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Infection and Immunity

Biology is a constant struggle between pathogens that seek to exploit the resources of their hosts, and host immune systems that seek to prevent this. Over 80 leading scientists in the Infection and Immunity Research Theme study multiple facets of infection and immunity, ranging from the functions of individual host or pathogen proteins, and of specific immune cells in the body, through to population-scale studies of infectious disease spread. This research contributes to some of the biggest questions we face in the 21 st century: Can we prevent the next pandemic before it occurs? Can malaria and tuberculosis be consigned to the history books? How can we harness the immune system to fight diseases like cancer? Research by Infection and Immunity Theme members will provide fundamental insights into immune system function and the biology of pathogens, underpinning the development of new therapies to improve human and animal health, and helping safeguard the crops on which we depend.

Current areas of focus include: Understanding the Immune System to Treat Disease; Changing Pathogens in a Changing World; The molecular interface between pathogens and hosts.

The ability to visualise host-pathogen interactions across multiple scales, from individual molecules to whole organisms, unlocks unprecedented opportunities for breakthroughs in our basic understanding of infectious disease biology. However, working with the live human or animal pathogens also brings unique challenges. By sharing experiences, skills and resources, researchers in Cambridge are redefining what is possible in infections disease imaging and illuminating novel biological processes that can be targeted for the development of next-generation therapies. Read more

Growing human populations, environmental shifts and increasing international movement are the recognisable features of our changing world, and are contributing factors to the emergence, resurgence, and redistribution of many infectious diseases.  Cambridge researchers are working across disciplinary boundaries to understand how pathogens are responding to our changing world.  Working collaboratively and in partnership with affected communities, we will deliver effective strategies to protect our planetary health and the global community across future generations. Read more

Recent Discoveries

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Highly antibiotic-resistant strain of MRSA that arose in pigs can jump to humans

A new study from the department of veterinary medicine has found that a highly antibiotic-resistant strain of the superbug mrsa – methicillin resistant  staphylococcus aureus  – has emerged in livestock in the last 50 years, probably due to widespread antibiotic use in pig farming..

The strain, called CC398, has become the dominant type of MRSA in European livestock in the past fifty years. It is also a growing cause of human MRSA infections. The study found that CC398 has maintained its antibiotic resistance over decades in pigs and other livestock. And it is capable of rapidly adapting to human hosts while maintaining this antibiotic resistance. The results highlight the potential threat that this strain of MRSA poses to public health. Read

Wider Impact

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Shaping WHO meningitis guidelines

Meningitis is a serious infection that causes swelling of the meninges, the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord..

Caroline Trotter was engaged by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a trusted advisor to help tackle the challenge of meningitis on the African continent. Epidemiological modelling of vaccine strategies using MenAfriVac® to control bacterial meningitis group A, widely found in sub-Saharan Africa, was undertaken at the University of Cambridge. Trotter’s contributions led to the successful introduction of the vaccine into routine immunisation schedules, supported by a ‘catch-up’ campaign.  Read

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Members of the School can find out more about the Research Themes on the  School Information Hub .

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Low iron levels resulting from infection could be key trigger of long COVID

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Problems with iron levels in the blood and the body’s ability to regulate this important nutrient as a result of SARS-CoV-2 infection could be a key trigger for long COVID, new research has discovered.

Iron levels, and the way the body regulates iron, were disrupted early on during SARS-CoV-2 infection, and took a very long time to recover, particularly in those people who went on to report long COVID months later Aimee Hanson

The discovery not only points to possible ways to prevent or treat the condition, but could help explain why symptoms similar to those of long COVID are also commonly seen in a number of post-viral conditions and chronic inflammation.

Although estimates are highly variable, as many as three in 10 people infected with SARS-CoV-2 could go on to develop long COVID, with symptoms including fatigue, shortness of breath, muscle aches and problems with memory and concentration (‘brain fog’). An estimated 1.9 million people in the UK alone were experiencing self-reported long COVID as of March 2023, according to the Office of National Statistics.

Shortly after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, researchers at the University of Cambridge began recruiting people who had tested positive for the virus to the COVID-19 cohort of the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) BioResource. These included asymptomatic healthcare staff identified via routine screening through to patients admitted to Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, some to its intensive care unit.

