research topic about family issues

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40 Family Issues Research Paper Topics

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40 Marriage and Family Research Topics for any Taste

• Parental neglect. Is it enough for a kid to have food, clothes, and shelter to grow up healthy?
• Divorce and its consequences for all the family members. Minimizing the negative impact of divorce
• Toxic and narcissistic parents. Overcoming the trauma of a dysfunctional family
• To live up to the family expectation: what to do if they are too high for a human being?
• Family violence: where is the point of no return?
• Sexual abuse in the family. The strategy of escaping and organizations that can help
• Toxic and abusive relationship. The psychologies issues of breaking up with toxic partner
• Substance abuse in the family. It is always possible to save yourself, but is it possible to save the rest?
• War Veterans and their families. Do Vets the only ones there who need help?
• Accepting the LGBTQ+ member of the family
• Getting out of the closet: what is like to be an LGBTQ+person in a conservative family?
• Loss of a family member: stages of grief of children and adults. How to cope together?
• Religious conflicts in families: what to do and how to solve?
• Teenage delinquency: when it turns to be more than natural seeking independence?
• Fostering a child: what problems can the parents face?
• Generation gap. The difference in morals and culture. Is it normal?
• Living with senile family members: how to cope and avoid emotional burnout?
• Mentally challenged family members: how to integrate them into society?
• The importance of family support for people with disabilities
• Pregnancy and the first year of having a baby: do tiredness and depression make people bad parents?
• The types of relationship in the family: are they healthy and just unusual or something is harmful to family members?
• Life after disasters: how to put life together again? The importance of family support
• The issue of an older sibling. How to make every kid feel equally loved?
• Gender discrimination in families. Gender roles and expectations
• Multicultural families: how do their values get along?
• Children from previous marriages: how to help them accept the new family?
• Childhood traumas of parents: helping them not to transfer them to the next generation
• Every family can meet a crisis: how to live it through in a civilized way?
• Family counseling: why it is so important?
• Accidentally learned the secrets of the family: how to cope with unpleasant truth?
• Adultery: why it happens and what to do to prevent it?
• Career choice: how to save the relationships with the family and not inherit the family business?
• The transition to adult life: the balance between family support and letting the young adult try living their own life
• Unwanted activities: shall the family take warning or it is just trendy now?
• Returning of a family member from prison: caution versus unconditional love
• A family member in distress: what can you do to actually help when someone close to you gets in serious troubles?
• The absence of love. What to do if you should love someone but can’t?
• Ageism in families. Are older people always right?
• Terminal diseases and palliative care. How to give your family member a good life?
• Where can seek help the members of the dysfunctional families?

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Family Dynamics and Child Outcomes: An Overview of Research and Open Questions

• Published: 22 March 2017
• Volume 33 , pages 163–184, ( 2017 )

Cite this article

• Juho Härkönen 1 ,
• Fabrizio Bernardi 2 &
• Diederik Boertien 3  

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Previous research has documented that children who do not live with both biological parents fare somewhat worse on a variety of outcomes than those who do. In this article, which is the introduction to the Special Issue on “Family dynamics and children’s well-being and life chances in Europe,” we refine this picture by identifying variation in this conclusion depending on the family transitions and subpopulations studied. We start by discussing the general evidence accumulated for parental separation and ask whether the same picture emerges from research on other family transitions and structures. Subsequently, we review studies that have aimed to deal with endogeneity and discuss whether issues of causality challenge the general picture of family transitions lowering child well-being. Finally, we discuss whether previous evidence finds effects of family transitions on child outcomes to differ between children from different socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds, and across countries and time-periods studied. Each of the subsequent articles in this Special Issue contributes to these issues. Two articles provide evidence on how several less often studied family forms relate to child outcomes in the European context. Two other articles in this Special Issue contribute by resolving several key questions in research on variation in the consequences of parental separation by socioeconomic and immigrant background, two areas of research that have produced conflicting results so far.

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1 Introduction

The recent decades of family change—including the increases in divorce and separation rates, single parenthood, cohabitation, and step family formation—led to an explosion in popular and academic interest in the consequences of family dynamics for children’s well-being and life chances (cf. Amato 2000 , 2010 ; Amato and James 2010 ; Ribar 2004 ; Sweeney 2010 ; McLanahan et al. 2013 ). Most notably, previous studies have found that children who do not live with both biological parents fare somewhat worse than those who do in terms of psychological well-being, health, schooling, and later labor market attainment, and differ with respect to their own family lives in adulthood. Scholars have interpreted these findings through a relatively small group of factors that include parental and children’s stress associated with family transitions, family conflict, changes in economic resources, and parenting styles. Beyond these established findings, however, several questions remain imperfectly answered.

This Special Issue on “Family Dynamics and Children’s Well-Being and Life Chances in Europe” consists of this introductory article and four empirical studies that address some of these open questions. In general, they give more nuance to the overall association between growing up with both biological parents and child outcomes. More precisely, do these associations differ according to the type of family structure studied? Are these differences in child outcomes due to causal effects of family structures and transitions, or do they reflect preexisting disadvantages between families? And finally, are all children equally affected by family structures and transitions?

In this introduction, we first introduce the theme of family dynamics and children’s outcomes by giving an overview of the findings of parental separation and child outcomes (Sect.  2 ). Parental separation has been the family transition that has attracted most attention among social scientists, and many of our examples later in the article consider this research too. In addition to summarizing the evidence on the relationship between parental separation and psychological well-being, education, social relationships, and own family lives, we discuss how parental separations have been conceptualized, an issue we return to in the subsequent sections.

Parental separation is, however, just one of the family transitions children can experience during their childhoods. The first open question that in our view requires more attention regards the effects of these other family transitions and forms, namely the number of transitions, stepfamilies, and joint residential custody after parental separation (Sect.  3 ). Two of the articles in this Special Issue contribute to this stream of research. Mariani et al. ( 2017 ) present the first European analysis of the effects of family trajectories on children born to lone mothers. Radl et al. ( 2017 ) investigate, in addition to parental separation effects, whether co-residing with siblings or grandparents is related to child outcomes and whether the latter condition the former effects.

The second open question concerns the causal status of the estimated effects (Sect.  4 ): Do family structures and their changes really affect child outcomes, or do the associations reflect some unmeasured underlying factors? This question has attracted deserved attention (e.g., Amato 2000 ; Ribar 2004 ; McLanahan et al. 2013 ), and we review some commonly used methods, using the effects of parental separation as our example. We pay attention to what effects the methods can estimate, in addition to assessing which unobserved variables the different methods adjust for. This discussion highlights the importance of thinking about methodological choices and interpretations of the results in light of the underlying theoretical model of parental separation. The article in this Special Issue by Bernardi and Boertien ( 2017 ) provides also an empirical contribution to this field.

Finally, the last question refers to the heterogeneity in the effects of family dynamics: Are the consequences of parental separation and other family transitions similar for all children? Existing evidence suggests that the answer is no (Amato 2000 ; Demo and Fine 2010 ), but the conclusions about who suffers and who does not remain imperfect, as discussed in Sect.  5 . Three of the articles of this Special Issue analyze these questions, one from a cross-national perspective (Radl et al. 2017 ), one by comparing parental separation effects by socioeconomic background (Bernardi and Boertien 2017 ), and one by immigrant background (Erman and Härkönen 2017 ).

In the final section of this introduction (Sect.  6 ), we discuss some ways forward for future research on family dynamics and children’s outcomes. Two articles in this Special Issue fulfill part of this research agenda by providing evidence on how several less often studied family forms relate to child outcomes in the European context (Mariani et al. 2017 ; Radl et al. 2017 ). The two other articles in this Special Issue (Bernardi and Boertien 2017 ; Erman and Härkönen 2017 ) contribute to the research on heterogeneous consequences of parental separation by clarifying some open questions regarding variation in these consequences by socioeconomic and immigrant background.

2 Parental Separation and Children’s Outcomes

In the 2000s, the share of children who experienced their parents’ separation before age 15 ranged from 10 to 12% in countries such as Bulgaria, Georgia, Italy, and Spain to 35–42% in France, Estonia, Lithuania, and Russia (Andersson et al., forthcoming). In the late 1980s/early 1990s, the corresponding figures ranged from 7 to 30% (Italy and Sweden, respectively, Andersson and Philipov 2002 ).

Parental separation changes children’s lives in many ways. Many scholars conceptualize separations as processes, which often begin way before and last well beyond the actual separation (e.g., Amato 2000 ; Demo and Fine 2010 ; Härkönen 2014 ), even if these starting and ending points can be hard to define. The pre-separation process often involves increasing estrangement and conflict between the parents. These can themselves have negative effects on children’s well-being, and parental separation might therefore already start leaving its traces even before the parents have formally broken up. Not all separations follow such a trajectory. Some families may have had long-lasting conflicts, and other separations might have ended relatively well-functioning partnerships with at least moderate levels of satisfaction (Amato and Hohmann-Marriott 2007 ). The parental separation can in such cases come as an unexpected event for children.

As a result of the separation, children cease to live full-time with both parents, which requires adjustment to the new situation and can start, intensify, or end exposure to parental conflict (Amato 2010 ; Cherlin 1999 ; Pryor and Rodgers 2001 ). Even if joint residential custody of the child post-separation (i.e., children’s alternate living with each parent) is becoming increasingly common, up to one-third and above in Sweden (Bergström et al. 2015 ), the child often receives less involved parenting from the nonresident parent (usually the father), whereas the resident parent’s (usually the mother’s) parenting styles can be affected by increasing time demands (Amato 2000 , 2010 ; McLanahan and Sandefur 1994 ; Seltzer 2000 ). Besides changes in family relationships, a breakup of a household can lead to a drop in economic resources (e.g., Uunk 2004 ). Depending on the country, separated parents may need to adjust their labor supply to meet their new time and economic demands (Kalmijn et al. 2007 ; Uunk 2004 ). Many children also need to move after their parents’ separation, which requires adjustment to a new home environment and possibly a new neighborhood and school. A separation can be followed by further changes in the family structure, such as parental re-partnering, entry of step-siblings, and sometimes, another family dissolution.

Several studies have documented that on average, the lives of children whose parents separated differ from children who lived with both of their parents throughout childhood (Amato 2000 , 2010 ; McLanahan and Sandefur 1994 ; McLanahan et al. 2013 ; Härkönen 2014 ). In the next paragraphs, we provide an overview of the associations of parental separation with some of the most commonly studied child outcomes: psychological well-being and behavioral problems, education, social relationships, and own family lives. In the subsequent sections, we will refine this basic picture by concentrating on other family forms, causality, and heterogeneity in effects.

2.1 Psychological Well-Being and Behavioral Problems

Children of divorce have lower psychological well-being and more behavioral problems than children who grew up in intact families (Amato 2001 ; Amato and James 2010 ; Gähler and Palmtag 2015 ; Kiernan and Mensah 2009 ; Mandemakers and Kalmijn 2014 ). In general, parental separation is more strongly related to externalizing than internalizing problems (Amato 2001 ), and these associations can persist, and even become stronger, into adulthood (Chase-Lansdale et al. 1995 ; Cherlin et al. 1991 ; Lansford 2009 ).

Growing up in a conflict-ridden but stable family can have more negative effects on children’s psychological well-being than parental separation (e.g., Amato et al. 1995 ; Dronkers 1999 ; Hanson 1999 ; Demo and Fine 2010 ). Kiernan and Mensah ( 2009 ) found a role for both maternal depression and economic resources when explaining the lower emotional well-being of children from separated families, whereas Turunen ( 2013 ) found that parental involvement explained part of the lower emotional well-being of children with separated parents, but economic resources did not.

2.2 Education

Children of divorce have lower school grades and test scores (Dronkers 1992 ; Mandemakers and Kalmijn 2014 ; Grätz 2015 ), have lower school engagement (Havermans et al. 2014 ), differ in the kind of track entered in high school (Dronkers 1992 ; Jonsson and Gähler 1997 ; Grätz 2015 ), and have lower final educational attainment (Bernardi and Radl 2014 ; Bernardi and Boertien 2016a ; Gähler and Palmtag 2015 ).

Lower school grades and cognitive performance explain part, but not all of the effect of parental separation on completed education (Dronkers 1992 ). A recent study found that British children of divorce were less likely to continue to full-time upper secondary education even though the parental separation did not affect their school grades (Bernardi and Boertien 2016a ). Parental separation can therefore affect the children’s educational decisions irrespective of their school performance.

Changes in parental resources are an important explanation for the lower educational performance of the children of divorce (Bernardi and Boertien 2016a ; Jonsson and Gähler 1997 ; McLanahan and Sandefur 1994 ; Thomson et al. 1994 ). Studies that have looked into the role of parenting have found differing results, some reporting that parenting partly mediates the effect of separation on educational attainment, while others found parenting to not influence the relationship between parental divorce and school outcomes (Dronkers 1992 ).

2.3 Social Relationships

Despite the increase in shared residential custody (Bjarnason and Arnarsson 2011 ), parental separation generally reduces the child’s contact frequency and relationship quality with the nonresident parent (usually the father), with grandparents and, sometimes, the mother (e.g., Kalmijn 2012 ; Kalmijn and Dronkers 2015 ; Lansford 2009 ). These effects can last into adulthood (Albertini and Garriga 2011 ; Kalmijn 2012 ). Joint residential custody, good inter-parental relations, and good early child-father relations can improve post-separation contact with the father (Kalmijn 2015 ; Kalmijn and Dronkers 2015 ). On the other hand, parental separation can improve the relationships between siblings due to mutual support (Geser 2001 ), but does not seem to trigger more support from friends and other kin (Kalmijn and Dronkers 2015 ).

Good parent–child relationships are desirable by themselves and can also improve other child outcomes (Bastaits et al. 2012 ; Swiss and Le Bourdais 2009 ). For example, having a close relationship with the nonresident parent who engages in authoritative parenting has been found to foster children’s well-being and academic success (Amato and Gilbreth 1999 ). At the same time, contact frequency alone is less important and in some cases, the nonresident parent’s involvement may have negative effects if it increases instability and stress for the child (Laumann-Billings and Emery 2000 ), for example due to continued parental conflict (Kalil et al. 2011 ).

2.4 Own Family Lives

Children of divorce tend to start dating and have their sexual initiation earlier (Wolfinger 2005 ) and many move out of the parental home at a younger age (e.g., Ní Bhrolcháin et al. 2000 ; Ongaro and Mazzuco 2009 ), often because of conflict with parents and their potential new partners (Wolfinger 2005 ). Some studies have also found that children of divorce start cohabiting earlier, are more likely to cohabit than to marry, and have partners of lower socioeconomic status (Erola et al. 2012 ; Reneflot 2009 ; but see also Ní Bhrolcháin et al. 2000 ).

The most consistent family demographic finding is that children whose parents divorced are more likely to divorce themselves as adults (e.g., Diekmann and Engelhardt 1999 ; Dronkers and Härkönen 2008 ; Kiernan and Cherlin 1999 ; Lyngstad and Engelhardt 2009 ; Wolfinger 2005 ). Differences in the life course trajectories before forming the union explain part of this association (Diekmann and Engelhardt 1999 ; Kiernan and Cherlin 1999 ). Other studies have pointed out that parental separation can lead to poorer interpersonal skills and set an example of a feasible solution to relationship problems (Wolfinger 2005 ).

3 What About Other Family Forms?

We have so far focused on parental separation and its relation to child outcomes. Parental separation is not the only family transition children can experience. Between <5% (much of Europe) and up to 15% (Czech Republic, Russia, UK, and USA) of children are born to lone mothers (Andersson et al., forthcoming; Mariani et al. 2017 , this Special Issue). Furthermore, between 14% (Italy and Georgia) and 60% (Belgium) of European children whose parents separate end up living with a stepparent within 6 years (Andersson et al., forthcoming) and often, with step-siblings (Halpern-Meekin and Tach 2008 ). Children’s residence arrangements likewise vary, with some residing primarily with one parent (usually the mother), whereas others alternate between parents (joint residential custody). Extending the focus of research beyond parental separation is necessary to form a more comprehensive view of the effects of the changing family landscape on children’s lives (King 2009 ; Sweeney 2010 ). Footnote 1

One argument puts forward that family stability rather than family structure matters for children’s well-being (cf. Fomby and Cherlin 2007 ; Waldfogel et al. 2010 ). From this perspective, children born to lone mothers who do not experience any family transitions during their childhood (such as the entrance of a stepparent) should do better than children who were born in a two-parent family but experienced a family transition (such as parental separation). Others claim that specific family forms and movements between them do matter beyond general family instability (Magnuson and Berger 2009 ; Lee and McLanahan 2015 ). The findings of Mariani et al. ( 2017 , this Special Issue) are among those that speak against the general instability thesis and show that the types of family transitions experienced by children born to lone mothers matter for their well-being.

Stepfamilies have gained the attention of many scholars. Children in stepfamilies tend to have poorer outcomes compared to those from intact families and display patterns of well-being closer to single-parent families (Amato 1994 , 2001 ; Gennetian 2005 ; Jonsson and Gähler 1997 ; Thomson et al. 1994 ). Indeed, children in stepfamilies can even have lower psychological well-being and educational achievement than children living with a single mother (Amato 1994 ; Biblarz and Raftery 1999 ; Thomson et al. 1994 ).

Reasons for the poorer performance of children with stepparents include the added complexity in family relationships that is often introduced by the presence of a stepparent. This can lead to ambiguity in roles and to conflict in the family (Thomson et al. 1994 ; Sweeney 2010 ), which is among the reasons why having a stepparent often leads to an earlier move from the parental home, especially among girls (Ní Bhrolcháin et al. 2000 ; Reneflot 2009 ). Another explanation points to the presence of step-siblings as stepparents may put less time and effort into their stepchildren than their biological ones (Biblarz and Raftery 1999 ; Evenhouse and Reilly 2004 ). However, having a stepparent can also have positive effects as (s)he can provide financial resources or help in monitoring the children (Thomson et al. 1994 ; King 2006 ; Sweeney 2010 ). Erola and Jalovaara ( 2016 ) showed how a stepparent’s SES was more predictive on adulthood SES than the nonresident father’s SES, and as predictive as the biological father’s SES in intact families. All in all, the effects of step-parenthood are complex and can differ between children who experienced a parental separation and those who never lived with their biological father (Sweeney 2010 ).

The increase in joint residential custody after parental separation has raised interest in its consequences for children. Many studies have reported that children in joint residential custody fare better than children who reside with only one of the parents (usually the mother) on outcomes such as health and psychological well-being, and contact and relationships with their parents and grandparents (Bjarnason and Arnarsson 2011 ; Turunen 2016 ; Westphal et al. 2015 ). However, questions of causality remain unresolved and parents who opt for joint custody might have been particularly selected from those with higher socioeconomic status and lower levels of post-separation conflict. Indeed, many studies find that joint custody may have negative consequences for children in case of high parental conflict (e.g., Vanassche et al. 2014 ; also, Kalil et al. 2011 ). This suggests that policy changes toward joint custody as a default solution may produce unwanted consequences.

4 But What About Causality?

There is a long-standing debate that concerns whether associations between family types and child outcomes reflect causal effects, or whether they are confounded by unmeasured variables. For example, parents who separate can have different (unmeasured) personality traits from those who do not. Other examples include parental unemployment, mental health, or a developing substance abuse problem, which may not only lead to separation, but also affect the parent’s children.

Researchers have used increasingly sophisticated methods to control for different unmeasured sources of bias (for reviews, Amato 2000 , 2010 ; Ribar 2004 ; McLanahan et al. 2013 ). In this section, we discuss some of these methods. We focus on studies that have estimated the effects of parental separation, which serves to illustrate some of the questions involved.

Like most similar reviews, we discuss which (un)measured confounders can be controlled for by the different methods and provide examples of studies that have used them. We also discuss some of the limitations to causal inference in these methods, particularly in light of the underlying theoretical model of parental separation that is assumed. Above, we discussed how parental separations are often theorized as processes that can follow quite different trajectories for different families (Amato 2000 ; Demo and Fine 2010 ; Härkönen 2014 ). Some separations are characterized by a downward spiral of increasing conflict, which can leave its mark on children already before the parents physically separate. Other separations end relatively well-functioning families and can come as a surprise to the children, whereas in some cases the families had high conflict levels for a long time. In this section, we discuss causal inference in light of these underlying models. In the next section, we discuss how these different types of parental separations can have different effects on children.

In addition, we engage in a related but much smaller discussion of what causal questions the different methods can be used to answer (cf., Manski et al. 1992 ; Ní Bhrolcháin 2001 ; Sigle-Rushton et al. 2014 ). A major issue in this regard concerns the counterfactual scenario assumed by different methods. In most studies, the estimated effects are interpreted as telling about how the parents’ physical separation (the separation event) affected the children compared to the counterfactual case in which the parents did not separate. This is, however, not the only possible effect that can be estimated, nor is this interpretation necessarily the correct one in each case.

First, knowing about the effects of the parental separation event is obviously important, but scholars, parents, counselors, and policy makers could likewise benefit from knowing about the “total” effects of parental separation that include the effects of the preceding separation process as well. Second, instead of asking what the effect of the parental separation (compared to them staying together) is, one can ask what the effect is of the parents separating at a specific point in time (the effect of postponing separation) (cf. Furstenberg and Kiernan 2001 ). Our discussion below points to these issues and suggests how some methods can be more appropriate for answering certain questions than others. Rather than providing a comprehensive discussion on this relatively uncovered topic, we wish to stimulate closer consideration of these issues in future research.

4.1 Regression Models

Before discussing methods that adjust for unmeasured confounding factors, we briefly discuss estimation of parental separation effects with linear and logistic (or similar) regression models, which are by far the most common methods used. With these methods, one compares the outcomes of children who experienced parental separation to the outcomes of children from intact families, adjusting for observed confounding variables. Because the possibilities for controlling for all factors that may bias the results are limited, the estimates from regression models cannot usually be interpreted as causal effects (e.g., McLanahan et al. 2013 ; Ribar 2004 ).

Pre-separation parental conflict is often pointed out as an omitted variable that can threaten causal claims. Controlling for pre-separation conflict generally leads to a substantial reduction in the effect of parental separation (e.g., Hanson 1999 ; Gähler and Garriga 2013 ), suggesting that exposure to the parental conflict rather than the parental separation event is largely responsible for the poorer performance of the children of divorce. This example can be used to think about the correspondence between the specified regression model and the underlying theoretical model of parental separation. Controlling for the level of pre-separation parental conflict (or related measures of the family environment) is most appropriate if it is reasonable to assume that families’ conflict levels remain stable; comparing children from separated and intact families at similar levels of earlier conflict can then inform about how the children of divorce would have fared had the parents remained together. However, this is not obvious if the separation followed an increase in parental conflict, because the family environment may have continued to worsen had the parents not separated.

