thesis statement for the slavery

The Transatlantic Slave Trade

Introduction.

• 2. New England
• 3. Boston, Massachusetts
• 4. New York, New York
• 5. The Mid-Atlantic
• 6. Virginia
• 7. Richmond, Virginia
• 8. The Carolinas
• 9. Charleston, South Carolina
• 10. The Deep South
• 11. Savannah, Georgia
• 12. New Orleans, Louisiana
• 13. Conclusion
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Cite this report Equal Justice Initiative, "The Transatlantic Slave Trade" (2022).

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A National Legacy: Our Collective Memory Of Slavery, War & Race

• Chapter 1 Origins Intro

The European Influence on Africa

The barbarity of the middle passage, slavery in the americas.

• 2. New England Intro
• New England Trafficking
• A Trafficking-Based Economy
• Industries Reliant on Enslaved Labor
• Laws Limiting Freedom
• 3 Boston Intro
• The Port of Boston
• Controlling Enslaved People
• Profiting from Trafficking
• After Abolition
• 4 New York City Intro
• Trading on Wall Street
• Laws Targeting Black People
• An Economy Founded on Slavery
• Post-War Racial Discrimination
• 5 Mid-Atlantic Intro
• A Hub for Human Trafficking
• Work of Enslaved People
• Separating Families
• Controlling Black People
• A Legacy of Racial Bias
• 6 Virginia Intro
• Tobacco Drives Trafficking
• Legislating Hereditary Enslavement
• Laws Controlling Lives
• The Domestic Slave Trade
• 7 Intro Richmond
• A Trafficking Hub
• An Enslavement-Based Economy
• Suppressing Black Resistance
• Center of the Domestic Slave Trade
• 8 Intro Carolinas
• Trafficking for Rice and Indigo
• North Carolina Trafficking
• Resistance to Enslavement
• 9 Intro Charleston
• “Carolina Gold”
• Centrality of African Culture
• Wealth Through Exploitation
• 10 Intro Deep South
• Spanish and French Trafficking
• Enslavement Conditions
• Trafficking Surges in the 18th Century
• Illegal Transatlantic Trafficking
• 11 Intro Savannah
• Trafficking in Savannah
• Urban Enslavement
• “The Weeping Time”
• Legacy of Enslavement
• 12 Intro New Orleans
• A City Built on Trafficking
• Brutal Conditions
• Resistance and Violent Response
• Conclusion TST Intro

Table of Contents

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• Acknowledgments

The enslavement of human beings occupies a painful and tragic space in world history. Denying a person freedom, autonomy, and life represents the worst kind of abuse of human rights.

Many societies tolerated and condoned human slavery for centuries. But in the 15th century, an expanded and terrifying new era of enslavement emerged that has had a profound and devastating impact on human history.

The abduction, abuse, and enslavement of Africans by Europeans for nearly five centuries dramatically altered the global landscape and created a legacy of suffering and bigotry that can still be seen today.

After discovering lands that had been occupied by Indigenous people for centuries, European powers sent ships and armed militia to exploit these new lands for wealth and profit starting in the 1400s. In territories we now call “the Americas,” gold, sugar, tobacco, and extraordinary natural resources were viewed as opportunities to gain power and influence for Portugal, Spain, Great Britain, France, Italy, Germany, and Scandinavian nations.

Europeans first sought to enslave the Indigenous people who occupied these lands to create wealth for foreign powers, resulting in a catastrophic genocide. Disease, famine, and conflict killed millions of Native people within a relatively short period of time.

Determined to extract wealth from these distant lands, European powers sought labor from Africa, launching a tragic era of kidnapping, abduction, and trafficking that resulted in the enslavement of millions of African people.

Between 1501 and 1867, nearly 13 million African people were kidnapped, forced onto European and American ships, and trafficked across the Atlantic Ocean to be enslaved, abused, and forever separated from their homes, families, ancestors, and cultures.

The Transatlantic Slave Trade represents one of the most violent, traumatizing, and horrific eras in world history. Nearly two million people died during the barbaric Middle Passage across the ocean. The African continent was left destabilized and vulnerable to conquest and violence for centuries. The Americas became a place where race and color created a caste system defined by inequality and abuse.

In the “colonies” that became the United States, slavery took on uniquely appalling features. From New England to Texas, Black people were dehumanized and abused while they were enslaved and denied basic freedoms. Legal and political systems were created to codify racial hierarchy and ensure white supremacy. Slavery became permanent and hereditary, defined by race-based ideologies that insisted on racial subordination of Black people for decades after the formal abolition of slavery.

Millions of Black people born in the U.S. were subjected to abuse, violence, and forced labor despite the young nation’s identity as a constitutional democracy founded on the belief that “all men are created equal.” Racialized slavery was ignored, defended, or accommodated by leaders while the new nation gained extraordinary wealth and influence in the global economy based on the forced labor of enslaved Black people.

The economic legacy of the Transatlantic Slave Trade—including generational wealth and the founding of industries that continue to thrive today—is not well understood.

New England, Boston, New York City, the Mid-Atlantic, Virginia, Richmond, the Carolinas, Charleston, Savannah, the Deep South, and New Orleans were shaped by the trafficking of African people, but few have acknowledged their history of enslavement or its legacy.

This report is a first step in helping people understand the scope and scale of the devastation created by slavery in America and the Transatlantic Slave Trade’s influence on a range of contemporary issues. It seeks to initiate more meaningful and truthful conversations about the history of slavery in America and how we can effectively address its legacy.

At a time when some believe we should avoid any discourse about our history that is uncomfortable, we believe that an honest engagement with our past is essential if we are to create a healthy and just future.

Bryan Stevenson, Executive Director

Maya Angelou

In this Chapter

T he enslavement of people has been a part of human history for centuries. Slavery and human bondage has taken many forms, including enslaving people as prisoners of war or due to their beliefs, 1 See David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (Oxford University Press, 2006), 27, 32; Jack Goody, “Slavery in Time and Space,” in Asian and African Systems of Slavery , ed. James L. Watson (Berkley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1980), 25-27, 32-35. but the permanent, hereditary enslavement based on race later adopted in the U.S. was rare before the 15th century.

Many attributes of slavery began to change when European settlers intent on colonizing the Americas used violence and military power to compel forced labor from enslaved people. Indigenous people became the first victims of forced labor and enslavement at the hands of Europeans in the Americas. However, millions of Indigenous people died from disease, famine, war, and harsh labor conditions in the decades that followed. 2 Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492 (University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 42-54.

Committed to extracting profit from their colonies in the Americas, European powers turned to the African continent. To meet their ever-growing need for labor, they initiated a massive global undertaking that relied on abduction, human trafficking, and racializing enslavement at a scale without precedent in human history. Never before had millions of people been kidnapped and trafficked over such a great distance.

The permanent displacement of 12.5 million African people to a foreign land, with no possibility of ever returning, created an enduring legacy and shaped challenges that remain with us today. 3 David Eltis and David Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2010), 23.

Europe had no contact with Sub-Saharan Africa before the Portuguese, seeking wealth and gold, sailed down the western coast of Africa and reached the Gold Coast (modern-day Ghana) in 1471. 4 Junius P. Rodriguez, ed., The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery, Volume I  (Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 1997), 307-08. Initially focused on obtaining gold, Portugal established trading relationships and built El Mina Fort to protect its interests in the gold trade. 5 Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 89.

The convergence of European powers in Sub-Saharan Africa set in motion a devastating process that fused sophisticated labor exploitation, international commerce, mass enslavement, and an elaborate race-based ideology to create the Transatlantic Slave Trade. 6 Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , 21, 99; Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 81-82, 84, 87, 89, 109.

Over the following decades, the Spanish, English, French, Dutch, Danish, and Swedes began to make contact with Sub-Saharan Africa as well. Portugal soon converted El Mina into a prison for holding kidnapped Africans, and European traffickers built castles, barracoons, and forts on the African coast to support the forced enslavement of abducted Africans.

German and Italian merchants and bankers who did not personally traffic kidnapped Africans nonetheless provided essential funding and insurance to develop the Transatlantic Slave Trade and plantation economy. 7 Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 87-89 Italian merchants were essential in the effort to extend the sugar plantation system to the Atlantic Islands off the west coast of Africa, like São Tomé, and financial capital from Genoa was instrumental in expanding Portugal’s ability to traffic Africans. 8 Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 84-89, 104, 109.

By the 1600s, every major European power had established trading relationships with Sub-Saharan Africa and was participating in the transportation of kidnapped Africans to the Americas in some way. During this time period, several thousand Africans were kidnapped and trafficked to mainland Europe and the Americas, but the volume of human trafficking soon escalated to horrific proportions. 9 Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , 21, 99; Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 81-82, 84, 87, 89, 109.

An engraving of trafficked Africans arriving in Virginia in 1619.

Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Led again by the Portuguese, European powers began to occupy the Americas in the 1500s. In the 16th and 17th centuries, using land stolen from Indigenous populations in the Americas, Europeans established plantations that relied on enslaved labor to mass produce goods (primarily sugar cane) for trading and sale. 10 Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 81, 97. The cultivation of sugar for mass consumption became a driving force in the growing trafficking of human beings from Africa. 11 Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 103, 107-09.

Europeans initially relied on Indigenous people to supply this labor. 12 Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 95-100. But mass killings and disease decimated Indigenous populations in what historian David Brion Davis called “the greatest known population loss in human history.” 13 Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 98.

The Indigenous population in Mexico plummeted by nearly 90% in 75 years. In Hispaniola (modern-day Haiti and Dominican Republic), the population of Arawak and Taino people fell from between 300,000 and 500,000 in 1492 to fewer than 500 people by 1542, just five decades later. 14 Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 98. Without Indigenous workers, plantation owners in the Americas grew desperate for a new source of exploited labor. 15 Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 95-102.

Driven by the desire for wealth, these European powers shifted from acquiring gold and other goods in Sub-Saharan Africa to trafficking in human beings. Over the following centuries, Europeans demanded that millions of Africans be trafficked to work on plantations and in other businesses in the Americas. 16 Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 99-102.

Slavery had existed in Africa prior to this point, but this new commodification of human beings by European powers was entirely unique and it drastically changed the African concept of enslavement. 17 Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 99-102.

Although some African officials and merchants acquired wealth through the export of millions of people, the Transatlantic Slave Trade devastated and de-stabilized societies and economies across Africa. The scale of disruption and violence contributed to long-term conflict and violence on the continent while European powers were able to amass massive financial benefits and global power from this dehumanizing trade. 18 Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 100.

The Iberian powers of Spain and Portugal and their colonies in Uruguay and Brazil were responsible for trafficking 99% of the nearly 630,000 kidnapped Africans trafficked from 1501 to 1625. 19 Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , 23, tbl. 2. Over the next 240 years, England, France, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, the Baltic States, and their colonies joined the Iberians in actively trafficking Africans. Almost 12 million kidnapped Africans were trafficked from 1625 to 1867. 20 Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , 23, tbl. 2. Ships from Portugal and its colony Brazil alone were responsible for trafficking 5,849,300 kidnapped Africans during this time period. 21 Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , 23, tbl. 2.

Ships originating in Great Britain were responsible for trafficking more than a quarter of all people taken from Africa from 1501 to 1867. 22 Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , 23, tbl. 2. From 1726 to 1800, British ships were the leading traffickers of kidnapped Africans, responsible for taking more than two million people from Africa. 23 Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , 23, tbl. 2.

A painting of kidnapped Africans aboard a trafficking ship.

Dea/G. Dagli Orti/Getty Images

From 1626 to 1867, ships from North America were responsible for trafficking at least 305,000 captured people from Africa. In the two years before the U.S. legally ended the international slave trade in 1808, a quarter of all trafficked Africans were carried in ships that flew the U.S. flag. 24 Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , 34. Rhode Island’s ports combined to organize voyages responsible for trafficking at least 111,000 kidnapped Africans, making it one of the 15 largest originating ports in the world. 25 Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , 39.

The horrific conditions of the Middle Passage meant that of more than 12.5 million Africans kidnapped and trafficked through the Transatlantic Slave Trade, only 10.7 million survived the journey. 26 Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , 19.

Eighty percent of the people who embarked for the Americas between 1500 and 1820 were kidnapped Africans, who far outnumbered European immigrants. 27 Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , xvii.

Almost two million Africans died during the Middle Passage—nearly one million more than all of the Americans who have died in every war fought since 1775 combined. 28 Department of Veteran’s Affairs, America’s Wars Fact Sheet , May 2021, https://www.va.gov/opa/publications/factsheets/fs_americas_wars.pdf ; Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , xvii, 18-19.

Numbers like this can help to quantify the scope of the harm, but they fail to detail the horrific and torturous experience of those who perished and the trauma that 10.7 million Africans who survived the weeks-long journey carried with them.

An exhibit at EJI’s Legacy Museum in Montgomery, Alabama, features more than 200 sculptures by Ghanaian sculptor Kwame Akoto-Bamfo memorializing those who died during the Middle Passage.