Over the course of a year, participants provided blood samples, allowing researchers to monitor changes in the blood post-infection. As it became clear that a significant number of patients would go on to have symptoms that persisted – long COVID – researchers were able to track back through these samples to see whether any changes in the blood correlated with their later condition.

In findings published in Nature Immunology , researchers at the Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Disease (CITIID), University of Cambridge, together with colleagues at Oxford, analysed blood samples from 214 individuals. Approximately 45% of those questioned about their recovery reported symptoms of long COVID between three and ten months later.

Professor Ken Smith, who was Director of CITIID at the time of the study and will take up a position as Director of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research (WEHI) in Melbourne, Australia, in April, said: “Having recruited a group of people with SARS-CoV-2 early in the pandemic, analysis of several blood samples and clinical information collected over a 12 month period after infection has proved invaluable in giving us important and unexpected insights into why, for some unlucky individuals, initial SARS-CoV-2 infection is followed by months of persistent symptoms.”

The team discovered that ongoing inflammation – a natural part of the immune response to infection – and low iron levels in blood, contributing to anaemia and disrupting healthy red blood cell production, could be seen as early as two weeks post COVID-19 in those individuals reporting long COVID many months later.

Early iron dysregulation was detectable in the long COVID group independent of age, sex, or initial COVID-19 severity, suggesting a possible impact on recovery even in those who were at low risk for severe COVID-19, or who did not require hospitalisation or oxygen therapy when sick.

Dr Aimee Hanson, who worked on the study while at the University of Cambridge, and is now at the University of Bristol, said: “Iron levels, and the way the body regulates iron, were disrupted early on during SARS-CoV-2 infection, and took a very long time to recover, particularly in those people who went on to report long COVID months later.

“Although we saw evidence that the body was trying to rectify low iron availability and the resulting anaemia by producing more red blood cells, it was not doing a particularly good job of it in the face of ongoing inflammation.”

Interestingly, although iron dysregulation was more profound during and following severe COVID-19, those who went on to develop long COVID after a milder course of acute COVID-19 showed similar patterns in the blood. The most pronounced association with long COVID was how quickly inflammation, iron levels and regulation returned to normal following SARS-CoV-2 infection – though symptoms tended to continue long after iron levels had recovered.

Co-author Professor Hal Drakesmith, from the MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine at the University of Oxford, said iron dysregulation is a common consequence of inflammation and is a natural response to infection.

“When the body has an infection, it responds by removing iron from the bloodstream. This protects us from potentially lethal bacteria that capture the iron in the bloodstream and grow rapidly. It’s an evolutionary response that redistributes iron in the body, and the blood plasma becomes an iron desert.

“However, if this goes on for a long time, there is less iron for red blood cells, so oxygen is transported less efficiently affecting metabolism and energy production, and for white blood cells, which need iron to work properly. The protective mechanism ends up becoming a problem.”

The findings may help explain why symptoms such as fatigue and exercise intolerance are common in long COVID, as well as in several other post-viral syndromes with lasting symptoms.

The researchers say the study points to potential ways of preventing or reducing the impact of long COVID by rectifying iron dysregulation in early COVID-19 to prevent adverse long-term health outcomes.

One approach might be controlling the extreme inflammation as early as possible, before it impacts on iron regulation. Another approach might involve iron supplementation; however as Dr Hanson pointed out, this may not be straightforward.

“It isn't necessarily the case that individuals don't have enough iron in their body, it's just that it’s trapped in the wrong place,” she said. “What we need is a way to remobilise the iron and pull it back into the bloodstream, where it becomes more useful to the red blood cells.”

The research also supports ‘accidental’ findings from other studies, including the IRONMAN study, which was looking at whether iron supplements benefited patients with heart failure – the study was disrupted due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but preliminary findings suggest that trial participants were less likely to develop severe adverse effects from COVID-19. Similar effects have been observed among people living with the blood disorder beta-thalassemia, which can cause individuals to produce too much iron in their blood.

The research was funded by Wellcome, the Medical Research Council, NIHR and European Union Horizon 2020 Programme.