If the above and other conditions for making causal claims are met, which effects do they inform us about? A regression model that controls for pre-separation parental conflict or other related measures is best seen as telling about the effects of the parental separation event. However, an increase in parental conflict is often an inherent part of the parental separation process, and controlling for levels of parental conflict close to the parental separation would not be warranted if one is interested in understanding how exposure to the parental separation process, in addition to the separation event, affects children’s outcomes (cf. Amato 2000 ). The choice of control variables should thus be done with a consideration to the underlying model of parental separation and the effect one wants to estimate.

4.2 Sibling Fixed Effects

Sibling fixed effects (SFE) models compare siblings from the same family who differ in their experience of parental separation before a certain age or life stage, or in the amount of time spent in a specific family type (cf. McLanahan et al. 2013 ; Sigle-Rushton et al. 2014 ). SFE controls for factors and experiences that are shared by the siblings, such as parental SES and many neighborhood and school characteristics. This has made SFE a popular method, not least in Europe. Some SFE studies found no effects of parental separation or other family forms on educational outcomes (Björklund and Sundström 2006 ). Others have found a weak to moderate negative effect on various outcomes even in an SFE design (e.g., Ermisch et al. 2004 ; Sandefur and Wells 1999 ; Sigle-Rushton et al. 2014 ; Grätz 2015 ).

Comparison of siblings from the same family is a core aspect of the SFE design. This affects the data requirements and the interpretation of the results. To fix ideas, we can use an example of the effects of parental separation on children’s school grades at age 15. For an SFE analysis, one needs data on multiple siblings, some of whom experienced the parental separation before age 15 whereas others did not. This requirement reduces the effective sample size. The sibling who did not experience the parental separation is always the older one, and her grades are used to infer about the counterfactual grades of her younger sibling, had she not experienced the parental separation. SFE controls for everything shared by the siblings, but additional controls are needed to adjust for differences between them. Some of these—such as birth order and birth cohort and/or parental age (Sigle-Rushton et al. 2014 )—are available in many datasets, but remaining unobserved differences (as well as measurement error) can cause important bias to the estimates (Ermisch et al. 2004 ; Frisell et al. 2012 ).

SFE models are most informative of the effects of parental separation if it is reasonable to assume that the family environment (including levels of parental conflict) would remain stable in the absence of the parental separation (Sigle-Rushton et al. 2014 ). In such a case, it is most likely that the younger sibling would have experienced a similar family environment as the older sibling, had the parents not separated. The interpretation of SFE results becomes more problematic if the parental separation is the culmination of a deterioration of the family environment (such as increased parental conflict). It is likely that the family environment would have continued to deteriorate had the parents not separated, and the younger sibling would have been taking her grades in a more conflictual family (than her older sibling experienced). Without additional measures, SFE models thus generally rely on the assumption of the stability of the family environment (cf. Sigle-Rushton et al. 2014 ).

SFE models estimate the effect of the event of the parental separation rather than the separation process. Because SFE models are estimated from a subsample of families that dissolved, the estimates are difficult to generalize without making additional assumptions. Also, because the estimates tell about differences between siblings who experienced parental separation but at different ages, or experienced a different amount of time in a separated family, the estimates are best interpreted as effects of the timing of the separation, as argued in detail by Sigle-Rushton and colleagues (2014).

4.3 Longitudinal Designs

Research with longitudinal data has been more applied  in the USA than in Europe (McLanahan et al. 2013 ), possibly because of data access issues. Such data can be analyzed using many methods, but unlike with SFE, these methods can only be used to analyze outcomes that are measured more than once. Similar to SFE models, longitudinal studies generally report weaker effects on child outcomes of parental separation and other family transitions than found in cross-sectional analyses.

4.3.1 Lagged Dependent Variables

In lagged dependent variable (LDV) analyses, one controls for the dependent variable at an earlier measurement point (before parental separation) (Johnson 2005 ; McLanahan et al. 2013 ). The idea is to adjust for initial differences in outcomes between children from separated and intact families. LDV is mostly used in cohort and other studies with just two or few measurement points. Early examples include studies in Britain, which found that although children of divorce had lower psychological well-being already pre-divorce, parental divorce had negative long-term effects (Cherlin et al. 1991 ; Chase-Lansdale et al. 1995 ). Limitations of LDV models include that the estimates are sensitive to omitted variables that affect both the separation and the pre-separation outcome, as well as measurement error in the latter (Johnson 2005 ).

The pre-separation measurement point can correspond poorly to the stages of the parental separation process, especially in cohort studies in which measurements are often done several years apart. LDV models are therefore most appropriate if the differences in the outcome between children who experienced parental separation and those who did not can be assumed to be stable. If one assumes that the child’s well-being deteriorated prior to the separation, the lagged dependent variable can capture part of the effect of the separation process. However, if the measurements are taken several years apart, it is even more difficult than usual to tell whether the outcome was measured before or during the pre-separation deterioration in well-being and consequently, how the estimated coefficient should be interpreted.

4.3.2 Individual Fixed Effects

Individual fixed effects (IFE) models are based on comparing individuals before and after the parental separation and in effect, use individuals as their own control groups to control for time-constant unobserved factors. In an early British IFE study, Cherlin et al. ( 1998 ) concluded that experience of parental separation had weak to moderate negative effects on adulthood psychological well-being, and Amato and Anthony ( 2014 ) reported similar effects on educational, psychological, and health outcomes in the USA. Other American studies have used IFE designs to analyze the effects of the number of transitions (e.g., Fomby and Cherlin 2007 ), of different family transitions (e.g., Lee and McLanahan 2015 ), or combined SFE and IFE approaches (Gennetian 2005 ).

IFE methods estimate the effect of parental separation if it is reasonable to assume that the child whose parents separated would have experienced similar (age-specific) outcomes in the absence of separation as observed before the separation (Aughinbaugh et al. 2005 ). Again, this is most feasible if the child’s level of well-being can be assumed to have remained stable. This is less likely if the child’s well-being began to deteriorate already before the separation, because this deterioration could have continued had the parents not separated. Two US studies attempted to address this issue by tracing behavioral problems and academic achievement before and after the parental separation (Aughinbaugh et al. 2005 ) and by using a triple-difference approach, which compares trends (and not just levels) in the outcome between children from separated and intact families (Sanz-de-Galdeano and Vuri 2007 ). Neither study found the event of parental separation to have appreciable effects.

Furthermore, as in SFE models, IFE effects are estimated only from those children who actually experienced the separation. This generally means a reduction in sample size. For the same reason, IFE results generalize primarily to that group.

4.3.3 Placebo Tests and Growth-Curve Models

Longitudinal data can also be used to conduct “placebo tests,” that is, to analyze whether future separation (e.g., t  + 1) predicts earlier outcomes ( t , or earlier). Bernardi and Boertien (in this Special Issue) found with British data that although children who experienced parental separation before age 16 had a lower probability of transitioning to post-compulsory secondary education, this was not the case for children whose parents separated between ages 17 and 19 (i.e., after the educational transition age). This supports the view that the separation, and not the family environment that preceded it, had an effect on educational decisions.

Finally, longitudinal data have been analyzed with growth-curve models (GCM) to track trajectories in children’s outcomes. Cherlin et al. ( 1998 ) reported that the effects of parental separation on psychological problems increased through adolescence and young adulthood. Even though growth-curve models enable analysis of how effects develop, they are not immune to confounding from unmeasured variables that can affect both the initial level of well-being and its development over time (McLanahan et al. 2013 ). To address this, Kim ( 2011 ) combined matching methods with GCM and found that cognitive skills and non-cognitive traits developed negatively already through the separation period and the effects were amplified by the separation event.

4.4 Interpreting Causal Effects

Controlling for measured and unmeasured confounders practically always leads to reduced effect sizes, which means that children who experienced parental separation would have fared differently to children from intact families regardless. Some studies have found no effects, but the prevailing conclusion is that parental separation can have weak to moderate negative effects (Amato 2000 , 2010 ; McLanahan et al. 2013 ; Ribar 2004 ).

Increasing adoption of advanced methods to control for unmeasured variables improves our understanding of the consequences of family change. None of the methods are, however, completely immune to confounding by unobserved variables. Relatedly, they also correspond differently to underlying theoretical models of parental separation, which affects their interpretation.

We repeatedly mentioned how the methods are most robust if it is reasonable to assume that the family environment, and the children’s well-being, remained stable before the separation and would have remained stable in its absence. Such a scenario characterizes some separations but provides a poorer description of many others where separation was a culmination of a deteriorating family environment (Amato 2000 ; Demo and Fine 2010 ; Härkönen 2014 ). In some cases, additional (time-varying) control variables (e.g., Ermisch et al. 2004 ; Lee and McLanahan 2015 ) or more complex research designs (e.g., Sanz-de-Galdeano and Vuri 2007 ) can be used to alleviate these problems. When choosing the appropriate variables or designs, one should decide whether one is interested in the effects of the separation event or the exposure to the whole separation process. Both are relevant, and their analysis each carries specific challenges. We also discussed how some estimates might be better interpreted as indicators of the influence of the timing of parental separation (cf. Furstenberg and Kiernan 2001 ), another relevant yet different question. All in all, scholars should pay attention to which effects their methods estimate and think of this in light of the underlying theoretical model of parental separation or other family dynamics they are interested in (cf. Manski et al. 1992 ; Ní Bhrolcháin 2001 ).

5 For Whom, When, and Where are Family Transitions Most Consequential?

Most studies reviewed above analyzed what happens on average . Whereas the finding that children growing up in non-traditional families have different outcomes is very consistent, this result hides a large variation in effects at the individual level. A minority of children suffer from a parental separation, but a somewhat smaller minority shows improvements in well-being and performance, and even if parental separation can be a taxing experience associated with sadness and feelings of loss, a large minority or even a majority of children do “just fine” without robust effects in either direction (Amato 2000 , 2010 ; Amato and Anthony 2014 ; Amato and James 2010 ; Demo and Fine 2010 ). Next, we discuss how this heterogeneity in effects is related to pre-separation parental conflict and children’s and parents’ socio-demographic attributes. After that, we review what is known about variation in the effects over time and cross-nationally.

5.1 For Whom Does It Matter?

Which children are more likely to suffer from parental separation than others? Studies both from the USA (Amato et al. 1995 ; Hanson 1999 ; Booth and Amato 2001 ) and Europe (Dronkers 1999 ) have found that pre-separation parental conflict moderates the effects of the separation. Parental separation can be beneficial for children from high-conflict families, but is more likely to have negative effects when parental conflict was low and the separation came as a relative surprise.

Other studies have analyzed variation in the effects of parental separation by demographic characteristics. Although some studies have found gender-specific effects, most have not, leading Amato and James ( 2010 ) to conclude that the gender differences in effects are modest at most. Similar variation in findings characterizes research on effects of stepfamilies (Sweeney 2010 ).

Child’s age at parental separation has been another moderator of interest. Breakups occurring while children are adults have no or the smallest effects (Cherlin et al. 1998 ; Kiernan and Cherlin 1999 ; Furstenberg and Kiernan 2001 ; Lyngstad and Engelhardt 2009 ). Studies on educational outcomes often find the effects to be most pronounced when parents divorced close to important educational decision points (Jonsson and Gähler 1997 ; Lyngstad and Engelhardt 2009 ; Sigle-Rushton et al. 2014 ). Otherwise, findings differ in their conclusions about the childhood stages most sensitive to family disruption, and the specific pattern of heterogeneity is likely to depend on the outcome studied.

Recently, scholars have become increasingly interested in whether effects of parental separation differ by parental socioeconomic status (Augustine 2014 ; Grätz 2015 ; Mandemakers and Kalmijn 2014 ). Although having resources can help families to deal with family transitions, children from resourceful families could also lose more from parental separation (Bernardi and Radl 2014 ; Bernardi and Boertien 2016a ). In line with these contrasting predictions, empirical results are mixed, with some findings pointing to stronger negative effects in families with high (Augustine 2014 ; Grätz 2015 ; Mandemakers and Kalmijn 2014 ) or low socioeconomic status (Bernardi and Boertien 2016a ; Bernardi and Radl 2014 ; Biblarz and Raftery 1999 ; Martin 2012 ; McLanahan and Sandefur 1994 ). Bernardi and Boertien ( 2017 , this Special Issue) address this inconsistency. They show that methodological choices underlie part of this variation in results, but their substantive conclusion is that the negative effect of parental separation on educational choices is stronger for children whose high-socioeconomic status father moves out. The greater financial losses are an important part of the explanation, which also suggests that the results might be different for outcomes that are less responsive to financial resources.

Other studies have compared the effects of parental separation and single parenthood between ethnic, racial, and migrant groups. Many US studies have found that Black children are less affected by growing up in a non-intact family than White children (Fomby and Cherlin 2007 ; McLanahan and Bumpass 1988 ; McLanahan and Sandefur 1994 ; Sun and Li 2007 ). Some European studies have found variation in family structure effects by ethnic and immigrant background (Kalmijn 2010 , forthcoming; Erman and Härkönen, this ‘Special Issue’). In general, the family structure effects are weaker in groups in which parental separation and single motherhood are more common, which has been explained by less stigma, better ways of handling father absence, a broadly disadvantaged position with less to lose, or differential selection by unobserved factors, as argued by Erman and Härkönen in this Special Issue.

Instead of analyzing different predictors of separation separately, Amato and Anthony ( 2014 ) used several of these predictors together to, first, predict the children’s propensity to experience parental separation, and second, analyze whether parental divorce effects vary by this propensity. They found that the effects were the strongest for children with the highest risk of experiencing parental divorce, a result seemingly at odds with the above-mentioned findings of weaker effects in groups with higher separation rates.

5.2 Stability Over Time

It is straightforward to expect that the effects of family transitions on child outcomes should have waned over time. As non-traditional family forms have become more common, the social stigma attached to them should decrease (Lansford 2009 ). Children of divorce are also increasingly likely to retain close contact with both of their parents (e.g., Amato and Gilbreth 1999 ; Gähler and Palmtag 2015 ) and families and societies may have in general become better in handling the consequences of family change. Yet, several studies have reported remarkable stability in the negative associations between parental separation and educational attainment, psychological well-being, and own family dissolution risk (Albertini and Garriga 2011 ; Biblarz and Raftery 1999 ; Dronkers and Härkönen 2008 ; Sigle-Rushton et al. 2005 ; Li and Wu 2008 ; Gähler and Palmtag 2015 ). Some studies have found changing effects, but in opposite directions: a waning intergenerational transmission of divorce (Wolfinger 2005 ; Engelhardt et al. 2002 ), but a strengthening effect of parental separation on educational attainment (Kreidl et al. 2017 ).

Why this general stability? One possibility is that although some factors associated with parental separation, such as stigma, have become less common, other proximate consequences—including shock, grief, and anger over the separation of the parents (Pryor and Rodgers 2001 )—have remained stable. Another potential explanation refers to changing selection into separation. Parental separation has become increasingly associated with low levels of maternal education (Härkönen and Dronkers 2006 ). The motives for divorce have also changed over time. Fewer parental separations are today preceded by severe conflict and violence, whereas more are characterized by psychological motives and disagreements upon the division of labor (De Graaf and Kalmijn 2006 ; Gähler and Palmtag 2015 ). In general, changing selectivity of parental separation can have offset any weakening trend in its effects. The data requirements to disentangle these explanations are high, but those studies which have appropriate variables support the conclusion of a generally stable effect (Sigle-Rushton et al. 2005 ; Gähler and Palmtag 2015 ).

5.3 Cross-National Variation

Associations between family structure and child outcomes are robust in the sense that they are generally found in each country (cf. Amato and James 2010 ) and are often more similar than one might expect (Härkönen 2015 ). However, many studies have reported cross-national variation in the strength of associations (e.g., Brolin Låftman 2010 ; Radl et al. 2017 , this Special Issue). A series of studies found that countries with policies aimed at equalizing the living conditions between different types of families had smaller family structure gaps in educational achievement (Pong et al. 2003 ; Hampden-Thompson 2013 ; however, see Brolin Låftman 2010 ). Larger family structure differences have also been reported in economically more developed societies, where the nuclear family plays a more important role (Amato and Boyd 2014 ).

Dronkers and Härkönen ( 2008 ) found that the intergenerational transmission of divorce was weaker in countries where parental divorce was more common. This fits the intuition of weaker penalties when certain family behaviors are more common. However, other studies have found the opposite (Pong et al. 2003 ; Kreidl et al. 2017 ). An explanation is that in societies in which separation is uncommon, it is more often a solution to ending very troubled relationships and therefore more likely to be beneficial for the children.

6 Discussion and Recommendations for Future Research

We set the stage for future research in four directions. First, understanding the effects of heterogeneous family forms and transitions will be a research priority in the future as well (Amato 2010 ). Most of the research reviewed in this introduction has focused on the effects of parental separation, but scholars have been increasingly aware of and interested in the complexity of family forms in today’s societies. Some of this research was addressed in this article, and the analyses by Mariani, Özcan, and Goisis, and Radl, Salazar, and Cebolla-Boado in this Special Issue are further contributions to this topic: the former being the first to look at the outcomes of children born in lone mother families within one European country (the UK), and the latter providing a cross-national overview of the effects of various types of family structures. Future research, particularly in Europe, should continue addressing questions such as the effects of experiencing multiple family transitions and of complex family life course trajectories during childhood. Family complexity can also mean that the boundaries between family forms become blurred. An example is the increasing popularity of joint residential custody, which questions earlier divisions into single-parent and two-parent families. Understanding the effects of family forms under family complexity thus also means an update in conceptual thinking.

Second, children react to (changes in) family circumstances in remarkably different ways (e.g., Amato and Anthony 2014 ), which is hidden under the average effects reported in most studies. Three of the papers in this Special Issue address these questions and identify subgroups for which effects appear to be more limited compared to other groups such as low SES families and children from ethnic minorities. Better understanding the sources of vulnerability and resilience in the face of family change will continue to be a priority for research, and in this task, future research will benefit from combining theoretical and methodological approaches from sociology, demography, psychology, and genetics (cf. Amato 2010 ; Demo and Fine 2010 ).

Another related task for future research will be to systematize the research on variation in family structure effects across individuals and families, groups, and societal contexts. As reviewed in this article, the findings often point to confusingly different directions. Many studies, including the ones by Erman and Härkönen and Bernardi and Boertien in this Special Issue, have found that parental separation effects on educational outcomes are weaker in socioeconomic and ethnic groups where it is more frequent, but Amato and Anthony ( 2014 ) reported that the effects are more negative for children who had the highest risk of experiencing parental separation. Yet another group of studies have reported that the effects of parental separation are more negative when the parents had lower levels of conflict—and presumably, low likelihood of separating—before the separation (Amato et al. 1995 ; Dronkers 1999 ; Hanson 1999 ; Demo and Fine 2010 ). Many cross-national studies have concluded that these effects are stronger in societies in which parental separation is more common (Pong et al. 2003 ; Kreidl et al. 2017 ). At the same time, most studies continue to find that parental separation effects have remained stable even though more children have been experiencing it. Understanding these seemingly contradictory results will need theoretical development and appropriate data and designs to test them. Bernardi’s and Boertien’s study in this Special Issue provides a good example of such research.

Third, future research will undoubtedly continue employing sophisticated methods to analyze whether family structures and transitions have causal effects on children’s lives. Yet as discussed above, conceptual thought of what effects can be estimated with different methods and what effects are of most theoretical interest has not necessarily kept up with the methodological advances (for exceptions: Manski et al. 1992 ; Ní Bhrolcháin 2001 ; Sigle-Rushton et al. 2014 ). Using parental separation as our example, we distinguished between the effects of separations as events and separations as processes, as well as between the experience of separation and its timing. Researchers should pay more attention to these differences in the conceptualization of effects, which essentially boils down to the consideration of the underlying theoretical model of parental separation. Better recognition of these differences can contribute to theory-building and methodological advancement and help in formulating advice to parents, family counselors, and policy makers.

Last, these issues have implications for understanding social inequality in a time of family change. The “diverging destinies” thesis (McLanahan and Percheski 2008 ) holds that socioeconomically uneven family change, in which the retreat from stable two-parent families is happening particularly among those with low levels of education, can reduce social mobility. Yet whether this is the case depends not only on differences in family structures by socioeconomic background, but also on the strength of the effects of these family structures on the outcomes in question; if the effects are nil or weak, it does not matter who lives in which kind of family. The inequality-amplifying effects of socioeconomic differences in family structures can furthermore be shaped by heterogeneity in family structure effects (Bernardi and Boertien 2016b ). Bernardi’s and Boertien’s (2017, this Special Issue) findings, that the negative effects of parental separation are weaker for children whose parents have low levels of education, imply that the socioeconomic differences in family instability are less important in affecting intergenerational inequality than often thought. Erman’s and Härkönen’s ( 2017 , this Special Issue) results show that parental separation effects are weaker among ancestry groups where parental separation is more common suggest the same for ethnic inequalities. Together, these findings refine arguments stating that divergence in family structures will lead to an increase in inequality. Instead, the results imply that whether this happens or not is contingent on the strength of these effects and on whether they are similar across groups.

This quest will likely continue in the future; Ultee ( 2016 ) anticipated that in 2096, the book awarded for preservation of European sociological research will be called “Growing Up With Four Parents”.

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Acknowledgements

This Special Issue features research done within work package 5 (Family Transitions and Children’s Life Chances) of FamiliesAndSocieties ( www.familiesandsocieties.eu ). We thank the members of the consortium and our work package for productive collaborations and fruitful discussions during the project. We also thank the editorial team of European Journal of Population for the opportunity to publish this Special Issue and their feedback on earlier drafts. In addition, we are grateful to the reviewers for constructive comments to earlier versions to each of the articles in this Special Issue. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013) under Grant Agreement No. 320116 for the research project FamiliesAndSocieties and from the Strategic Research Council of the Academy of Finland (Decision Number: 293103) for the research consortium Tackling Inequality in Time of Austerity (TITA).

