getting published in the life sciences . John Wiley & Sons. ↵

Preparing to Publish Copyright © 2023 by Sarah Huffman; Elena Cotos; and Kimberly Becker is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

How to Write an Abstract?

• Open Access
• First Online: 24 October 2021

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• Samiran Nundy 4 ,
• Atul Kakar 5 &
• Zulfiqar A. Bhutta 6  

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An abstract is a crisp, short, powerful, and self-contained summary of a research manuscript used to help the reader swiftly determine the paper’s purpose. Although the abstract is the first paragraph of the manuscript it should be written last when all the other sections have been addressed.

Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose. — Zora Neale Hurston, American Author, Anthropologist and Filmmaker (1891–1960)

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Writing the Abstract

Abstract and Keywords

Additional Commentaries

1 what is an abstract.

An abstract is usually a standalone document that informs the reader about the details of the manuscript to follow. It is like a trailer to a movie, if the trailer is good, it stimulates the audience to watch the movie. The abstract should be written from scratch and not ‘cut –and-pasted’ [ 1 ].

2 What is the History of the Abstract?

An abstract, in the form of a single paragraph, was first published in the Canadian Medical Association Journal in 1960 with the idea that the readers may not have enough time to go through the whole paper, and the first abstract with a defined structure was published in 1991 [ 2 ]. The idea sold and now most original articles and reviews are required to have a structured abstract. The abstract attracts the reader to read the full manuscript [ 3 ].

3 What are the Qualities of a Good Abstract?

The quality of information in an abstract can be summarized by four ‘C’s. It should be:

C: Condensed

C: Critical

4 What are the Types of Abstract?

Before writing the abstract, you need to check with the journal website about which type of abstract it requires, with its length and style in the ‘Instructions to Authors’ section.

The abstract types can be divided into:

Descriptive: Usually written for psychology, social science, and humanities papers. It is about 50–100 words long. No conclusions can be drawn from this abstract as it describes the major points in the paper.

Informative: The majority of abstracts for science-related manuscripts are informative and are surrogates for the research done. They are single paragraphs that provide the reader an overview of the research paper and are about 100–150 words in length. Conclusions can be drawn from the abstracts and in the recommendations written in the last line.

Critical: This type of abstract is lengthy and about 400–500 words. In this, the authors’ own research is discussed for reliability, judgement, and validation. A comparison is also made with similar studies done earlier.

Highlighting: This is rarely used in scientific writing. The style of the abstract is to attract more readers. It is not a balanced or complete overview of the article with which it is published.

Structured: A structured abstract contains information under subheadings like background, aims, material and methods, results, conclusion, and recommendations (Fig. 15.1 ). Most leading journals now carry these.

Example of a structured abstract (with permission editor CMRP)

5 What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

An abstract is written to educate the reader about the study that follows and provide an overview of the science behind it. If written well it also attracts more readers to the article. It also helps the article getting indexed. The fate of a paper both before and after publication often depends upon its abstract. Most readers decide if a paper is worth reading on the basis of the abstract. Additionally, the selection of papers in systematic reviews is often dependent upon the abstract.

6 What are the Steps of Writing an Abstract?

An abstract should be written last after all the other sections of an article have been addressed. A poor abstract may turn off the reader and they may cause indexing errors as well. The abstract should state the purpose of the study, the methodology used, and summarize the results and important conclusions. It is usually written in the IMRAD format and is called a structured abstract [ 4 , 5 ].

I: The introduction in the opening line should state the problem you are addressing.

M: Methodology—what method was chosen to finish the experiment?

R: Results—state the important findings of your study.

D: Discussion—discuss why your study is important.

Mention the following information:

Important results with the statistical information ( p values, confidence intervals, standard/mean deviation).

Arrange all information in a chronological order.

Do not repeat any information.

The last line should state the recommendations from your study.

The abstract should be written in the past tense.

7 What are the Things to Be Avoided While Writing an Abstract?

Cut and paste information from the main text

Hold back important information

Use abbreviations

Tables or Figures

Generalized statements

Arguments about the study

8 What are Key Words?

These are important words that are repeated throughout the manuscript and which help in the indexing of a paper. Depending upon the journal 3–10 key words may be required which are indexed with the help of MESH (Medical Subject Heading).

9 How is an Abstract Written for a Conference Different from a Journal Paper?

The basic concept for writing abstracts is the same. However, in a conference abstract occasionally a table or figure is allowed. A word limit is important in both of them. Many of the abstracts which are presented in conferences are never published in fact one study found that only 27% of the abstracts presented in conferences were published in the next five years [ 6 ].

Table 15.1 gives a template for writing an abstract.

10 What are the Important Recommendations of the International Committees of Medical Journal of Editors?

The recommendations are [ 7 ]:

An abstract is required for original articles, metanalysis, and systematic reviews.

A structured abstract is preferred.

The abstract should mention the purpose of the scientific study, how the procedure was carried out, the analysis used, and principal conclusion.

Clinical trials should be reported according to the CONSORT guidelines.

The trials should also mention the funding and the trial number.

The abstract should be accurate as many readers have access only to the abstract.

11 Conclusions

An Abstract should be written last after all the other sections of the manuscript have been completed and with due care and attention to the details.