Reference Hanson, AL et al. Iron dysregulation and inflammatory stress erythropoiesis associates with long-term outcome of COVID-19. Nat Imm; 1 March 2024; DOI: 10.1038/s41590-024-01754-8

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PhD in Immunology and Immunotherapeutics

The threat of current and future global pandemics and the ability to broaden the use of immunotherapies against cancer confirms the need for PhD-level immunologists.

As one of the best PhD in Immunology programs in the nation, you’ll have the opportunity to join a rapidly growing immunology community and participate in leading-edge fundamental and translational immunology research in labs across the academic-medical center at Ohio State.

Why earn your PhD in Immunology at Ohio State?

Research in world-class facilities

The Ohio State University College of Medicine is a part of one of the largest academic health centers in the country, which provides students with the best immunology PhD program training. Doctorate students in immunology and immunotherapy gain experience in multiple arenas, including the  Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity  (MII), the  Pelotonia Institute for Immuno-oncology  within The James Comprehensive Cancer Center  (cancer-immunology and immuno-oncology), Department of Neuroscience , Department of Biomedical Informatics , Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics  and various clinical divisions within the Ohio State  Wexner Medical Center  (e.g., rheumatology, pulmonary medicine, hematology, neurology). 

Join a community of immunologists

The immunology community at Ohio State has grown significantly in the last three years. Not only does the Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity (MI&I) have 31 principal investigator-led laboratories, Ohio State has also recruited over 30 new faculty in the field of immunology in the last three years. PhD students will be a part of an immunology seminar where they’ll network with and learn from faculty across the immunity community as well as students in the Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis master’s program .  While earning your doctorate in immunology, you’ll have the opportunity to complete rotations in at least three immunology labs, which will inform the selection of your thesis lab.

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• Learn how to apply Admissions

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Professor Ravindra Gupta

Having completed his medical undergraduate studies at Cambridge and Oxford Universities, Ravi Gupta pursued a Masters in Public Health at Harvard as a Fulbright scholar. Upon return he trained in infectious diseases in Oxford and London (UCLH, Hospital for Tropical Diseases) and completed his PhD at UCL on Lentiviral evasion of antiretrovirals and innate immune responses. He established his research group at UCL in 2011 working on genetics and biology of HIV resistance and reservoirs and as promoted to full professor in 2016. Ravi Gupta has been Professor of Clinical Microbiology at the Cambridge Institute for Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Diseases since 2019. In 2020 he was named as one of the 100 Most influential people by TIME .

The Gupta lab has worked extensively in HIV drug resistance, both at molecular and population levels, and contributed to the appreciation of the scale of drug resistance globally. The group’s work extends to studies on HIV reservoirs in cells, particularly macrophages. His recent work is aimed at cell cycle dependent changes in macrophage biological activity and viral permissivity. This understanding is relevant to both anatomical compartments where HIV virus replication occurs in macrophages, as well as design of strategies to cure HIV.

The Gupta lab has teams in both the UK and at the  Africa Health Research Institute  in Durban South Africa. Our work focuses on two areas:

Studying  HIV drug resistance to protease / integrase inhibitors and implications for global scale up of antiretroviral therapy.  Listen to Prof Gupta’s Positively Alive Podcast Dissecting the biology of macrophage-virus interactions given myeloid cells are parasitised by HIV and are a difficult-to-treat reservoir.

COVID-19 related work

His group has recently introduced the SAMBA II point of care test into clinical practice at Addenbrookes for rapid diagnosis of COVID19. During the pandemic the lab has also started a basic science program to understand the basis of the second immune mediated part of the disease and evolution of the virus within patients in response to convalescent plasma therapy and the antiviral drug remdesevir.

Ravi Gupta is a co-opted member of NERVTAG. The New and Emerging Respiratory Virus Threats Advisory Group (NERVTAG) advises the government on the threat posed by new and emerging respiratory viruses.

Please see below for pre-prints:

Pfizer vaccine sera activity against B.1.1.7

Prelim Paper – Responses to SARS-CoV-2 following vaccination

The group is also involved in testing novel materials for anti SARS-CoV-2 activity for PPE as part of the 3D MFM collaboration.