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Juho Härkönen

Department of Political and Social Sciences, European University Institute, Via dei Roccettini 9, 50014, San Domenico di Fiesole, Italy

Fabrizio Bernardi

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Diederik Boertien

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Härkönen, J., Bernardi, F. & Boertien, D. Family Dynamics and Child Outcomes: An Overview of Research and Open Questions. Eur J Population 33 , 163–184 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10680-017-9424-6

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79 Family Problems Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best family problems topic ideas & essay examples, 🥇 most interesting family problems topics to write about, 📌 simple & easy family problems essay titles, ❓ research questions about family problems.

• Family and Culture: Major Problems Facing Families Around the World Many of these family changes have come because of the result of globalization, which has occurred mainly due to the sophisticated technology available in the current world.
• Marriage and Family Problems as Social Issues Sociology as a discipline has an extremely wide range of interests and it is next to impossible even to enumerate them, however the issue that has always been of the utmost importance for the sociological […] We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• Case Study: A Multi-Problem Appalachian Family During one of her spells, she fell in the bathroom and hit her head on the tub, causing a subdural hemorrhage. In the last few months, he has developed acne, a source of great embarrassment […]
• Vulnerable Families: Problems With Access to Healthcare Families with complex needs or vulnerable families are terms used to describe the families with particular disadvantages in access to healthcare.
• The American Family: Current Problems It seems that the American families are under strain because there is a lack of a normative structure that would provide the parents with the necessary tools to orient their families.
• Family Assessment in a Problem Oriented Record According to the available information the power relations in the family is on his side and the bulk of family responsibilities are reserved for Naomi.
• Problem-Solving: Adolescent and Family However, it is possible to conclude that the reason for Brandon’s stress is his biased attitude towards his father and his father’s girlfriend, not only in his being abused by his father.
• The Problem of Work-Family Imbalance in Society The absence of the mother in the family probably contributes to the work-family imbalance problem that Chris is facing in raising his son.
• Problems in Marriage – The Weakening of Families The nuclear family begins from the father followed by the mother and then the children while the extended family begins from the grandfather down to the youngest grandchild in the family.
• Relation of Family Problems to Patterns of Delinquent Involvement Among Urban Youth
• Family Problems Among Recently Returned Military Veterans Referred for a Mental Health Evaluation
• Psychological and Family Problems Associated With Learning Disabilities: Assessment and Intervention
• Assessing Individual Family Members’ Constructions of Family Problems
• Economic Problems Causing Marriage and Family Problems
• Elderly Abuse, Teenage Pregnancy, and Proposed Solutions to These Two Family Problems
• Determinants of Work-Related Family Problems Among Employed Parents
• Matching Family Problems With Specific Family Preservation Services
• Coping Profiles Associated With Psychiatric, Physical Health, Work, and Family Problems
• Wrestling With Expatriate Family Problems: Japanese Experience in East Asia
• Family Problems and Relationships for Adults With Borderline Personality Disorder
• Treatment of Family Problems in Autism
• Crack and Cocaine Users and Family Problems Caused by Their Addiction
• Effects of Parental Divorce and Memories of Family Problems on Relationships Between Adult Children and Their Parents
• The Association of Alcohol and Family Problems in a Remote Indigenous Australian Community
• Relationship Between Suicidal Ideation and Family Problems Among Young Callers to the Japanese Crisis Hotline
• Work Status, Financial Stress, Family Problems, and Gender Differences in the Prevalence of Depression in Chile
• Delinquency and Family Problems in Incarcerated Adolescents With and Without a History of Inhalant Use
• Conceptual Issues in Measuring and Assessing Family Problems
• The Influence of Family Problems and Conflicts on Suicidal Ideation and Suicide Attempts in Elderly People
• Producing Family Problems: Organization and Uses of the Family Perspective and Rhetoric in Family Therapy
• Identity Status of Turkish University Students in Relation to Their Evaluation of Family Problems
• Interactions of Gender and Race in Workers’ Help Seeking for Family Problems: Perceptions of Supervisor Support and Intervention
• The Relationships Among Family Problems, Friends’ Troubled Behavior, and High Risk Youths’ Alcohol Use and Delinquent Behavior
• Conditions Not Attributable to a Mental Disorder: An Epidemiological Study of Family Problems
• Preventing Family Problems: Troubling Trends and Promising Opportunities
• Use of School and Community Health Care Resources for Behavioral, Educational, and Social-Family Problems
• An Evaluation of the Psychosocial Problems of the Homebound Cancer Patient: Patient Adjustment and Family Problems
• Female Gender, Marital and Family Problems, and Feelings of Guilt Are Related to Self-Immolation Suicide Attempts
• Prisoner Re-Entry, Family Problems and State Coercion in the Era of Neoliberalism
• Gender Differences in an Exploratory Model of Family Problems and Stress-Related Experiences Among Justice-Involved Youth
• Baccalaureate Student Perceptions of Challenging Family Problems: Building Bridges to Acceptance
• Family Problems and Sports Performance: The Role of Couple’s Therapy in Treating Athletes and Their Families
• Family Problems and Family Therapy in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
• Family Problems, Mental Health and Trauma Experiences of Justice-Involved Youth
• Another Look at the Diagnosis and Treatment of Orthodox Jewish Family Problems
• Police Intervention Into Family Crisis: The Role of Law Enforcement in Family Problems
• Family Problems and Children’s Competencies Over the Early Elementary School Years
• Family Problems Associated With the Presence of a Child With Handicap in Nigeria
• The Secondary Emotional, Social, and Family Problems Found With Children and Adolescents With Learning Disabilities
• How Can We Solve Family Problems?
• What Are the Possible Consequences of Family Problems for Children?
• How Do Teens Deal With Family Problems?
• Will It Be Easier to Let Go With Families Problems by Ignoring Them, Instead of Always Thinking About Them?
• What Are the Family Problems That Arise After Marriage?
• What Are the Biggest Contemporary Family Problems?
• How To Avoid Marital Problems With Teens?
• Is Domestic Violence One of the Graetest Family Problems?
• What Are the Four Types of Family Problems?
• Which Are the Worst Family Problems That You Have Ever Faced?
• What Family Problems Do People Face Today?
• Do Family Problems Affect Pregnancy?
• What Are China’s Modern Family Problems?
• How Can I Avoid Family Problems During Pregnancy?
• What Are the Family Problems in Saudi Arabia?
• How to Cope With Family Problems Without Losing Your Sanity?
• What Are the Main Family Problems?
• How Can Family Problems Be Improved?
• How Do Parents Solve Family Problems?
• What Are Common Family Problems?
• How Can Family Problems Affect a Child?
• How Can We Avoid Our Family Problems After Marriage?
• What Are the Five Causes of Family Problems?
• How Do You Ignore Family Problems?
• When Your Relatives Ignore Family Problems, Can You Break the Cycle on Your Own?
• How Does Family Problems Affect Mental Health?
• Is There Anyone in the World Who Doesn’t Have Family Problems?
• What Are the Causes of Family Problems Between Husband and Wife?
• How to Resolve Family Problems Till They Get Too Far?
• What Are the Social Causes of Family Problems?
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250 Outstanding Marriage and Family Research Topics

Looking for the best marriage and family research topics for your sociology paper? With the changing dynamics of family and marriage, there is always scope for more research. This leaves you with endless options for a suitable title for your paper. To make the process simpler, here is a list of the best topics on marriage and family to help you narrow down the choices. It is good to remember that some of these topics may evoke conflicting emotions and opinions. therefore, they are best handled with sensitivity and objectivity. They present ample scope for classroom discussion and debates. However, pick a topic that also presents sufficient scope for research to showcase your understanding of the subject and writing skills as well. 

Trending Marriage and Family Research Topics

Here is a list of some of the most commonly used topics on marriage and family that will help you get ample supporting data and content.

• The evolution of the concept of marriage
• The changing role of spouses in a modern marriage
• Changes in the values around marriage and family over the last decade.
• The effect of social media on marriages
• Types of marriages in Nigeria
• Cultural differences and its effect on the sociology of marriages
• The influence of media on marriage and family
• Change in marriages in your country
• Does gen X think that marriage is an outdated concept
• The sociology of inter-racial marriages
• A traditional role that men could perform better than women and vice versa.
• The social benefits of a marriage
• The financial benefits of a marriage
• How does mental health affect marriages?
• The important role of stress in modern marriages.
• Getting married but not choosing to have children. The benefits and risks.
• How long should a couple know each other before getting married?
• Should gender roles within a marriage be maintained strictly? What are the benefits and risks?
• Does society benefit from prioritizing marriage
• Living with an unmarried partner or marriage. Which has a higher level of relationship satisfaction?
• Your thoughts on an egalitarian marriage
• Marriage is a public performance in the age of social media. Your understanding of this statement.
• Is financial instability one of the most common reasons for not getting married.
• The steady decline in marriage among individuals without a college degree.
• Marriage rate for women with good education is higher.
• People who want children should get married. Your thoughts on this.
• The common causes for decline in marriage rate in modern society
• The concept of arranged marriages across the world.
• The role of matrimonial sites in modern marriages.
• Are dating apps a reliable option to meet a suitable partner for marriage?
• Is marriage rate affected by ethnicity?
• The effect of substance abuse on a marriage
• Physical acts of aggression in a marriage. When does one go too far?
• Financial independence of women and its effects on marriage.
• Increasing rate of infidelity in marriages. What are the common causes?

Best Research Topics on Family

Here is a list of some of the best family research topics that explore the changing dynamics on family structures in the recent times.

• How can you define the term ‘family’?
• Family background determines your rate of success in career and life. Comment.
• What are the consequences of divorce on children?
• Overcoming trauma of a dysfunctional family
• Is it possible to always live up to family expectations?
• The effects of parental neglect on children.
• How to minimize negative effect of divorce on a family
• War veterans and their families. Do they really need help?
• Family and its impact on teenage delinquency
• Stages of grief in children after the loss of a family member
• Stages of grief in an adult after the loss of a family member
• How should families cope with the loss of a family member?
• The increasing problem of work-life balance and its impact on families
• Joint family versus a nuclear family
• Family members who should have a say in the upbringing of a child
• Fostering children and the issues that arise
• Substance abuse within a family. How to save yourself and the rest of your family?
• Sexual abuse within a family. Strategies to escape it.
• Family violence in the last decade. Has it increased?
• The effect of setting very high expectations for members of the family.
• Family values: Should they be strict or flexible?
• Different types of relationships within a family.
• Putting life together after a natural disaster.
• Accepting children from a previous marriage into your family.
• How to meet a crisis as a family
• The issue of gender discrimination within a family.
• Gender roles and expectations of the family
• Coping with unpleasant secrets of your family
• The pressure of inheriting a family business and the impact on children and younger members of the family.
• Balancing between family support and allowing young adults to live their lives on their own.
• How involved should the family be in one’s career?
• The absence of love within a family
• Helping a family member in distress.
• Unwanted activities that modern families engage in
• Accepting the transition of children into adult lives.

Family Life Education Topics for Research

Among the many family and marriage topics for discussion, family life education is an important concept that presents a huge scope for research.

• The objectives of family life education
• The importance of family life education
• The primary principles of family life education
• The practices of family life education and their importance in effective outreach.
• How family life education can improve moral codes in young adults
• The importance of family life education in developing a good personality in adolescents
• Complementing parent education with family life education.
• How family life education can fill the gap when parents abdicate responsibilities.
• The three behavioural needs for family planning.
• Importance of setting priorities when planning a family.
• Resources that teen parents need for effective parenting.
• Tools to build resilience in teen parents
• Family life education and psychology
• Family life education and social work.
• The 10 contents of family life education.
• Family life education is one of the most flexible fields of sociology. Your comments.
• Family life education to help problem teens cope in college or school.
• The role of family life education in decision making among family members.
• Write in detail about a decision making model that youth can benefit from when it comes to family planning decisions.
• Skill application in family planning.
• Parenting classes: A modern trend or a necessity for new parents?
• Identifying personal attitude and belief in teen parenting.
• How family life education contributes to overall well being and growth of a family.
• Assessing knowledge levels of adolescent girls with respect to issues in family life education.
• The key areas of study of family life education.
• Differences in rural and urban approach to family life education.
• How to set up an effective intervention plan when dealing with family life education crisis
• The challenges of parents with adolescent parents.
• Using family life education to teach teens about balancing between responsibility and freedom.
• Critical interests of preschool children
• Stimulating growth and development of preschool children.
• The right time to plan for a second child.
• Adjusting to the ‘Empty Nest Syndrome’.
• Importance of family life education in reproductive health.
• Population education versus family life education.

Sociology of Family Research Topics

Family structures are an important part of studying sociology. Here are trending sociology research topics on family to help you ace your papers.

• Unconventional family structures in the modern world.
• Child behaviour and the impact of parents on it.
• Child abuse and its long term effects
• The impact of cross-racial adoption
• The challenges of cross-racial adoption
• Differences in family structures across ethnic groups and races
• How single parenting impacts the life of children.
• The impact on children when couples live apart.
• The impact on family structure when couples live apart.
• Family and its involvement in community
• The role of the community in changing family structures.
• Different household structures within families
• The earner-carer family model
• The need for dual earner couples
• The evolution of household structures within families
• The importance of dividing household labour within a family.
• What is family demography?
• Effective ways of dealing with family conflicts
• What is maternalism?
• The changing approach to filial responsibility
• Effective family migration planning
• The challenges faced by immigrant families.
• Examples of matriarchal family structures across the globe.
• The changing roles of a woman in a family.
• The changing roles of a man in a family.
• Effective ways to manage money within a family
• The important parental roles in deciding the outcomes for children.
• Sibling relationships at different ages.
• Dealing with stepfamilies.
• Challenges faced by stepmothers and how to overcome them?
• Challenges faced by stepfathers and how to overcome them?
• The concept of sibling ties.
• Causes for increase in female householders
• Deteriorating economic circumstances of men and the impact on family structures.
• Cohabitation and a decline in marriage.

Popular Research Topics on Gay Marriage

With the legalization of same sex marriage in many countries while some still remain in conflict, there are several gay marriage topics that you can write about.

• Should the government have a say in marital decisions?
• Why is gay marriage illegal in some countries?
• The importance of legalizing same sex marriages.
• The social challenges faced by same sex couples.
• How to help a member of the family who has come out of the closet.
• Accepting same sex marriage with a family.
• How to support family members who belong the LGBTQ community?
• The effect of same gender parents on the social life of a child.
• Challenges faced by gay couples with adoption.
• Can gay couples provide the same parenting structure as straight couples?
• Common marriage and family issues for gay people.
• Differences between a heterosexual marriage and same sex marriage.
• Do same gender couples make fit partners? The common consensus.
• The limitations imposed by the law on same sex couples.
• The importance of marriage for gay couples
• Divorce among gay couples. Is it harder to get professional assistance?
• Legalising same sex marriage and the impact on psychological well-being.
• Impact of same sex marriage on the society.
• Are changing contours of family making it easier to accept gay and lesbian marriages?
• Legal decisions affecting children of same sex parents.
• Anticipatory minority as a stressor among same sex couples.
• Civil Union versus same sex marriage.
• Defining household structures in same sex homes.
• Potential differences in the political attitude between heterosexual and homosexual couples.
• Child development and homosexual parenthood.
• The differences in social challenges of a gay marriage and lesbian marriage.
• Emotion work in gay, lesbian and heterosexual relationships.
• Same sex civil partnership and its impact of health.
• How same sex marriage impacts the understanding of same sex relationship.
• A sociological perspective on the legal recognition of same sex marriages.
• Perspectives of gay and lesbian marriages across the globe.
• Czech lesbian activism. Explain some of the significant events.
• Safety concerns for same sex couples in the society.
• The psychology of children of same sex couples.
• Domestic violence in same sex marriages.

Marriage and Family Therapy Research Topics

Whether it is research paper on relationships, marriage or family structure, therapy and counselling plays an important role in today’s world. Here are some topics that are trending and relevant.

• Stress and its impact on family or marriage counselling.
• Qualities of a good family therapist.
• The role of pre-marriage counselling in strengthening relationships.
• Techniques of family therapy
• The key concepts of family therapy
• Objectives of marriage and family therapy
• Living with a family member who has mental health issues
• Providing family support to members with mental health issues.
• Importance of family therapy in the sociology of family.
• The emergence of family therapy as an identifiable field of psychology.
• Family therapy and its importance in social work.
• Child guidance and mental health
• Family systems model of therapy.
• Improving communication patterns within family through counselling.
• The concept of function and purpose of symptoms.
• The circular causation model of family therapy.
• Recognizing structural characteristics of families through therapy
• The increasing need for family and marriage therapy.
• How family therapy can help cope with members who are addicted to substances.
• Family therapy and child sexual abuse.
• Family therapy versus marriage counselling.
• Non systemic postmodernist models of family therapy.
• The challenges faced by family therapists.
• Factors that limit the scope of family therapy.
• History of professional marriage and family therapy.
• The evolving treatment of gender in family therapy.
• The evolving treatment of sexual orientation in family therapy.
• The perspective of family and marriage therapy among various ethnic groups.
• The need for counselling for children of divorce.
• Family therapy to help deal with loss of family members.
• Family therapy to cope with terminally ill family members.
• Significant models of family therapy in the modern world.
• Important research papers on family therapy.
• The pioneers of family and marriage counselling.
• Changes in psychiatry and its role in the development of family therapy.
• The contributions of Harry Stack Sullivan to family therapy.
• Factors that contribute the positive mental health among family members.
• The impact of cultural systems on the understanding of family dynamics.
• Family therapy and its integration into family medicine.
• Common treatment protocols in family therapy.

Divorce Topics For Research Paper

Because of the social and emotional impact that it has, divorce is among the most important marriage topics for discussion.

• Study of abusive and toxic relationships within a family.
• The causes for increasing divorce rates.
• Perception of divorce among different ethnicities.
• The impact of culture on the perception of divorce.
• Marriage counselling as an effective way of preventing divorce
• The trauma of child custody battles
• The impact of child custody battles on the child.
• The social perspective of divorced couples.
• Raising children as a divorced couple.
• A study on family violence
• The changing perspective of marriage among children of divorce.
• The impact of divorce on the social lives of children.
• Sociological consequences of divorce.
• Changing patterns and trends of divorce
• Is divorce a social problem?
• The negative consequences of divorce
• The positive consequences of divorce
• The economical consequences of divorce
• How divorce impacts your social circle.
• The impact of increasing divorce rates on society.
• Ideological considerations of divorce
• The process of marital breakdown.

Family Law Topics for Research

Here is a list of family law topics that have a good scope for data collection so that you can present an impressive paper.

• Shared residence orders versus single residence orders.
• The need for reform and alteration in family laws in your country.
• Relationships, family and the law
• Reform in the cohabitation law.
• The Children Act of 1989 and its importance in Family Law.
• Extending civil marriage availability to same sex couples. Write your views for and against this topic.
• Laws regarding non-conjugal relationships.
• The role of family law in determining the boundaries of marriage.
• Child relocation and the laws associated with it
• Divorce decisions based on the Principles of Fairness
• The matrimonial cause act of 1973. Discuss its importance and the evolution.
• Discuss three family laws that may be irrelevant in the modern world.
• Why is it necessary to establish family laws?
• The Piglowska versus Piglowski case of 1999 and its impact on divorce law decisions.
• The role of religion on divorce laws.
• Providing legal support to make victims of domestic abuse.
• Why are child protection laws important?
• The legal aspects of family welfare and social work.
• Intervention of the State or authorities in families where children are abused or neglected.
• Termination of parental rights in case of neglect or abuse. Is it the right approach?
• Family laws about inheritance.
• The changing laws of adoption.
• A comparison of family laws in the West and the East.
• Are family laws more liberal in the West?
• Is the concept of alimony redundant in today’s world?
• The need for legal validation of relationships.
• Should women receive child support even if they are financially stable?
• Is it correct for one parent to withhold visitation rights of the other?
• Challenges faced by family lawyers.

Family Bible Study Topics of Research

Religion is a primary construct in the family structure. Here are some best rated family bible study topics that you can choose from:

• Family bible study and its role in establishing values with a family.
• How to use family bible study to improve the personality of adolescents.
• The role of family bible study in increasing bonding between family members.
• Is family bible study necessary in the modern world?
• How the church positively influences the family structure.
• Some family theories and concepts from the bible that are relevant even today?
• Some outdated concepts of family that are mentioned in the bible that do not fit into modern society.
• How family bible study impacts marriages and relationships.
• Family bible study and why it is important for children to start young.
• Family bible study and its role in improving behaviour of family members.
• Interesting ideas to make family bible study relevant and interesting.

It is common for students to often get busy with other subjects and not find ample time to either shortlist the topics or write the research paper . In such scenarios it is best to take help from a reliable writing service like ours. Whether it is topic selection or writing help with the essay, we can offer it all. Don’t be afraid to get research paper help from our professional writers! Our team is experienced in handling an array of writing works for students of different educational backgrounds. We offer plagiarism free and well written submissions that suit every budget. For any help with a research paper about marriage and family, get in touch with our professional writers today. Contact us with a “ do my research paper for me ” request for quality assistance. Get high quality and affordable papers written by experts in the field to increase your grades and present an informative and interesting paper on the subject.  

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• 90 Fresh Sociology Research Topics on Family

In some schools, the teachers or lecturers may pick sociology research topics about family for them. In other schools, they allow their students to choose their own topics. While choosing your own topic is a fun thing to do, sometimes, you just may be at a loss in picking the right topic. Most times, this is because every topic you have thought about has been already picked.

If that student is you, you do not have to worry. In this article, you will be getting 90 sociology of the family research topics to choose from. Whether they be sociology research topics on marriage, parenthood, or childhood, there is something here for you.