It should be structured and written in the IMRAD format.

For many readers, the abstract attracts them to go through the complete content of the article.

The abstract is usually followed by key words that help to index the paper.

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Department of Surgical Gastroenterology and Liver Transplantation, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi, India

Samiran Nundy

Department of Internal Medicine, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi, India

Institute for Global Health and Development, The Aga Khan University, South Central Asia, East Africa and United Kingdom, Karachi, Pakistan

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Nundy, S., Kakar, A., Bhutta, Z.A. (2022). How to Write an Abstract?. In: How to Practice Academic Medicine and Publish from Developing Countries?. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5248-6_15

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The impact of health insurance on maternal and reproductive health service utilization and financial protection in low- and lower middle-income countries: a systematic review of the evidence

• Joseph Kazibwe 1 ,
• Phuong Bich Tran 2 ,
• Andrea Hannah Kaiser 1 ,
• Simon Peter Kasagga 3 ,
• Felix Masiye 4 ,
• Björn Ekman 1 &
• Jesper Sundewall 1 , 5  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  432 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Low- and middle-income countries have committed to achieving universal health coverage (UHC) as a means to enhance access to services and improve financial protection. One of the key health financing reforms to achieve UHC is the introduction or expansion of health insurance to enhance access to basic health services, including maternal and reproductive health care. However, there is a paucity of evidence of the extent to which these reforms have had impact on the main policy objectives of enhancing service utilization and financial protection. The aim of this systematic review is to assess the existing evidence on the causal impact of health insurance on maternal and reproductive health service utilization and financial protection in low- and lower middle-income countries.

The review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The search included six databases: Medline, Embase, Web of Science, Cochrane, CINAHL, and Scopus as of 23rd May 2023. The keywords included health insurance, impact, utilisation, financial protection, and maternal and reproductive health. The search was followed by independent title and abstract screening and full text review by two reviewers using the Covidence software. Studies published in English since 2010, which reported on the impact of health insurance on maternal and reproductive health utilisation and or financial protection were included in the review. The ROBINS-I tool was used to assess the quality of the included studies.

A total of 17 studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The majority of the studies (82.4%, n  = 14) were nationally representative. Most studies found that health insurance had a significant positive impact on having at least four antenatal care (ANC) visits, delivery at a health facility and having a delivery assisted by a skilled attendant with average treatment effects ranging from 0.02 to 0.11, 0.03 to 0.34 and 0.03 to 0.23 respectively. There was no evidence that health insurance had increased postnatal care, access to contraception and financial protection for maternal and reproductive health services. Various maternal and reproductive health indicators were reported in studies. ANC had the greatest number of reported indicators ( n  = 10), followed by financial protection ( n  = 6), postnatal care ( n  = 5), and delivery care ( n  = 4). The overall quality of the evidence was moderate based on the risk of bias assessment.

The introduction or expansion of various types of health insurance can be a useful intervention to improve ANC (receiving at least four ANC visits) and delivery care (delivery at health facility and delivery assisted by skilled birth attendant) service utilization in low- and lower-middle-income countries. Implementation of health insurance could enable countries’ progress towards UHC and reduce maternal mortality. However, more research using rigorous impact evaluation methods is needed to investigate the causal impact of health insurance coverage on postnatal care utilization, contraceptive use and financial protection both in the general population and by socioeconomic status.

Trial registration

This study was registered with Prospero (CRD42021285776).

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) have committed to making progress towards universal health coverage (UHC) as part of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). UHC has been defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a state where all people and communities receive the quality health services they need, when they need them, without experiencing financial hardship due to health care costs [ 1 ]. Generally, high income countries have attained high levels of service coverage (UHC service coverage index of at least 80 out of 100), however a majority of low- and lower-middle income countries (LLMICs) are still lagging behind (UHC service coverage index of less than 60 out of 100) as of 2022 [ 2 ]. The health service coverage index is the average coverage of essential services based on 14 tracer indicators of health service coverage (encompassing reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health, infectious diseases, non-communicable diseases and service capacity and access) among the general and the most disadvantaged population [ 3 , 4 ]. Similarly, while efforts have been made to decrease catastrophic health expenditure globally, LLMICs continue to face the greatest burden of people being thrust into extreme poverty (spending less than international dollars 1.9 per day) due to out of pocket payments (OOP) on healthcare [ 5 ].

In order to advance towards UHC, several countries especially LLMICs, are planning or implementing health financing reforms with a view to introduce or expand some form of health insurance (i.e. prepayment and pooling of funds). Countries that have opted for health insurance schemes – specifically social health insurance (SHI) – have seen an increment in their health expenditure compared to those that have a tax-based model of financing [ 6 , 7 ]. However, the choice of health financing mechanism does not necessarily have a clear effect on health outcomes (such as increased immunization coverage, reduced under-five mortality) or financial protection [ 7 ]. For example, Wagstaff who looked at Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries found that neither a tax-funded health system nor a SHI system had a significant effect on health outcomes [ 6 ] while Gabani et al. who looked at over 124 countries found that transitions from predominantly OOP financing to tax-funded health systems yielded significantly better health outcomes than transitions from predominantly OOP financing to health insurance [ 7 ].