COVID-19: What can we learn from the HIV/Aids Pandemic?  Guardian Podcast

COVID Six Months On – BBC and Professor Ravi Gupta

Interview with Nature Reviews Microbiology – Detecting COVID-19 at the bedside

People who changed the world – Professor Ravi Gupta

Publications

Kemp SA, Collier DA, Datir R, Ferreira I, Gayed S, Jahun A, Hosmillo M, Rees-Spear C, Mlcochova P, Lumb IU, Roberts DJ, Chandra A, Temperton N, Sharrocks K, Blane E, Briggs J, van Gils MJ, Smith K, Bradley JR, Smith C, Doffinger R, Ceron-Gutierrez L, Barcenas-Morales G, Pollock DD, Goldstein RA, Smielewska A, Skittrall JP, Gouliouris T, Goodfellow IG, Gkrania-Klotsas E, Illingworth C, McCoy LE,   Gupta RK .  SARS-CoV-2 evolution during treatment of chronic infection .  In press Nature 2021.

Siedner MJ,  Moorhouse MA,  Simmons B,  de Oliveira T,  Lessells R,  Giandhari J, KempSA,  Chimukangara B,  Akpomiemie G,  Serenata CM,  Venter WDF,  Hill A,  Gupta  RK .  Reduced efficacy of HIV-1 integrase inhibitors in patients with drug resistance mutations in reverse transcriptase.  In press, Nature Communications 2020

Collier DA, Assennato SM, Warne B, Sithole N, Sharrocks K, Ritchie A, Ravji P, Routledge M, Sparkes D, Skittrall J, Smielewska A, Ramsey I, Goel N, Curran M, Enoch D, Tassell R, Lineham M, Vaghela D, Leong C, Mok HP, Bradley J, Smith KGC, Mendoza V, Demiris N, Besser M, Dougan G, Lehner PJ, Siedner MJ, Zhang H, Waddington CS, Lee H,  Gupta RK ; CITIID-NIHR COVID BioResource Collaboration. Point of Care Nucleic Acid Testing for SARS-CoV-2 in Hospitalized Patients: A Clinical Validation Trial and Implementation Study.  Cell Reports Medicine;  2020; Jul 15:100062. doi: 10.1016/j.xcrm.2020.100062

Mlcochova P, Collier D, Ritchie A, Assennato SM, Hosmillo M, Goel N, Meng B, Chatterjee K, Mendoza V, Temperton N, Kiss L, James LC, Ciazynska KA, Xiong X, Briggs JA, Nathan JA, Mescia F, Bergamaschi L, Zhang H, Barmpounakis P, Demeris N, Skells R, Lyons PA, Bradley J, Baker S, Allain JP, Smith KG, Bousfield R, Wilson M, Sparkes D, Amoroso G, Gkrania-Klotsas E, Hardwick S, Boyle A, Goodfellow I,  Gupta RK ; CITIID-NIHR COVID BioResource Collaboration. Combined point of care nucleic acid and antibody testing for SARS-CoV-2 following emergence of D614G Spike Variant.  Cell Reports Medicine ; 2020 Sep 1:100099. doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2020.100099

Datir RP, Kemp S, El Bouzidi K, Mlcochova P, Goldstein RA, Breuer J, Towers GJ, Jolly C, Quinones-Mateu ME, Dakum PS, Ndembi N,  Gupta RK . In Vivo Emergence of a Novel Protease Inhibitor Resistance Signature in HIV-1 Matrix. In press,  MBio ; 2020

Gupta-Wright A, Fielding K, van Oosterhout J, Alufandika M, Grint D, Chimbayo E, Heaney J; Byott M, Nastouli E; Mwandumba H, Corbett E,  Gupta  RK . Virological failure, HIV-1 drug resistance and early mortality in adults admitted to hospital in Malawi: a nested observational cohort study. In press,  The Lancet HIV ;  2020

MlcochovaP, Winstone H, Zuliani-Alvarez L,  Gupta  RK . TLR4-Mediated Pathway Triggers Interferon-Independent G0 Arrest and Antiviral SAMHD1 Activity in Macrophages.   Cell  Reports ;  2020; 30 (12), 3972-3980

Gupta  RK , Dimitra Peppa, Alison L Hill Cristina Gálvez Maria Salgado5Matthew Pace, Laura E McCoySarah A Griffith, John Thornhill, Aljawharah Alrubayyi, Laura EP Huyveneers, Eleni Nastouli, Paul Grant, Simon G Edwards S , Andrew J Innes, John Frater, Monique Nijhuis, Anne Marie J, Wensing Prof Martinez-Picado J, Eduardo Olavarria. Evidence for HIV-1 Cure in the ‘London Patient’ .  The Lancet HIV;  2020; S2352-3018(20)30069-2.