Sociology Research Topics on Family

• Discuss the Structure of a 21st-century Family
• Discuss the Challenges of Family Migration
• Discuss the Needs of a Modern-Day Family
• Discuss the Impacts of Divorce on a Family
• Discuss the Role of the Parents in Raising Responsible Children
• Discuss How Parents and Teachers Can Work Together to Help Children
• Discuss the Challenges of Living on Alimony
• Discuss Child Support
• Discuss the Effects of Single-Parenting
• Discuss Dual Career Family
• Should a Couple Split the Bills 50:50?
• Discuss the Impact of a Miscarriage on a Family
• Discuss the Impact of Infant Mortality on a Family
• Discuss the Impact of a Spouse’s Death on a Family
• Discuss Ethnic Diversity in a Family
• Discuss Religious Diversity in a Family
• Discuss Personality Clashes in a Family
• Discuss the Rebellion of a Child in a Family
• How to Resolve Family Conflict
• Discuss the Choice and Effect of Abortion in a Family
• Discuss Family Planning
• Discuss Domestic Violence in a Family
• Discuss Violence on Children in a Family
• Discuss Parental Neglect
• Discuss Family Therapy
• Discuss the Role of the Father in a Family
• Discuss the Role of the Mother in a Family
• Discuss the Role of the Children in a Family
• Discuss Favouritism in a Family
• Write About Infidelity in a Marriage
• Discuss Homosexual Marriages
• Discuss the Effects of Separation in a Family
• Discuss the Place of Intimacy in a Family
• Discuss the Impact of Having a Large Family
• Discuss the Impact of Having a Small Family
• Discuss Love and Commitment
• Compare Divorce Rates in Past and Recent Times
• Discuss Patriarchy in the Family
• Discuss Matriarchy in the Family
• Discuss How a Family Can be Financially Responsible
• Discuss Motherhood
• Discuss Fatherhood
• Discuss Childhood
• Discuss the Effects of Remarriage on the Children
• Discuss Step-family
• Discuss the Relationship of Siblings in a Family
• Discuss Long-distance Marriage
• Discuss the Ideal American Family
• Discuss Personal Identity in a Family
• Discuss the Importance of Helping Out in the Home
• Discuss Intermarriage
• Discuss Exogamy
• Discuss the Role of the Family in Teaching the Children Sex Education
• Discuss the Effects of Having a Family Member in Prison
• Discuss the Role of Formal Education in a Family
• Discuss the Effects of a Family’s Decision to Homeschool Their Kids
• Discuss Depression in a Family
• When Society Ostracizes a Family
• Discuss the Suicide of a Family Member on a Family
• Discuss Division of Inheritance in a Family
• How Children See Their Parents as Role Models
• The Reasons a Family Could Split
• How Families Can Help Their Queer Children
• How Parents Can Help Their Children Overcome Traumas
• The Importance of Family Support
• What Roles Parents Play in Their Children’s Misbehaviour

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Sociology Research Questions About Family

• How Can Parents Help Their Teenagers to Prevent Pregnancy?
• How Can Parents Help Their Teenagers to Prevent Sexually Transmitted Infections?
• Should Parents Encourage Their Teenagers to Get an Abortion?
•  Is Marriage Necessary in the 21st-century?
• How Can Parents Help Their Children Overcome Addiction?
• What Can Parents do About Deviant Behaviour in Their Children?
• How Can Parents Help Their Children Overcome Abuse?
• Why is it Necessary for Children to Take Over Family Businesses?
• What are the Effects of Having Two Fathers?
• What are the Effects of Having Two Mothers?
• What are the Roles of Grandparents in a Family?
• Can Equality Exist in a Family?
• What is Family Inheritance?
• What is Family Law?
• Do Vacations Truly Help Couples Bond?
• What are the Impacts of House-husband?
• What are the Impacts of Being A Housewife?
• Should Polygamy be Encouraged in Today’s Society?
• What are the Effects of Endogamy?
• How Can Parents Prevent Bullying?
• When Should a Couple Consider Divorce?
• What is Care-work in a Family?
• What are the Dangers of Cohabitation?
• What Should the Standard Size of A Nuclear Family be?

With these sociology research topics on family, you no longer have to worry about thinking hard to come up with a topic. Simply pick a topic from the list and write.

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Common family issues & how to deal with them, from experts.

No family is perfect, but for people whose family life has never been outright "bad," it can be tricky to spot family issues as they arise. Family problems are much more than abuse or addiction, for example, and include a host of different things that affect every member of a family. Here's how to spot family issues and deal with them, according to experts.

What are family issues? 

Family problems or issues include any sort of dynamic, behavior, and/or pattern that disrupts the household or family at large. They can range from smaller, more common challenges like clashing personalities or divvying up household chores, to more intense issues like having a narcissistic parent , abuse, or intergenerational trauma, according to licensed psychotherapist  Babita Spinelli, L.P.

The main thing with any family issue is that it creates stress and tension within the family, which in turn negatively affects the members of that family, particularly if there are young children involved.

Types of family issues:

Clashing and/or toxic personalities.

Starting off basic, it's far from uncommon for a family to have clashing personalities. Perhaps siblings don't get along with one another, or one child doesn't get along with one or both parents, psychotherapist  Annette Nuñez, Ph.D., LMFT, tells mbg.

This can go a big step further when you're dealing with someone who displays narcissistic tendencies or other toxic traits , Spinelli adds, which introduces a bunch of other issues into the family unit, such as gaslighting or explosive fighting.

Poor communication

Nuñez and Spinelli both note that lack of open and healthy communication is at the root of many more general family problems. As Spinelli explains, if it's really difficult to actually speak to a family member, if there are trust issues , if they dismiss you, or issues get swept under the rug, those are all family issues surrounding communication.

Heavy pressure from parents

Perfectionism within a family can have extremely negative effects on children and their self-worth. As Nuñez notes, when parents shame or dictate how children should feel or be, it can take a toll on their ability to grow as individuals. "Parents do need to have some boundaries but not when it gets to the point where it's emotionally abusive," she explains.

Things like conditional love, or a deep sense of pressure to meet the expectations of your family, indicate some family issues, Spinelli adds. It could even lead to what's known as golden child syndrome .

Different parenting styles

One of the biggest hurdles of parenting as a couple is figuring out how to combine your parenting styles in an effective way. When you can't, it can cause some problems.

"It can cause a lot of tension when parents aren't on the same page with parenting," Nuñez tells mbg. And if you're dealing with extended family, Spinelli adds, having the input of in-laws when it comes to your parenting can also cause some problems.

So many families will deal with challenges surrounding finances, budgeting, and employment. Spinelli says money problems can include one parent making all the money and feeling burdened, not having enough basic funds for what you need, generational issues around poverty or gambling, and so much more. Money touches most areas of our life, and if there are issues here, the effects will be felt within any family.

Managing the household

It might seem juvenile, but chores really matter. If one person is carrying the weight of maintaining the household , that's a lot of responsibility and pressure. Nuñez notes it's important for household labor to be divided up in a fair and age-appropriate way, so one parent doesn't feel taken advantage of, and children begin learning how to take care of themselves.

Unchecked addiction or mental health issues

If a parent (or even a child) is dealing with mental health issues or addiction, that can cause a huge rift within a family unit. It's important for those things to not only be addressed but also talked about in an open and honest way.

As Nuñez explains, "If a parent feels like they're hiding mental illness or any type of substance abuse from a child, kids pick up on that. They pick up on those nonverbal cues of inconsistency, and children do need consistency to have a strong family foundation and feel secure."

Constant arguing

If you grew up thinking constant arguing was normal, according to Spinelli, it's very much not. "Some people don't realize that the constant bickering and arguing is actually an issue—they're just so used to it. They don't realize that when there's yelling or screaming and arguing, that actually creates stress and tension."

It's not uncommon, but yes, divorce certainly does disrupt a family unit and can cause problems when it's swept under the rug. "You'd be surprised how many people haven't processed divorce in the family," Spinelli says, adding, "It really does impact how you see relationships, and models fears around relationships, and often people don't even talk about it in the family."

While it can be hard to avoid, distance within a family can cause a lot of issues around expectations and boundaries, according to Spinelli. For example, as the holidays approach, there are often arguments around who's visiting whom, why someone has decided not to visit that year, and so on, she explains.

Codependency

" Codependency comes in all shapes and sizes," Spinelli tells mbg. While some instances of codependency are mild, the more enmeshment you find within a family, the more the individual members of that family will have a hard time distinguishing their own wants, needs, and desires, she says.

Scheduling conflicts

Nuñez notes that another common family issue is scheduling conflicts. If one or more family members has a busy schedule, it can be hard to connect together and make time for each other. This can look like one parent who works long hours and is rarely home during the day, or issues with scheduling as children get more involved with extracurriculars, she explains.

Intergenerational trauma

Last but not least, intergenerational trauma is a huge, often unaddressed family problem that stems back through generations. According to Spinelli, if past generations experienced things like extreme poverty, racial trauma, sudden death, addiction, mental health issues, and so much more, all of that can be passed down through generations.

"If something has happened in the previous generation, and that family member never dealt with it, that fight-or-flight and what they went through seeps into the other family members," Spinelli says.

How family issues affect us.

There are so many ways all of the aforementioned family issues can affect the members of that family, particularly children in their formative years of life. For example, "Children may start having behavioral issues, which then in return causes parents to get upset and the kids act out more," Nuñez explains. And that's just one more immediate example.

Our childhood experiences play out in adulthood through attachment wounds , as we bring those dysfunctional patterns into our adult relationships, she adds. "Let's say a parent leaves at a developmental age where a child needs a parent, for example. That brings up abandonment issues ," she notes.

Overall, a significant number of unaddressed family issues can make people feel that they don't have true safety in their lives, Spinelli says. "It's going to lead into attachment issues. Maybe they've dealt with abuse, neglect, abandonment, which has created an insecure attachment . They may also become an avoidant because they've never been modeled unconditional love by their primary caregiver," she explains.

Signs of family issues:

• Difficulty with open, honest, and healthy communication
• Frequent fights or bickering
• Frequent yelling and screaming
• Passive-aggressive behavior
• An absent parent or parents (physically and/or emotionally)
• Abuse of any kind (physical, emotional, and/or verbal abuse )
• Codependent behavior and/or enmeshment
• Struggles around finances or employment
• Perfectionism or high standards within the family
• Disagreements on household chores, parenting styles, etc.
• Tension in the household for no clear reason
• Difficulty trusting family members

What to do if you're dealing with family issues:

Identify what the specific issue is..

If you're getting the sense that you're dealing with some family dysfunction, the first thing you'll want to do is get clear on what specifically you're dealing with. Is it controlling parents ? Scheduling conflicts? Lack of communication?

Whatever the issue, Nuñez and Spinelli both note recognizing it is the first step. From there, you can begin processing how you want to bring it up to your family members, which brings us to our next point.

Talk about it.

Nothing gets solved by sweeping it under the rug, and family issues are no exception. Nuñez and Spinelli both say you'll want to address any issues weighing on your mind, even if it's not easy.

"Give yourself permission to say 'Hey, I feel angry or resentful, and I need to talk about this,'" Spinelli says. And as Nuñez notes, you can soften the blow using language that's not directed at them, opting for "I" statements, rather than "you" statements (i.e., "I feel sad when you miss dinner," instead of "You always miss dinner; you're so inconsiderate.")

Nuñez also adds that it's a good idea to pick a low-stress time when you can give each other your undivided attention and energy. (So, probably not around the holidays.)

Consider seeking professional help.

Once you've aired out some of your concerns, it may be necessary to ask for the help of a professional. Whether you opt for individual therapy, couples' therapy , or family therapy is up to you and your family, but any of them can certainly help in understanding how family problems have affected you—and how to deal with them.

"And even if a family doesn't go to therapy, it's important for every person to feel like they have a voice in their family, and to speak up, and to really voice what they need within that unit," Nuñez says.

Set boundaries.

And last but certainly not least, when all else fails, boundaries with family are a necessity in keeping a family dynamic as healthy as possible for everyone. "Really think about the ways you can set boundaries and give yourself permission," Spinelli says.

Whether you opt out of going to every family gathering, keep your distance from family members who make you uncomfortable or angry, or simply tell a family member when their behavior is unacceptable to you, Spinelli says you're completely in your right to do so.

The bottom line.

No family is without a little dysfunction. After all, it was spiritual icon Ram Dass who once said, "'If you think you're enlightened, go spend a week with your family."

But no matter how many problems your family seems to be facing, all it takes is one of you to identify the problems at hand, work through them, and break the chain for future generations.

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Family Law Research Paper Topics

This page explores family law research paper topics , designed to assist law students in their academic pursuits. It provides a comprehensive list of topics divided into 10 categories, each containing 10 subject ideas, along with an insightful article on family law and its research paper possibilities. Additionally, readers will find guidance on selecting appropriate research topics, essential tips for crafting exceptional papers, and information about iResearchNet’s custom writing services.

100 Family Law Research Paper Topics

In the realm of family law, the breadth of topics is as diverse as the intricacies of familial relationships themselves. From the dissolution of marriages and custody battles to the protection of vulnerable family members, family law encompasses a wide range of legal issues that are vital to the fabric of society. For students pursuing legal studies, delving into family law research paper topics presents an opportunity to explore the complexities of human connections and the evolving nature of family dynamics. In this comprehensive section, we present a curated list of family law research paper topics, organized into ten categories, each offering ten unique and thought-provoking subjects. Whether you are a law student seeking inspiration for your research or a curious mind eager to understand the intricate facets of family law, this collection promises to illuminate the vast landscape of this compelling legal discipline.

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Marriage and Divorce:

• The impact of no-fault divorce on the institution of marriage.
• Analyzing the rise of gray divorce and its social implications.
• Legal challenges and remedies for enforcing prenuptial agreements.
• A comparative study of marriage and divorce laws in different jurisdictions.
• The role of religious law in divorce proceedings and its interaction with state law.
• The impact of cohabitation on marriage laws and rights.
• Exploring the concept of legal separation as an alternative to divorce.
• The effects of social media on divorce proceedings and evidence gathering.
• Analyzing the division of property and assets in high-net-worth divorces.
• The role of family counseling and therapy in divorce cases.

Child Custody and Support:

• Exploring the best interests of the child standard in child custody cases.
• The influence of gender stereotypes in child custody determinations.
• Assessing the effectiveness of child support enforcement mechanisms.
• The legal rights and challenges faced by non-biological parents in custody battles.
• The impact of parental relocation on child custody arrangements.
• Analyzing the role of child custody evaluations in court proceedings.
• The effects of parental alienation on child custody and visitation rights.
• The role of grandparents’ rights in child custody disputes.
• Examining the rights of unmarried fathers in child custody cases.
• The impact of substance abuse on parental rights and child custody.

Domestic Violence and Protection Orders:

• Analyzing the role of law enforcement in responding to domestic violence incidents.
• The effectiveness of restraining orders in preventing domestic abuse.
• The intersection of family law and criminal law in cases of domestic violence.
• The role of community resources in supporting victims of domestic violence.
• The impact of domestic violence on child custody determinations.
• Analyzing the correlation between substance abuse and domestic violence.
• The role of mandatory reporting laws in domestic violence cases.
• The impact of technology on domestic violence and cyberstalking.
• Examining the rights of same-sex couples in domestic violence cases.
• The role of restorative justice in addressing domestic violence.

Adoption and Surrogacy:

• The legal complexities of international adoption and its impact on the adoptive family.
• The ethical and legal implications of commercial surrogacy arrangements.
• The challenges faced by LGBTQ+ individuals in the adoption process.
• Analyzing the rights and responsibilities of biological and adoptive parents.
• The evolving legal landscape of surrogacy in modern society.
• The impact of open adoption on birth parents, adoptive parents, and the child.
• The role of adoption agencies and facilitators in the adoption process.
• Exploring the rights of adoptees to access their birth records.
• The legal and ethical considerations of international surrogacy arrangements.
• The impact of adoption subsidies and financial incentives on adoption rates.

Same-Sex Marriage and LGBTQ+ Rights:

• The journey towards marriage equality and its impact on LGBTQ+ families.
• Legal challenges faced by same-sex couples in adopting children.
• The protection of LGBTQ+ rights in the context of religious freedom.
• Analyzing the impact of legal recognition on same-sex relationships and families.
• A comparative study of LGBTQ+ rights and protections in different countries.
• The role of family law in recognizing non-binary and gender nonconforming individuals.
• Examining the rights of LGBTQ+ individuals in assisted reproductive technologies.
• The impact of conversion therapy bans on LGBTQ+ youth and families.
• The legal implications of discrimination based on sexual orientation in family law.
• Exploring the rights of LGBTQ+ individuals in elder care and end-of-life decisions.

Child Protection and Welfare:

• The role of child protective services in safeguarding children’s well-being.
• The legal and ethical implications of removing children from their homes.
• Analyzing the effectiveness of family preservation programs in child welfare.
• The intersection of family law and child protection in cases of neglect and abuse.
• Examining the rights of children in foster care and group homes.
• The impact of the opioid epidemic on child welfare and custody cases.
• The role of the juvenile justice system in addressing child maltreatment.
• The rights of immigrant and refugee children in child protection proceedings.
• The impact of social and economic factors on child welfare outcomes.

Elder Law and Aging:

• The legal and ethical implications of elder abuse and neglect.
• The role of legal guardianship and conservatorship in protecting vulnerable adults.
• Analyzing the impact of healthcare decision-making laws on aging populations.
• The challenges of providing long-term care and support for aging adults.
• The impact of age discrimination laws on employment and retirement.
• Examining the rights of LGBTQ+ seniors and their access to legal protections.
• The role of advanced directives and living wills in end-of-life decisions.
• The legal rights and challenges faced by aging adults in family disputes.
• The impact of housing laws and policies on the elderly population.
• Analyzing the intersection of family law and elder law in inheritance and estate planning.

International Family Law:

• The challenges of cross-border marriages and divorce proceedings.
• Analyzing the role of international treaties and conventions in family law cases.
• The legal and cultural complexities of international child abduction cases.
• The impact of immigration laws on family reunification and separation.
• Examining the recognition and enforcement of foreign family law judgments.
• The role of international adoption laws and policies in protecting children’s rights.
• Analyzing the legal challenges faced by binational and multicultural families.
• The impact of international surrogacy arrangements on parentage and citizenship.
• The role of international organizations in promoting family law harmonization.
• Exploring the jurisdictional conflicts in international family law disputes.

Mediation and Alternative Dispute Resolution:

• The role of mediation in resolving family law disputes and promoting cooperation.
• Analyzing the effectiveness of alternative dispute resolution methods in divorce cases.
• The impact of court-ordered mediation on family law proceedings.
• The role of family law attorneys as mediators in conflict resolution.
• Examining the rights and autonomy of parties in family law mediation.
• The use of collaborative law in addressing complex family law matters.
• Analyzing the cultural and ethical considerations in family law mediation.
• The impact of online mediation platforms on access to justice in family law.
• The challenges and benefits of enforcing mediated agreements in family law cases.
• Exploring the role of restorative justice principles in family law disputes.

Family Law and Social Justice:

• Analyzing the intersectionality of family law with race, gender, and socioeconomic status.
• The impact of family law policies on marginalized and vulnerable populations.
• Examining the rights of immigrant families and access to legal protections.
• The role of family law in addressing the needs of individuals with disabilities.
• The impact of family law reforms on social and economic inequality.
• Analyzing the role of family law in addressing domestic violence and trauma.
• The challenges and opportunities of culturally competent family law practice.
• The impact of family law on indigenous and tribal communities.
• The role of family law in promoting gender equality and women’s rights.
• Exploring the potential for transformative family law reforms to advance social justice.

As we conclude our comprehensive list of family law research paper topics, we hope to have sparked your curiosity and ignited a passion for exploring the legal complexities that govern familial relationships. Family law plays a pivotal role in shaping the lives of individuals and families, and research in this field has the power to drive transformative change and improve the lives of countless individuals. Whether you choose to explore the nuances of child custody battles, delve into the ethical considerations of adoption and surrogacy, or analyze the impact of family law on social justice, your research endeavors will contribute to a deeper understanding of the challenges and opportunities faced by families in today’s society. As you embark on your journey of exploration, remember that each topic in family law offers a gateway to insights, empathy, and a profound understanding of the human experience. We encourage you to select a topic that resonates with your interests and values, and embark on a research journey that has the potential to leave a lasting impact on the lives of individuals and families alike.

Family Law: Exploring the Range of Research Paper Topics

Family law, a fundamental branch of legal practice, holds paramount importance in society as it governs the intricate relationships and dynamics within families. It deals with a myriad of legal issues that arise from marriages, divorces, child custody, adoption, domestic violence, and more. Family law is deeply intertwined with the human experience, shaping the lives of individuals and families alike. In this article, we will delve into the significance of family law and explore the vast range of research paper topics it encompasses.

The Significance of Family Law

Family law plays an indispensable role in the legal system, seeking to protect the rights and interests of individuals within the context of family relationships. One of the primary focuses of family law is marriage, where it plays a crucial role in regulating the formal union between two individuals and outlining their rights and obligations as spouses. Additionally, family law is instrumental in handling divorce cases, addressing the legal dissolution of marriages, division of assets, alimony, and child custody arrangements. By providing a legal framework for these sensitive matters, family law aims to mitigate conflicts and ensure fair outcomes for all parties involved.

Another vital aspect of family law is child custody and support, which aims to safeguard the best interests of children during and after divorce or separation. Determining custody arrangements and establishing child support payments can be emotionally charged and complex, necessitating the involvement of legal professionals to ensure the welfare of the children.

Moreover, family law encompasses the realm of adoption, offering guidance on the legal process of establishing parental rights for adoptive parents and ensuring the well-being of adopted children. Adoption presents an array of legal and ethical considerations, making it a compelling area of research within family law.

The complexities of family law extend to addressing instances of domestic violence and abuse. Legal interventions such as restraining orders and protective measures aim to safeguard victims and provide them with the necessary support and protection from abusive situations.

Exploring Research Paper Topics in Family Law

The wide-ranging scope of family law provides a plethora of research opportunities for law students and scholars alike. Research in family law can delve into various thought-provoking topics, such as the impact of no-fault divorce laws on family dynamics, the legal complexities of surrogacy agreements, or the role of mediation in resolving family law disputes. Scholars can also examine the evolving nature of family structures, the protection of LGBTQ+ rights within the context of family law, or the legal measures in place to protect minors from early and forced marriages.

Family law research extends beyond legal boundaries and intersects with other areas, allowing for interdisciplinary exploration. Researchers can investigate how family law intersects with immigration law in cases involving international adoption or divorce, or how criminal law is involved in cases of domestic violence.

The Evolving Nature of Family Law

Family law is an ever-evolving field, reflecting changing societal norms, values, and legal precedents. As new challenges emerge, such as advancements in reproductive technologies and evolving definitions of family structures, family law continually adapts to address these issues.

Additionally, cultural, social, and economic factors significantly influence family law. Variations in legal systems across different countries and regions present unique research opportunities to compare and contrast family law practices worldwide.