Human Pictures

Some enslaved people were taken from the coast of West Africa and sold to European slave traders. For most captives the experience of Transatlantic trafficking began weeks, months, or even years before they ever saw the coast. Driven by the increasing external demand from white enslavers and traders, African kidnappers traveled inland and kidnapped people from their villages and towns. In the 18th century, 70% of Africans trafficked in the Transatlantic Slave Trade were free people who had been “snatched from their homes and communities.” 29 Sowande M. Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea: Terror, Sex, and Sickness in the Middle Passage (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2016), 63. They were most often forced to walk, bound together in a coffle, for dozens or even hundreds of miles until they reached the coast. 30 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 63, 136; Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , 87.

At the coast, kidnapped Africans were forced into barracoons, slave pens, and dungeons within prison castles to await the ships that would take them across the Atlantic. Kidnapped Africans were forced to board slave trading ships that stayed docked—sometimes for months—until they had loaded enough human cargo to make the passage sufficiently profitable for the enslavers. 31 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 67, 99-101; Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , xvii, 160; Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 100. Records do not establish an exact death toll, but scholars estimate the mortality rate among those confined in barracoons and on board docked trading ships “equaled that of Europe’s fourteenth-century Black Death,” which claimed at least 40% of Europe’s population. 32 Alice M. Phillips, ed., “The Black Death: The Plague, 1331-1770,”  John Martin Rare Book Room, Hardin Library for the Health Sciences, University of Iowa, 2017, http://hosted.lib.uiowa.edu/histmed/plague/ .

Countless Africans perished before they even began the Middle Passage. 33 Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , xvii; Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 100.

Ottobah Cugoano was a young child when he was “snatched away from [his] native country, with about eighteen or twenty more boys and girls.” 34 Ottobah Cugoano, “Narrative of the Enslavement of Ottobah Cugoano, a Native of Africa; Published by Himself in the Year 1787,” in The Negro’s Memorial; or, Abolitionists Catechism; by an Abolitionist (London: Hatchard and Co., Piccadilly, and J. and A. Aroh, Conhill, 1825), 120. The kidnappers brandished “pistols and cutlasses” and threatened to kill the children if they did not come with them. 35 Cugoano, “Narrative of Enslavement,” 121. For Ottobah and millions like him, the trauma of familial separation would be inflicted repeatedly in the Transatlantic Slave Trade. Ottobah’s “hopes of returning home again were all over” 36 Cugoano, “Narrative of Enslavement,” 122-23. as he was marched to the coast and placed in a prison until a white slave trader’s ship arrived three days later. “[I]t was a most horrible scene,” Ottobah later recounted. 37 Cugoano, “Narrative of Enslavement,” 124.

Ottobah Cugoano

“Narrative of the Enslavement of Ottobah Cugoano,” 124.

African captives were forced to undergo invasive and dehumanizing examinations before they boarded enslavers’ ships. Women, men, and children were stripped naked, prodded, and molested to determine if they were “prime slaves” capable of performing hard labor and having children. 38 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 73-85.

Rob Culpepper

Traders invasively groped the breasts, buttocks, and vaginal areas of women and young girls, allegedly to assess their childbearing ability. 39 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 73-78, 85. Men and boys were similarly molested around the groin, scrotum, and anus. 40 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 85. One white trafficker later testified the process was similar to what he would do to “a horse in this country, if I was about to purchase him.” 41 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 85.

Captives were then assigned a number and loaded onto ships, separated by gender and tightly packed into the holds under conditions that were noxious and extreme. Men were typically “locked spoonways” together, naked and forced to lie in urine, feces, blood, and mucus, with little to no fresh air. 42 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 105; Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 92-93. Alexander Falconbridge, a white surgeon who participated in the slave trade, later testified that captives “had not so much room as a man in his coffin, neither in length or breadth, and it was impossible for them to turn or shift with any degree or ease.” 43 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 105.

An illustration of the Brookes, a British ship used to traffic enslaved people.

Library of Congress

Trafficked Africans were forced to lie chained and manacled for weeks during the journey, unable to stretch out or stand except during limited time on deck. The foul conditions were a breeding ground for disease and vermin; some captives suffocated from the lack of air below deck. 44 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 103-08; Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 92-93. On some ships, the mortality rate was as high as 33%. 45 Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 92-93; Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , 18-19.

About 15% of kidnapped Africans—nearly two million people—died during the Middle Passage.

African women and girls suffered similarly horrific conditions in the hold—and they were uniquely terrorized by the crew. Forced to be naked and segregated from the men, they lived in constant fear of being raped or assaulted by white sailors, who subjected them to sexual violence and flogged those who resisted. 46 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 138-48; Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 90-93.

Sexual assault of African women was so commonplace that Alexander Falconbridge later testified that sailors were “permitted to indulge their passions among them at pleasure.” 47 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 138-44. Young girls were similarly subjected to violence. One surviving account details the experience of “a little girl of eight to ten years” who was repeatedly raped by a ship’s captain over three consecutive nights. 48 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 144.

White sailors engaged in sexual violence without any fear of consequences or accountability. 49 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 138-48; Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 90-93.

Some African women faced a second level of terror—the inability to protect their small children who were brought on board with them or born during the voyage. 50 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 151-54. Many African women were forcibly separated from their infants when they were kidnapped from their homes or when they were sold to white traffickers but some women carried small infants with them. Babies were of little value in the market across the Atlantic, and so abusive sailors used them to manipulate, control, and terrorize their mothers. 51 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 151-54. One account details a sailor who “tore the child from the mother, and threw it into the sea” when the newborn would not stop crying. 52 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 151.

Enslaved women and young girls were systematically subjected to sexual abuse and violence by traffickers and enslavers.

Another account from a white trafficker reports that a woman and her nine-month-old were purchased and placed onboard a ship. The baby “would not eat,” so the captain “flogged him with a cat o’ nine tails” in front of his mother and other captives on the ship. 53 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 152-53. When he noticed that the baby’s feet were swollen, the captain ordered his crew to submerge the baby’s legs in boiling water, causing “the skin and nails [to come] off.” 54 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 153. The baby still would not eat, so the captain flogged him at each meal time for several days before finally “[tying] a log of mango, either eighteen or twenty inches long, and about twelve or thirteen pound weight, to the child by a string round its neck,” beating the baby again, and dropping the baby to the ground, killing him. 55 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 153. His mother—powerless to save her baby—was beaten until she agreed to throw her baby’s body overboard. This act of terror was intentionally committed in view of other captives to strike fear and maintain control. 56 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 153-54.

Cruelty and terrorism were common on trafficking vessels operated by Europeans. Sailors inflicted brutal punishments for even minor offenses as a reminder of their control. 57 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 131-37. One account from a white sailor reported that eight to 10 captives were brought to the top deck one night “for making a little noise in the rooms.” 58 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 136-37. Sailors were then ordered to “tie them up to the booms [horizontal poles extending from the base of the mast], flog them very severely with a wire cat [a whip with multiple tails of wire], and afterwards clap the thumb-screws upon them, and leave them in that situation till morning.” 59 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 136-37. The same sailor said the use of the thumb-screws—a device that crushed fingers via pressure—was so violent and harmful that it resulted in “fevers” and even death on occasion. 60 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 136-37.

For more serious offenses, sailors inflicted even greater violence. One captive woman who was accused of aiding (but not actively participating) in an attempted revolt against the kidnappers, was strung up on the deck by her thumbs in view of the other captives. As a warning to them, she was flogged and knifed to death. 61 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 158.

An illustration published in an 1833 anti-slavery periodical shows traffickers throwing enslaved people overboard.

The threat of being flogged with a cat o’ nine tails [a multi-tailed whip with lashes often tipped with metal or barbs] or placed in the thumb-screws hung over each captive. 62 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 186-87. Consuming more than their meager allotment of food could lead to whipping and torture. 63 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 118-24. Captives were forced onto the deck and made to “dance” for exercise under threat of flogging. As one eyewitness observed, “Even those who had the flux, scurvy, and such edematous swelling in their legs, as made it painful to them to move at all, were compelled to dance by the cat.” 64 Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 92-93. Failure to eat one’s rations likewise resulted in abuse, whipping, or torture in the thumb-screws until the kidnapped African agreed to eat. 65 Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea , 118-24, 186-87.

These excruciating conditions lasted for weeks and sometimes for months. A typical voyage took five or six weeks; some took two or three months. 66 Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , 160. Longer voyages led to higher mortality rates among the kidnapped Africans on board. 67 Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , 160.

When the ships landed in ports across North and South America, the kidnapped Africans who survived the Middle Passage were subjected to a renewed round of examinations and molestation by enslavers before they were sold again and forced to do hard labor that often resulted in their untimely deaths. 68 Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 92-93, 107-17; Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , 6, 16, 159-61. Around 80% of kidnapped Africans transported across the Middle Passage were forced to work on sugar plantations under incredibly dangerous conditions that led to high mortality rates. 69 Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , 6.

Olaudah Equiano

Of the enslaved men, women, and children who survived the Middle Passage, approximately 90% arrived in the Caribbean or South America. 82 Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , xix. The Portuguese, Spanish, French, British, and Dutch controlled slavery in the Americas, and each followed different political, legal, and cultural practices. 83 Eltis and Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade , 21-23. Due in part to these differences, the evolution of slavery in the Americas varied across the region, as did the social construction of race and racial hierarchy.

There is no value in comparing the relative “harshness” of slavery across the Americas; the brutality and inhumanity of slavery was universal. Moreover, conditions in the South American and Caribbean colonies were horrific—the vast majority of enslaved people in these colonies worked on sugar plantations, which were notoriously harsh environments. Work on these plantations was “life-consuming,” with long hours of gang labor—often beginning at 5 a.m. and working until dusk—and extremely hazardous work conditions. Plantations in Brazil had higher mortality rates and lower life expectancies than plantations in the U.S. 84 Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 92-93, 107-119.

Factors specific to each European power and its colonies distinguished the experiences of enslaved men and women across the Americas. In the North American colonies and later the U.S., white people were in the majority everywhere except in South Carolina and Mississippi. 85 Kathryn MacKay, “Statistics on Slavery,” Weber State University, accessed September 2, 2022, https://faculty.weber.edu/kmackay/statistics_on_slavery.htm . But in South America and the Caribbean, nonwhite people regularly exceeded 80% of the population. 86 Steven Mintz, “Historical Context: American Slavery in Comparative Perspective,” The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, accessed September 6, 2022, https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/teaching-resource/historical-context-american-slavery-comparative-perspective ; Robert J. Cottrol, The Long Lingering Shadow: Law, Liberalism, and Cultures of Racial Hierarchy and Identity in the Americas (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2013), 39.

In the months leading up to the 1794 revolution in Haiti, white Europeans made up just 5% of the population and there were as many free people of color as there were Europeans. 87 Franklin W. Knight, “The Haitian Revolution,” American Historical Review 105, no. 1 (February 2000): 108. Iberian control in South America was challenged by the growing number of enslaved people, who often demanded their freedom in exchange for fighting Indigenous people who resisted European colonizers. 88 Cottrol, Long Lingering Shadow , 34. In these colonies, the threat of rebellion against the minority white population was critical in shaping society.

In contrast, the exceptionally large white majority in North America meant that rebellions by enslaved people, while far more common than most people realize today, did not represent as great a threat to white rule. 89 Cottrol, Long Lingering Shadow , 60, 86. As a result, while the fear of rebellions profoundly shaped the legal and cultural landscape of North America, 90 See, e.g. , Walter Johnson, River of Dark Dreams (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2013), 14, 18-21, 33 (discussing the impact of the Deslondes rebellion in Louisiana). British colonists rarely were forced to make legal or political concessions to enslaved people.

Geographic and demographic variations also distinguished how race and racial hierarchy developed in North America. For example, during the first century of Portuguese colonization in Brazil, there were very few Portuguese or white women, 91 D. Wendy Greene, “Determining the (In)Determinable: Race in Brazil and the United States,” 14 Mich. J. Race & L. 143, 150 (2009). which meant that despite anti-miscegenation laws passed in Portugal, there were high rates of interracial sex between white men and women of African descent in Brazil. 92 Greene, “Determining the (In)Determinable,” 150. By 1822, more than 70% of Brazil’s population “consisted of blacks or mulattoes, slaves, liberto, and free” people of color. 93 Greene, “Determining the (In)Determinable,” 151.

Today, Brazil is home to the largest population of African descendants outside the African continent. 94 Greene, “Determining the (In)Determinable,” 150.

In most South American and Caribbean colonies, large populations of free people of color emerged and “elaborate human taxonomies” based on race and caste were developed. 95 Herbert S. Klein and Ben Vinson III, African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean , 2d. ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 200-12. A different racial hierarchy evolved in North America, where free people of color represented a very small fraction of the population. 96 Aaron O’Neill, “Black and Slave Population of the United States from 1790 to 1880,” Statista , June 21, 2022, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1010169/black-and-slave-population-us-1790-1880/ . There, a single, rigid color line separated two racial groups: Black and white. 97 Klein and Vinson, African Slavery in Latin America , 195.