An increasing number of LLMICs have started implementing, or are planning to implement health insurance reforms to advance UHC [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Health insurance can go by different names including SHI, publicly funded health insurance (PFHI), community-based health insurance (CBHI) and private for-profit health insurance based on the pre-payment arrangement within an insurance scheme [ 11 ]. The intention, however, is the same for all health insurance systems (especially not for profit health insurance), which is to pool the risk of high-cost health care across a large number of people in order to protect individuals from high unexpected medical costs. Through a system of prepayment for guaranteed access to a predetermined package of health benefits, individuals can benefit from more predictable health care expenses and be protected from catastrophic health expenditure. A number of countries are opting for SHI. SHI refers to a health insurance system where contributions in form of premiums are collected from employees, employers and or government and pooled into an insurance fund [ 12 ]. Over time, SHI has been defined to mean insurance schemes where employees and employers both contribute premiums to the insurance fund. In instances where contributions/premiums are paid by government, such insurance has been referred to as PFHI for example in India [ 13 , 14 ]. PFHI has been implemented in some LLMIC settings, where there is a large informal sector, and inability to pay or collect premiums. In some cases, a health insurance scheme can be a combination of tiered contributions by members and subsidies from the government for example contributory and non-contributory.

A core component of UHC is maternal and reproductive health services (MRH), which has received a lot of attention in the past few decades. It was central to the Millennium Development Goals, specifically Goal 5 aimed at improving maternal health [ 15 ]; and it is currently well stipulated within the SDGs. MRH is one of the four categories measured for the UHC service coverage index. The other health services areas under the index are infectious diseases, non-communicable diseases and service capacity and access [ 16 ]. Several interventions have been implemented to improve MRH, including sexual and reproductive health and rights interventions. These endeavors have led to the improvement of MRH globally [ 17 ]. However, several LLMICs continue to face high maternal mortality ratios (accounting for 94% of all maternal deaths globally) [ 18 ], which is far from achieving the target of reducing maternal mortality to 70 deaths per 100,000 live births. Furthermore, women have continued to experience financial barriers when seeking healthcare, and they are found to be more vulnerable to facing financial hardships when accessing care, compared to men [ 19 ].

Despite the increasing interest surrounding health insurance, our understanding of the actual causal impact of the implemented reforms remains limited. Several reviews have examined the existing evidence on the impact of health insurance on service utilization and financial protection, but the results are inconclusive [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ]. A review by Comfort et al. [ 24 ] analyzed the effects of health insurance on maternal health services in LMICs. Insurance (a mix of different types of insurance) was found to be consistently associated with increased utilization of facility-based child delivery and delivery assisted by a skilled health worker.

However, Comfort et al.’s study did not address the impact of health insurance on financial protection. In addition, the study examined various types of insurance schemes, including a mix of both for-profit and not-for-profit models. The study also included conditional cash transfers (or CCTs, a kind of demand-side financing). Therefore, based on Comfort et al.'s findings, it can be challenging to discern the specific impact of individual types of insurance. Our study differs from that of Comfort et al. as we specifically focus on well-specified not-for-profit health insurance as the intervention in LLMICs. Furthermore, we have also examined and reported on the impact of insurance on the financial protection of women of reproductive age. Our review constitutes a contribution to the current evidence base on this topic as no previous review has specifically examined the impact of not-for-profit health insurance on maternal and reproductive service utilization and financial protection in LLMICs, despite the recognition that MRH is among the four core categories of essential health services under UHC [ 4 ].

Our study aims to review the existing evidence of the causal impact of health insurance on maternal and reproductive service utilization and financial protection in LLMICs to inform ongoing health financing reform discussions and identify evidence gaps for future research.

The systematic review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [ 25 ]. In addition, we used the PICO framework [ 26 ] to guide the study scope. The study is registered with PROSPERO, registration number CRD42021285776. We searched electronic databases to identify published articles, and bibliographies of included articles were screened to identify missed articles that fulfilled the inclusion criteria.

To narrow the scope of our study, we employed the PICO framework with the following parameters – Population: Women of reproductive age residing in low- and lower middle-income countries as classified by the World Bank [ 27 ] as of 1st July 2021 – Intervention: health insurance – Comparator: uninsured women – Outcomes: two types of outcomes were considered, i) utilisation of maternal and reproductive health services, and ii) financial protection. Outcomes on utilisation of MRH included contraceptive use, number of antenatal care (ANC) visits, delivery at health facility. Outcomes on financial protection included catastrophic health expenditure and impoverishment impact of out-of-pocket expenditure (OOPE).”

Studies reporting impact

In this study, we reviewed studies that reported impact, i.e. studies that employed a research design enabling the identification of a causal effect of the intervention on an outcome of relevance. We defined studies that report impact as studies that estimate the causal influence the intervention (health insurance) has on a given outcome (MRH and financial protection indicators).

Intervention

The intervention in this study is any not-for-profit health insurance. Health insurance is the protection of registered members (beneficiaries) from high costs of/expenditure on health services by pooling resources through payment of agreed periodic premiums. A person or entity (employer or government) pays a periodic premium to enable them access to health services without requiring them to pay for the services. In some cases where there is a co-payment, the beneficiary pays a small amount or portion of the cost of services they receive. This arrangement aims at sharing the financial risks associated with falling ill and needing medical care.