Gupta  RK,  Abdul-Jawad S, McCoy LE, Mok HP, Peppa D, Salgado M, Martinez-Picado J, Nijhuis M, Wensing AMJ, Lee H, Grant P, Nastouli E, Lambert J, Pace M, Salasc F, Monit C, Innes A, Muir L, Waters L, Frater J, Lever AML, Edwards SG, Gabriel IH, Olavarria E.  HIV-1 remission following CCR5Δ32/Δ32 haematopoietic stem-cell transplantation .  Nature;  2019 Mar 5. doi:  10.1038/s41586-019-1027-4 . [Epub ahead of print]

MlcochovaP, Caswell S, Taylor I, TowersGJ,  Gupta RK .  DNA damage induced by topoisomerase inhibitors activates SAMHD1 and blocks HIV-1 infection of macrophages .  The EMBO J.;  2018; 37:50–62

Gupta RK , Gregson J, Parkin N, Haile-Selassie H, Tanuri A, Andrade Forero L, Kaleebu P , Watera C, Aghokeng A, Mutenda N, Dzangare J, Hone S, Hang ZZ, Garcia J,  Garcia Z, Marchorro P, Beteta E, Roman M, Giron A, Hamers R, InzaukeS, Frenkel LM, Chung MH,de Oliveira T, Pillay D, Naidoo K, Kharsany A, Kugathasan R, Cutino T, Hunt G, Avila Rios S, Doherty M, Jordan MR, Bertagnolio S.  HIV-1 drug resistance prior to initiation or re-initiation of first-line antiretroviral therapy in low- and middle-income countries – a meta regression analysis .  Lancet Infectious Diseases;  2018 Mar;18(3):346-355

Collier DA, Iwuji C, Derache A, de Oliveira T, Okesola N, Calmy A, Dabis F, Pillay D, Gupta RK for the ANRS 12249 TasP Study Group.  Virological Outcomes of second– line protease inhibitor based treatment for HIV– 1 in a high prevalence rural South African setting – a competing risk prospective cohort analysis .  Clin Infect Dis .; 2017 Apr 15;64(8):1006-1016

Petra Mlcochova, Katherine A Sutherland, Sarah A Watters, Cosetta Bertoli, Rob AM de Bruin, Jan Rehwinkel, Stuart J Neil, Gina M Lenzi, Baek Kim, Asim Khwaja, Matthew C Gage, Christiana Georgiou, Alexandra Chittka, Simon Yona, Mahdad Noursadeghi, Greg J Towers,  Gupta  RK .  A G1‐like state allows HIV‐1 to bypass SAMHD1 restriction in macrophages .  EMBO Journal;  2017;  e201696025. Published online 25.01.2017

Kugathasan R, Collier DA, Haddow LJ, El Bouzidi K, Edwards SG, Cartledge JD, Miller RF,  Gupta RK .  Diffuse white matter signal abnormalities on MRI are associated with HIV-1 viral escape in the central nervous system among patients with neurological symptoms .  Clin Infect Dis .; 2017 Apr 15;64(8):1059-106

Gregson J, Kaleebu P, Marconi VC, van Vuuren C, Ndembi N, Hamers RL, Kanki P, Hoffmann CJ, Lockman S, Pillay D, de Oliveira T, Clumeck N, Hunt G, Kerschberger B, Shafer RW, Yang C, Raizes E, Kantor R,  Gupta RK.   Occult drug resistance to thymidine analogues and multidrug resistant HIV-1 following failure of first line tenofovir-based antiretroviral regimens in sub Saharan Africa: a retrospective multi-centre cohort study .  Lancet Infect Dis;  2016, Volume 17, No. 3, p296–304, March 2017