Family law stands as a critical pillar of the legal system, touching upon the most intimate aspects of individuals’ lives. The diverse range of research paper topics within family law provides students and researchers with the opportunity to delve into complex legal, ethical, and social issues. From examining the evolving nature of family structures to addressing the challenges of child custody and domestic violence, family law research contributes to the betterment of families and society as a whole. As students and scholars embark on their research journeys in family law, they have the potential to unravel the intricacies of human relationships and make meaningful contributions to the field of law and beyond.

How to Choose Family Law Research Paper Topics

Selecting an engaging and relevant research paper topic is crucial for a successful exploration of family law. With its vast scope and ever-evolving nature, family law offers a plethora of fascinating subjects to explore. However, the abundance of options can sometimes be overwhelming. In this section, we will provide valuable insights and tips to help you navigate the process of choosing the perfect family law research paper topic that aligns with your interests and academic goals.

• Identify Your Interests : Begin by identifying areas of family law that genuinely interest you. Reflect on the topics covered in your coursework, discussions, or previous research. Is there a particular aspect of family law that sparked your curiosity? Choosing a topic that aligns with your passions will not only make the research process enjoyable but also result in a more compelling and insightful paper.
• Stay Updated on Current Issues : Family law is a dynamic field that responds to societal changes and emerging issues. Stay updated on current developments, recent court decisions, and legislative changes related to family law. Exploring contemporary issues in your research paper can add relevance and significance to your work.
• Review Existing Literature : Before finalizing your research topic, conduct a thorough review of existing literature in family law. Familiarize yourself with key theories, landmark cases, and scholarly publications. This step will not only help you gain insights into potential research gaps but also assist you in formulating a unique perspective for your paper.
• Narrow Down Your Focus : With the abundance of topics in family law, narrowing down your focus is essential. Consider the scope of your research and the resources available for your study. A well-defined and focused research question will enable you to delve deeper into the subject matter and produce a more coherent and impactful paper.
• Consider Interdisciplinary Approaches : Family law intersects with various other fields, such as sociology, psychology, economics, and public policy. Consider adopting an interdisciplinary approach to your research, as this can enrich your analysis and provide a comprehensive understanding of complex family law issues.
• Consult with Professors and Experts : If you find yourself undecided about a research topic, don’t hesitate to seek guidance from your professors or experts in family law. They can offer valuable insights and suggest potential research directions based on their expertise.
• Research Ethical Considerations : When selecting a family law research topic, be mindful of ethical considerations, especially when dealing with sensitive issues such as child custody, adoption, or domestic violence. Ensure that your research respects the privacy and dignity of individuals involved in the subject matter.
• Balance Originality and Feasibility : While it is essential to choose a unique and original research topic, consider the feasibility of conducting research within your available resources and timeframe. Striking a balance between originality and practicality is key to a successful research paper.
• Explore Comparative Family Law : Comparative family law offers an exciting avenue for research, allowing you to analyze family law practices across different jurisdictions and cultures. Exploring the similarities and differences in family law systems can lead to valuable insights and a broader understanding of the field.
• Seek Inspiration from Case Studies : Case studies can serve as excellent sources of inspiration for your research paper topics. Analyzing specific legal cases and their implications can provide a real-world context for your research and add depth to your analysis.

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Family Matters: Decade Review from Journal of Family and Economic Issues

Heather h. kelley.

1 Human Development and Family Studies, Utah State University, Logan, UT USA

Ashley B. LeBaron

2 Family Studies and Human Development, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ USA

E. Jeffrey Hill

3 School of Family Life, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT USA

This article reviews research regarding economic influences on a variety of family matters published in Journal of Family and Economic Issues from 2010 to 2019. As finances permeate nearly every facet of everyday life, scholarly research related to finances and family issues has spanned a wide array of topics. We briefly review research focused on the following 11 areas related to finances and family matters: (a) family formation decisions, (b) gender and relational power in family finances and relationships, (c) finances and fathers, (d) finances and mothers, (e) finances and parenting, (f) finances and elderly family members, (g) finances and couple relationships, (h) supporting family members financially, (i) how economic policy affects family, (j) economic roots of migration by family members, and (k) family financial socialization. As we enter a new decade, emphasis to directions for future research is given and integrated throughout. Recommendations specific to each of these topics are integrated into the discussion of the topic. Additional and more general recommendations for future research are offered as we conclude our review.

More than any other academic journal related to economic issues, family matters to the Journal of Family and Economic Issues (JFEI) . As can be seen by this decade review, finances matter for all kinds of family issues—to family formation decisions (e.g., Dew and Price 2011 ), to parenting (e.g., Schieman et al. 2018 ) and eldercare (e.g., Zuba and Schneider 2013 ), to couple relationships (Leavitt et al. 2019 ), etc. This influence is reciprocal: family matters for understanding economic issues and economic issues matter to families.

In this decade review we synthesize findings from 40 articles in the 2010s from JFEI that highlight ways that family matters to finances and ways that finances matter to families in ways beyond the other topics in this decade review. We also explore areas that are lacking in research and suggest future directions.

Finances and Family Formation Decisions

During the past decade, several articles addressed how economics and finances influence a variety of family formation decisions such as marriage and childbearing decisions. In terms of marriage decisions, Dew and Price ( 2011 ) used longitudinal data to study how emerging adults’ finances were associated with getting married. Their findings differed by whether or not the emerging adults cohabited prior to marriage. For emerging adults who cohabited, employment hours, occupational prestige, and (for women) savings predicted marriage. For emerging adults who did not cohabit before marriage, car value, consumer debt, and income predicted marriage. These findings support marital paradigms theory (Willoughby et al. 2015 , p. 195) which asserts that finances are a key facet of marital context (i.e., “beliefs an individual has regarding what individual, relational, and cultural context marriage should occur within, including beliefs about mate selection and personal readiness”). According to the theory, marital context is an important facet of beliefs about getting married, which beliefs are associated with behavior (i.e., getting married). These ideas are supported by a wealth of research (e.g., Mahay and Lewin 2007 ) which has found that many emerging adults believe that financial stability, financial independence, and even certain career goals are essential prerequisites to marriage. Given these beliefs and the disheartening state of current emerging adults’ finances (FINRA IEF 2013 ), the delay of and reduction in marriage (Stevenson and Wolfers 2007 ) is not surprising.

These widely held beliefs about financial stability as a prerequisite to family formation likely played a role in the findings of Brauner-Otto and Geist ( 2018 ). Their study explored financial predictors of childbearing expectations among emerging adults. They found that emerging adults with lower income, less education, and more worries about future job prospects were less certain that they would ever have children. For emerging adults who did expect to have children, those with more education and more worries about future job prospects expected to have children at a later age. Beliefs about family formation decisions seem to help explain the strong link between finances and family formation decisions.

The general economy seems to also affect family formation decisions. Salamaliki ( 2017 ) examined the effect of the economy on marriage and birth rates in Greece from 1960 to 2014. She found that changes in marriage and birth rates tend to follow changes in income and employment levels. That is, people are more likely to form families when the economy is good. She posited that the recent economic crisis in Greece has contributed to lower marriage and birth rates. It seems that on both micro and macro levels, financial stability is associated with family formation, while financial instability is associated with delay and reduction in family formation.

Research suggests that finance-related policy may also influence family formation decisions. Using longitudinal data, Groves and Lopoo ( 2018 ) examined how receipt of the Social Security Student Benefit Program (SSSBP) influenced age at first marriage and age at first childbirth. SSSBP was federal financial aid which offered children of disabled, retired, or deceased parents substantial higher education subsidies. Groves and Lopoo found that while receipt of this aid was not associated with family formation decisions for men, it was strongly associated with both a delay in marriage and a delay in childbearing for women. However, these women were no less likely to ever marry and ever have children than other women, rather, they were more likely to delay family formation until after obtaining higher education. Groves and Lopoo posited that a reason for this association was that marriage would have disqualified these women from receiving aid; thus, the conditions for aid receipt incentivized a delay in marriage.

With birth rates falling below replacement level in many industrialized countries (United Nations 2017 ), many governments have policies (e.g., tax deductions and credits, parental leave, subsidized childcare, etc.) which financially incentivize family formation (Peterson and Engwall 2016 ). However, not all individuals and couples choose to marry or have children. Peterson and Engwall conducted a qualitative study with voluntarily childless women and men in Sweden, a country with many child-friendly subsidies and policies. Although the voluntarily childless participants did not object to these subsidies and policies, they were frustrated with misuse and abuse of these subsidies and policies by some parents.

In some situations, family formation decisions can be harmful, such as teenage pregnancy. Using longitudinal data from American teenagers and their parents, Routon ( 2018 ) examined the occurrence and accuracy of parents’ predictions regarding the likelihood of their teenage children becoming pregnant. Although perceptions and their accuracy differed by socio-economic status (SES), race, and religion, he found that the average American parent slightly underestimated the likelihood of his/her teenage child becoming pregnant. However, some parents significantly underestimated this likelihood, and some parents significantly overestimated it. There are many negative outcomes associated with teenage pregnancy both for the teenage parents and their child (Casad et al. 2012 ; Jaffee et al. 2001 ). Given that these negative outcomes may be exacerbated by lack of accurate prediction of teenage pregnancy likelihood (Routon 2018 ), it may be important for future research to examine how this type of family formation is predicted by the beliefs and perceptions of both teenagers and their parents.

Also studying the family formation decisions of young people, Casad et al. ( 2012 ) focused on the effects that age at first childbirth has on mothers’ economic and psychological wellbeing later in life. They found that, later in life, younger first-time mothers tended to have less choice in their own employment status, have less education, have lower personal and household income, do more housework (and perceive a greater discrepancy between how much housework they did and how much they wished their spouses would do), have fewer coping skills, have lower self-esteem, and have lower life, job, and relationship satisfaction. In sum, mothers’ age at first childbirth was positively associated with many facets of economic and psychological wellbeing later in life. While children can provide many benefits to parents and society, the timing and context of the transition to parenthood are important considerations (Casad et al. 2012 ; Routon 2018 ). It is vital to empower women—for women to have the choice of, if, and when to have children—and to support mothers. As discussed more in the following section on gender and relational power, research on family formation decisions clearly connects to feminism. The “motherhood penalty” compared to the “fatherhood bonus” is just one example of how family formation decisions can negatively affect women in ways that men do not experience (Correll et al. 2007 ; Hodges and Budig 2010 ).

There is a need for future research to build upon this research in a way that fosters micro- and macro-level changes to increase the empowerment of women (including as they make family formation decisions) and the support of mothers. Additionally, in light of current conditions related to the COVID-19 pandemic, future research should also investigate the influence of its related economic implications on fertility decisions and rates, as past research has established a decrease in fertility rates during economic recessions (Sobotka et al. 2011 ). Such research should investigate not only the impact of COVID-19 on fertility rates, but should also investigate how fertility decisions influenced by COVID-19 influence marital and familial processes and wellbeing.

Gender and Relational Power in Family Finances and Relationships

As discussed above, the timing and context of family formation decisions matter, and how these decisions seem to both be influenced by women’s power (or lack of power) and in turn affect women’s power (or lack of power; Casad et al. 2012 ). Specifically, it seems that when women have their first child at a younger age, they tend to have less power later in life. This lack of power was also associated with family finances (i.e., lower personal and household income) and family relationships (i.e., lower relationship satisfaction). In many ways, gender and power are inseparably tied to money and family relationships (LeBaron et al. 2019a ).

One facet of family behaviors which are influenced by gender norms, relational power, and decision-making privilege is division of labor. Using a nationally representative sample of Canadian workers, Schieman et al. ( 2018 ) found that in dual-earner households, mothers do more parenting work than fathers (even after accounting for unequal division of housework). Further, this parenting inequality was associated with lower couple relationship quality, especially for mothers; this association was strongest for mothers who worked part-time because those mothers tended to wish they were working longer hours but were instead sacrificing work hours in order to do the bulk of parenting work. Indeed, Maume ( 2011 ) found that fathers spent more time with children on non-workdays than on workdays. However, fathers’ dependence on their wives’ income was associated with an increase in fathers’ time with children. These two studies together indicate that parents may be more likely to have high couple relationship wellbeing when they are more equitable in their division of labor. Additionally, research has found many benefits of father involvement for children, mothers, and for the fathers themselves (Schoppe-Sullivan and Fagan 2020 ).

One context in which women’s lack of power is particularly harmful for family relationships is intimate partner violence (IPV). Foster ( 2011 ) reviewed the literature on IPV, including false claims of IPV, and posited that in some countries governmental policies can encourage false claims of IPV. That said, IPV is widely prevalent in many parts of the world and is always destructive. Using a sample of Indian women, Dasgupta ( 2019 ) found a link between IPV and women’s beliefs about the acceptability of IPV. Specifically, she found that women who condone IPV are more likely to be victims of IPV. Although victims should never be in any way blamed for their abusive situation, unfortunately it seems that victims need to believe that themselves in order to escape their abusive situation. Dasgupta’s findings indicate that justification of violence and abuse by the victim can perpetuate the occurrence of violence and abuse. For these women, IPV seems to be a tragic cycle of being socialized to condone IPV and being victims of IPV:

Justification of marital violence by women, whether due to social conditioning or having low self-worth because of being abused repeatedly, reduces the likelihood of women seeking any help or fleeing the violent environment. This, in turn, increases the risk of women facing more episodes of violent spousal behavior in the future (Dasgupta 2019 , p. 655).

Dasgupta did find that the likelihood of IPV decreased as socio-economic status increased; however, while she was unable to establish why this is, she suggested it may be related to reduced financial stressors. Another explanation of this association is offered by Henke and Hsu ( 2018 ) who found that women’s education was negatively associated with being a victim of IPV. Education is vital to women’s empowerment because education increases knowledge, helps women find their voice, and opens opportunities for self-sufficiency and independence. In short, education brings power. For example, Zhang ( 2015 ) found that wives in China who had higher education and job prestige enjoyed more relational power and greater influence in decision making and were thus less likely to live with their in-laws. Therefore, it would follow that women who are educated would be less likely to condone IPV and more able to leave a violent or abusive situation.

To connect these findings with feminism, women sometimes lack power because of their position in a patriarchal society that tends to give power and privilege to men. This gender inequality is socially constructed and is harmful to individuals, families, and societies (Allen and Jaramillo-Sierra 2015 ). In order to eradicate gender inequality, most feminists are not interested in the disempowerment of men but rather in the empowerment of women. Women’s ability to be financially independent, which is closely tied to education, is another way to combat women’s lack of power in families (Meisenbach 2010 ). Within couple relationships, women’s financial power (e.g., access to money, influence in financial decision making, etc.) is positively associated with their relational power and is subsequently posiimmediate financial benefits. Finallytively associated with both partners’ relationship satisfaction and stability (LeBaron et al. 2019a ). Thus, financial power and relational power matter for family relationships. Given the strong links between gender, power, money, and family relationships, feminism should be used more frequently as an explicit theoretical framework in family finance research.

Finances and Fathers

In this section and the following sections on mothers and finances and parenting and finances, we touch briefly on issues related to work and family. As Molina (this issue) has compiled a review of research specifically focused on work and family from the past decade, we refrain from going into depth on work and family issues, and instead focus primarily on financial issues that impact families and only briefly address some topics and issues on the periphery of work and family research. Specifically related to fathers and finances, we address research from the past decade that has primarily focused on fathers’ financial support of their children and furthering understanding into fathers’ time spent engaging in childcare.

Hofferth et al.’s ( 2010 ) longitudinal study of over 1500 children found a strong positive association between child support and relationship quality between mothers and the nonresidential biological father, which was in turn positively associated with both the father’s and the mother’s involvement in their children’s lives. From these findings, the authors suggested that child support enforcement programs may benefit families above and beyond the important financial benefits, as such programs may both increase parental involvement and improve familial relationships. In another study, Madhavan et al. ( 2014 ) looked at father’s financial support of their children over the life course through a 20-year longitudinal survey of children in a Black, low-income community in South Africa. They found that, despite high unemployment rates and job insecurity that was common in this area, most children still received financial support from their fathers, either full or partial, from birth to adulthood. Even after a relationship dissolution, a large proportion of children continued to receive some financial support from their fathers. However, a surprising barrier to father’s financial support was the presence of extended kin in the mother’s home, suggesting that when looking at paternal involvement and support in children’s lives, in addition to considerations of maternal gatekeeping, kin gatekeeping may also be an important construct to consider.

The two studies together highlight the importance of longitudinal research in understanding fathers’ involvement as well as the need for more research that treats fathers’ financial support as a process and explores various and perhaps unexpected barriers to fathers’ financial support of their children. More research is also needed on the influences of father’s financial support that goes beyond the immediate financial benefits. Finally, these studies also demonstrated the importance of and need for more models of fathering that are specific to various racial, cultural, and SES groups.

Research during the past decade also worked to paint a more nuanced picture of fathers’ involvement with children. Reich ( 2014 ) emphasized the need to distinguish between whether or not fathers report engaging in childcare activities and how much time fathers report spending caring for their children (among fathers who report some engagement in childcare), as results suggested “remarkable differences” between predictors of any father involvement and time spent with children (p. 190). Based on these results, Reich called for caution in interpreting research that only looks at father involvement from a binary perspective and for more research that measures the amount of time spent with children. Research from this past decade also investigated generational changes in the amount of time fathers spend with their children and introduced the importance of considering when fathers are spending time with their children (Maume 2011 ). Comparing a sample of fathers from 1977 and 1997 showed an overall increase in the amount of time fathers spent with their children. However, while past research typically measured fathers’ time with children as a weekly total, Maume ( 2011 ) separated weekdays from weekends and found that, on average, the increase in time spent with children among the younger generation was three times greater during the weekends than on weekdays. Results suggested that 70% of the increase in fathers’ time spent with children resulted from choices and behavioral changes among men to be more involved with their children, while the remaining 30% of change was attributed to compositional changes in jobs and families, with the most prominent compositional change being wives’ increased earnings. From these results, the author concluded that most men appear to want to be highly engaged in their children’s lives but that demanding work schedules often get in their way.

Research from the past decade also suggested that researchers need to consider more than just the hours fathers spend at work when investigating time spent with children, as Li and Pollmann (2016) brought attention to the need to consider additional time-constraints related to work that occur outside of working hours. Specifically, they explored the impact of commuting on parent–child relationships and found that fathers’ commute time two years prior to their measurement of child outcomes was positively associated with peer relationship problems, emotional symptoms, and hyperactivity. In looking at potential moderating and mediating variables, the authors discovered that while income appeared to reduce the negative influence of longer commutes on hyperactivity in children, it did not moderate the negative effect of weekly commute time on emotional symptoms and peer relationships, nor was time spent engaged in childcare activities a significant mediator of the relationship between commute time and children’s social and emotional wellbeing. As suggested by the authors, there is a need for more research on this important facet of many parents’ daily routine and how it influences family relationships and child-wellbeing.

While these studies brought attention to important issues that influence the time fathers spend with children, one important omission from all three of these studies was measures on the nature and quality of time that fathers are spending with their children. Future research needs to continue to build from these studies to consider additional demands on fathers’ time and include better measures of the nature and quality of fathers’ time spent with children. Additionally, while the research reviewed here focused specifically on finances and fathers, the issues reviewed (e.g., financial support of children, commute time and child behavior) influence mothers and their parenting efforts as well. While the next section delves into research focused on finances and mothers, it is important to note that while research from the past decade has focused on specific issues for fathers and other specific issues for mothers, this does not mean that fathers and mothers do not have to face similar issues. There is a need for future research to look at the same issues among both mothers and fathers.

Finances and Mothers

Despite the promising finding (reviewed above regarding fathers’ financial support of their children) that even in impoverished situations, many fathers’ still supported their children financially (Madhavan et al. 2014 ), the reality is that a substantial number of fathers still do not pay child support, leaving many single mothers struggling financially and reliant on public assistance (Allen et al. 2011 ). This is an important issue from both a family and a policy perspective. One promising solution offered by Allen et al. was that joint-custody enactment increased the probability of single mothers receiving child support by 8%. There is a need for continued research into additional ways to increase consistency in child support payments. There is also a need for more research regarding how to improve the economic and overall well-being of young mothers, as research from the past decade suggested that even among married women, the younger a woman is at the time of first childbirth, the more likely she is to experience inequality and to struggle economically as well as psychologically (Casad et al. 2012 ).

Kensinger and Minnick’s ( 2018 ) qualitative interviews with undergraduate mothers documented many of these challenges that young mothers face and emphasized the importance of emotional and social support systems to help these mothers through challenging times. While some of these mothers’ support systems included people who could provide informal childcare for their children, other mothers had to rely on student loans to cover the cost of formal childcare. Issues surrounding the cost and perception of formal childcare was a prominent theme from the past decade for not only young mothers, but for married and single mothers as well. According to Hancioglu and Hartmann’s ( 2014 ) study of factors that led single mothers to increase or reduce their employment, limited access to reliable and affordable childcare as well as job inflexibility were major barriers to single mothers’ employment opportunities.

Despite the role financial factors may play in the decision to use childcare or not, Gameren ( 2013 ) suggested that attitudes towards childcare may play a more important role for some mothers than economic factors, concluding that there is a need to foster more positive attitudes about childcare and to better inform mothers of the availability of quality childcare and its benefits for children. Moro-Egido ( 2012 , p. 20) echoed these sentiments and called for more policy and support for formal childcare as cultural pressures are growing for mothers to “be experts on child development and spend ever-increasing time interacting with their children.” This call was supported by research which showed that as mothers’ free time has become more limited, they have had to become more selective in how they are spending their time and have focused on increasing their active time spent with children. Moro-Egido argued that such active parent–child time and formal childcare, which often consists of more passive time, may be complementary processes that benefit children. Similarly, Morris ( 2012 ) presented evidence from a nationally representative sample that for some mothers, working outside the home may also benefit them in their parenting efforts by reducing parenting stress. Specifically, Morris found that for mothers of special needs children who were not worried about negative effects of leaving their children to work and were in higher level occupations, working outside of the home provided a respite from the challenges of caring for their children’s needs and reduced their stress. These results support the idea that the benefit of women and mothers in the workforce may go beyond the immediate economic benefits to also benefit both parent and child wellbeing in certain situations.