Finally, the legal codes that governed enslaved peoples’ lives—laws on manumission, the status of enslaved people as humans or property, marriage and family formation, and racial classification—varied by region and the colony. 98 Klein and Vinson, African Slavery in Latin America , 207-14. These laws demonstrate the complex racial hierarchies in the region.

Throughout the region, racial discrimination was codified in laws that barred free Black people from “hold[ing] political office, practic[ing] prestigious professions (public notary, lawyer, surgeon, pharmacist, smelter) or enjoy[ing] equal social status with whites.” 99 Ann Twinam, Purchasing Whiteness: Pardos, Mulattos, and the Quest for Social Mobility in the Spanish Indies (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2015), 52. But in 1795, the Spanish Crown made it possible to purchase whiteness—people of color with mixed ancestry could “apply and pay for a decree” that converted their legal status to white. 100 Ann Twinam, “Purchasing Whiteness: Race and Status in Colonial Latin America,” Not Even Past , September 1, 2015, https://notevenpast.org/purchasing-whiteness-race-and-status-in-colonial-latin-america/ . These laws sparked “vigorous and serious debate concerning the civil rights of those of mixed descent” in some countries. The 1812 constitution of the Spanish Empire further expanded opportunities for mixed-race citizens, including desegregating universities a century and a half before the U.S. 101 Twinam, “Race and Status.”

Evan Milligan

In French colonies, the “Code Noir” passed by Louis XIV in 1685 shaped an entirely different landscape. The code mandated execution for an enslaved person who struck their enslaver, 102 Article XXXIII, “The Code Noir (The Black Code),” LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION , accessed October 17, 2022, https://revolution.chnm.org/d/335 . but it also granted free people of color the same rights as any “persons born free,” 103 Articles LVIII and LIX, “The Code Noir.” prohibited enslaved parents from being sold separately from their children, 104 Article XLVII, “The Code Noir.” deemed free the child of a free woman and an enslaved man of color, 105 Article XIII, “The Code Noir.” and fined an enslaver who had a child with an enslaved woman unless he married and freed the woman and her child. 106 Article IX, “The Code Noir.”

Critically, under the Code Noir, free people of color dramatically increased their numbers. In Louisiana, which spent decades under French control, there were 18,647 free Black people by 1860—almost 3,000 more than in South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi combined. 107 Laura Foner, “The Free People of Color in Louisiana and St. Domingue: A Comparative Portrait of Two Three-Caste Slave Societies,” Journal of Social History 3, no. 4 (Summer 1970): 407 n.1 (citing U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Negro Population in the United States, 1790-1915” (Washington, 1918), 57).

The British and their descendants in North America made race the central aspect of laws governing slavery and the lives of enslaved and free Black Americans. 108 Klein and Vinson, African Slavery in Latin America , 203 (“Especially following the Haitian Revolution, British, French, Dutch, and North American legislation became ever more hostile to freedmen.”).  A stark “black-white binary” reflected and reinforced the centrality of race in all areas of American life. 109 Klein and Vinson, African Slavery in Latin America , 201.

As a result, while the particular experience of slavery depended on region and time period, enslavement in the U.S. became a rigid, racialized caste system that inexorably tied enslavement to race.

The system of enslavement that emerged in North America was legitimated by an elaborate set of laws enforced through terror and violence and used to justify and codify the permanent, hereditary, and unending slavery of Black people for generations.

From the first arrival of kidnapped Africans in the English colonies that would become the United States, the institution of enslavement was foundational to the economy of every major city on the Eastern Seaboard. The history of these regions cannot be fully understood without acknowledging the role enslavement played in creating their economies, laws, and political and cultural institutions and the innumerable ways this legacy shapes these communities today.

The Role of the Christian Church

The British Library

Olaudah Equiano’s autobiography, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano , is a firsthand account of the Transatlantic Slave Trade that provides a critical perspective into the horrors of trafficking.

Olaudah was 11 years old when he and his sister were kidnapped from their home in the Eboe region of the Kingdom of Benin (likely, modern-day Nigeria) while their parents worked in the field. 70 Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African,  vol. I (London, 1789) 4-5, 48-49. Separated from his sister, he was trafficked over many months through various households before eventually being taken to the ocean and forced to board a docked slave ship. 71 Equiano, Interesting Narrative , 49-71.

Overwhelmed with terror, Olaudah was placed below decks, where he was knocked back by the crying of his fellow captives and “the loathsomeness of the stench,” which made it impossible to eat anything. When he refused food from the slave traders, they violently flogged him. 72 Equiano, Interesting Narrative , 73-74. Olaudah witnessed repeated “brutal cruelty” from the slave traders, including hourly whippings for anyone who refused to eat. 73 Equiano, Interesting Narrative , 73-75.

When the slave ship set sail for Barbados, Olaudah spent weeks below decks.

The closeness of the place, and the heat of the climate, added to the number in the ship, which was so crowded that each had scarcely room to turn himself, almost suffocated us. This produced copious perspirations, so that the air soon became unfit for respiration, from a variety of loathsome smells, and brought on a sickness among the slaves, of which many died, thus falling victims to the improvident avarice, as I may call it, of their purchasers.

This wretched situation was again aggravated by the galling of the chains, now become insupportable; and the filth of the necessary tubs, into which the children often fell, and were almost suffocated. The shrieks of the women, and the groans of the dying, rendered the whole a scene of horror almost inconceivable. 74 Equiano, Interesting Narrative , 78-80.

Olaudah details an incident when, having caught fish for themselves, the white traffickers threw the extra fish they did not eat overboard, rather than give it to the kidnapped Africans. 75 Equiano, Interesting Narrative , 80-81.

He witnessed at least three kidnapped Africans attempt suicide by trying to jump off the ship and drown in the ocean rather than be subjected to a life of enslavement. One of the three men was caught and whipped “unmercifully.” 76 Equiano, Interesting Narrative , 81-82.

After weeks at sea, the ship arrived in Barbados, where Olaudah and the other captives were taken to a “merchant’s yard, where we were all pent up together like so many sheep in a fold, without regard to sex or age.” 77 Equiano, Interesting Narrative , 83-85. He was held there a few days before seeing buyers “rush” into the yard and grab the enslaved people they wanted to purchase, tearing apart families and loved ones who had survived the Middle Passage together. 78 Equiano, Interesting Narrative , 86-87. Olaudah wrote:

I remember in the vessel in which I was brought over, in the men’s apartment, there were several brothers, who, in the sale, were sold in different lots; and it was very moving on this occasion to see and hear their cries at parting. O, ye nominal Christians! might not an African ask you, learned you this from your God, who says unto you, Do unto all men as you would men should do unto you?

Is it not enough that we are torn from our country and friends to toil for your luxury and lust of gain? Must every tender feeling be likewise sacrificed to your avarice? Are the dearest friends and relations, now rendered more dear by their separation from their kindred, still to be parted from each other, and thus prevented from cheering the gloom of slavery with the small comfort of being together and mingling their sufferings and sorrows? Why are parents to lose their children, brothers their sisters, or husbands their wives? Surely this is a new refinement in cruelty, which, while it has no advantage to atone for it, thus aggravates distress, and adds fresh horrors even to the wretchedness of slavery. 79 Equiano, Interesting Narrative , 86-88.

Along with other kidnapped Africans from the same ship, Olaudah was not sold in Barbados. They were held on the island for several days, and then transported to Virginia, where they were sold into slavery. 80 Equiano, Interesting Narrative , 90-94.

Years later, in 1766, while enslaved by Robert King, a Quaker living in Montserrat, Olaudah Equiano purchased his freedom for 40 British pounds. He eventually moved to London and joined the abolitionist movement. 81 Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, vol. II (Cambridge University Press, Reprint Edition, 2013), 11-19.

Back to the report

Matt McClain/The Washington Post via Getty Images

Starting in the 15th century, when European powers initiated contact and commercial activity with Sub-Saharan Africa, and continuing throughout the following centuries, organized religion played a leading role in developing, supporting, and legislating the Transatlantic Slave Trade.

Rooted in a belief that their duty to spread Christianity justified their actions, religious organizations did not only embrace human trafficking and the enslavement of millions of Africans—they actively participated.

The Roman Catholic Church was critical to the efforts of global expansion by Portugal, Spain, and France and the creation of massive commercial enterprises built on the suffering and death of enslaved people. 110 Cottrol, Long Lingering Shadow , 55-57. In 1452 and 1455, Pope Nicholas V formally supported Spain and Portugal’s mass kidnapping and enslavement of Africans because it would help to Christianize enslaved people. 111 Carl Wise and David Wheat, “Pope Nicolas V and the Portuguese Slave Trade,” in African Laborers for a New Empire: Iberia, Slavery, and the Atlantic World , Lowcountry Digital History Initiative, updated 2016, https://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/african_laborers_for_a_new_emp/pope_nicolas_v_and_the_portugu#! .

In 1548, Pope Paul III used his “apostolic authority” to declare the slave trade legal in the eyes of the church, which empowered the religious monarchies in European nations to continue to engage in Transatlantic trafficking. 112 Pius Onyemechi Adiele, The Popes, The Catholic Church, and The Transatlantic Enslavement of Black Africans 1418-1839 (Hildesheim, Zürich, New York: Georg Olms Verlag, 2017), 383-84. The “popes and their friends” accepted “gifts” of enslaved Black people shipped from Africa to Rome. 113 Davis, Inhuman Bondage , 79.

Through Transatlantic trafficking, the church systematically extended its influence. European enslavers baptized millions of enslaved people whose labor they used to amass vast wealth. 114 Arnold Bauer, The Church in the Economy of Spanish America: Censos and Depositos in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1983), 707.

The Jesuits, a religious order of the Catholic Church, justified slavery as a path to evangelization, but this did not insulate the people they enslaved from the exploitation, brutality, and dehumanization that was central to the system of chattel slavery. Like other enslavers, the Jesuits forced enslaved people to work on “Jesuit sugar plantations, cattle ranches, tobacco farms and vineyards, urban colegios, and as domestic servants.” 115 Adam Rothman, “The Jesuits and Slavery,” Journal of Jesuit Studies 8 (December 15, 2020).

During the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, several groups of European Christians formally broke away from the Roman Catholic Church. 116 Adiele, Catholic Church, and Transatlantic Enslavement , 16. These new Protestant churches also supported Transatlantic trafficking and believed the slave trade was wholly compatible with Christianity.

Like the Roman Catholic Church, the Church of England not only promulgated an ideological apparatus to support race-based slavery, but it also was directly involved in trafficking and enslavement. The Church of England owned and operated Codrington, a profitable sugar plantation in Barbados where over 275 enslaved men, women, and children labored in hot, grueling conditions to plant, harvest, and produce sugar, which required a worker to stand over a boiling cauldron for more than 12 hours at a time. 117 Adam Hochschild, Bury the Chains: Prophets and Rebels in the Fight to Free an Empire’s Slaves (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005), 61-68. Early death was expected and devastating injuries commonplace. Visitors to Codrington noted that hatchets were kept nearby and used to sever the limbs of enslaved people whose fingers got caught in the mill. 118 Hochschild, Bury the Chains , 63-64. Those who tried to flee were whipped, branded, and forced to wear iron collars, but records show there were numerous escape attempts. 119 Hochschild, Bury the Chains , 65.

Slavery Research Paper Topics

Explore the rich history of slavery through our comprehensive guide on slavery research paper topics . This page is designed for history students seeking in-depth insights into various aspects of slavery, including ancient, medieval, Islamic, and modern periods. We present an extensive list of slavery research paper topics categorized into 10 sections, each comprising 10 thought-provoking topics. Additionally, our article on slavery delves into the historical context, impact, and legacies of slavery, offering students a broad perspective for their research endeavors. Furthermore, we provide valuable tips on selecting and crafting compelling research paper topics on slavery, empowering students to develop well-structured and impactful papers. To support students in their academic journey, iResearchNet offers specialized writing services, featuring expert degree-holding writers, in-depth research, and customized solutions. Embrace the opportunity to excel in your history studies!

100 Slavery Research Paper Topics

In the annals of history, few topics have been as impactful and poignant as the institution of slavery. From ancient civilizations to modern societies, slavery has left an indelible mark on humanity, shaping economies, societies, and cultures throughout the ages. For students of history, delving into the complexities of slavery through research papers offers a unique opportunity to explore this dark chapter of human history and its enduring legacies. In this comprehensive section, we present a curated list of slavery research paper topics, meticulously organized into 10 categories, each encompassing 10 diverse and thought-provoking subjects. Our aim is to provide students with a wide array of historical themes and perspectives, covering ancient slavery, medieval slavery, Islamic slavery, slavery in the United States, modern slavery, slavery and human rights, slavery and economics, slavery and social movements, slavery and cultural impact, and slavery and historical memory. As we embark on this journey, we seek to foster a deeper understanding of the complex dynamics of slavery and its profound implications on the past, present, and future.