Inclusion criteria

Our review applied the following inclusion criteria. We included articles that:

Reported on any specific type of not-for-profit health insurance. The reason was to focus on health insurance implemented with the intention of progressing towards UHC.

Reported on the impact of health insurance on MRH service utilization and/or financial protection of people accessing MRH services, and where any MRH service is included in the health benefit package of the insurance scheme. MRH in this study covers contraception, pre- and postnatal services, and delivery care.

Used experimental and/or quasi experimental study designs.

Were published from 2010 onwards and in English. We included studies from 2010 to capture the most recent evidence, as insurance schemes undergo reforms over time with likely implications on their respective performance. Relevant unpublished studies in the form of reports were also considered.

Exclusion criteria

Articles were excluded if they:

Reported on the impact of private for-profit insurance only or aggregated all types of insurance (both for-profit and not-for-profit) as one. Excluding such articles was necessary because grouping different insurance types as a single intervention makes it challenging to differentiate the specific impact of each insurance type.

Adopted a non-experimental study design prohibiting the identification of a causal effect.

Reported on the impact of health insurance qualitatively.

Were published in languages other than English.

Had unavailable full texts.

Databases searched

We searched for published literature in selected electronic databases and bibliographies. Databases included Medline (PubMed), Embase, Web of Science, CINAHL, Cochrane and Scopus. Additionally, we reviewed bibliographies of included articles to find other relevant articles that might have been missed in the search. It should be noted that although no time restrictions were included in the search strategy, studies published before 2010 were excluded at the screening stage.

Search strategy

The six electronic databases were searched on the 31st of October 2021, with an update of the search carried out on 23rd May 2023. The search strategy included all keywords and respective keyword variations for the five keyword domains: health insurance, impact, utilisation, financial protection, and maternal and reproductive health. Search strategies were customised for the respective databases (Supplementary Material 1 : Appendix 1).

Study selection

The PRISMA guidelines [ 28 ] were followed in the articles screening and selection process. The articles retrieved from the search were uploaded to Covidence systematic review software [ 29 ], where duplicates were removed. Initially, at least two independent researchers (PT, SPK, and JK) carried out screening for each title and abstract. Subsequently, full text screening was conducted by PT and JK, following a standard protocol. In the event of any conflict, a fourth researcher (JS) was available to review the conflict and make the final decision.

Data extraction

We developed a data extraction template in Microsoft Excel, which was piloted on ten randomly selected articles and necessary adjustments were made. We extracted data on author, year of publication, target group, study design, country, geographic location, setting (rural/urban/mixed), level of health facility, study participants, type of insurance, year of implementation of insurance, source of data, year of data collection, analysis methods used, description of the insurance, type of membership (voluntary/compulsory), enrolment requirements, services covered by insurance, services received, insurance coverage, premium, reimbursement rates, co-payments, OOPE, indicators used in measuring utilisation, financial protection and their definitions, proportion of households experiencing catastrophic heath expenditure (CHE), measures used for impact, theoretical framework used, reported impact (adjusted and unadjusted), and correction of self-selection among others.

Quality assessment and risk of bias in individual studies

The quality of the evidence was assessed through a two-step process, including: 1) using a tool for assessing the risk of bias in each study and 2) using the GRADE criteria to determine the level of certainty of the evidence.

The study design of an article being assessed determined the quality assessment tool to be used. Since we did not find any randomised studies, we resorted to a tool suitable for non-randomised studies. We used the Risk of Bias in Non-randomised Studies of Interventions (ROBINS-I) tool developed by the Development and Evaluation (GRADE) working group [ 30 ]. The tool rates the risk of bias in seven domains, 1) Bias due to confounding, 2) Bias in selection of participants into the study, 3) Bias in classification of interventions, 4) Bias due to departures from intended interventions, 5) Bias due to missing data, 6) Bias in measurement of outcomes, and 7) Bias in selection of reported results [ 31 ]. The study can be rated as low risk of bias, moderate risk of bias, or serious risk of bias based on the respective guiding questions in the tool for each domain. The overall extent of bias of a study is determined by the respective domain ratings, following the algorithm in the guide. The above tool was selected following the findings of a systematic review by Ma et al [ 32 ], describing the ROBINS-I tool as one of the most reliable tools available for quality assessment.

The certainty level of evidence of each study was then determined following the GRADE criteria based on the ROBINS-I tool [ 33 ]. It involved three steps: 1) establishing the initial level of certainty as advised by GRADE, 2) considering lowering or raising the level of certainty and 3) determining the final certainty rating. The certainty level of the evidence could be high, moderate, low, or very low depending on the rating. A non-randomised study’s evidence is initially rated as high level of certainty, which is then downgraded by a level or two depending on how it performs in the following domains: limitations in the detailed study design and execution; inconsistency (or heterogeneity); indirectness (PICO and applicability); imprecision; and publication bias. The downgrade of the certainty level of the evidence is mitigated (increased) by the magnitude of the effect estimates.