Overall, research from the past decade investigated a diverse range of situations for mothers, including young, single, and married mothers. There were evidence and strong arguments present throughout these varied studies for the importance of affordable, high-quality childcare to increase women’s opportunities in the workforce and to improve both their own and their children’s wellbeing. More research is needed on how to improve access to and perceptions of formal childcare. Additionally, as mentioned in the previous section on fathers and parenting, the issues reviewed in these sections impact fathers as well. For example, while Morris ( 2012 ) examined a respite effect of working for mothers, working outside the home can provide a similar outlet for fathers. There is a need for more research that looks at how the perceptions of and access to high-quality child-care impact fathers as well. While there is value in digging deep into a specific group (e.g., fathers or mothers), such research does not mean that the findings do not extend to other groups. Replication and comparison studies that investigate how the constructs reviewed here impact both fathers and mothers are needed.

Finances and Parenting

From exploring economic predictors of teenage parenthood (Routon 2018 ), to how child support influences familial relationships as described earlier (Hofferth et al. 2010 ), to looking at how parents socialize children’s beliefs regarding time, work, and money (Gauly 2017 ; LeBaron and Kelley this issue), research during the past decade related to finances and parenting has widely varied in topic. Given the increasing number of dual earner households (Pew Research Center 2015 ), the inequality in parenting responsibilities among dual-earner couples is of particular interest. Schieman et al. ( 2018 ) found that mothers faced more parenting inequality and that their relationship quality suffered more due to their perceptions of inequality in parenting responsibilities. Mothers who worked part-time, but desired more working hours, appeared to suffer the most. The authors concluded, that in light of the progress women have made in other areas towards equality, the division of parenting and household labor remains an important topic, stating, “Thus, while discussions of domestic labor may seem like ‘old news’ to some, continuous reassessment across various national contexts, particularly in the arena of childcare, is essential for preventing old patterns of inequity from persisting” (p. 62).

We echo this call for more research on this important topic. Additionally, as we look over the research presented in the mothers and fathers sections described above, much of it has focused on the perspectives of a single group (e.g., mothers or fathers), and the topics addressed appear to be somewhat gendered, with much of past research we reviewed focusing on fathers’ career-related time constraints and mothers’ constraints related to childcare responsibilities. There is a need for future research to move beyond such gendered divisions to investigate the influence of such constraints on both fathers and mothers.

Further, we also call for more research that includes and incorporates perspectives of multiple family members and is thus truly family research (Handel 1996 ). Relatedly, while some research has included the perspective of both fathers and mothers, the fathers and mothers in these studies have typically come from different households (e.g., Schieman et al. 2018 ). Other studies have included data on children and both of their parents, but only from the child’s perspective (e.g., Hofferth et al. 2010 ). While we do not intend to diminish the value of any of these studies, it is important for future research to investigate similar research questions with dyadic and family-level data. Increasing the utilization of actor-partner interdependence models (APIM) and multimember multigroup APIMs may be instrumental in furthering our understanding (Ledermann et al. 2017 ).

Finances and Elderly Family Members

Over the past decade, topics related to finances and elderly family members varied greatly. Together these different studies have illustrated how elderly family members can be both a great financial aid as well as a financial strain on families, often depending on the needs and resources of both the elderly family member(s) and the family of interest. Several studies specifically investigated three-generation households. For example, Brandon ( 2012 ) found that coresiding with grandparents was positively associated with single-mothers’ hours in the workforce, and thus three-generation households can be an important economic resource for single-mother households. Despite the benefits grandparents may provide, individuals may not always want to live with their parents or in-laws. In China, where it is a culturally normative practice for elderly parents to move in with their adult sons, Zhang ( 2015 ) investigated the impact of women’s bargaining on power on the decision to have their husbands’ parents live with them, and found that if a wife had a more prestigious occupation or higher education than their husband, it was less likely that her husband’s parents would coreside with them. While this study provided evidence of women’s bargaining power in coresidence decisions, more research is needed to understand additional factors that influence these decisions, such as the relationships between the women and her parents-in-law as well as what the parents-in-law contribute to or require from the family of interest.

The importance of understanding the reciprocity of a coresidence relationship is demonstrated in Johar et al.’s ( 2015 ) longitudinal study of nearly 5000 elderly Japanese individuals (65 years and older). They found that how elderly parents compensate their adult children depends on the costs and benefits of the coresidence agreement. They determined that the high rates of three-generation living agreements in Japan “likely reflects intergenerational reciprocity or mutual altruism rather than one-sided, unconditional, and self-sacrificing filial altruism or social norms” (p. 207). The authors concluded with a call for more research into these reciprocal benefits both within coresidence situations as well as in situations where adult children are caring for elderly parents who do not reside with them.

Additional considerations for caregivers of elderly family members include issues of work-family balance and conflict, as illustrated by Zuba and Schneider’s ( 2013 ) study of caregivers to elderly family members from 27 European countries. While work schedules impacted both caregivers and non-caregivers’ work-family conflict, work overload appeared to contribute more to caregivers’ work-family conflict, while having good friends at work appeared to have a larger alleviating influence on work-family conflict for caregivers, possibly illustrating a respite effect as discussed earlier in Morris’s ( 2012 ) study of mothers of children with special needs. As suggested by Zuba and Schneider ( 2013 ), additional research is needed on the effects of policies regarding elderly family care, factors in choosing formal institutional care for aging family members versus providing informal care, and distinguishing high-intensity caregivers from low-intensity caregivers to better understand the challenges these different groups face.

A final consideration for this section is that elderly family members may continue to influence their posterity’s wellbeing even after they are gone, with approximately one-fifth of all US families receiving an inheritance. While for most families this inheritance is less than a year’s salary, it is interesting that among families from their 20s to their 40s, approximately half of all inherited money is saved while the remaining half is spent or lost in investment (Zagorsky 2013 ). More research is needed on saving and spending patterns among older inheritance recipients as well as more research on what inheritances are spent on and how they influence family relationships and financial wellbeing.

Finances and Couple Relationships

As we review research on finances and families, an important and related topic is the relational impact of finances on couples, which we do not specifically explore in this review, as Dew (this issue) reviews research related to the impact of finances among married and cohabiting couples in depth. Indeed, an entire article is warranted to explore the many and varied ways finances influence couple relationships. Research from the past decade has been innovative and explored topics ranging from the impact of the price of gold on the divorce rate in Iran (Farzanegan and Gholipour 2018 ), to the impact of budgetary constraints on negative household interactions (Cantrall et al. 2019 ), to investigating the impact of materialism on relationship and sexual satisfaction (Leavitt et al. 2019 ). Research during the next decade should continue to explore diverse dimensions of how finances influence romantic relationships.

Supporting Family Members Financially

Another theme from the past decade’s research on finances and family matters is family members’ financial support of one another. This includes giving to children, siblings, parents, and other family members (Davies 2011 ). Intrafamilial giving is one of the main types of giving that children learn about from their parents, and parents teach this primarily through modeling (LeBaron 2019 ). Given that similarity and connection between giver and receiver predict non-familial financial giving (Prendergast and Maggie 2013 ), it is unsurprising that intrafamilial giving is so common. There are many motivations for intrafamilial giving including coinsurance, an inheritance motive, and pure altruism (Davies 2011 ). Certain types of intrafamilial giving such as inheritances may be much more possible for the wealthy (Zagorsky 2013 ). However, some research suggests that those with limited resources may be especially generous with their intrafamilial giving (Marks et al. 2006 ).

One obvious type of intrafamilial giving is the financial support that parents give their children. As mentioned briefly earlier, Madhavan et al. ( 2014 ) examined fathers’ financial support of their children among low income, Black families in South Africa and found that most fathers gave financial support for their children, even after union dissolution with the mother. Fathers’ education level was positively associated with amount of financial support given, likely because fathers who are well-educated tend to have higher incomes. This is an example of how an individual’s financial wellbeing can both impact their family relationships and affect the next generation’s financial wellbeing (e.g., intergenerational poverty; Harper et al. 2003 ). Sometimes parents continue to provide financial support for their adult children, and while sometimes this continued support can engender a lack of financial independence (Xiao et al. 2014 ), this support can also give adult children “cumulative advantages across time” (Padgett and Remle 2016 , p. 435). Padgett and Remle found that parental income is positively associated with financial support received by adult children, exemplifying how the cycle of intergenerational poverty can occur when parents are unable to give this support. Family structure also appears to influence parental support of adult children: this type of intrafamilial giving is less likely to occur with stepchildren and is negatively associated with number of adult children.

An increasing number of adult children rely on their parents’ support in the form of coresidence (Warner et al. 2017 ). Warner et al. conducted a qualitative study in Australia on how coresiding parents and adult children negotiate adult child contributions to the household. The occurrence of parental support of adult children and family members’ expectations associated with it are likely influenced by cultural beliefs and norms. For example, although Australians tend to believe that financial support of adult children may be advisable when adult children have legitimate needs and are not far into adulthood, they also tend to believe that this type of intrafamilial giving is not always appropriate and that the importance of adult independence should be considered (Drake et al. 2018 ).

Another type of coresidence is three-generation households, which are becoming more common (Brandon 2012 ). In some cultures, it is common for elderly parents and their adult children to coreside, and the adult children are often compensated in some way in exchange for caregiving (Johar et al. 2015 ). This may become necessary for an increasing number of families giving an aging population (United Nations 2017 ; Zuba and Schneider 2013 ). Using a nationally representative sample in Australia, Brandon ( 2012 ) found that the odds of three-generation household formation differed by family structure. Two-parent families were more likely to live in a three-generation household if the mother was younger, the father had less education, there were fewer children, and the children were older. Single-mother families were more likely to live in a three-generation household if the mother had less education, the mother had lower income, the mother worked more hours, the mother had never been married, and there were fewer children. Zhang ( 2015 ) found that in China, where three-generation households are common, coresidence was less likely when mothers had more education and a more prestigious job.

The final type of intrafamilial financial giving, which we will address more in our section on the economic roots of migration, is remittances. As the number of migrants increases (World Bank 2019 ), remittances are becoming more common and recent research has found that they have a positive impact on the wellbeing of the supported family members (Sulemana et al. 2019 ; Thomas et al. 2018 ).

In sum, research from the past decade suggests that family members often support one another financially in various ways. Sometimes this intrafamilial giving encourages financial dependency (Xiao et al. 2014 ), and sometimes the money is squandered (e.g., half of all inherited money is spent or is lost in bad investments; Zagorsky 2013 ). Often, however, it is a way by which family members show their love and support of one another and promote one another’s wellbeing (e.g., Davies 2011 ; Padgett and Remle 2016 ; Thomas et al. 2018 ).

How Economic Policy Affects Family

Economic policy and family matters is a particularly complex topic. As such, we are only able to briefly touch the surface of this important topic. In several of the sections we have reviewed above, we have touched on specific policies related to families and financial matters. For example, as mentioned earlier in the section on mothers and finances, Allen et al. ( 2011 ) found that joint-child-custody legislation did improve the likelihood that fathers would pay child support by 8%, and other research in this section led researchers to call for more policy supporting formal childcare ( 2012 ). Despite some of the positive outcomes of policy, and authors’ call for additional or improved policies, the research we reviewed also showed some of the downsides to specific policies. For example, as reviewed briefly in our section on gender and relational power, Foster ( 2011 ) found that norms around reporting domestic violence engendered by legislation led to a large increase of reports which cost taxpayers a lot of money. Other research emphasized the limited reach of policy aimed at economic and family issues, as Bargain and Moreau ( 2013 ) found that “even a radical tax-benefit reform is unlikely to change the labor supply” (p. 85). Research reviewed in our section on finances and family formation found unexpected outcomes resulting from a specific policy (Groves and Lopoo 2018 ), while another article suggested that some parents misuse or abuse certain subsidies and policies (Peterson and Engwall 2016 ).

Together, these studies provide evidence that policy matters for both finances and family relationships. The research we reviewed shows that policy can be both helpful and harmful for families and economies. There is a need for continued research that evaluates not only the effectiveness of policies, but also investigates unexpected direct or indirect effects of specific policies. The outcomes of policies should be investigated from multiple standpoints, including not only from the perspective of the policy’s beneficiaries, but also from those who are not the direct focus of the policy, as demonstrated in Peterson and Engwall’s ( 2016 ) study on the impact of policies aimed to encourage child-bearing from the perspective voluntarily childless individuals. The need for high-quality research on how economic policy influences families appears to be more important than ever as governments strive to address the economic impact of COVID-19 pandemic. Studies that compare the effectiveness and the direct and indirect effects of policies aimed at relieving the negative impacts of COVID-19 will be a particularly salient topic during this decade.

Economic Roots of Migration by Family Members

There has been a good deal of geographic diversity in the studies from the past decade related to migration, including samples from Africa and both Eastern and Western Europe. Research from both Africa and Armenia documented the important role that remittances play in the daily lives and wellbeing of families (Sulemana et al. 2019 ; Thomas et al. 2018 ). Sulemana et al.’s sample of 32 Sub-Saharan countries found a strong positive association between the frequency of receiving remittances and reported subjective wellbeing and living conditions. Despite the financial benefits of receiving money from family members living abroad, these families face difficult relational challenges as they live apart from their family members. Thomas et al.’s qualitative interviews with Armenian families illuminated some of the challenges these families faced and how they coped with such challenges. They found that visits from the migrant family member, utilizing technology to communicate with the migrant family member, the family’s national identity, and hope for the future helped these families cope with and adapt to life away from their family member(s). Many families were able to eventually gain an acceptance of this new lifestyle. Such acceptance of this lifestyle appears to be related to Ivlevs and King’s ( 2012 ) finding that children of former migrants are more likely to become migrants themselves, as the authors concluded that having a migrant family member appears to reduce social and psychological barriers to migration.

While the studies reviewed thus far have focused on the impact of migration on migrant families, it is important to also consider the impact of migration on native families of countries which are currently experiencing increased levels of immigration, as evidenced by Vignoli et al.’s ( 2017 ) study of marital stability in Italy. Consistent with previous research that has suggested that a surplus of single women is associated with higher divorce rates ( 1993 ), this study found that increasing numbers of migrant women was associated with higher marital instability among native Italian couples, particularly among lower SES couples. Together these studies from the past decade demonstrate the importance of continued research that investigates the financial and relational impacts of migration from multiple perspectives, including migrant individuals, the families of migrants, and natives of countries in which immigration or emigration is prevalent. Collecting data from both migrants and their family members they left behind on their financial and relational wellbeing and utilizing methods such as multigroup actor-partner interdependence models, may be particularly insightful. For more information on finances among racial and ethnic minorities, see Roy et al. (this issue).

Family Financial Socialization

Although family financial socialization is covered in depth by LeBaron and Kelley (this issue), this topic matters so much to families and finances that we will also touch on it briefly here. Financial socialization is “the process of acquiring and developing values, attitudes, standards, norms, knowledge, and behaviors that contribute to... financial viability and individual wellbeing” (Danes 1994 , p. 128). One context in which this socialization occurs is in families (Gudmunson and Danes 2011 ). Family financial socialization is a burgeoning field of research, especially since Gudmunson and Danes’ hallmark paper in which they presented family financial socialization theory. Most research on family financial socialization has focused on what and how children and adolescents learn about money from their parents, and how that is associated with children’s wellbeing both concurrently and throughout the life course (LeBaron et al. 2018 ). However, financial socialization continues to occur after the age of 18 (Curran et al. 2018 ), and all family members participate in socializing each other in both explicit and implicit ways (Gudmunson and Danes 2011 ). According to the conceptual model by Gudmunson and Danes, family socialization processes (i.e., personal and family characteristics, family interaction and relationships, and purposive financial socialization) are associated with financial socialization outcomes (i.e., financial attitudes, knowledge, and capabilities; financial behavior; and financial wellbeing).

In this decade review, we will not discuss articles that overtly focused on family financial socialization; rather, we will discuss a few articles which in more subtle ways studied how family members socialize each other about finances. Most prominently, Gauly ( 2017 ) studied the intergenerational transmission of two types of attitudes: time preferences (i.e., patience and impulsivity) and reciprocity (both positive and negative). She tested whether the correlation between parents’ attitudes and their children’s attitudes were due to culture, assortative mating, or socialization. Although time preferences and reciprocity may not appear to be related to finances at first glance, they are associated with wellbeing in many areas of life, including financial wellbeing. This is likely due to the associations of time preferences and reciprocity with financial behaviors such as saving, spending, debt, academic achievement, work effort, etc. Gauly found evidence for all three avenues of attitude formation, indicating that the intergenerational transmission of these attitudes is not purely genetic but also due to socialization.

In line with family financial socialization research (Jorgensen et al. 2017 ; Kim et al. 2011 ), Gauly ( 2017 ) found that the quality of the parent–child relationship impacted the strength of parents’ socialization. This is unsurprising given that “parents who try to teach children about money have been more successful when they have had a quality relationship with the child,” with a high-quality relationship being characterized by warmth, trust, mutual reciprocity, and longevity (Gudmunson and Danes 2011 , pp. 646–647). Interestingly, Gauly ( 2017 ) also found that siblings affected socialization; specifically, number of siblings was positively associated with children’s likelihood of sharing their parents’ attitudes. This is a noteworthy addition to the literature on family financial socialization, as almost all research thus far has focused on parent-to-child socialization (Serido and Deenanath 2016 ).

In addition to the article by Gauly ( 2017 ), several articles in the last decade have addressed ways in which family members and culture socialize individuals in ways that impact their financial and relational wellbeing. For example, several articles beyond Gauly’s examined predictors of financial attitudes (Davies 2011 ) as well as the associations between financial attitudes and relational wellbeing (Leavitt et al. 2019 ). Additionally, several articles were dedicated to the predictors of IPV, including education, childhood experiences, culture, and attitude towards IPV (Dasgupta 2019 ; Henke and Hsu 2018 ); all these predictors could serve as avenues of or results of socialization. Indeed, Dasgupta (p. 656) specifically referred to “intergenerational transmission of attitudes towards wife-beating” as both a barrier to but also a potential avenue for overcoming IPV. As two final examples, several articles studied how individuals are socialized by family members and culture regarding family formation norms (e.g., Dew and Price 2011 ; Peterson and Engwall 2016 ; Routon 2018 ) as well as regarding coresidence norms (e.g., Drake et al. 2018 ; Johar et al. 2015 ; Warner et al. 2017 ). These articles demonstrate that while it is crucial to study family financial socialization overtly, it may also be helpful to consider more subtle avenues by which individuals’ socialization affects both their financial and relational wellbeing.

Future Directions

We have discussed directions for future research on specific topics throughout this decade review. Thus, in this section we briefly summarize and highlight some of these recommendations and make a few additional general recommendations.

Methodological Recommendations

Research from the past decade utilized diverse statistical models and many longitudinal and nationally representative samples from various nations. As we look to the next decade, there is a continued need for such diverse methods and strong datasets. However, while a strength of the studies reviewed here was their nationally representative longitudinal datasets, some of which spanned decades, it is important to note that the majority of the data collection efforts on these datasets ended in the early 2000s or, in some cases, even earlier. As family structure has changed greatly over the last 20 years (Smock and Schwartz 2020 ), replication and comparison studies that utilize more recent data to further understanding of finances in families today are needed. Additionally, while the past decade of family finance research has seen remarkable diversity in terms of the geographic location of samples, this also presents an opportunity for future research to conduct replication studies with different samples in order to test the generalizability of findings. This is especially important given the recent replicability crisis in social science research (Pashler and Wagenmakers 2012 ). There is also a need for more research that looks at the influence of finances on relationships from multiple perspectives within a family and how family members’ responses to work and financial issues influence each other. This may include models such as actor-partner interdependence models (APIMs) and multigroup APIMs.

Finally, of the 40 articles we reviewed, only 4 (10%) utilized a qualitative methodology. None of the articles we reviewed used mixed methods. Qualitative research is useful in illuminating processes and the why behind the associations we see in quantitative research. Qualitative and quantitative research should build from and inform each other (Marks 2015 ). For example, several of the studies reviewed earlier investigated the influence of fathers’ time spent with children yet were unable to measure the nature or quality of such time (Li and Pollman-Schult 2016 ; Maume 2011 ; Reich 2014 ). Various qualitative methods could be useful in this situation to illuminate how fathers are spending time with their children and the quality of time spent. This could help foster a more nuanced understanding of how fathers’ time spent with children is influencing the family system. More important than the need for more qualitative research, there is the need for high-quality qualitative work which includes larger sample sizes (e.g. N ≥ 30) and rigorous team-based approaches to analysis (Levitt et al. 2018 ; Marks 2015 ).

Theory Recommendations

In the research we reviewed, we observed a good deal of diversity in authors’ disciplines. While the majority of leading authors came from Economics (35%), followed by Sociology (18%), the remaining near half of authors spanned from business, demography, family studies, health, psychology, public service, and more. This diversity of disciplines fostered an even greater diversity in the theories used to approach the various topics related to family and finances reviewed here. Much can be gained from such diverse perspectives as we approach complex questions regarding families and finances, and we hope to see continued diversity in researchers’ disciplines and theoretical perspectives. However, there are several specific theories that have been rarely applied to topics surrounding family matters and finances that this area of research would benefit from greatly. First, as evidenced by some of the articles we reviewed, financial and relational power matter for family relationships. Given the strong associations between gender, power, money, and family relationships, feminism should be used more frequently as an explicit theoretical framework in family finance research (LeBaron et al. 2019a ). Additionally, consistent with our methodological recommendation for more research that measures the perspectives of multiple family members and their influence on each other, family systems theory would be a useful theory to further understanding regarding how various financial issues impact the whole family system (Broderick 1993 ). Another theory that we believe would be useful in this area of research is interdependence theory, which focuses on relational sacrifices individuals make as well as the motives behind such sacrifices (Impett et al. 2005 ). Applying this lens to financial giving within families (e.g., child support, remittances, and coresidence agreements) may be helpful in increasing our understanding of what motivates people to give and sacrifice for other family members.

Content Recommendations

As we have included content-specific recommendations throughout the paper, here we aim to highlight some of these recommendations related to finances and family matters which are especially timely as we transition into the next decade. One topic that appears to be particularly salient is child-care. The research we reviewed showed significant financial and perceptional barriers for single, young, and married mothers related to childcare which in turn impacted both mother and child wellbeing (Gameren 2013 ; Hancioglu and Hartmann 2014 ; Kensigner and Minnick 2018 ; Moro-Egido 2012 ). As such, continued research on how to address and reduce the barriers to high-quality childcare is needed. More research should also investigate how barriers to childcare influence fathers as well as how fathers influence childcare decisions. Beyond the barriers that childcare presents for women in the workforce, inequalities in the division of labor also remains a major issue for women, as highlighted by Scheiman et al. ( 2018 ). As mothers continue to face more parenting inequality despite progress towards equality in other areas, their relationship quality suffers. Research during this decade should continue to investigate issues surrounding the division of labor, how it impacts family relationships, and how couples can better achieve balance in parenting and household responsibilities.