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• The Role of Slavery in Ancient Civilizations: A Comparative Study
• Slavery in Ancient Greece: Social and Economic Impact
• Roman Slavery: From Captives to Household Servants
• Slavery in Ancient Egypt: Labor and Society
• Slavery in Mesopotamia: Legal Framework and Rights of Enslaved Individuals
• Slavery in Ancient China: Patterns of Enslavement and Liberation
• The Status of Slaves in Pre-Colonial Africa: A Case Study
• Slavery in the Indus Valley Civilization: Evidence and Interpretations
• The Treatment of Slaves in the Aztec Empire: Perspectives and Challenges
• Slavery in the Mayan Civilization: Myths and Reality
• Serfdom and Slavery in Medieval Europe: A Comparative Analysis
• Slave Trade in the Byzantine Empire: Routes and Impact
• Slavery in the Islamic Caliphates: Legal and Social Dimensions
• The Role of Slavery in Feudal Japan: Samurai and Peasants
• Slavery in Medieval China: Institutions and Reforms
• The Slave Trade in Medieval Africa: Regional Variations and Consequences
• Enslavement in the Viking Age: Raiding and Slave Markets
• Slavery in the Middle Ages: Church, State, and Social Norms
• The Experience of Slaves in Medieval Persia: Stories and Perspectives
• Slave Revolts and Resistance in the Medieval World: Causes and Outcomes
• Islamic Slavery and the Trans-Saharan Trade: Connections and Implications
• The Role of Slavery in the Ottoman Empire: Administration and Abolition
• Slavery in the Mamluk Sultanate: Military and Economic Contributions
• The Treatment of Slaves in Medieval Islamic Society: Rights and Restrictions
• Female Slaves in the Islamic World: Roles and Perceptions
• Slavery in Medieval India: Influence of Islamic and Hindu Traditions
• The African Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean: Trade Routes and Networks
• Slavery and Conversion to Islam: Examining the Impact on Enslaved Individuals
• The Experience of African Slaves in the Arab World: Cultural Identity and Resistance
• Slavery in the Maldives: Local Practices and Global Influences
• Slavery in the Southern Colonies: Labor Systems and Plantation Life
• The Experience of Enslaved Individuals in the Northern States: Urban vs. Rural
• Slave Trade and the Middle Passage: Trauma and Survival
• The Role of Free Blacks in the Antebellum South: Rights and Restrictions
• The Underground Railroad in the United States: Networks and Abolitionist Activity
• Slavery and Indigenous Peoples: Interactions and Conflicts
• The Economic Impact of Slavery on the United States: Cotton, Tobacco, and Beyond
• Slavery and the US Constitution: Legal Framework and Political Debates
• Slavery and the American Legal System: Court Cases and Precedents
• The Legacy of Slavery in US Society: Racial Inequality and Systemic Racism
• Slavery in the United States: From Colonial Times to the Civil War
• The Abolitionist Movement in the United States: Key Figures and Campaigns
• The Underground Railroad: Escaping Slavery and Freedom Seekers
• Slavery and the American Civil War: Causes, Consequences, and Legacies
• Slavery in Latin America: Plantations, Labor Systems, and Resistance
• The British Abolition of the Slave Trade: Policy and Impact
• The Transatlantic Slave Trade: Origins, Scale, and Aftermath
• Slavery in the Caribbean: Plantation Economies and Cultural Heritage
• The Impact of Slavery on African Societies: Continuity and Change
• Modern-Day Slavery: Human Trafficking and Forced Labor in the 21st Century
• Slavery and International Law: From Condemnation to Enforcement
• The Role of Slavery in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
• Slavery Reparations: Historical Injustices and Contemporary Debates
• The Legacies of Slavery: Intergenerational Trauma and Healing
• The Fight for Abolition: Social Movements and Civil Rights Activism
• Slavery in Modern Literature: Representation and Cultural Memory
• The Impact of Slavery on Identity and Belonging: Descendants of Enslaved Individuals
• Modern Slavery and Global Supply Chains: Corporate Responsibility and Accountability
• The Role of Museums and Memorials in Preserving Slavery’s History
• Slavery and Memory Studies: Commemoration and Remembrance
• The Economics of Slavery: Plantations, Labor, and Capital Accumulation
• The Impact of Slavery on Economic Development: Case Studies and Perspectives
• Slavery and Trade Routes: The Triangular Trade and Its Consequences
• Slavery and Industrialization: Labor Systems and Technological Advances
• Slavery and Urbanization: The Role of Enslaved Individuals in Building Cities
• The Economic Justifications for Slavery: Historical Debates and Perspectives
• Slavery and Wealth Inequality: Historical and Contemporary Patterns
• Slavery and Globalization: Connections and Disparities
• The Role of Slave Labor in Building Infrastructures: Roads, Canals, and Railways
• Slavery and Economic Migration: The Movement of Enslaved Individuals
• Slave Revolts and Rebellions: Causes, Strategies, and Outcomes
• Abolitionist Literature: Narratives of Freedom and Empowerment
• The Role of Religion in the Abolitionist Movement: Faith and Advocacy
• The Underground Railroad and Its Impact on African American Communities
• Slavery and Women’s Rights: Intersectionality and Activism
• The Role of Free African Americans in the Abolitionist Movement
• Slave Songs and Music: Expressions of Resistance and Identity
• Slave Codes and Laws: The Legal Framework of Enslavement
• Slavery and Education: Restrictions, Access, and Agency
• The Role of International Diplomacy in Abolitionist Efforts
• Slavery in Art and Literature: Representations and Interpretations
• The Influence of African Cultures on Slave Communities
• Slavery and Memory in Visual Culture: Museums, Monuments, and Memorials
• The Impact of Slave Narratives on Cultural Awareness and Empathy
• Slavery in Folklore and Oral Traditions: Stories of Survival and Resilience
• Slavery and Music: Contributions of Enslaved Africans to American Music
• The Legacy of Slavery in Language and Linguistics: Words and Expressions
• Slavery and Food: Culinary Traditions and Adaptations
• The Representation of Slavery in Films and Media: Stereotypes and Revisionist Narratives
• Slavery’s Influence on Fashion and Clothing: Textiles and Identity
• The Politics of Memory: Commemorating and Memorializing Slavery
• Slavery and Public History: Interpretation and Controversies
• The Role of Confederate Monuments in Shaping Historical Narratives
• Slavery and Heritage Tourism: Ethics and Responsibilities
• The Memory of Slavery in African American Communities: Cultural Expressions
• The Debate over Confederate Symbols and Names: Renaming and Removals
• Slavery and Education: Teaching Difficult Histories in Schools
• The Role of Historical Reenactments in Representing Slavery
• Slavery in Family Histories: Genealogy and Ancestral Connections
• The Future of Slavery Studies: Research Directions and Challenges

This comprehensive list of slavery research paper topics serves as a gateway for students to explore the multifaceted dimensions of slavery across different epochs and societies. From ancient civilizations to the present day, slavery has been a pervasive and deeply troubling institution that has shaped human history in profound ways. By examining these carefully selected topics, students can gain a deeper appreciation for the historical, social, economic, and cultural complexities surrounding slavery. Moreover, delving into these research paper ideas opens avenues for critical thinking, fostering empathy, and raising awareness about the enduring legacy of slavery in contemporary society. As we engage with these slavery research paper topics, it is crucial to approach them with sensitivity and a commitment to shedding light on the human experience, even in the darkest chapters of history.

Slavery: Exploring the History, Impact, and Legacies

Slavery stands as a harrowing chapter in human history, marked by its profound impact on societies, economies, and the lives of countless individuals. This article delves into the complex and troubling history of slavery, tracing its origins, evolution, and far-reaching consequences on both local and global scales. Additionally, it sheds light on the enduring legacies of slavery, as its shadows continue to cast a long and influential reach into the modern world. By examining the historical context of slavery and its multifaceted impact, we can better understand the challenges faced by enslaved people and the enduring repercussions felt across generations and continents.

The Origins of Slavery: Tracing the Roots

The history of slavery can be traced back to ancient civilizations, where individuals were subjected to forced labor and bondage. Exploring the origins of slavery illuminates the early forms of human exploitation and the development of slave systems in various societies, from Mesopotamia and Egypt to Greece and Rome. Understanding the earliest manifestations of slavery helps contextualize its transformation over time and its role in shaping societies.

Slavery in Medieval Times: Continuity and Change

As the world transitioned into the medieval period, the institution of slavery adapted and persisted. This topic examines the continuity of slavery in medieval Europe, Africa, and Asia, and delves into the changes and variations that occurred during this era. The rise of serfdom, indentured servitude, and chattel slavery all played significant roles in shaping the medieval world’s social, economic, and political landscape.

Islamic Slavery: Unraveling the Narrative

Islamic history also saw the presence of slavery, with a diverse range of experiences and practices within the Islamic world. This section explores the nuances of Islamic slavery, challenging misconceptions and providing a more nuanced understanding of its historical context. The discussion encompasses the role of slavery in Islamic societies, the treatment of enslaved people, and the Quranic teachings related to slavery.

Transatlantic Slave Trade: A Dark Era

One of the most infamous chapters in slavery’s history is the transatlantic slave trade, which forcibly transported millions of Africans to the Americas. This topic delves into the grim reality of the slave trade, analyzing its economic, social, and humanitarian ramifications. The harrowing journey of enslaved Africans, the brutal conditions of the Middle Passage, and the impacts on African societies are essential aspects of this exploration.

Slavery and Abolition Movements: Struggle for Freedom

The fight against slavery was met with resistance from enslaved individuals and abolition movements worldwide. This section examines the courageous efforts of abolitionists, enslaved rebels, and humanitarian activists in challenging the institution of slavery. The works of prominent figures such as Harriet Tubman, Frederick Douglass, William Wilberforce, and Sojourner Truth are exemplars of the determination to end slavery.

Impact on Culture and Identity

Slavery profoundly influenced the cultural fabric and identities of both enslaved and enslaving societies. This topic investigates how cultural expressions, traditions, and identities were shaped by the institution of slavery, leaving indelible marks on the collective consciousness. From African cultural retentions in the Americas to the enduring legacy of slavery in shaping national identities, this section delves into the power of culture in preserving and challenging the past.

Slavery’s Economic Legacy: Prosperity Built on Exploitation

The economic impact of slavery cannot be underestimated, as it fueled the growth of industries and economies in different regions. This section delves into the economic repercussions of slavery, exploring its role in the accumulation of wealth and its lasting influence on global trade. The exploitative labor practices that underpinned the economies of plantation-based societies and their connection to contemporary economic systems are crucial aspects of this examination.

The Long Road to Emancipation: Legacies of Struggle

Even after the abolition of slavery, the legacy of oppression persisted through segregation, Jim Crow laws, and systemic racism. This topic examines the legacies of slavery’s aftermath and the ongoing struggles for equality and justice. The Civil Rights Movement in the United States and similar movements worldwide demonstrate the enduring efforts to dismantle the structures of racism and discrimination.

Slavery in the US: A Tumultuous History

Focusing on the United States, this category explores the unique history of slavery in the nation. From its early colonial beginnings to the Civil War and beyond, the United States grappled with the profound impact of slavery on its development. Examining slave narratives, the Underground Railroad, and the Emancipation Proclamation, this section highlights the complexities of slavery’s legacy in the US.

Slavery in the Modern World: Contemporary Forms of Exploitation

Despite its historical abolition, slavery has not been eradicated entirely. Modern slavery, including human trafficking and forced labor, continues to affect millions worldwide. This section sheds light on the modern manifestations of slavery and the challenges of combating this global issue. The examination includes efforts by international organizations, governments, and NGOs to address this ongoing human rights violation.

By examining these critical aspects of slavery, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the history, impact, and enduring legacies of this tragic institution. Through rigorous research and compassionate inquiry, we aim to honor the experiences of those who suffered under slavery while striving to create a more just and equitable world for all.