TenoRes Study Group (*senior author).  Global epidemiology of drug resistance following failure of WHO recommended first line regimens for adult HIV-1 infection – a multi-centre retrospective cohort study .  Lancet Infect Dis;  May 2016; Volume 16, No. 5, p565–575

Smith NMG, Mlcochova P, Watters SA, Aasa-Chapman, Rabin N, Moore S, Edwards SG, Garson JA, Grant PR, Ferns RB,  Kashuba A, Mayor NP,  Schellekens J, Marsh SGE,  McMichael AJ, Perelson AS, Pillay D, Goonetilleke N,  Gupta RK .  Proof-of-principle for immune control of global HIV-1 reactivation in vivo .  Clin Infect Dis;  2015 Mar 16. pii: civ219.

Sutherland KA, Ghosn J , Gregson J, Mbisa JL , Chaix ML, Cohen Codar I, Delfraissy JF, Delaugerre C and  Gupta RK.   HIV-1 subtype influences susceptibility and response to monotherapy with the protease inhibitor lopinavir/ritonavir .  Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy;  2015; 70(1):243-8

Mlcochova P, Watters S, Towers GJ, Noursadeghi M,  Gupta RK .  Vpx complementation of ‘non-macrophage tropic’ R5 viruses reveals robust entry of infectious HIV-1 cores into macrophages.  Retrovirology; 2014 Mar 21;11:25. doi: 10.1186/1742-4690-11-25

Gupta RK , Goodall RL, Ranopa M, Kityo C, Munderi P, Lyagoba F, Mugarura L, Gilks CF, Kaleebu P, Pillay D; DART Virology Group and Trial Team.  High rate of HIV resuppression after viral failure on first-line antiretroviral therapy in the absence of switch to second-line therapy .  Clin Infect Dis .; 2014 Apr;58(7):1023-6. doi: 10.1093/cid/cit933.

Sutherland KA, Mbisa JL, Ghosn J, Chaix ML, Cohen Codar I, Hue S, Delfraissy JF, Delaugerre C,  Gupta RK .  Phenotypic characterization of virologic failure following lopinavir/ritonavir monotherapy using full-length gag-protease genes .  Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy;  2014; 69 (12): 3340-3348

Gupta RK , Sultan BJ, Hill A, Davis DHJ, Gregson J, Sawyer W, Hamers RL, Ndembi N, Pillay D ,  Jordan MR & Bertagnolio S.  Global trends in antiretroviral resistance in untreated HIV-1 infected individuals following ART roll-out in resource-limited settings: a global collaborative study and meta-regression analysis .  The Lancet; 2012. Oct 6;380(9849):1250-8.

Sauter D, Hué S, Petit SJ, PlantierJC, Towers GJ, Kirchhoff K &  Gupta RK.  HIV-1  Group P is unable to antagonize human tetherin by Vpu, Env or Nef .  Retrovirology;  2011; Dec 15;8(1):103.

Gupta RK , Kohli A, McCormick AL, Towers GJ, Pillay D, Parry CM.  Full length HIV-1 Gag determines protease inhibitor susceptibility within in vitro assays .  AIDS ; 2010; July 24(11):1651-1655

Gupta RK , Mlcochova P, Pelchen-Matthews A, Petit SJ, Mattiuzzo G, Pillay D, Takeuchi Y, Marsh M, Towers GJ.  Simian Immunodeficiency Virus envelope glycoprotein counteracts tetherin/BST-2/CD317 by intracellular sequestration .  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences;  USA 2009; Dec8; 106:20889-20894

Gupta RK , Hué S, Schaller T, Verschoor E, Pillay D and Towers GJ.  Mutation of a single residue renders human tetherin resistant to HIV-1 Vpu-mediated depletion .  PLoS Pathogens;  2009 May;5(5):e1000443.

Gupta RK , Hill A, Sawyer W, Cozzi-Lepri A, von Wyl V, Yerly S, Dias Lima V, Gunthard HF, Gilks C, Pillay D. Virological  monitoring and resistance to first-line highly active antiretroviral therapy in adults infected with HIV-1 treated under WHO guidelines: a systematic review and meta-analysis .  Lancet Infectious Diseases; 2009;9(7):409-17.