Reporting, summary measures and synthesis of results

The reporting was both descriptive and analytical. For extracted quantitative data, we reported summary measures. Indicators reported by the different studies were categorised into MRH service utilisation indicators and financial protection indicators with several subcategories each. Additionally, we elicited the covariates used in the adjustment of results from the studies and categorised these into characteristics including mother’s demographic, households, partners, communities, and mother’s perceptions. The reported impact of the insurance on MRH service utilisation and financial protection was summarised in five groups: positive and significant impact, positive and not significant impact, no impact, negative and not significant impact, and negative and significant impact. The impact findings were summarised in a table showing the proportion of studies that reported a positive significant impact for each respective indicator. Studies that had a high risk of bias were excluded in the calculation of the proportions as shown in Table 3 .

The systematic literature search yielded a total of 11,988 studies after deduplication. Following title and abstract screening and full text review, we included 17 studies that fulfilled our eligibility criteria. Figure 1 shows the flow of selection process including reasons for exclusion of articles at the full text reading stage.

PRISMA flow chart

Characteristics of included studies

Table 1 provides an overview of key characteristics of the included studies.

All the included studies were quasi experimental studies ( n  = 17). Quasi experimental studies are non-randomised studies that evaluate an intervention with the aim of demonstrating causality between the intervention and outcome [ 51 ]. Ghana and Indonesia had the most studies with three each. These were followed by the Philippines ( n  = 2), and Mauritania ( n  = 2). The review included one study from each of the following countries: Tanzania, Egypt, Rwanda, Ethiopia, India, and Senegal (Table 1 ). Additionally, there was a multi-country study that encompassed three countries: Ghana, Rwanda, and Indonesia [ 46 ]. Most studies ( n  = 14) were nationally representative of the population, while the remaining three were carried out in specific region(s) within the specified country [ 42 , 48 , 49 ]. Three studies were specifically conducted in rural settings [ 42 , 48 , 49 ], and no studies focused on urban settings exclusively. The rest of the studies ( n  = 14) covered both rural and urban areas. All the studies included in the review involved female participants of childbearing age from 15 years old. The majority of the studies ( n  = 13) specifically focused on women aged between 15 and 49. The studies focused on three types of health insurance, including social health insurance (e.g. Ghana), community-based health insurance (e.g. Rwanda), and publicly-funded health insurance (e.g. India). The data sources used were mostly secondary data ( n  = 14), specifically demographic health survey (DHS) data [ 52 ], Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) and Family Life Survey (FLS).

Quality assessment of included studies

The overall quality of assessed studies was rated as moderate. A total of 12 studies were rated as having a high level of certainty of evidence [ 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 41 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 48 , 49 , 50 ], two studies had moderate while those rated low and very low were two [ 40 , 42 ] and one [ 34 ], respectively. This assessment was based on the categorization of the risk of bias using the ROBINS-I tool. Overall, the majority of the studies ( n  = 15; 88.2%) were categorised as having moderate risk of bias, and two studies were rated as having serious risk [ 34 , 42 ]. No study was found with an overall low risk of bias. All studies were rated as low risk of bias in three domains: bias in classification of interventions, bias due to departures from intended interventions, and bias due to missing data as shown in Fig. 2 . For the domain of bias in selection of reported results, the majority of the studies ( n  = 16, 94.1%) were rated as low risk of bias, while the rest ( n  = 1, 5.9%) was rated as moderate risk [ 40 ]. One study showed serious risk of bias due to confounding [ 34 ], and one [ 42 ] study was assessed to have serious risk of bias in the measurement of outcomes. The table with the assessment results is included in Supplementary Material 1 : Appendix 2, and Fig. 2 shows the ratings by domain as well as the overall rating of bias.

Assessment of the risk of bias of the studies according to the seven domains, using the ROBINS-I tool

Indicators used to measure the impact

Table 2 shows the indicators used to measure the impact of health insurance on MRH service utilisation and financial protection. There was a large variation in the number of indicators per category of MRH services, and the frequency to which they were reported in the studies. Regarding the number of indicators per category, ANC had the greatest number of reported indicators ( n  = 10), followed by financial protection ( n  = 6), postnatal care ( n  = 5), and delivery care ( n  = 4). Contraception had only one indicator, with three studies reporting on this indicator [ 34 , 40 , 42 ]. Regarding the frequency of use of the indicators, under the ANC category, the most common indicator was having at least four ANC visits during pregnancy ( n  = 9, 52.9%), which was also the second most reported MRH indicator in this review. For delivery care, delivery at a health facility was the most reported indicator in the delivery care category (and the most reported indicator in this review) ( n  = 14, 82.4%); followed by delivery by skilled attendant ( n  = 7, 41.2%). For the postnatal care category, having postnatal care (without specifying the point or time of access) was the most common indicator used in this category ( n  = 4, 23.5%) [ 38 , 40 , 41 , 45 ]. For financial protection, six indicators were reported. OOPE on delivery services was reported in four studies (23.5%) [ 34 , 42 , 43 , 50 ]. OOPE due to ANC, OOPE due to C-section, financial distress after C-section, and CHE were each reported in one study. Financial distress was defined by Garg et al. as a situation where a patient, or their household member, borrowed money or sold their assets to cover the OOPE due to seeking maternal health care [ 50 ].