How to Choose Slavery Research Paper Topics

Choosing slavery research paper topics requires thoughtful consideration and a deep understanding of the historical, social, and cultural complexities surrounding this dark period in human history. While the topic selection process can be challenging, it is essential to find a subject that not only interests you but also allows for a comprehensive exploration of the issues related to slavery. Here are ten tips to guide you in selecting the most compelling slavery research paper topics:

• Conduct Preliminary Research : Before settling on a specific topic, conduct preliminary research to familiarize yourself with various aspects of slavery. Read books, scholarly articles, and historical accounts to gain insight into different angles and perspectives. This will help you identify gaps in the existing literature and potential areas for further exploration.
• Define Your Scope : Given the vastness of the subject, it is crucial to define the scope of your research paper. Consider the time period, geographic location, and specific themes you want to delve into. Whether you choose to focus on a particular region, a specific era, or a comparative analysis of different slave systems, defining your scope will provide clarity and direction.
• Explore Different Perspectives : Slavery has left an indelible mark on various societies and individuals. Consider exploring different perspectives, such as the experiences of enslaved individuals, the role of slaveholders, the impact on economies, and the cultural and social repercussions. This multi-faceted approach will enrich your research and foster a comprehensive understanding of the subject.
• Select a Specific Theme or Question : Rather than opting for a broad topic, narrow down your focus by selecting a specific theme or research question. For instance, you could investigate the resistance strategies employed by enslaved people, the economic motivations behind the transatlantic slave trade, or the role of women in slave societies. A focused approach will allow for in-depth analysis and a more cohesive research paper.
• Consult with Your Instructor or Advisor : If you are struggling to choose a research paper topic, don’t hesitate to seek guidance from your instructor or academic advisor. They can offer valuable insights, suggest potential slavery research paper topics, and provide feedback on the feasibility of your ideas.
• Consider Understudied Topics : Exploring less-discussed or understudied topics can be a rewarding endeavor. Look for aspects of slavery that have not received as much scholarly attention and consider shedding light on these lesser-known areas. This can contribute to the broader understanding of the subject and make your research paper stand out.
• Use Primary Sources : Incorporating primary sources in your research can add depth and authenticity to your paper. Letters, diaries, interviews, and official documents from the time of slavery provide firsthand accounts and perspectives, enriching your analysis and providing a more nuanced understanding of historical events.
• Stay Ethical and Sensible : Slavery is a highly sensitive and traumatic subject. When choosing a research paper topic, ensure that you approach it with sensitivity and respect for the individuals who suffered under this institution. Avoid trivializing the experiences of enslaved people or using offensive language in your research.
• Consider Comparative Studies : Comparing the experiences of enslaved people in different regions or exploring how slavery intersected with other historical events can yield fascinating insights. Comparative studies can highlight similarities and differences, providing a broader context for understanding the complexities of slavery.
• Follow Your Passion : Ultimately, choose a slavery research paper topic that genuinely interests you. A passionate approach to your research will drive your motivation, commitment, and enthusiasm throughout the writing process. Embrace a topic that ignites your curiosity and allows you to make a meaningful contribution to the field of historical research.

In conclusion, selecting a research paper topic on slavery requires careful consideration of various factors, including scope, perspective, and sensitivity. By conducting thorough research and defining a focused theme or question, you can explore the depths of this complex historical period and contribute to a deeper understanding of the enduring legacies of slavery. Remember to seek guidance from your instructor, utilize primary sources, and stay passionate in your pursuit of knowledge. With these tips, you can embark on a compelling research journey that sheds light on the history, impact, and ongoing relevance of slavery in our world.

How to Write a Slavery Research Paper

Writing a slavery research paper requires careful planning, extensive research, and a thoughtful approach to address the complex historical, social, and cultural dimensions of this topic. Here are ten essential tips to guide you through the process of writing an engaging and well-structured slavery research paper:

• Develop a Strong Thesis Statement : A compelling thesis statement is the foundation of your research paper. It should present a clear argument or claim that you will explore and support throughout your paper. Your thesis statement should be specific, concise, and indicative of the main focus of your research.
• Conduct In-Depth Research : Thoroughly research your chosen topic using both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources include historical documents, letters, diaries, interviews, and other firsthand accounts from the time of slavery. Secondary sources encompass scholarly books, articles, and analyses that provide context and interpretations of historical events.
• Organize Your Research : Organize your research material systematically to facilitate a coherent and logical structure for your paper. Create an outline that outlines the main sections and arguments you plan to cover. This will help you maintain a clear flow of ideas throughout your research paper.
• Provide Historical Context : Begin your research paper by providing essential historical context. Explain the background of slavery, its origins, evolution, and global impact. Offer insights into the economic, social, and political forces that influenced the growth and sustenance of slavery in different regions.
• Explore Various Perspectives : Dive into the multifaceted perspectives related to slavery. Consider the experiences of enslaved individuals, slaveholders, abolitionists, and the broader society. By exploring diverse viewpoints, you can present a well-rounded analysis of the complex issues surrounding slavery.
• Analyze Primary Sources Critically : When using primary sources, analyze them critically to identify biases, gaps, and limitations. Interrogate the perspectives of the authors and the context in which the sources were created. Critical analysis of primary sources strengthens the authenticity and credibility of your research paper.
• Utilize Comparative Analysis : Consider adopting a comparative approach to enrich your research. Compare and contrast different forms of slavery in various regions or analyze the impact of slavery on different social groups. Comparative analysis enhances the depth of your research and offers valuable insights.
• Address the Legacy of Slavery : Acknowledge the ongoing implications of slavery in the modern world. Examine how slavery has shaped contemporary social, economic, and political structures. Addressing the legacy of slavery demonstrates the relevance of this historical topic in today’s society.
• Cite Sources Properly : Ensure that you cite all your sources properly and adhere to the required citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). Accurate citation gives credit to the original authors, validates your research, and helps avoid plagiarism.
• Revise and Edit Thoroughly : The final step is to revise and edit your research paper thoroughly. Review the content for coherence, clarity, and logical flow of ideas. Check for grammar, punctuation, and spelling errors. Consider seeking feedback from peers or instructors to gain different perspectives on your work.

In conclusion, writing a slavery research paper demands meticulous research, critical analysis, and careful consideration of the historical context and its impact on contemporary society. By developing a strong thesis statement, organizing your research, and exploring various perspectives, you can create an engaging and comprehensive research paper on this crucial aspect of human history. Remember to acknowledge the ongoing legacy of slavery and cite your sources accurately. With dedication and attention to detail, you can produce a research paper that sheds light on the complexities of slavery and its enduring significance.

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• How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on January 11, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on August 15, 2023 by Eoghan Ryan.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . It usually comes near the end of your introduction .

Your thesis will look a bit different depending on the type of essay you’re writing. But the thesis statement should always clearly state the main idea you want to get across. Everything else in your essay should relate back to this idea.

You can write your thesis statement by following four simple steps:

• Start with a question
• Write your initial answer
• Develop your answer
• Refine your thesis statement

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Table of contents

What is a thesis statement, placement of the thesis statement, step 1: start with a question, step 2: write your initial answer, step 3: develop your answer, step 4: refine your thesis statement, types of thesis statements, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about thesis statements.

A thesis statement summarizes the central points of your essay. It is a signpost telling the reader what the essay will argue and why.

The best thesis statements are:

• Concise: A good thesis statement is short and sweet—don’t use more words than necessary. State your point clearly and directly in one or two sentences.
• Contentious: Your thesis shouldn’t be a simple statement of fact that everyone already knows. A good thesis statement is a claim that requires further evidence or analysis to back it up.
• Coherent: Everything mentioned in your thesis statement must be supported and explained in the rest of your paper.

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The thesis statement generally appears at the end of your essay introduction or research paper introduction .

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts and among young people more generally is hotly debated. For many who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education: the internet facilitates easier access to information, exposure to different perspectives, and a flexible learning environment for both students and teachers.

You should come up with an initial thesis, sometimes called a working thesis , early in the writing process . As soon as you’ve decided on your essay topic , you need to work out what you want to say about it—a clear thesis will give your essay direction and structure.

You might already have a question in your assignment, but if not, try to come up with your own. What would you like to find out or decide about your topic?

For example, you might ask:

After some initial research, you can formulate a tentative answer to this question. At this stage it can be simple, and it should guide the research process and writing process .

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Now you need to consider why this is your answer and how you will convince your reader to agree with you. As you read more about your topic and begin writing, your answer should get more detailed.

In your essay about the internet and education, the thesis states your position and sketches out the key arguments you’ll use to support it.

The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education because it facilitates easier access to information.

In your essay about braille, the thesis statement summarizes the key historical development that you’ll explain.

The invention of braille in the 19th century transformed the lives of blind people, allowing them to participate more actively in public life.

A strong thesis statement should tell the reader:

• Why you hold this position
• What they’ll learn from your essay
• The key points of your argument or narrative

The final thesis statement doesn’t just state your position, but summarizes your overall argument or the entire topic you’re going to explain. To strengthen a weak thesis statement, it can help to consider the broader context of your topic.

These examples are more specific and show that you’ll explore your topic in depth.

Your thesis statement should match the goals of your essay, which vary depending on the type of essay you’re writing:

• In an argumentative essay , your thesis statement should take a strong position. Your aim in the essay is to convince your reader of this thesis based on evidence and logical reasoning.
• In an expository essay , you’ll aim to explain the facts of a topic or process. Your thesis statement doesn’t have to include a strong opinion in this case, but it should clearly state the central point you want to make, and mention the key elements you’ll explain.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
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• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
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A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

Follow these four steps to come up with a thesis statement :

• Ask a question about your topic .
• Write your initial answer.
• Develop your answer by including reasons.
• Refine your answer, adding more detail and nuance.

The thesis statement should be placed at the end of your essay introduction .

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McCombes, S. (2023, August 15). How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved April 16, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-essay/thesis-statement/

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Slavery and the Civil War Essay

Theme essays. diversity, extra credit option. reconstruction, works cited.

During the period of 1820-1860, the life of white and black people in the South depended on developing the Institute of slavery which shaped not only social but also economic life of the region. The Institute of slavery was primarily for the Southern states, and this feature helped to distinguish the South from the other regions of the USA.

Slavery played the key role in shaping the economic and social life of the South because it influenced the trade and economic relations in the region as well as the social and class structure representing slave owners, white farmers without slaves, and slaves as the main labor force in the region.

The development of the South during the period of 1820-1860 was based on growing cotton intensively. To guarantee the enormous exports of cotton, it was necessary to rely on slaves as the main cheap or almost free workforce. The farmers of the South grew different crops, but the economic success was associated with the farms of those planters who lived in the regions with fertile soil and focused on growing cotton basing on slavery.

Thus, the prosperity of this or that white farmer and planter depended on using slaves in his farm or plantation. Slaves working for planters took the lowest social positions as well as free slaves living in cities whose economic situation was also problematic. The white population of the South was divided into slave owners and yeoman farmers who had no slaves.

Thus, having no opportunities to use the advantages of slavery, yeoman farmers relied on their families’ powers, and they were poorer in comparison with planters (Picture 1). However, not all the planters were equally successful in their economic situation. Many planters owned only a few slaves, and they also had to work at their plantations or perform definite duties.

Slaves were also different in their status because of the functions performed. From this point, the social stratification was necessary not only for dividing the Southern population into black slaves and white owners but also to demonstrate the differences within these two main classes (Davidson et al.).

As a result, different social classes had various cultures. It is important to note that slaves were more common features in spite of their status in families, and they were united regarding the culture which was reflected in their religion, vision, and songs. The difference in the social status of the white population was more obvious, and the single common feature was the prejudice and discrimination against slaves.

Picture 1. Yeoman Farmer’s House

The Civil War became the real challenge for the USA because it changed all the structures and institutions of the country reforming the aspects of the political, economic, and social life. Furthermore, the Civil War brought significant losses and sufferings for both the representatives of the Northern and Southern armies.

It is important to note that the situation of the Union in the war was more advantageous in comparison with the position of the Confederacy during the prolonged period of the war actions.

As a result, the South suffered from more significant economic and social changes as well as from extreme losses in the war in comparison with the North’s costs. Thus, the main impact of the Civil War was the abolition of slavery which changed the economic and social structures of the South and contributed to shifting the focus on the role of federal government.

The Civil War resulted in abolishing slavery and preserving the political unity of the country. Nevertheless, these positive outcomes were achieved at the expense of significant losses in the number of population and in promoting more sufferings for ordinary people. A lot of the Confederacy’s soldiers died at the battlefields, suffering from extreme wounds and the lack of food because of the problems with weapon and food provision.

During the war, the Union focused on abolishing slaves who were proclaimed free. Thus, former slaves from the Southern states were inclined to find jobs in the North or join the Union army.

As a result, the army of the Confederacy also began to suffer from the lack of forces (Davidson et al.). Moreover, the situation was problematic off the battlefield because all the issues of food provision and work at plantations and farms challenged women living in the Southern states.

The forces of the Union army were more balanced, and their losses were less significant than in the Southern states. Furthermore, the end of the war did not change the structure of the social life in the North significantly. The impact of the war was more important for the Southerners who had to build their economic and social life without references to slavery.

The next important change was the alternations in the social role of women. Many women had to work at farms in the South and to perform as nurses in the North (Picture 2). The vision of the women’s role in the society was changed in a way.

However, in spite of the fact that the population of the South had to rebuild the social structure and adapt to the new social and economic realities, the whole economic situation was changed for better with references to intensifying the international trade. Furthermore, the abolishment of slavery was oriented to the social and democratic progress in the country.

Picture 2. “Our Women and the War”. Harper’s Weekly, 1862

Diversity is one of the main characteristic features of the American nation from the early periods of its formation. The American nation cannot be discussed as a stable one because the formation of the nation depends on the active migration processes intensifying the general diversity. As a result, the American nation is characterized by the richness of cultures, values, and lifestyles.