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Our Research

Our researchers study viruses in all their diversity – from viruses with large DNA genomes such as poxviruses and herpesviruses and viruses with small DNA genomes such as papilloma and polyomaviruses, to retroviruses such as HIV, and many viruses with RNA genomes including noroviruses, bunyaviruses, Zika virus, astroviruses, enteroviruses and SARS-CoV-2. We also study plant and insect viruses and even viral ‘dark matter’ from environmental samples. We are interested in how viruses infect and replicate within cells, how they evade host immune responses and cause disease, how they evolve, and how viruses can be repurposed as biotechnological tools. Our different research groups have diverse interests but also work closely together to apply the latest techniques to the most pressing questions in virus research. Our work covers cell biology, molecular biology, protein and RNA structure and function, computational biology and bioinformatics, biophysics, genetic screens, proteomics, imaging, organoids, and high-throughput sequencing.

Members of the Division also work closely with companies to develop new approaches to prevent or control viral outbreaks by developing new vaccine platforms, to test new drugs, or even to develop new engineering solution for filtering viruses from the air. Our researchers have also been involved in SARS-CoV-2 and Ebola virus outbreak responses, working closely with agencies such as WHO and the UK Government. We have close links with colleagues across the University of Cambridge, with research institutes like the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, the Francis Crick Institute and the Pirbright Institute, and with members of the international research community.

Division Head:  Professor Andrew Firth

Our Research Groups

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The degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) is the University's principal research degree for graduate students and is available in all faculties and departments.

A Cambridge PhD is intellectually demanding and you will need to have a high level of attainment and motivation to pursue this programme of advanced study and research.

In most faculties, a candidate is expected to have completed one year of postgraduate study, normally on a research preparation master's course, prior to starting a PhD.

Completion normally requires three or four years of full-time study, or at least five years of part-time study, including a probationary period.

Terms of research are normally consecutive and, for full-time students, require residency in Cambridge. Not all departments offer part-time research degrees.

Various routes to the PhD are possible and, if you are made an offer of admission, it will be made clear whether you are required to study for a master's degree or certificate in the first instance, or will be admitted directly to the probationary year for the PhD. You are registered for the PhD only after a satisfactory progress assessment at the end of the probationary year (five terms for part-time degrees). The assessment is designed also to focus your mind on the stages necessary for the completion of your research within the normal time limit and to address any structural problems that have arisen during the first year. Students must pass the first year assessment in order to continue their PhD study.

During your PhD, your effort will be focused on writing a dissertation. The word count of the dissertation is dependent on the department and the Student Registry or Educational Student Policy will be able to tell you the maximum word limit. This must represent a significant contribution to learning, for example through the discovery of new knowledge, the connection of previously unrelated facts, the development of a new theory, or the revision of older views, and must take account of previously published work on the subject. Some Cambridge dissertations go on to form the basis of significant publications.

Although you will spend long hours working independently, your department and College will both support you throughout your PhD. You are also able to attend regular seminars in your subject area and could be involved in teaching, perhaps giving seminars or supervising, or in the social life of your department and College.

PhD course search

Go to the Course Directory and filter courses using the relevant checkboxes.

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The dual degree program in Microbiology and Immunology and Hospital and Molecular Epidemiology allows students to earn a PhD in Microbiology and Immunology and an MS in Hospital and Molecular Epidemiology at the same time. The program provides students interested in infectious disease and immunity with interdisciplinary training in both the biomedical sciences and molecular epidemiology.

The dual degree program in M&I and HME allows students to earn a PhD in Microbiology and Immunology and an MS in Hospital and Molecular Epidemiology at the same time. The program provides students interested in infectious disease and immunity with interdisciplinary training in both the biomedical sciences and molecular epidemiology. 

To be admitted to the dual degree, you must:

Apply to the M&I PhD program via PIBS and be offered an interview 

Be admitted, and if you haven't already, meet with faculty advisor (Adam Lauring) before or when you arrive on campus. 

If possible, perform a summer rotation. Be prepared to launch into your dual degree course work starting in your first term at Michigan.

Meet with advisors regularly about course selections.

For further information, contact Natalie Deebs or Adam Lauring.

Learn more about the dual degree program in M&I and HME by visiting the program's website.

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