Impact of health insurance on MRH service utilisation and financial protection

Studies reported a positive effect of the health insurances on ANC and delivery care indicators, with a clear significant positive impact reported for the most used indicators (having at least four ANC visits, delivery at a health facility, and delivery assisted by a skilled attendant) as shown in Table 3 . Specifically, 85.7% of the studies found a significant positive impact between health insurance and delivery with assistance from a skilled attendant, 83.3% reported a significant positive impact on delivery at a health facility, and 75.0% indicated a significant positive impact on having at least four ANC visits during pregnancy. In contrast, the evidence on the impact of health insurance on contraceptive use [ 40 ], postnatal care [ 36 , 38 , 40 , 41 , 45 ] and financial protection [ 43 , 48 , 50 ] indicators was scanty, variable and inconclusive.

Certain indicators (ANC at health facility, postnatal care visit at health facility in less than 2 months after delivery, OOPE due to ANC, and OOPE due to PNC) were not included in the analysis, because these indicators were only reported in articles that were excluded due to their serious risk of bias.

Table 4 shows the magnitude of the impact reported by each study for indicators that were reported by more than one study.

ANC: Health insurance increased the chance of a pregnant woman having at least four ANC visits. The magnitude of the positive significant impact of health insurance on receiving at least four ANC visits during a pregnancy ranged between approximately 2% [ 46 ] and 11% [ 36 ]. Insurance increased the total number of ANC visits during pregnancy. The magnitude of positive significant impact of health insurance on the number of ANC during pregnancy ranged from 43% [ 47 ] to 56% [ 48 ]. On the other hand, insurance did not have a significant positive impact on having an ANC visit in the first trimester except for Indonesia [ 46 ].

Delivery care: Health insurance increased chances of having a delivery at a health facility and delivery by a skilled attendant. Studies that reported a significant positive impact of health insurance on delivery at a health facility found a magnitude ranging from approximately 3% [ 38 ] to 34% [ 48 ]. The magnitude of the impact ranged from 3% [ 41 ] to 23% [ 45 ] for having a delivery assisted by a skilled attendant.

Postnatal care: Health insurance showed an increase in the chance of receiving postnatal care but only 50% of the studies reporting on the impact of health insurance on postnatal reported a significant positive increase. The magnitude of the health insurance on postnatal care among studies that reported positive significant impact was 4% [ 41 ] and 9% [ 45 ].

Reduction of OOPE: Evidence suggests that health insurance has generally reduced OOP payments for MRH services. However, of the two studies that reported on OOPE only one found a significant reduction in OOPE of 1,136,966 Indonesian Rupiah (IDR) and 676,402 IDR for non-contributory and contributory health insurance in Indonesia respectively [ 43 ].

Methods used to estimate the impact of health insurance on MRH service utilisation

No study used randomisation in allocating participants to the intervention or control groups.

A wide range of statistical methods were applied in the studies (Table 5 ). Propensity Score Analysis/Matching (PSM) was the most used statistical methods (58.8%), followed by difference-in-difference (DID) analysis (11.8%). Some studies utilised more than one method; for example, Samarakoon et al [ 34 ] used both PSM and DID. The effect measures used were mostly Average Treatment Effect (ATE) (47.1%), and Average Treatment Effect on the Treated (ATT) (35.3%).

Several methods were used to adjust for self-selection, such as PSM, DID, conditional mixed process framework (CMP) (e.g. Agbanyo et al [ 35 ]), entropy balance weighting of observed characteristics (e.g. Aizawa [ 43 ]) and coarsened exact matching (CEM) methods (e.g. Chang et al [ 37 ]). Anindya et al [ 41 ] used more than one method, specifically PSM followed by CEM for sensitivity analysis and robustness check.

Covariates adjusted for in the studies

Table 5 presents the covariates that were adjusted for in the studies. Overall, the most used covariates were age, the education level of the woman, and wealth status of the household; with each being used in 76.5% of all studies. This was followed by place of residence (rural/urban) and marital status, with each at 58.8%. The other covariates were used in less than 50% of the studies that adjusted for covariates.

Our review shows that there is considerable evidence on the impact of health insurance on ANC and delivery care service utilisation. However, there is a scarcity of evidence on the impact of health insurance on the financial protection of women seeking MRH services, utilisation of postnatal care, and contraception. We found that health insurance has a significant positive impact on ANC and delivery care service utilisation specifically having at least four ANC visits, delivery at a health facility and having a delivery assisted by a skilled attendant. However, findings regarding its impact on financial protection, contraception, and postnatal care were inconclusive.

ANC and delivery care utilisation

Among the articles reviewed, recent evidence shows that health insurance generally exhibits a positive impact on ANC and delivery care service utilisation. This is in line with the findings of Spaan et al. and Erlangga et al. reporting that social health insurance and CBHI improved general health service utilisation [ 20 , 21 ]. With comparison to Acharya et al [ 22 ] – who reported inconclusive results on the impact of health insurance on general health service utilisation among the informal sector – the evidence that was reported on MRH service utilisation in that study concurs with our findings.