This richness is also typical for the early period of the American history when the country’s population was diverse in relation to ethnicity, cultures, religion, and social status. From this point, diversity directly shaped the American nation because the country’s population never was identical.

The Americans respected diversity if the question was associated with the problem of first migrations and the Americans’ difference from the English population. To win independence, it was necessary to admit the difference from the English people, but diversity was also the trigger for conflicts between the Americans, Englishmen, and Frenchmen as well as Indian tribes.

The ethic diversity was not respected by the first Americans. The further importations of slaves to America worsened the situation, and ethnic diversity increased, involving cultural and social diversity.

Diversity was respected only with references to the negative consequences of slave importation. Thus, the Southerners focused on using black slaves for development of their plantations (Davidson et al.). From this point, white planers concentrated on the difference of blacks and used it for discrimination.

Furthermore, slavery also provoked the cultural and lifestyle diversity between the South and the North of the country which resulted in the Civil War because of impossibility to share different values typical for the Southerners and Northerners. Moreover, the diversity in lifestyles of the Southerners was deeper because it depended on the fact of having or not slaves.

Great religious diversity was also typical for the nation. White population followed different branches of Christianity relating to their roots, and black people developed their own religious movements contributing to diversifying the religious life of the Americans (Davidson et al.).

Thus, the aspects of diversity are reflected in each sphere of the first Americans’ life with references to differences in ethnicities, followed religions, cultures, values, lifestyles, and social patterns. This diversity also provoked a lot of conflicts in the history of the nation.

The role of women in the American society changed depending on the most important political and social changes. The periods of reforms and transformations also promoted the changes in the social positions of women. The most notable changes are typical for the period of the Jacksonian era and for the Civil War period.

The changes in the role of women are closely connected with the development of women’s movements during the 1850s and with the focus on women’s powers off the battlefield during the Civil War period.

During the Jacksonian era, women began to play significant roles in the religious and social life of the country. Having rather limited rights, women could realize their potentials only in relation to families and church work. That is why, many women paid much attention to their church duties and responsibilities.

Later, the church work was expanded, and women began to organize special religious groups in order to contribute to reforming definite aspects of the Church’s progress. Women also were the main members of the prayer meetings, and much attention was drawn to the charity activities and assistance to hospitals (Davidson et al.).

Women also played the significant role in the development of revivalism as the characteristic feature of the period. Moreover, the active church work and the focus on forming organizations was the first step to the progress of the women’s rights movements.

It is important to note that the participation of women in the social life was rather limited during a long period of time that is why membership and belonging to different church organizations as well as development of women’s rights movements contributed to increasing the role of women within the society. Proclaiming the necessity of abolishment, socially active women also concentrated on the idea of suffrage which was achieved later.

The period of the 1850s is closely connected with the growth of the women’s rights movements because it was the period of stating to the democratic rights and freedoms within the society (Davidson et al.). The next important event is the Civil War. The war influenced the position of the Southern white and black women significantly, revealing their powers and ability to overcome a lot of challenges.

The end of the Civil War provided women with the opportunity to achieve all the proclaimed ideals of the women’s rights movements along with changing the position of male and female slaves in the American society.

The development of the American nation is based on pursuing certain ideals and following definite values. The main values which are greatly important for the Americans are associated with the notions which had the significant meaning during the periods of migration and creating the independent state. The two main values are opportunity and equality.

These values are also fixed in the Constitution of the country in order to emphasize their extreme meaning for the whole nation.

Opportunity and equality are the values which are shaped with references to the economic and social ideals because all the Americans are equal, and each American should have the opportunity to achieve the individual goal. Nevertheless, in spite of the proclaimed ideals, the above-mentioned values were discussed during a long period of time only with references to the white population of the country.

The other values typical for the Americans are also based not on the religious, moral or cultural ideals but on the social aspects. During the Jacksonian era, the Americans focused on such values as the democratic society. Following the ideals of rights and freedoms, the American population intended to realize them completely within the developed democratic society (Davidson et al.).

Moreover, these ideals were correlated with such values as equality and opportunity. It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that for many Americans the notions of democratic society, opportunity, and equality were directly connected with the economic growth. That is why, during long periods of time Americans concentrated on achieving freedoms along with pursuing the economic prosperity.

Thus, it is possible to determine such key values which regulate the social attitudes and inclinations of the Americans as equality and opportunity, freedoms and rights. In spite of the fact the USA was the country with the determined role of religion in the society, moral and religious aspects were not proclaimed as the basic values of the nation because of the prolonged focus of the Americans on their independence and prosperity.

From this point, opportunity, equality, freedoms, and rights are discussed as more significant values for the developed nation than the religious principles. The creation of the state independent from the influence of the British Empire resulted in determining the associated values and ideals which were pursued by the Americans during prolonged periods of the nation’s development.

The period of Reconstruction was oriented to adapting African Americans to the realities of the free social life and to rebuilding the economic structure of the South. The end of the Civil War guaranteed the abolishment of slavery, but the question of black people’s equality to the whites was rather controversial.

That is why, the period of Reconstruction was rather complex and had two opposite outcomes for the African Americans’ further life in the society and for the general economic progress of the states. Reconstruction was successful in providing such opportunities for African Americans as education and a choice to live in any region or to select the employer.

However, Reconstruction can also be discussed as a failure because the issues of racism were not overcome during the period, and the era of slavery was changed with the era of strict social segregation leading to significant discrimination of black people.

The positive changes in the life of African Americans after the Civil War were connected with receiving more opportunities for the social progress. Thus, many public schools were opened for the black population in order to increase the level of literacy (Picture 3). Furthermore, the impossibility to support the Southerners’ plantations without the free work of slaves led to changing the economic focus.

Thus, industrialization of the region could contribute to creating more workplaces for African Americans (Davidson et al.). Moreover, the racial and social equality should also be supported with references to providing more political rights for African Americans.

Reconstruction was the period of observing many black politicians at the American political arena. The question of blacks’ suffrage became one of the most discussed issues. From this point, during the period of Reconstruction African Americans did first steps on the path of equality.

Nevertheless, Reconstruction was also a great failure. The South remained unchanged in relation to the social relations between the whites and blacks. After the Civil War, segregation was intensified. The economic and social pressure as well as discrimination against the blacks was based on the developed concept of racism (Davidson et al.).

The Southerners preserved the prejudiced attitude toward the blacks, and prejudice and discrimination became the main challenge for African Americans in all the spheres of the life.

In spite of definite successes of Reconstruction, African Americans suffered from the results of segregation and discrimination, and they were prevented from changing their economic and social status.

Picture 3. Public Schools

Davidson, James, Brian DeLay, Christine Leigh Heyrman, Mark Lytle, and Michael Stoff. US: A Narrative History . USA: McGraw-Hill, 2008. Print.

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Thesis Statements

What this handout is about.

This handout describes what a thesis statement is, how thesis statements work in your writing, and how you can craft or refine one for your draft.

Introduction

Writing in college often takes the form of persuasion—convincing others that you have an interesting, logical point of view on the subject you are studying. Persuasion is a skill you practice regularly in your daily life. You persuade your roommate to clean up, your parents to let you borrow the car, your friend to vote for your favorite candidate or policy. In college, course assignments often ask you to make a persuasive case in writing. You are asked to convince your reader of your point of view. This form of persuasion, often called academic argument, follows a predictable pattern in writing. After a brief introduction of your topic, you state your point of view on the topic directly and often in one sentence. This sentence is the thesis statement, and it serves as a summary of the argument you’ll make in the rest of your paper.

What is a thesis statement?

A thesis statement:

• tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion.
• is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the paper.
• directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel.
• makes a claim that others might dispute.
• is usually a single sentence near the beginning of your paper (most often, at the end of the first paragraph) that presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your interpretation.

If your assignment asks you to take a position or develop a claim about a subject, you may need to convey that position or claim in a thesis statement near the beginning of your draft. The assignment may not explicitly state that you need a thesis statement because your instructor may assume you will include one. When in doubt, ask your instructor if the assignment requires a thesis statement. When an assignment asks you to analyze, to interpret, to compare and contrast, to demonstrate cause and effect, or to take a stand on an issue, it is likely that you are being asked to develop a thesis and to support it persuasively. (Check out our handout on understanding assignments for more information.)

How do I create a thesis?

A thesis is the result of a lengthy thinking process. Formulating a thesis is not the first thing you do after reading an essay assignment. Before you develop an argument on any topic, you have to collect and organize evidence, look for possible relationships between known facts (such as surprising contrasts or similarities), and think about the significance of these relationships. Once you do this thinking, you will probably have a “working thesis” that presents a basic or main idea and an argument that you think you can support with evidence. Both the argument and your thesis are likely to need adjustment along the way.

Writers use all kinds of techniques to stimulate their thinking and to help them clarify relationships or comprehend the broader significance of a topic and arrive at a thesis statement. For more ideas on how to get started, see our handout on brainstorming .

How do I know if my thesis is strong?

If there’s time, run it by your instructor or make an appointment at the Writing Center to get some feedback. Even if you do not have time to get advice elsewhere, you can do some thesis evaluation of your own. When reviewing your first draft and its working thesis, ask yourself the following :

• Do I answer the question? Re-reading the question prompt after constructing a working thesis can help you fix an argument that misses the focus of the question. If the prompt isn’t phrased as a question, try to rephrase it. For example, “Discuss the effect of X on Y” can be rephrased as “What is the effect of X on Y?”
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? If your thesis simply states facts that no one would, or even could, disagree with, it’s possible that you are simply providing a summary, rather than making an argument.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? Thesis statements that are too vague often do not have a strong argument. If your thesis contains words like “good” or “successful,” see if you could be more specific: why is something “good”; what specifically makes something “successful”?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? If a reader’s first response is likely to  be “So what?” then you need to clarify, to forge a relationship, or to connect to a larger issue.
• Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering? If your thesis and the body of your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to change. It’s okay to change your working thesis to reflect things you have figured out in the course of writing your paper. Remember, always reassess and revise your writing as necessary.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? If a reader’s first response is “how?” or “why?” your thesis may be too open-ended and lack guidance for the reader. See what you can add to give the reader a better take on your position right from the beginning.

Suppose you are taking a course on contemporary communication, and the instructor hands out the following essay assignment: “Discuss the impact of social media on public awareness.” Looking back at your notes, you might start with this working thesis:

Social media impacts public awareness in both positive and negative ways.

You can use the questions above to help you revise this general statement into a stronger thesis.

• Do I answer the question? You can analyze this if you rephrase “discuss the impact” as “what is the impact?” This way, you can see that you’ve answered the question only very generally with the vague “positive and negative ways.”
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? Not likely. Only people who maintain that social media has a solely positive or solely negative impact could disagree.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? No. What are the positive effects? What are the negative effects?
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? No. Why are they positive? How are they positive? What are their causes? Why are they negative? How are they negative? What are their causes?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? No. Why should anyone care about the positive and/or negative impact of social media?

After thinking about your answers to these questions, you decide to focus on the one impact you feel strongly about and have strong evidence for:

Because not every voice on social media is reliable, people have become much more critical consumers of information, and thus, more informed voters.

This version is a much stronger thesis! It answers the question, takes a specific position that others can challenge, and it gives a sense of why it matters.

Let’s try another. Suppose your literature professor hands out the following assignment in a class on the American novel: Write an analysis of some aspect of Mark Twain’s novel Huckleberry Finn. “This will be easy,” you think. “I loved Huckleberry Finn!” You grab a pad of paper and write:

Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn is a great American novel.

You begin to analyze your thesis:

• Do I answer the question? No. The prompt asks you to analyze some aspect of the novel. Your working thesis is a statement of general appreciation for the entire novel.

Think about aspects of the novel that are important to its structure or meaning—for example, the role of storytelling, the contrasting scenes between the shore and the river, or the relationships between adults and children. Now you write:

In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain develops a contrast between life on the river and life on the shore.

• Do I answer the question? Yes!
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? Not really. This contrast is well-known and accepted.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? It’s getting there–you have highlighted an important aspect of the novel for investigation. However, it’s still not clear what your analysis will reveal.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? Not yet. Compare scenes from the book and see what you discover. Free write, make lists, jot down Huck’s actions and reactions and anything else that seems interesting.
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? What’s the point of this contrast? What does it signify?”

After examining the evidence and considering your own insights, you write:

Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain’s Huckleberry Finn suggests that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave “civilized” society and go back to nature.

This final thesis statement presents an interpretation of a literary work based on an analysis of its content. Of course, for the essay itself to be successful, you must now present evidence from the novel that will convince the reader of your interpretation.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Anson, Chris M., and Robert A. Schwegler. 2010. The Longman Handbook for Writers and Readers , 6th ed. New York: Longman.

Lunsford, Andrea A. 2015. The St. Martin’s Handbook , 8th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Ramage, John D., John C. Bean, and June Johnson. 2018. The Allyn & Bacon Guide to Writing , 8th ed. New York: Pearson.