Throughout many of the topics we reviewed, the amount of time spent together with family members was addressed (e.g., Reich 2014 ; Thomas et al. 2018 ). While the quantity of time that families spend together matters, future research should place a stronger emphasis on also measuring the nature and quality of that time. This extends not only to the time parents and children spend together, but should also include couple time, time as a family unit, and time with elderly family members. Relatedly, future research should include more measures of quantity and quality of time spent with family members via technology.

With regards to policy that impacts families’ financial wellbeing, there will always be a need for research that continually evaluates the effectiveness and outcomes of policies to provide feedback on how policies should be used or modified to best help families and individuals in need. Along with the hardships related to the COVID-19 pandemic comes a unique opportunity for researchers to look at how various economic policies resulting from the pandemic in different countries across the world influence families. Additionally, as Groves and Lopoo’s ( 2018 ) research highlighted some of the unexpected effects of a specific policy, we emphasize the importance for future research to similarly go beyond evaluating the effectiveness of policy to also investigating various unexpected direct or indirect effects of such policies.

Finally, while it has become a burgeoning field of research, there is still a need to expand the study of family financial socialization. For example, future research should study the role of culture and other family members besides parents (such as siblings and grandparents) in financial socialization. Despite being identified as one of the primary methods of family financial socialization, experiential learning is also understudied (LeBaron et al. 2019b ). Additionally, while it is crucial to study family financial socialization overtly, future research will also benefit from considering more subtle avenues by which individuals’ socialization affects both their financial and relational wellbeing.

The beginning of this new decade has already been marked by many unprecedented economic and systemic challenges for nations and families to navigate as the COVID-19 pandemic sweeps the globe. As stocks wildly fluctuate, businesses shut down, and workers are laid off, economic uncertainty appears to be an especially current, consuming issue for families. The research reviewed here, and in the other articles in this issue, is of utmost importance to help us understand the practical implications of such uncertainty. Research during this coming decade should continue to build upon past research to further academic knowledge, inform policy makers, and be disseminated the public. Such research can help individuals and families navigate financial struggles and uncertainty with more knowledge, tools, and confidence.

Biographies

is a doctoral candidate in Human Development and Family Studies at Utah State University (USU). She is a recipient of USU’s Presidential Doctoral Research Fellowship. She obtained her master’s degree in Marriage, Family, and Human Development from Brigham Young University. Her research interests include family finance and more specifically, the impact of financial stress on family relationships.

is a doctoral candidate in Family Studies and Human Development at the University of Arizona. Her research focus is family finance, including couple finance and financial socialization. Ashley was valedictorian for the College of Family, Home, and Social Sciences at Brigham Young University in 2016, Graduate Student of the Year for the Utah Council on Family Relations (UTCFR) in 2018, and Best Family Economics Student Researcher for the National Council on Family Relations (NCFR) Family Economics Focus Group in 2019.

PhD, is Camilla Eyring Kimball Professor of Family Life at Brigham Young University where he teaches classes in family finance to about 1000 students each year. His research examines the interface of finances and family life. Dr. Hill obtained a doctorate in Family and Human Development at Utah State University and Masters of Organizational Behavior from the Marriott School of Management at Brigham Young University. He has authored or co-authored seven books and more than 100 scholarly articles and book chapters. Jeff and his wife Tammy are blending a family of 12 children and 33 grandchildren.

No funding was received for this article.

Compliance with Ethical Standards

We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.

This article is written in compliance with accepted ethical standards. As this is a review article and thus did not directly involve any human subjects, we did not need to obtain informed consent or Institutional Review Board approval.

This is one of several papers published together in Journal of Family and Economic Issues on the “Special Issue on Virtual Decade in Review”.

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Contributor Information

Heather H. Kelley, Email: moc.kooltuo@yellekrehtaeh .

Ashley B. LeBaron, Email: moc.liamg@yelhsanorabel .

E. Jeffrey Hill, Email: ude.uyb@llih_ffej .

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How reflecting on gratitude received from family can make you a better leader

Leaders who take the time to reflect on receiving gratitude from family members can enhance their leadership effectiveness in the office.

The longstanding advice to "check your baggage at the door" may not be the best way for leaders to engage and empower their employees. Instead, acknowledging that leaders are complete individuals with experiences outside of the office is a key factor in assisting them with the challenging, exhausting and often thankless work they do daily.

According to new research from the University of Florida, leaders who reflect on gratitude that they receive from family members at home feel higher levels of prosocial impact -- the perception that one is making a positive difference in the lives of others -- which consequently motivates them to engage in more helpful and empowering behavior toward their employees at work.

"Perceiving that you've made a difference in the lives of those you love satisfies basic psychological needs which then carry over into the office by motivating you to be more helpful and empowering toward your direct reports," noted researcher Klodiana Lanaj, Martin L. Schaffel Professor at the UF Warrington College of Business.

The key to unlocking the power of gratitude from family members is in reflecting on and savoring those events of appreciation because this prolongs and amplifies the experience, Lanaj explained.

"Taking a few minutes in the morning to reflect on and write about a time when a family member said 'thank you' for something you did at home can motivate you as a leader to be more responsive to your employees' work needs and to empower them to have a voice in important decisions at work," she said. "Our research suggests that positive events that happen at home don't need to stay there. Instead, they can follow leaders at work in ways that benefit their employees."

The researchers -- Jasmine Hu of the Ohio State University, who led the study, Daniel Kim of UF Warrington, and Lanaj -- surveyed more than 300 leaders and 100 of their employees across various industries. In three field experiments, they assigned leaders to reflect and write about gratitude received at home before they started their workday. Those same days, the researchers also surveyed leaders and their followers, who all reported on leaders' helping and empowering behaviors toward their employees that day at work. They found consistent results -- as reported by both leaders and followers across the three studies -- that reflecting on gratitude received at home made leaders more helpful and empowering toward their employees at work.

"Our work suggests that gratitude expressions at home may be beneficial not only for the recipient leaders, but also for their employees, who then experienced more help and empowerment from these leaders," Kim said. "Therefore, family members showing appreciation for each other may not only benefit their relationship but also improve their loved ones' work experiences."

Lanaj and Kim recommend that leaders follow two simple steps to benefit from this gratitude reflection.

• First thing in the morning, before you start your workday, take a few minutes to recall a time when you did something good for a family member and your family member showed appreciation to you for this behavior.
• Close your eyes and imagine yourself being back in the event you just recalled (because savoring the event amplifies its effects). In three to five sentences, describe what you did, what your family member said/did in the situation and your feelings after receiving your family member's appreciation.

"Gratitude has been found to have numerous benefits for recipients, but not much work has examined leaders as recipients of gratitude," Kim said. "Our work shows that by creating opportunities for leaders to engage in such gratitude reflections, organizations can foster a positive and supportive work environment that encourages prosocial behavior and enhances overall leadership effectiveness."

• Industrial Relations
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• European Southern Observatory
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Story Source:

Materials provided by University of Florida . Original written by Allison Alsup. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Jia (Jasmine) Hu, Daniel Kim, Klodiana Lanaj. The benefits of reflecting on gratitude received at home for leaders at work: Insights from three field experiments. . Journal of Applied Psychology , 2024; DOI: 10.1037/apl0001194

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MARK H. EBELL, MD, MS, AND ROLAND GRAD, MD, MSc

June 8, 2020 Editor's Note: The hypertension study (reference 5) is under investigation by the editor of the journal in which it was published due to inconsistencies in the data noted by others. Caution is warranted regarding applying these findings to clinical care.

Am Fam Physician. 2020;101(10):608-617

Author disclosure: Dr. Ebell is cofounder and editor-in-chief of Essential Evidence Plus. See Editor's Note . Dr. Grad has no relevant financial affiliations.

In 2019, regular surveillance of 110 English-language research journals identified 254 studies that met the criteria to become POEMs (patient-oriented evidence that matters). Physician members of the Canadian Medical Association rated these POEMs for their relevance to patients in their practices. This article summarizes the clinical questions and bottom-line answers from the top 20 POEMs of 2019. Taking blood pressure medications at night results in a large mortality reduction over six years compared with morning dosing. Automated devices are the best way to measure blood pressure. Nonfasting lipid profiles are preferred over fasting lipid profiles, and nonfasting and fasting lipid profiles are equally effective at predicting risk. The benefit of statins for primary prevention in people 75 years and older is uncertain at best. Aspirin has no net benefit for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and has no effect on cancer outcomes. An Italian study found fecal immunochemical testing over five biennial screening cycles has a similar colorectal cancer yield as screening colonoscopy, whereas a meta-analysis found that taking aspirin, an anticoagulant, or a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug has no impact on the positive predictive value of fecal immunochemical testing. Regarding infections, a meta-analysis showed that patients presenting with symptoms of acute respiratory tract infection are unlikely to have pneumonia if vital signs and the lung examination findings are normal. For streptococcal pharyngitis (strep throat), penicillin V at a dosage of 800 mg four times a day for five days is at least as effective as a dosage of 1,000 mg three times a day for 10 days. A primary care study in the United Kingdom reinforced that clinicians should counsel parents of children with lower respiratory tract symptoms to be patient, because these infections can take three weeks or more to fully resolve. Among direct oral anticoagulants, apixaban has the lowest bleeding risk, and cotreating with a proton pump inhibitor significantly reduces bleeding risk. Single ibuprofen doses from 400 to 800 mg significantly reduce acute pain to a similar degree. The two-dose recombinant zoster vaccine is much more effective than the single-dose live, attenuated vaccine but with a greater risk of injection site pain. Exercise helps reduce the risk of falls in older adults. Practice guidelines from 2019 on antithrombotics for atrial fibrillation, the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus, and screening for breast cancer were judged to be especially relevant.

Every year for the past 21 years, a team of experts in evidence-based medicine have systematically reviewed more than 110 English-language research journals to identify the original research most likely to change and improve primary care practice. The team includes experts in family medicine, pharmacology, hospital medicine, and women's health. 1 , 2

The goal of this process is to identify POEMs (patient-oriented evidence that matters). A POEM must report at least one patient-oriented outcome, such as improvement in symptoms, morbidity, or mortality. It should also be free of important methodologic bias, making the results valid and trustworthy. Finally, if applied in practice, the results would change what some family physicians do in patient care by prompting them to adopt a beneficial new practice or discontinue one that is ineffective or harmful. This should improve patient outcomes. Of more than 20,000 research studies published in 2019 in the journals reviewed by the POEMs team, 254 met criteria for validity, relevance, and practice change.

The Canadian Medical Association (CMA) purchases a subscription to POEMs for its members, many of whom receive the daily POEM by email. When members read a POEM, they can rate it with a validated questionnaire called the Information Assessment Method. POEM ratings address the domains of clinical relevance, cognitive impact, use in practice, and expected health benefits if that POEM were to be applied in patient care. 3 , 4 In 2019, each of the 254 POEMs were rated by an average of 1,530 physicians.

In this article, we present the 20 POEMs rated highest for clinical relevance by CMA members in 2019. This installment of our annual series ( https://www.aafp.org/afp/toppoems ) summarizes the clinical question and bottom-line answer for each research study identified as a top 20 POEM, organized by topic and followed by a brief discussion. We also present the three most relevant practice guidelines identified by CMA members. The full text of the POEMs in this article are available at https://www.aafp.org/journals/afp/content/top-poems/2019.html .

Hypertension

Hypertension is among the most common conditions managed by primary care physicians and is the topic of the two POEMs rated most relevant to readers in 2019 ( Table 1 ) . 5 , 6 Researchers randomized 19,168 adults with hypertension to take their antihypertensive medications at bedtime or first thing in the morning. 5 Patients were prescribed an antihypertensive from an approved list of the most common therapies. Patients taking their medications at bedtime had a lower likelihood of the composite outcome of myocardial infarction (MI), coronary revascularization, heart failure, stroke, or cardiovascular death (hazard ratio = 0.55; 95% CI, 0.50 to 0.61; number needed to treat to prevent one event over 6.3 years = 20). All-cause mortality was reduced to a similar extent. This is a large effect for a six-year study, and a practice-changer for many patients and physicians. Best of all, it costs nothing to make this change. See Editor's Note

How we measure blood pressure continues to be a subject of research. The next POEM was a meta-analysis of 31 studies, which included a total of 9,279 patients and compared automated in-office blood pressure readings with in-office manual measurements or ambulatory automated recordings during waking hours (the reference standard). 6 Automated in-office measurements were performed without anyone present to activate the machine and used three to five readings separated by one- to two-minutes. Ambulatory automated measurements were 13.4/5.9 mm Hg lower than the manual in-office measurements and were similar to the in-office automated measurements. To avoid starting or intensifying antihypertensive medication unnecessarily, it is critical to measure blood pressure using an automated device. Patients should also bring in their home device so that it can be calibrated with the office device.

Behavioral Medicine

Behavioral medicine POEMs are summarized in Table 2 . 7 – 9 The first POEM in this group was a well-executed network meta-analysis of medical therapy for generalized anxiety disorder. 7 A network meta-analysis includes studies comparing drugs with each other and with placebo, allowing for direct and indirect comparisons. The meta-analysis included 89 studies involving 25,000 patients and 22 different drugs; none of the studies were longer than 26 weeks. After excluding drugs that were poorly tolerated such as quetiapine (Seroquel), paroxetine (Paxil), and benzodiazepines, the most effective commercially available drugs overall were, in order of effectiveness, bupropion (Wellbutrin), duloxetine (Cymbalta), mirtazapine (Remeron), hydroxyzine, sertraline (Zoloft), pregabalin (Lyrica), venlafaxine, escitalopram (Lexapro), fluoxetine (Prozac), buspirone (Buspar), and citalopram (Celexa). Drugs that did not significantly decrease anxiety scores included imipramine, maprotiline, opipramol (not available in the United States), tiagabine (Gabitril), vilazodone (Viibryd), and vortioxetine (Trintellix). The drugs with the best combination of effectiveness and tolerability were duloxetine, pregabalin, venlafaxine, and escitalopram.

The next POEM included videotaped encounters between 252 patients and 15 English primary care physicians. 8 Patients were asked about the main reason for their visit beforehand, and this reason was almost always addressed during the visit. However, of the 139 patients who identified at least one symptom in the previsit interview, 43 failed to disclose a total of 67 symptoms during the visit, most often stress, worries or sadness; tiredness or sleep problems; problems passing urine; headache; and intimate or other personal problems. Although physicians cannot ask every patient about all of their problems during a visit, it is important to know that patients may not fully disclose symptoms. Physicians should make patients feel as safe as possible while looking for cues to undisclosed symptoms, and routinely asking, “Is there anything else I can help you with?”

The last POEM in the behavioral medicine group was an individual patient data meta-analysis of how early treatment response impacts later outcomes in patients with depression. 9 The researchers combined the individual patient data from 30 randomized trials, with 2,184 patients receiving placebo and 6,058 receiving active therapy. After six weeks of treatment, about 50% of patients in the active treatment group responded to treatment, with 32% achieving remission of symptoms. Response was defined as at least a 50% reduction in the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression score, and remission was defined as a score of 7 points or less. By 12 weeks, the response rate was 68% in the active treatment group, with 49% achieving remission. Patients with improvement at two weeks were more likely to respond by six weeks, whereas among patients without early improvement, 33% responded by six weeks and 43% by 12 weeks. The absence of an early response does not preclude later response; therefore, physicians should not be too quick to change antidepressant medications.

Cardiovascular

Cardiovascular medicine POEMs are summarized in Table 3 . 10 – 14 The first two POEMs in this group address statin use. Many physicians and laboratory staff continue to insist that patients be fasting for lipid profile testing. The first POEM compared fasting and nonfasting lipid profiles in the same patients four weeks apart. 10 There was little difference between fasting and nonfasting measurements of low-density and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and only a small increase in triglyceride levels (25 mg per dL [0.28 mmol per L]) with nonfasting measurements. Most importantly, the association between lipid levels and subsequent cardiovascular events was identical for fasting and nonfasting lipid measurements. Guidelines support nonfasting lipid measurements. 15 , 16 It is time to simplify our patients' lives and educate local laboratory staff, who often turn away patients who disclose that they are not fasting.

In the next POEM, data were pooled from 28 randomized trials of statins with more than 186,000 total patients. 11 This report focused on the 14,000 patients who were 75 years or older; the median follow-up was five years. There was only a small reduction in the composite outcome of MI and cardiovascular death among all patients (2.6% with statins vs. 3.0% with placebo; number needed to treat = 250 per year); the benefit was significant only in patients with preexisting cardiovascular disease. Statins had no effect on revascularization, stroke, cancer incidence, or cancer mortality.

This was a big year for aspirin studies. The next three POEMs, from two separate trials, examine the benefits and harms of aspirin therapy for primary prevention in contemporary populations. Prior studies that found a net benefit of aspirin for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer (mostly colorectal) all recruited patients before 2002. In more recent years, fewer patients smoke or have uncontrolled hypertension, more are taking a statin, and we have widespread colorectal cancer screening. In this context, does aspirin still have a role?

Two aspirin POEMs were from the ASPREE (Aspirin in Reducing Events in the Elderly) trial, which included 19,114 adults 70 years and older in the United States and Australia (65 and older if black or Hispanic). Patients without known cardiovascular disease were randomized to aspirin, 100 mg, or placebo and were followed for a median of 4.7 years. The first POEM found no significant reduction in the likelihood of cardiovascular disease with aspirin, including fatal cardiovascular disease, fatal or nonfatal MI, and fatal or nonfatal ischemic stroke. However, they found a significant increase in major hemorrhages with aspirin. 12 The second POEM from the ASPREE trial found no difference between groups for disability-free survival, defined as a composite of death, dementia, or persistent physical disability. 13 A separate report from the ASPREE investigators (not one of the top 20 POEMs) found an increase in all-cause mortality with aspirin, primarily due to a significant increase in cancer-specific mortality (3.1% vs. 2.3%).

The third aspirin POEM was from the ASCEND (A Study of Cardiovascular Events in Diabetes) trial and included 15,480 adults 40 years and older with diabetes mellitus but no known cardiovascular disease. The patients were randomized to aspirin, 100 mg, or placebo and were followed for a median of 7.4 years. 14 There was a reduction in the composite of nonfatal MI, nonfatal stroke, or cardiovascular death with aspirin, but a corresponding increase in major hemorrhage with no effect on cardiovascular or all-cause mortality.

What do we tell our patients? A recent meta-analysis compared trials of aspirin therapy that recruited patients from 1978 to 2002 with four large trials that recruited patients since 2005. 17 The newer studies showed fewer cardiovascular benefits and no reduction in cancer incidence or mortality with aspirin as primary prevention. Based on a meta-analysis of the four most recent studies with a total of 61,604 patients, for every 1,200 patients taking aspirin instead of placebo for five years, there would be four fewer major cardiovascular events and three fewer ischemic strokes but eight more major hemorrhages, including three more intracranial hemorrhages. This study agrees with recent European guidelines that no longer recommend aspirin for primary prevention. 18 The 2016 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) and 2019 American College of Cardiology guidelines recommend consideration of aspirin for primary prevention only in selected patients at high cardiovascular risk and low bleeding risk. 19 , 20 The USPSTF recommendation is currently being updated. 21

Cancer Screening

The three POEMs on cancer screening ( Table 4 ) address colorectal cancer. 22 – 24 Fecal immunochemical testing (FIT) is the recommended method for colorectal cancer screening in most countries that have screening programs and is the subject of the first two POEMs in this group. The first POEM is an Italian study that reported the diagnostic yield of five rounds of biennial FIT in persons 50 to 69 years of age submitting a single specimen. 22 The highest rates of detection occurred in the first round, as prevalent cancers were detected, and declined and then stabilized in later rounds. Over the 10-year study, about 25% of men and 18% of women had a positive test result requiring a follow-up colonoscopy. The cumulative rate was 6% for advanced adenoma and 0.85% for colorectal cancer, which are similar to findings in studies of colonoscopy in Italy and the United States. 25 , 26 These results mean we can have confidence in FIT as a screening test while we wait for the results of ongoing randomized trials of FIT vs. colonoscopy-based screening.

The second POEM about FIT was a meta-analysis evaluating the impact of aspirin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and anticoagulants on the positive predictive value of the test. 23 It could theoretically go in either direction, increasing false positives by making noncancerous lesions more likely to bleed or increasing true positives by making cancers and adenomas more likely to bleed. The researchers found that the use of any of these medications had almost no effect on the positive predictive value, which was approximately 6% for colorectal cancer and 40% for advanced neoplasia. FIT requires only a single specimen and no dietary preparation, and now we know that patients undergoing FIT can continue to take medications that increase bleeding risk.

Finally, a study used a Swedish cancer registry with 173,796 patients to determine the impact of family history on the risk of colorectal cancer. 24 The relative risk of colorectal cancer using no affected relatives as the reference was 1.2 for a single second-degree relative with a history of colorectal cancer, 1.6 for a single first-degree relative or two second-degree relatives, 2.3 for one first-degree relative and one second-degree relative, 2.5 for two first-degree relatives, and 5.4 for one first-degree and two second-degree relatives. However, a previous study found that this family history–related risk is attenuated once patients reach 55 years of age. 27

POEMs on managing infections are summarized in Table 5 . 28 – 30 The first POEM is a meta-analysis of studies that recruited outpatients with acute respiratory tract infections who received chest radiography. 28 The goal was to identify the best sign, symptom, or combination that allows clinicians to rule out community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). The researchers found that for patients with the combination of normal vital signs and normal lung examination findings, the likelihood of CAP is low at 0.4%. This could help reduce unnecessary chest radiography if applied consistently.

The second POEM in this group was selected as one of the top three research studies out of more than 400 presented at the 2019 North American Primary Care Research Group meeting. 29 This Swedish study included 422 adults and children presenting to a primary care physician with moderately severe streptococcal pharyngitis (strep throat). Patients were randomized to penicillin V at a dosage of 800 mg four times a day for five days or 1,000 mg three times a day for 10 days. Those receiving the higher dose over a shorter course of treatment had similar cure rates as those receiving longer-duration therapy, with quicker symptom resolution and no increase in recurrence. Many other studies have found similar results with antibiotics for a range of infections.