On the other hand, our findings differ from Comfort et al., who stated that there was no evidence that insurance increased maternal health service utilisation [ 24 ]. The statement was premised on the fact that Comfort et al. did not identify any studies that used randomised methods. Comfort et al. argued that causality could not be established without randomisation of the intervention. However, quasi experimental studies can estimate causation which are the only studies we included in our review. In addition, as shown in Table 1 , all the studies included in our review were published after the publication of Comfort et al.’s review (2013). This indicates that studies which estimated the causal relationship between health insurance and MRH are recent.

For countries that are still experiencing high MMR [ 53 , 54 ], the evidence available on the positive impact of health insurance on at least four ANC visits, delivery at a health facility and having a delivery assisted by a skilled attendant can inform the country’s health financing reforms, encourage implementation, and expansion of such insurance schemes as an intervention to increase access to care and reduce MMR. MRH services such as attending ANC and having a health facility-based delivery have been highlighted as some of the ways to counter occurrence of maternal mortality[ 54 ], and investment in these services was found to be cost-effective [ 17 , 55 ].

Limited evidence on financial protection when accessing MRH

The available evidence suggests that health insurance plays a role in reducing OOPE. However, it is important to note that the evidence in this area is weak, with only a limited number of studies reporting on OOPE indicators. The findings are variable and inconclusive, particularly regarding the likelihood of CHE and the reduction of OOPE specifically related to delivery care. This finding contrasts with the results of a previous systematic review examining financial protection in a broader context [ 20 ]. Health insurance is known to reduce CHE generally. However, we did not find any evidence of a positive impact of health insurance in reducing CHE in the MRH context. It should be noted that this review found very few studies (less than five) that investigated the impact of health insurance on the financial protection of women seeking MRH services in LLMICs. Globally, LMICs bear the highest proportion of OOPE on health. OOPE on health was 43.21% of the total in low-income countries, and 48.17% for lower middle-income countries; meanwhile, the global average is at 18.01% based on the World Bank estimates of 2019 [ 56 ]. Countries that channel larger shares of total health expenditure through prepayment schemes such as health insurance tend to have lower levels of OOPE. As an example, in 2019, the level of OOPE as a proportion of current health expenditure in Indonesia was 34.76%, while in Ghana it was 36.22% which is lower than to the LMIC average. The OOP costs to the patient are found to increase with the increasing level of care. For example in Vietnam, community health facilities had a lower cost for deliveries compared to district and higher-level hospitals [ 57 ]. Health insurance could be key in protecting populations from financial hardship, although, more evidence is necessary to see whether there is substantive impact of health insurance on the financial protection of mothers or women seeking MRH services, especially among the different wealth quintiles, underserved and vulnerable groups of the population.

Inconclusive results on contraception and postnatal care utilisation

The evidence on the impact of health insurance on contraception and postnatal care service utilisation was scarce and inconclusive. Specifically, there was very little evidence on the impact of health insurance on the use of contraception. These findings differ from that of Comfort et al., who found a positive association between health insurance and postnatal care utilisation [ 24 ]. The difference in findings between our study and that of Comfort et al. could potentially be attributed to their inclusion of cross-sectional studies with less rigorous methods.

For contraceptive use, the inconclusive results could be partly explained by the limited insurance coverage for contraceptives in some countries, where the reimbursable contraceptive options are few. Moreover, the reimbursable contraceptive options may not be the most preferred by the society. For example, Ghana has just officially included long-term contraceptive options (such as permanent methods, intrauterine devices (IUDs), implants, and injectables) in the National Health Insurance Scheme benefit package [ 58 ]. On the other hand, cultural, social, and normative practices surrounding postnatal care, as well as the lack of awareness of the clinical postnatal care guidelines may partly explain the inconclusive evidence on the use of postnatal care [ 59 , 60 ]. In addition, despite the importance of postnatal care and contraceptive use in reducing maternal mortality [ 18 ], few studies have evaluated indicators in these areas and the quality of studies examining contraceptive use was moderate to low. The finding regarding the scarcity of evidence on postnatal care in LMICs is not unique to this study, as it has been reported in recent research as well [ 61 ]. Further research is needed to better understand the impact of health insurance on postnatal care and contraceptive utilisation.

Indicators used to measure MRH and the mismatch with international recommendations

Most of the indicators used to measure MRH service utilisation were related to ANC. This may be in part due to the well-established evidence regarding the positive effect of ANC on maternal health related outcomes. Moreover, this aligns with the long standing WHO ANC model (sometimes called basic or focused ANC) introduced in the 1990s, which recommended that a pregnant woman should have at least four ANC visits/contacts during pregnancy [ 62 , 63 ]. However, WHO recently updated their recommendations, increasing the number of ANC visits/contacts to eight [ 64 ]. Unfortunately, our review did not identify any articles that specifically used at least eight visits as an indicator for ANC.

For postnatal care, WHO recommended a minimum of four postnatal care contacts for mothers. These recommended contacts include the first contact within 24 h after delivery, the second contact between 48 and 72 h, the third contact between seven and 14 days, and the fourth contact in the sixth week after delivery [ 65 , 66 ]. However, there was a mismatch between the WHO recommended indicators and the indicators reported in these studies. This indicates that more publicity/sensitization on this important component of the MRH service delivery spectrum is vital. Authors should be encouraged to use recommended indicators to measure the impact of an intervention (health insurance) towards the achievement of global targets and allow for comparison across countries.