Ruszkiewicz, John J., Christy Friend, Daniel Seward, and Maxine Hairston. 2010. The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers , 9th ed. Boston: Pearson Education.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Methods of Slave Resistance DBQ

Use this Lesson to h

• Examine the various ways enslaved men and women resisted the conditions of slavery by analyzing primary source excerpts dating from c. 1780 to 1850.
• Systematically analyze primary sources by answering comprehension questions for each document.
• Write a thesis statement that responds to a document-based question prompt.

Expand Materials Materials

• Handout A: Student Document Packet

Expand More Information More Information

Students should have prior knowledge of how to approach primary sources, and the sensitivity and respect required to talk about the topic of slavery. The conditions of slavery described in some of these documents are painful and upsetting. Reflective questions are suggested for discussion after students have finished working through the documents to address the sensitivity of the topic.

Expand Warmup Warmup

Lead students in a brief discussion or quick written response to the following prompt: How do you react when you are put in a situation you find unfair, unjust, and/or morally wrong? What are your options? How can you respond? Guide students to think about the ways in which someone can “fight back” and address a wrong (e.g., due process, seek out like-minded individuals and work for change, use force or violence, run away, create coping mechanisms). Transition the conversation to the topic of slavery. The key point about slavery is that it was a power relationship in which enslaved individuals did not have power, and this was enforced by law and by violence. Students might find a grade or curfew unfair, but in comparison to having no power over your person, this is trivial. Remind students that as early as 1688 and throughout the Founding era, groups publicly condemned the institution of slavery (see the  Germantown Friends’ Antislavery Petition, 1688  Primary Source in Chapter 2). Enslaved individuals also spoke or acted out in various ways to affirm their own humanity and call attention to the brutality of the institution of slavery. In this activity, students will consider those responses.

Expand Activities Activities

Distribute the document packet for the lesson. Have students work individually, with a partner, or in small groups to read each source in sequence and answer the accompanying questions.

After students have worked through the documents, invite them to come back together to synthesize the content by leading a class discussion on the following reflective questions. Students may respond orally to each question or write their responses to each question, as best fits your classroom.

1. What patterns did you see in the ways enslaved individuals resisted their fate? Point to specific pieces of evidence from the documents to support your answer.

2. What was most shocking to you in these documents?

3. Why is it important to thoroughly examine painful subjects in American history?

Expand Wrap Up Wrap Up

Have each student write a thesis statement to the DBQ prompt: Analyze the methods of resistance used by enslaved Africans in the United States c. 1780–1865.

You may solicit volunteers to share their thesis and workshop several using the following questions, or have students share with a partner and provide feedback on the following questions:

• Does the thesis answer the question without restating the prompt?
• Does the thesis make sense?
• Is the thesis historically accurate?
• Does the thesis provide clear and cohesive reasoning?
• Does the thesis provide a road map or “table of contents” for an essay?

Thesis statements can be collected and assessed using the  criteria from the College Board  for a successful thesis statement, or with an individual class rubric.

Depending on where students are in their understanding of the DBQ essay, have students outline their response or write a full essay, as best fits your teaching situation.

Related Resources

Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness

In our resource history is presented through a series of narratives, primary sources, and point-counterpoint debates that invites students to participate in the ongoing conversation about the American experiment.

University Statement

February 16, 2024

Dear Members of the Yale Community,

Several years ago, we embarked on a journey to understand better our university’s history—specifically Yale’s formative ties to slavery and the slave trade. We chose to do this because we have a responsibility to the pursuit of truth and the dissemination of knowledge, both foundational to the mission of our university. Confronting this history helps us to build a stronger community and realize our aspirations to create a better future.

Today, on behalf of Yale University, we recognize our university’s historical role in and associations with slavery, as well as the labor, the experiences, and the contributions of enslaved people to our university’s history, and we apologize for the ways that Yale’s leaders, over the course of our early history, participated in slavery. Acknowledging and apologizing for this history are only part of the path forward. These findings have propelled us toward meaningful action to address the continued effects of slavery in society today.

Since October 2020, members of the Yale and Slavery Research Project have conducted intensive research to provide a clearer and more comprehensive understanding of the university’s past. The Research Project included faculty, staff, students, and New Haven community members, and it was led by David W. Blight, Sterling Professor of History and director of the Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, and Abolition at Yale. Members of the group shared their results publicly as they did their work, and the university has steadily launched programs and initiatives in response.

The full findings from this project are now published by Yale University Press in a scholarly, peer-reviewed book authored by Professor Blight and members of the Yale and Slavery Research Project. Key findings and the full book are available to all online .

Yale and Slavery Research Findings

The Yale and Slavery Research Project has deepened greatly our understanding of our university’s history with slavery and the role of enslaved individuals who participated in the construction of a Yale building or whose labor enriched prominent leaders who made gifts to Yale. Although there are no known records of Yale University owning enslaved people, many of Yale’s Puritan founders owned enslaved people, as did a significant number of Yale’s early leaders and other prominent members of the university community, and the Research Project has identified over 200 of these enslaved people. The majority of those who were enslaved are identified as Black, but some are identified as Indigenous. Some of those enslaved participated in the construction of Connecticut Hall, the oldest building on campus. Others worked in cotton fields, rum refineries, and other punishing places in Connecticut or elsewhere, and their grueling labor benefited those who contributed funds to Yale.

We also know that prominent members of the Yale community joined with New Haven leaders and citizens to stop a proposal to build a college in New Haven for Black youth in 1831, which would have been America’s first Black college. Additional aspects of Yale’s history are illuminated in the book’s findings, including the Yale Civil War Memorial that honors those who fought for the North and the South without any mention of slavery or other context.

Our Forward-Looking Commitment

Today, we announce actions based upon the Research Project’s findings and our university’s history by focusing on systemic issues that echo in our nation’s legacy of slavery—specifically, increasing educational access and expanding educational pathways for local youth in the New Haven community. These build on the initiatives and programs we have launched throughout the past few years as members of the project shared their research.

The new work we undertake advances inclusive economic growth in New Haven. Aligned with our core educational mission, we also are ensuring that our history, in its entirety, is better reflected across campus, and we are creating widespread access to Yale’s historical findings. We highlight some of our commitments below. The full details of the university’s response are available on the Yale and Slavery Research Project website .

Increasing Educational Access and Excellence in Teaching and Research

The lost opportunity to build a college for Black youths in New Haven in 1831 prompts us to strengthen our partnerships with Historically Black Colleges and Universities ( HBCU s) across the country today and expand educational pathways for young scholars in our home city.

• New Haven School Teachers: New Haven, as well as the rest of the country, is dealing with an acute and ongoing teacher shortage; in our city, there were eighty teaching positions that went unfilled during the last academic year. There are many reasons for this shortage, including the high costs of acquiring certification and a Master’s in Teaching degree, compared to the relatively modest compensation in the profession. We are partnering with the New Haven Public School system, New Haven Promise, and Southern Connecticut State University to design and implement a new residency fellowship program to provide funding to aspiring teachers, so they can attain a Master’s in Teaching degree in exchange for a commitment of at least three years of service in the New Haven Public School system. Once launched, this fellowship program aims to place 100 teachers with master’s degrees into the city’s schools in five years. 
• Yale and Slavery Teachers Institute Program: Yale is launching a four-year teacher’s institute in summer 2025 to foster innovation in the ways regional history is taught. This program will help K-12 teachers in New England meet new state mandates for incorporating Black and Indigenous history into their curricula. Each year, a cohort of teachers will engage with partners within and outside of the university community to study content and methods related to a particular theme, using the book Yale and Slavery: A History as a springboard. The first year of the program will focus on Indigenous history, followed by slavery in the north, and Reconstruction and the Black freedom struggle. Led by the Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, and Abolition at the Yale MacMillan Center, the program will provide a platform for teachers in New England to co-develop curricular materials, in collaboration with scholars, public historians, Native communities, and other groups. The pedagogical materials and methods created through the program will be disseminated broadly for the benefit of students, educators, and the general public throughout the region.
• HBCU Research Partnerships: We continue to expand our research partnerships with HBCU s across the country with pathways programs for students, opportunities for faculty collaboration, and faculty exchange programs. The university will announce a significant new investment in the coming weeks.
• New Haven Promise Program: In January 2022, Yale expanded its contribution to New Haven Promise , by 25 percent annually, from $4 million to $5 million, and extended its commitment through June 2026. New Haven Promise has supported more than 2,800 New Haven Public School students through scholarships and career development programs.
• Pennington Fellowships: In December 2022, Yale launched a new scholarship to support New Haven high school graduates to attend one of our partner HBCU institutions (Hampton University, Howard University, Morehouse College, Morgan State University, North Carolina A&T State University, and Spelman College). The program is designed to help address historical disparities in educational opportunities for students from New Haven and will grow to include forty to fifty Pennington scholars at any given time, supporting students in their academic, financial, and career entry success.
• Law School Access Program: Yale Law School’s pipeline program serves first-generation, low-income, and under-represented students from New Haven. The program invests in a class of up to twenty fellows who are passionate about uplifting their local communities in New Haven and Connecticut. Yale began centrally co-funding the program with the Law School in 2024 to ensure its long-term stability.
• K-12 Educational Outreach in New Haven: Yale supports many programs for youth in New Haven and surrounding communities, and thousands of public school children take part in Yale-funded academic and social development programs . These include Yale’s Pathways to Science and Yale’s Pathways to Arts and Humanities programs.

Advancing Inclusive Economic Growth in New Haven

We remain committed to partnering with our home city of New Haven to create vibrant shared communities with increased economic opportunities. This builds on our ongoing work with the New Haven community, which includes increasing what was already the largest voluntary payment by a university to its host city in the country to approximately $135 million over six years and the creation of a new Center for Inclusive Growth to develop and implement strategies to grow the city economically.

• Dixwell Plaza: Yale recently signed a ten-year letter of intent for space at Dixwell Plaza to support the development of a state-of-the-art mixed-use retail, residential, and cultural hub in Dixwell’s historically Black community center that is rooted in restorative economic development. Yale is working on this initiative with the Connecticut Community Outreach and Revitalization Program (ConnCORP), a local organization whose mission is to provide opportunities to New Haven’s underserved residents.
• Community Investment Program: Yale’s community investment program works with independently owned retail businesses. Most recently, University Properties has supported a growing number of locally owned brick-and-mortar businesses, including restaurants and retail clothing stores. This program brings jobs to New Haven residents and expands the city’s tax base.

Acknowledging Our Past

The research findings make clear that Yale’s foundations are inextricably bound with the economic and political systems of slavery. That history is not fully evident on our campus, and we are working to ensure that our physical campus provides members of our community with a more complete view of the university’s history.

• Transforming Connecticut Hall: Connecticut Hall, constructed in the mid-eighteenth century using in part the labor of enslaved people, is being reconstituted as a place of healing and communion as the new home of the Yale Chaplaincy. The Yale Committee for Art Representing Enslavement will make recommendations for how the building’s history with slavery can be acknowledged and made evident through art. The renovated building is currently slated to be reopened in summer 2025.
• Civil War Memorial: Yale’s Civil War Memorial, located in Memorial Hall and dedicated in 1915, is a “Lost Cause” monument. However, the purpose and meaning of the memorial are largely unknown to most who walk past it. Recently, an educational display was installed near the memorial to inform visitors about its history and provide additional resources.
• Committee for Art Recognizing Enslavement: In June 2023, we launched the Yale Committee for Art Recognizing Enslavement , which includes representatives from both the Yale and New Haven communities. The committee is working with (and soliciting input from) members of the campus and New Haven communities to commission works of art and related programming to address Yale’s historical roles in and associations with slavery and the slave trade, as well as the legacy of that history.
• M.A. Privatim degrees: In April 2023, the Yale board of trustees voted to confer M.A. Privatim degrees on the Reverend James W. C. Pennington (c. 1807-1870) and the Reverend Alexander Crummell (1819-1898). Both men studied theology at Yale, but because they were Black, the university did not allow them to register formally for classes or matriculate for a degree. On September 14, 2023, the university held a ceremony to honor the two men and commemorate the conferral of the degrees.

Creating Widespread Access to Historical Findings

Yale and Slavery: A History provides a more complete narrative of Yale’s history and that of New Haven, Connecticut, and our nation. Aligned with our core educational mission, we will provide opportunities for communities within and beyond Yale’s campus to learn from the findings.