An accurate prognosis can potentially help patients avoid unnecessary antibiotic use and return visits. The third POEM in this group recruited 485 healthy children in the United Kingdom, and parents were instructed to contact the researchers every time the child had a respiratory tract infection. 30 One-half of the children had at least one infection, with a median duration of nine days; 90% recovered by day 23. Lower respiratory tract infections were associated with a longer duration of symptoms and ear infections were associated with a shorter duration. This reinforces that clinicians should counsel parents of children with lower respiratory tract symptoms to be patient.

Miscellaneous

Four additional POEMs are summarized in Table 6 . 31 – 34 The first is a cohort study of more than 1.6 million Medicare beneficiaries who started an anticoagulant between 2011 and 2015. 31 Bleeding rates were compared, adjusting for available covariates using propensity score matching (i.e., matching patients who were similar other than choice of anticoagulant). The adjusted incidence of hospitalization for upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding was significantly higher in those who received rivaroxaban (Xarelto) compared with those who received dabigatran (Pradaxa), warfarin (Coumadin), or apixaban (Eliquis); 144 per 10,000 person-years vs. 120, 113, and 73, respectively). For all agents combined, adding a proton pump inhibitor significantly reduced bleeding risk (76 out of 10,000 per year vs. 115 out of 10,000 per year; number needed to treat = 256), although rivaroxaban still had the highest bleeding rate.

The next POEM identified 225 adults presenting to the emergency department with acute pain (mostly musculoskeletal); the average pain score was 6 to 7 out of 10. 32 They were then randomized to a single dose of 400-mg, 600-mg, or 800-mg ibuprofen. An hour after taking the medication, there was no difference between groups, which all had pain scores between 4.4 and 4.5.

The third POEM in this group is a meta-analysis of studies comparing two doses of the recombinant zoster vaccine (Shingrix) with one dose of the live, attenuated vaccine (Zostavax) for the prevention of shingles. 33 Shingrix was more effective but caused more systemic adverse events, although mild, and more injection site pain.

Finally, a systematic review identified 46 studies of the impact of exercise on fall risk in patients 59 years or older. 34 Most of the programs used moderate-intensity exercise, with about one hour of exercise three times per week. The researchers found that exercise significantly decreased the overall risk of falls and resulting injuries but did not affect the risk of multiple falls, hospitalization, or mortality. Fractures were less likely in the exercise group but not significantly.

Practice Guidelines

POEMs sometimes summarize high-impact practice guidelines from important organizations. Key messages from the three highest-rated guidelines are summarized in Table 7 . 35 – 37

The American College of Chest Physicians recommends initiating direct oral anticoagulant therapy in patients with newly diagnosed atrial fibrillation, avoiding aspirin or aspirin plus clopidogrel (Plavix) to prevent thromboembolism, using risk scores for stroke and bleeding, and avoiding cotreatment with aspirin and an anticoagulant if possible. 35

The American Diabetes Association/European Association for the Study of Diabetes guideline for type 2 diabetes mellitus continues to recommend educating patients about diabetes self-management and providing support as the cornerstone of therapy, and metformin as the preferred initial therapy. 36 If a second agent is needed, there are many options, although glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor antagonists or sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors are recommended for patients with established heart disease; sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors are preferred for patients with heart failure or chronic kidney disease.

The American College of Physicians recommendations for breast cancer screening generally parallel those of the USPSTF, which are supported by the American Academy of Family Physicians. Recommendations include shared decision-making in women 40 to 49 years of age, biennial mammography from 50 to 74 years of age or until the woman's life expectancy is less than 10 years, and eliminating the clinical breast examination as a screening test for women who undergo regular mammography. 37 – 39

The full text of the POEMs discussed in this article is available at https://www.aafp.org/journals/afp/content/top-poems/2019.html .

A list of top POEMs from previous years is available at https://www.aafp.org/afp/toppoems .

Editor's Note: This article was cowritten by Dr. Mark Ebell, who is deputy editor for evidence-based medicine for AFP and cofounder and editor-in-chief of Essential Evidence Plus, published by Wiley-Blackwell, Inc. Because of Dr. Ebell's dual roles and ties to Essential Evidence Plus, the concept for this article was independently reviewed and approved by a group of AFP 's medical editors. In addition, the article underwent peer review and editing by three of AFP 's medical editors. Dr. Ebell was not involved in the editorial decision-making process.—Sumi Sexton, MD, Editor-in-Chief.

The authors thank Wiley-Blackwell, Inc., for giving permission to excerpt the POEMs; Drs. Allen Shaughnessy, Henry Barry, David Slawson, Nita Kulkarni, and Linda Speer for their work in selecting and writing the original POEMs; the academic family medicine fellows and faculty of the University of Missouri–Columbia for their work as peer reviewers; Pierre Pluye, PhD, for his work in codeveloping the Information Assessment Method; and Maria Vlasak for her assistance with copyediting the POEMs for the past 26 years.

Shaughnessy AF, Slawson DC, Bennett JH. Becoming an information master: a guidebook to the medical information jungle. J Fam Pract. 1994;39(5):489-499.

Ebell MH, Barry HC, Slawson DC, et al. Finding POEMs in the medical literature. J Fam Pract. 1999;48(5):350-355.

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Pluye P, Grad RM, Johnson-Lafleur J, et al. Evaluation of email alerts in practice: Part 2. Validation of the information assessment method. J Eval Clin Pract. 2010;16(6):1236-1243.

• Hermida RC, Crespo JJ, Domínguez-Sardiña M, et al. Bedtime hypertension treatment improves cardiovascular risk reduction: the Hygia Chronotherapy Trial [published online October 22, 2019]. Eur Heart J . 2019. Accessed March 10, 2020. https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/advance-article/doi/10.1093/eurheartj/ehz754/5602478

Roerecke M, Kaczorowski J, Myers MG. Comparing automated office blood pressure readings with other methods of blood pressure measurement for identifying patients with possible hypertension. A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2019;179(3):351-362.

Slee A, Nazareth I, Bondaronek P, et al. Pharmacological treatments for generalised anxiety disorder [published correction appears in Lancet . 2019;393(10182):1698]. Lancet. 2019;393(10173):768-777.

Paskins Z, Sanders T, Croft PR, et al. Non-disclosure of symptoms in primary care: an observational study. Fam Pract. 2018;35(6):706-711.

de Vries YA, Roest AM, Bos EH, et al. Predicting antidepressant response by monitoring early improvement of individual symptoms of depression: individual patient data meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2019;214(1):4-10.

Mora S, Chang CL, Moorthy MV, et al. Association of nonfasting vs fasting lipid levels with risk of major coronary events in the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial–lipid lowering arm. JAMA Intern Med. 2019;179(7):898-905.

Cholesterol Treatment Trialists' Collaboration. Efficacy and safety of statin therapy in older people: a meta-analysis of individual participant data from 28 randomised controlled trials. Lancet. 2019;393(10170):407-415.

McNeil JJ, Wolfe R, Woods RL, et al.; ASPREE Investigator Group. Effect of aspirin on cardiovascular events and bleeding in the healthy elderly. N Engl J Med. 2018;379(16):1509-1518.

McNeil JJ, Woods RL, Nelson MR, et al.; ASPREE Investigator Group. Effect of aspirin on disability-free survival in the healthy elderly. N Engl J Med. 2018;379(16):1499-1508.

Bowman L, Mafham M, Wallendszus K, et al.; ASCEND Study Collaborative Group. Effects of aspirin for primary prevention in persons with diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 2018;379(16):1529-1539.

Nordestgaard BG, Langsted A, Mora S, et al. Fasting is not routinely required for determination of a lipid profile—a joint consensus statement from the European Atherosclerosis Society and European Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine. Eur Heart J. 2016;37(25):1944-1958.

Grundy SM, Stone NJ. 2018 cholesterol clinical practice guidelines: Synopsis of the 2018 American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology/Multisociety cholesterol guideline. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170(11):779-783.

Moriarty F, Ebell MH. A comparison of contemporary versus older studies of aspirin for primary prevention [published online November 21, 2019]. Fam Pract . 2019. Accessed March 10, 2020. https://academic.oup.com/fampra/advance-article/doi/10.1093/fampra/cmz080/5637484

Piepoli MF, Hoes AW, Agewall S, et al.; The Sixth Joint Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice. 2016 European Guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice. Eur Heart J. 2016;37(29):2315-2381.

Arnett DK, Blumenthal RS, Albert MA, et al. 2019 ACC/AHA guideline on the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines [published correction appears in J Am Coll Cardiol . 2019;74(10):1429–1430]. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;74(10):e177-e232.

Bibbins-Domingo K. Aspirin Use for the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease and Colorectal Cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Ann Intern Med. 2016;164(12):836-845.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Aspirin use to prevent cardiovascular disease and colorectal cancer: preventive medication. April 2016. Accessed February 14, 2010. https://bit.ly/343LnT6

Zorzi M, Hassan C, Capodaglio G, et al. Long-term performance of colorectal cancer screening programmes based on the faecal immunochemical test. Gut. 2018;67(12):2124-2130.

Nieuwenburg SAV, Vuik FER, Kruip MJHA, et al. Effect of anticoagulants and NSAIDs on accuracy of faecal immunochemical tests (FITs) in colorectal cancer screening: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Gut. 2019;68(5):866-872.

Tian Y, Kharazmi E, Sundquist K, et al. Familial colorectal cancer risk in half siblings and siblings: nationwide cohort study. BMJ. 2019;364:l803.

Imperiale TF, Ransohoff DF, Itzkowitz SH, et al. Multitarget stool DNA testing for colorectal-cancer screening. N Engl J Med. 2014;370(14):1287-1297.

Segnan N, Senore C, Andreoni B, et al. Comparing attendance and detection rate of colonoscopy with sigmoidoscopy and FIT for colorectal cancer screening. Gastroenterology. 2007;132(7):2304-2312.

Schoen RE, Razzak A, Yu KJ, et al. Incidence and mortality of colorectal cancer in individuals with a family history of colorectal cancer. Gastroenterology. 2015;149(6):1438-1445.e1.

Marchello CS, Ebell MH, Dale AP, et al. Signs and symptoms that rule out community-acquired pneumonia in outpatient adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Board Fam Med. 2019;32(2):234-247.

Skoog Ståhlgren G, Tyrstrup M, Edlund C, et al. Penicillin V four times daily for five days versus three times daily for 10 days in patients with pharyngotonsillitis caused by group A streptococci: randomised controlled, open label, non-inferiority study. BMJ. 2019;367:l5337.

Hay AD, Anderson E, Ingle S, et al. Respiratory tract infections in children in the community: prospective online inception cohort study. Ann Fam Med. 2019;17(1):14-22.

Ray WA, Chung CP, Murray KT, et al. Association of oral anticoagulants and proton pump inhibitor cotherapy with hospitalization for upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding. JAMA. 2018;320(21):2221-2230.

Motov S, Masoudi A, Drapkin J, et al. Comparison of oral ibuprofen at three single-dose regimens for treating acute pain in the emergency department: a randomized controlled trial. Ann Emerg Med. 2019;74(4):530-537.

Tricco AC, Zarin W, Cardoso R, et al. Efficacy, effectiveness, and safety of herpes zoster vaccines in adults aged 50 and older: systematic review and network meta-analysis. BMJ. 2018;363:k4029.

de Souto Barreto P, Rolland Y, Vellas B, et al. Association of long-term exercise training with risk of falls, fractures, hospitalizations, and mortality in older adults. A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2019;179(3):394-405.

Lip GYH, Banerjee A, Boriani G, et al. Antithrombotic therapy for atrial fibrillation: CHEST guideline and expert panel report. Chest. 2018;154(5):1121-1201.

Davies MJ, D'Alessio DA, Fradkin J, et al. Management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes, 2018. A consensus report by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD). Diabetes Care. 2018;41(12):2669-2701.

Qaseem A, Lin JS, Mustafa RA, et al. Screening for breast cancer in average-risk women: a guidance statement from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170(8):547-560.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Breast cancer: screening. January 2016. Accessed February 14, 2020. https://bit.ly/2ykUZwU

American Academy of Family Physicians. Clinical preventive service recommendation. Breast cancer. Accessed February 14, 2020. https://www.aafp.org/patient-care/clinical-recommendations/all/breast-cancer.html

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Research: Boards Still Have an ESG Expertise Gap — But They’re Improving

• Tensie Whelan

Over the last five years, the percentage of Fortune 100 board members possessing relevant credentials rose from 29% to 43%.

The role of U.S. public boards in managing environmental, social, and governance (ESG) issues has significantly evolved over the past five years. Initially, boards were largely unprepared to handle materially financial ESG topics, lacking the necessary background and credentials. However, recent developments show a positive shift, with the percentage of Fortune 100 board members possessing relevant ESG credentials rising from 29% to 43%. This increase is primarily in environmental and governance credentials, while social credentials have seen less growth. Despite this progress, major gaps remain, particularly in climate change and worker welfare expertise. Notably, the creation of dedicated ESG/sustainability committees has surged, promoting better oversight of sustainability issues. This shift is crucial as companies increasingly face both regulatory pressures and strategic opportunities in transitioning to a low carbon economy.

Knowing the right questions to ask management on material environmental, social, and governance issues has become an important part of a board’s role. Five years ago, our research at NYU Stern Center for Sustainable Business found U.S. public boards were not fit for this purpose — very few had the background and credentials necessary to provide oversight of  ESG topics such as climate, employee welfare, financial hygiene, and cybersecurity. Today, we find that while boards are still woefully underprepared in certain areas, there has been some important progress .

• TW Tensie Whelan is a clinical professor of business and society and the director of the NYU Stern Center for Sustainable Business, and she sits on the advisory boards of Arabesque and Inherent Group.

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CDRH Issues 2024 Safety and Innovation Reports

Reports highlight CDRH actions to advance medical device safety and innovation and build on these efforts this year.

FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE April 17, 2024

The following is attributed to Jeff Shuren, M.D., J.D., director of the FDA's Center for Devices and Radiological Health (CDRH)

Today, CDRH is issuing two companion reports that detail the Center's commitment to further advance our core pillars of safety and innovation. The CDRH 2024 Safety Report is an update to our 2018 Medical Device Safety Action Plan and features steps we have taken in recent years to assure the safety of medical devices keeps pace with the evolving technology. The CDRH 2024 Innovation Report highlights our work to advance innovation and the progress we have made to make the U.S. market more attractive to top device developers.

As we have long stated, safety and innovation are not polar opposites, but rather two sides of the same coin. Our focus on safety and innovation stems from our vision to protect and promote the public health by assuring that medical devices on the U.S. market are high-quality, safe and effective, and that patients and providers have timely and continued access to these devices.

Since 2009, CDRH has focused our efforts on advancing the development of safer, more effective medical devices that provide a significant benefit to the public health. As such, we enhanced our clinical trial and premarket review programs, including the 510(k) and De Novo pathways, and created new programs like the Breakthrough Devices Program , the Safety and Performance Based Pathway and the Safer Technologies Program to help reduce barriers for innovators. As a result of these actions and other past and ongoing efforts, the number of innovative medical devices authorized annually in the U.S. has increased five-fold since 2009.

In parallel, we took significant actions to improve device safety and enhanced our ability to identify and address new safety signals. We achieved an ambitious set of goals outlined in our 2018 Medical Device Safety Action Plan to help ensure patient safety throughout the Total Product Life Cycle (TPLC) of a medical device. We made improvements and updates to our medical device reporting programs, including updating the Manufacturer and User Facility Device Experience (MAUDE) database, vastly improved our recalls program, and took steps to ensure the timely communication and resolution of new or known safety issues.

And throughout, we partnered with patients and incorporated their voices into our work, including establishing our Patient Science and Engagement Program, because at the end of the day, improving the health and the quality of life of people is at the core of our public health mission.

We are proud of the progress we've made to advance innovation and improve the safety of medical devices, and we continue to build on these efforts, as resources and additional capabilities permit. One of the challenges we face, though, is the sheer volume of products and producers. Today there about 257,000 different types of medical devices on the U.S. market, made by approximately 22,000 manufacturing facilities worldwide, and CDRH authorizes roughly a dozen new or modified devices every business day. Despite that, the number of new or increased known safety issues involve only a small fraction of technologies and many can be addressed without any changes to the device itself. However, the impact to people can be significant, which is why we need to continuously take steps to advance both safety and innovation.

This year, we will take additional actions to help further ensure innovative, high-quality, safe, and effective devices are developed and marketed to U.S. patients. As further detailed in the 2024 Innovation Report, three actions we plan to take this year include: reimagining our premarket review program, expanding our footprint in geographical innovation centers, and launching a new home as a health care hub to extend first-class care into the home. Additionally, as detailed in the 2024 Safety Report, three actions we plan to take this year include: expanding a program to assist companies improve their device quality efforts, strengthening active surveillance, and enhancing the medical device recall process.

Through these new actions and the work detailed in the 2024 Safety and Innovation reports, CDRH remains committed to furthering our mission to protect and promote the public health and ensure our organization is well-positioned to meet the needs of all people and changes in the medical device ecosystem.

Additional Resources:

• 2024 Innovation Report
• 2024 Safety Report
• 2018 Medical Device Safety Action Plan

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9 facts about bullying in the U.S.

Many U.S. children have experienced bullying, whether online or in person. This has prompted discussions about schools’ responsibility to curb student harassment , and some parents have turned to home-schooling or other measures to prevent bullying .

Here is a snapshot of what we know about U.S. kids’ experiences with bullying, taken from Pew Research Center surveys and federal data sources.

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to understand U.S. children’s experiences with bullying, both online and in person. Findings are based on surveys conducted by the Center, as well as data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the National Center for Education Statistics and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Additional information about each survey and its methodology can be found in the links in the text of this analysis.

Bullying is among parents’ top concerns for their children, according to a fall 2022 Center survey of parents with children under 18 . About a third (35%) of U.S. parents with children younger than 18 say they are extremely or very worried that their children might be bullied at some point. Another 39% are somewhat worried about this.

Of the eight concerns asked about in the survey, only one ranked higher for parents than bullying: Four-in-ten parents are extremely or very worried about their children struggling with anxiety or depression.

About half of U.S. teens (53%) say online harassment and online bullying are a major problem for people their age, according to a spring 2022 Center survey of teens ages 13 to 17 . Another 40% say it is a minor problem, and just 6% say it is not a problem.

Black and Hispanic teens, those from lower-income households and teen girls are more likely than those in other groups to view online harassment as a major problem.

Nearly half of U.S. teens have ever been cyberbullied, according the 2022 Center survey of teens . The survey asked teens whether they had ever experienced six types of cyberbullying. Overall, 46% say they have ever encountered at least one of these behaviors, while 28% have experienced multiple types.

The most common type of online bullying for teens in this age group is being called an offensive name (32% have experienced this). Roughly one-in-five teens have had false rumors spread about them online (22%) or were sent explicit images they didn’t ask for (17%).

Teens also report they have experienced someone other than a parent constantly asking them where they are, what they’re doing or who they’re with (15%); being physically threatened (10%); or having explicit images of them shared without their consent (7%).

Older teen girls are especially likely to have experienced bullying online, the spring 2022 survey of teens shows. Some 54% of girls ages 15 to 17 have experienced at least one cyberbullying behavior asked about in the survey, compared with 44% of boys in the same age group and 41% of younger teens. In particular, older teen girls are more likely than the other groups to say they have been the target of false rumors and constant monitoring by someone other than a parent.

They are also more likely to think they have been harassed online because of their physical appearance: 21% of girls ages 15 to 17 say this, compared with about one-in-ten younger teen girls and teen boys.

White, Black and Hispanic teens have all encountered online bullying at some point, but some of their experiences differ, the spring 2022 teens survey found. For instance, 21% of Black teens say they’ve been targeted online because of their race or ethnicity, compared with 11% of Hispanic teens and 4% of White teens.

Hispanic teens are the most likely to say they’ve been constantly asked where they are, what they’re doing or who they’re with by someone other than a parent. And White teens are more likely than Black teens to say they’ve been targeted by false rumors.

The sample size for Asian American teens was not large enough to analyze separately.

During the 2019-2020 school year, around two-in-ten U.S. middle and high school students said they were bullied at school . That year, 22% of students ages 12 to 18 said this, with the largest shares saying the bullying occurred for one day only (32%) or for between three and 10 days (29%), according to the most recent available data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) and the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES).

Certain groups of students were more likely to experience bullying at school. They include girls, middle schoolers (those in sixth, seventh or eighth grade), and students in rural areas.  

The most common types of at-school bullying for all students ages 12 to 18 were being made the subject of rumors (15%) and being made fun of, called names or insulted (14%).

The classroom was the most common location of bullying that occurred at school in 2019-2020, the BJS and NCES data shows. This was the case for 47% of students ages 12 to 18 who said they were bullied during that school year. Other frequently reported locations included hallways or stairwells (39%), the cafeteria (26%) and outside on school grounds (20%).

Fewer than half (46%) of middle and high schoolers who were bullied at school in 2019-2020 said they notified a teacher or another adult about it, according to the BJS and NCES data. Younger students were more likely to tell an adult at school. Around half or more of sixth, seventh and eighth graders said they did so, compared with 28% of 12th graders.

Students who reported more frequent bullying were also more likely to notify an adult at school. For instance, 60% of those who experienced bullying on more than 10 days during the school year told an adult, compared with 35% of those who experienced it on one day.

In 2021, high schoolers who are gay, lesbian or bisexual were about twice as likely as their heterosexual counterparts to say they’d been bullied, both at school and online, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . In the 12 months before the survey, 22% of high school students who identify as gay, lesbian or bisexual – and 21% of those who identify as questioning or some other way – said they were bullied on school property. That compares with 10% of heterosexual students. The data does not include findings for transgender students.

The trend is similar when it comes to electronic bullying through text or social media: 27% of high school students who identify as lesbian, gay or bisexual say they experienced this in the 12 months before the survey, as did 23% of those who identify as questioning or some other way. That compares with 11% of those who identify as heterosexual.

• Online Harassment & Bullying

About 1 in 4 U.S. teachers say their school went into a gun-related lockdown in the last school year

About half of americans say public k-12 education is going in the wrong direction, what public k-12 teachers want americans to know about teaching, what’s it like to be a teacher in america today, race and lgbtq issues in k-12 schools, most popular.

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