Methods used by studies

Propensity score matching was the most popular method used in studies. This conforms to the assertion of Abadie and Cattaneo (2018) that noted an increasing use of matching techniques by researcher partly because of the flexibility of the methods and the failure of ordinary linear regression to estimate conventional treatment effect parameters like ATE and ATET [ 67 ]. In addition, matching makes it possible to estimate treatment effects in the absence of experimental data in evaluation research [ 68 ].Despite the importance of propensity score matching in determining causal inference, it relies on the assumption of conditional independence which may not hold in some instances especially when there are unobservable variables that influence both the treatment and outcome [ 68 ].

Different covariates were used to construct statistical models. Some authors selected covariates based on variable significance level, while others based their selection on the confounding relationship between the exposure and outcome. To have evidence of high certainty, it is necessary to adjust the results based on confounders which can be identified using the directed acyclic graphs [ 67 , 69 ].

Quality of evidence

The quality of the studies included in this review, with regards to the risk of bias, was generally assessed as moderate. It is important to note that increasing the quality of studies in this context can be challenging, as randomised controlled trials are often not feasible or ethically permissible for evaluating policy-related public health interventions, such as health insurance schemes. The absence of randomisation in the allocation of the intervention to participants can introduce various forms of bias, including confounding, which may impact the validity of the study results. Recognizing this, it is essential to thoroughly assess potential drawbacks and biases using appropriate tools [ 30 , 31 ]. The authors tried to overcome this likely consequence of non-randomisation by adjusting for confounders; however, it is difficult to control for all the likely bias. The overall quality of a study can be improved through the randomisation of the intervention (where possible) and the use of causal inference statistical methods that address the potential selection problems that may arise [ 67 , 69 ].

Future research

Although we find that health insurance has a positive impact on the utilisation of ANC; we should be conscious of the intersectionality of evidence. Health insurance interventions may have varying effects across different subgroups within the population. Factors such as age, economic status, and the rural/urban setting can influence how individuals experience and benefit from health insurance coverage [ 47 , 70 ]. A study by Barasa et al. reported that most insurance schemes in sub–Saharan Africa are pro-rich and have minimal benefits for the poor given the low insurance coverage [ 71 ]. The impact of health insurance schemes on utilization and financial protection may vary based on the characteristics/features of the schemes for example organization/design, implementation, enrolment levels, premiums, target population, benefit package [ 21 , 72 ]. If countries are to advance UHC, there is need to understand the intersectionality of the impact, thus conduct more research to investigate the impact of health insurance across geographical domains (rural/urban), across type and level of health providers (private vs public; community-level providers vs secondary- and tertiary-level providers) and vulnerable population subgroups (e.g., people in lower socio-economic quintiles).

Limitations

Our review included studies that were published in English after 2009, which could have led to the omission of studies published in other languages, such as those conducted in French-speaking countries in West Africa or studies before 2010 that may have reported relevant results. We acknowledge that in some contexts, individuals may have private health insurance in addition to the type of health insurance examined in this study, which may have affected the results reported in the included studies. We included studies of various designs, which may have led to variations in the interpretation of results. The use of different covariates in the models employed by the studies could have influenced the magnitude of the reported impact of health insurance.

This study focused on the direction of impact (positive, no change or negative) and significance level of the impact but did not cover the magnitude of the impact. Furthermore, due to the heterogeneity in study design and other characteristics of the included studies, it was not feasible for us to conduct a meta-analysis.

The majority of the included studies used pre-existing datasets to estimate the impact of health insurance. The datasets utilised in this regard were not developed or collected to specifically evaluate health insurance schemes. Such datasets may not be comprehensive in collecting all the relevant data points needed for a robust evaluation of the impact of health insurance.

The quality assessment of the studies was conducted using the ROBINS-I tool – a validated tool recommended by Cochrane for the quality assessment of non-randomised studies [ 20 ]. However the tool does not address problems relating to imprecision of results, where statistical analyses fail to account for clustering or matching of participants [ 31 ]. Such shortfalls may have been overlooked. Therefore, studies that were found to have serious risk of bias were not included in the causal impact analysis, to avoid increasing biases in the summary results.

This review finds evidence supporting the positive impact of health insurance on the utilisation of ANC and delivery care services in low- and lower middle-income settings specially regarding receiving at least four ANC visits, delivery at a health facility and having a delivery assisted by a skilled attendant. Health insurance may contribute to making progress towards UHC, through improving access and utilisation of health services for all. The evidence on financial protection, contraception, and postnatal care is limited and inconclusive. Future evaluations of the impact of health insurance are crucial for countries to identify areas that require improvement, particularly in terms of its impact on vulnerable groups. Further research is needed to assess the impact of health insurance on contraception, postnatal care, and the financial protection of women seeking maternal and reproductive health services. Such work would contribute to a deeper understanding of the potential benefits and limitations of health insurance in these critical areas.

Availability of data and materials

The extracted data analysed during the current study is available from corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Kazibwe, J., Tran, P.B., Kaiser, A.H. et al. The impact of health insurance on maternal and reproductive health service utilization and financial protection in low- and lower middle-income countries: a systematic review of the evidence. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 432 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-10815-5

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