• New Haven Museum Exhibition: Today, we open a new exhibition at the New Haven Museum, created in collaboration with the Yale University Library, Yale and Slavery Research Project, and the Museum. On view through the summer, the exhibition complements the publication of Yale and Slavery: A History and draws from the research project’s key findings in areas such as the economy and trade, Black churches and schools, the 1831 Black college proposal, and memory and memorialization in the 20th century and today. The exhibition has a special focus on stories of Black New Haven, including early Black students and alumni of Yale, from the 1830s to 1940. There is no admission fee for viewing the exhibition.
• Book Distribution: We are providing copies of the book, Yale and Slavery: A History to each public library and high school in New Haven, as well as the local churches and other community organizations. We also have subsidized a free digital version that is available to everyone.
• DeVane Lecture in Fall 2024: Professor Blight will teach the next DeVane Lecture in the fall 2024 semester. Students can take the course for credit, and the lectures are free to attend for New Haven and other local community members. His course will cover the findings of the Yale and Slavery Research Project and other related scholarly work. The lectures will be filmed and made available free online in 2025.
• App-Guided Tour: A new app includes a map of key sites on campus and in New Haven with narration, offering users the opportunity to take a self-guided tour. The nineteen points of interest on the tour start with the John Pierpont House and end at Eli Whitney’s tomb in the Grove Street Cemetery.
• Campus Tours: With a more accurate understanding of Yale’s history, we are updating campus tours so that they include the key findings from the Yale and Slavery Research Project, particularly concerning the Civil War Memorial and Connecticut Hall.

Working Together to Strengthen Our Community

Our commitments are ongoing, and there remains more to be accomplished in the years ahead. We have established the Committee on Addressing the Legacy of Slavery to seek broad input from faculty, students, staff, alumni, New Haven community members, and external experts and leaders on actions the university can take to address its history and legacy of slavery and create a stronger and more inclusive university community that pursues research, teaching, scholarship, practice, and preservation of the highest caliber. Secretary and Vice President for University Life Kimberly Goff-Crews will chair this committee.

We invite members of the Yale and New Haven communities to read the book and share with us their comments . The Committee on Addressing the Legacy of Slavery will review all input and consider future opportunities—with New Haven, other universities, and other communities—to improve access to education and enhance inclusive economic growth. The committee will report to the president. In the coming weeks, the committee will host listening sessions for faculty, students, staff, and alumni. The Committee for Art Recognizing Enslavement will also host forums for members of the community. These sessions will be posted on the Belonging at Yale calendar and the Yale and Slavery Research Project’s community input webpage . 

The Yale and Slavery Research Project has helped us gain a more complete understanding of our university’s history. The steps and initiatives Yale has established in response to the historical findings build on our continued commitments to the New Haven community and our ongoing Belonging at Yale work to enhance diversity, support equity, and promote an environment of welcome, inclusion, and respect.

Today, we mark one milestone in our journey to creating a stronger and more inclusive Yale and to confronting deeply rooted challenges in society to do our part in building “the beloved community” envisioned by the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Our work continues, and we welcome your thoughts and hope you will engage with our history.

Peter Salovey, ’86 PhD President Chris Argyris Professor of Psychology Professor of Epidemiology and Public Health, Management, and Sociology

Josh Bekenstein, ’80 BA Senior Trustee, Yale Corporation  

Thesis Statement (History)

I'm struggling to come up with a thesis statement surrounding slavery, that also connects to the unit question 'What is worth fighting for?'. Any suggestions would be greatly appreciated!

Christopher F.

4 Answers By Expert Tutors

Lisa F. answered • 01/01/23

Dedicated writing tutor for English and multiple subjects (PhD)

Hi, Holly, coming up with thesis statements are usually a major step in getting your paper started. Try thinking about the thesis you need to write as the way you would respond to your instructor's prompt or question. In any material you read about slavery, what did you see that was worth fighting for? You could also think about the different groups involved in slavery, both those for it and those opposed to it. What did these different groups feel was worth fighting for? Which group's actions do you feel strongly about? If you create a thesis you feel strongly about, it will help your motivation on the assignment. If you 'd like help on the assignment, I'd be happy to help you. Just message me.

Stephanie B. answered • 01/01/23

English Major Who Loves Literature

Thesis statements can be overwhelming, but try and think of it more as an answer to a question. What might someone ask when it comes to slavery and what is worth fighting for? What might the slaves have been fighting for?

Think of major people or events and what they were fighting for. For example, when Harriet Tubman led slaves to freedom at the risk of her own life. What was she fighting for?

Once you decide that, you can create a thesis statement with supporting points that you will detail further in your paper.

I am happy to work further with you on this—feel free to message me.

Jacob D. answered • 12/31/22

Your personal reading/writing tutor

This question is vague, it would help to understand the context of your research. I would start with something like "The cost of the Civil War and why America needed to pay it."

Cost can be evaluated in many different facets. Do you mean monetary cost? Bloodshed? Dividing the union?

Barbara T. answered • 12/31/22

Experienced Writing Professor / College Prep Coach

You don't say what kind of slavery, who is being enslaved, what gender, class, race, what country you're studying or what time period. But I would assume that stopping slavery in any century or country is definitely worth fighting for.

A thesis can also be called an argument. You're putting together a set of ideas and trying to convince someone (a reader) to see your ideas and understand them. Try to think about what matters to you - what to you is worth fighting for. If having freedoms, not hurting people, not treating them terribly, not physically abusing them, or selling them off to the highest bidder is worth fighting for, then you know what you would want to say about enslaving people or slavery, in general.

Think about what you've learned concerning slavery and what matters to you. Then you need to come up with the WHY of this - why is it important to fight against slavery? Or why was it important in the past to fight against slavery. Or what is the purpose of fighting for the rights of people? Or fighting for people's freedoms? Or their ability to live their lives as they see fit instead of being told how to live their lives under a master? The WHY is your thesis or argument that you will use to discuss further ideas in the body of your paper.

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The Economist Breaking Ranks to Warn of AI’s Transformative Power

T echnologists tend to predict that the economic impacts of their creations will be unprecedented—and this is especially true when it comes to artificial intelligence. Last year, Elon Musk predicted that continued advances in AI would render human labor obsolete. OpenAI CEO Sam Altman has written that AI will inevitably continue the shift in economic power from labor to capital and create “phenomenal wealth.” Jensen Huang, CEO of semiconductor design firm Nvidia, has compared AI’s development and deployment to a “new industrial revolution.”

But while the technologists are bullish on the economic impacts of AI, members of that other technocratic priesthood with profound influence over public life—the economists—are not. Even if technologists create the powerful AI systems that they claim they soon will, the economic impacts of those systems are likely to be underwhelming, say many economists. According to Tyler Cowen, an economics professor at George Mason University, AI will “boost the annual US growth rate by one-quarter to one-half of a percentage point.” Economics Nobel Prize winner Paul Krugman has argued that “history suggests that large economic effects from A.I. will take longer to materialize than many people currently seem to expect.” David Autor, professor of economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has written that the “industrialized world is awash in jobs, and it’s going to stay that way.” 

As an economics professor at the University of Virginia with affiliations to some of the profession’s most reputable institutions, Anton Korinek is a certified member of the priesthood. The 46-year-old, however, has broken rank. He uses the methods of his discipline to model what would happen if AI developed as many technologists say it might—which is to say that AI systems are likely to outperform humans at any task by the end of the decade. In the sterile lexicon of academic economics, he paints an alarming picture of a near future in which humans cease to play a role in the economy, and inequality soars.

If “the complexity of tasks that humans can perform is bounded and full automation is reached, then wages collapse,” write Korinek and one of his Ph.D. students, Donghyun Suh, in a recent paper . In other words, if there's a limit to how complex the tasks humans can do are, and machines become advanced enough to fully automate all those tasks, then wages could drastically fall as human labor is no longer needed, leaving anyone who doesn’t share in the resources that accrue to AI systems and their owners to starve.

Economists have spent the last 200 years explaining to the uninitiated that the lump of labor fallacy—the idea that there is a fixed number of jobs and automation of any of those jobs will create permanent unemployment—is wrong, says Korinek. “In some ways, that’s our professional baggage,” he says. “We've spent so much time fighting a false narrative, that it's difficult to pivot when the facts really do change, and see that this situation may indeed be different.”

“The scariest part about it is that the technological predictions that I use as inputs are what people like Sam Altman or [Anthropic CEO] Dario Amodei are freely preaching in public everywhere,” says Korinek. “I'm not a technology expert, and I don't have any special insight or knowledge to these issues. I'm just taking what they're saying seriously and asking: what would it actually mean for the economy, and for jobs, and for wages? It would be completely disruptive.”

Korinek’s father, a primary care physician, instilled in him a passion for understanding the brain. As a teen in Austria, Korinek became fascinated with neuroscience and learnt to program. At college, he took a course on neural networks—the brain-inspired AI systems that have since become the most popular and powerful in the industry. “It was intriguing, but at the same time, boring, because the technology just wasn't very powerful using the tools that we had back then,” he recalls.

As Korinek was finishing college in the late 1990s, the Asian financial crisis hit. The 1997 crash, precipitated by a foreign exchange crisis in Thailand, followed many other episodes of acute financial distress in emerging markets. Korinek decided to do a Ph.D. on financial crises and how to prevent them. Fortunately for him—although less fortunately for everyone else—the global financial crisis struck in 2008, a year after he finished his thesis. His expertise was in demand, and his career took off.

As an academic economist, he watched from the sidelines as AI researchers made breakthrough after breakthrough; scanning newspapers, listening to radio programs, and reading books on AI. In the early 2010s, as AI systems began to outdo humans at tasks such as image recognition, he began to believe that artificial general intelligence (AGI)—the term used to describe a yet to be built AI system that could do any task a human could—might be developed alarmingly soon. But it took the birth of his first child in 2015 to get him off the sidelines. “There is really something happening, and it's happening faster than I thought in the 1990s,” he recalls thinking. “This is really going to be relevant for my daughter's life path.”

Read More: 4 Charts That Show Why AI Progress Is Unlikely to Slow Down

Using the methods of economics, Korinek has sought to understand how future AI systems might affect economic growth, wages, and employment, how the inequality created by AI could imperil democracy, and how policymakers should respond to economic issues posed by AI. For years, working on the economics of AGI was a fringe pursuit. Economics Ph.D. students would tell Korinek that they would like to work on the questions he was beginning to study, but they felt they needed to stick to more mainstream topics if they wanted to get a job. Despite having been awarded tenure in 2018 and thus being insulated from the pressures of the academic job market, Korinek felt discouraged at times. “Researchers are still also social creatures,” he says. “If you only face skepticism towards your work, it makes it much, much harder to push forward a research agenda, because you start questioning yourself.”

Up until OpenAI released the wildly popular chatbot, ChatGPT, in November 2022, Korinek says research on the economics of AGI was a fringe pursuit. Now, it’s “on an exponential growth path,” says Korinek.

Many economists still, quite reasonably, dismiss the possibility of AGI being developed in the coming decades. Skeptics point to the many ways in which current systems fall short of human abilities, the potential roadblocks to continued AI progress such as a shortfall in data to train larger models, and the history of technologists making overconfident predictions. A paper published in February by economists in Portugal and Germany sets aside AGI as “science fiction,” and thus argues that AI is unlikely to cause explosive economic growth.

Read More: When Might AI Outsmart Us? It Depends Who You Ask

“Two years ago, that was absolutely commonplace—that was the median reaction,” says Korinek. But more people are starting to entertain the possibility of AGI being developed, and those who continue to dismiss the possibility are providing solid arguments for their position rather than dismissing it out of hand. “People are, in other words, engaging very seriously in the debate,” he says approvingly.

Other economists are open to the possibility of AGI being developed in the foreseeable future, but argue that this still wouldn’t precipitate a collapse in employment. Often, they put the disagreement with those who do think the development of AGI might cause these things down to the other side’s economic illiteracy.

For example, in March, economist Noah Smith argued in a blog post that was picked up by the New York Times that well-paid jobs will be plentiful, even after AI can outperform humans at any task. This is, Smith forbearingly explains, because AI systems and humans can each specialize in the tasks where their relative advantage is greatest—an economic idea known as comparative advantage—and then trade with each other. When “most people hear the term “comparative advantage” for the first time, they immediately think of the wrong thing,” writes Smith.

But Korinek is hardly economically illiterate. “I claim to say I do understand comparative advantage,” he says with a grin. Korinkek’s models, which account for comparative advantage, still don’t paint an optimistic picture for humans in a world where AI systems can do any task a human can. “The theory of comparative advantage tells us that there is scope for gains from trade,” says Korinek. “But the big problem is, it does not tell us that the terms of that trade will be sufficient for humans to make a decent living, or even for humans to cover their subsistence cost.”

Later in his blog post, Smith does go on to say that government intervention, in the form of a tax on AI or by setting limits on the amount of energy AI systems can use, could be required to ensure that humans can earn enough to survive if AI can outperform them at any task. But while Smith is confident that governments will take these steps if they prove necessary, Korinek is less sure. 

“The economists are slowly starting to take the potential job disruption from AI more seriously,” he says. “Policymakers are not quite there yet—that’s my concern. I'm nervous about this, because we may not have all that much time.”

Korinek does not share the certitude with which many technologists predict the imminent development of AGI. But given the potential implications of such a technology, society must prepare, he says.

“It may take many more decades until we come even close to replicating the things that the human brain does,” he says. “But I think there's also a sufficiently high chance that it really won't take that long and this is going to happen really quickly, and that it will turn our society upside down.”

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Write to Will Henshall at [email protected]