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A virtual animal behavior research project for an introductory biology course.

In December 2019, I was preparing to teach the lab section for the second half of an introductory biology sequence, which includes evolution, form and function, and ecology. I’d taught this course many times in the past, though I hadn’t for a few years before 2019. I knew I wanted to move away from rote learning through memorization or canned laboratory activities, and to create an authentic experience that would allow me the overarching theme of developing students’ scientific skills, as well as their science identity. Therefore, I redesigned the course so that our scheduled lab time was used for knowledge and skill development. The course focused on the research skills in the Vision and Change Biology Core Concepts (AAAS 2011) and supporting literature outlining how to apply the core concepts (Branchaw et al. 2020) so that students developed the necessary skills to conduct the research project at the end of the course.

Unfortunately, my initial plans were sidelined by the ongoing global pandemic, which required a portion of our laboratory activities to be conducted virtually. I ended up developing a multiweek virtual model to develop basic scientific knowledge and skills using BioInteractive resources that culminated in an eight-week-long animal behavior research project.

In developing this course, I focused on skill development because it’s essential for building confidence. When students are more confident in their skills, this confidence generates a sense of belonging in science, contributing to their science identity. This is essential for retention of students identified historically as Persons Excluded because of their Ethnicity or Race (PEERs), who may be marginalized and less comfortable in the science environment (Asai 2020).

Ethogram and Time-Budget Study

In order to move students toward more open-ended experiments, I chose ethograms with a time-budget study as their final research project. Ethograms are used in the field of animal behavior to collect data during observations and require making a series of field observations that result in a catalog of behaviors and activities identified by the observer.

For this research project, students conducted independent ethological research observing the behavior of an animal species of their choice. I asked students to choose between focusing on a group of animals or an individual, since these require different observational techniques. In observing a group of animals via webcam, students needed to understand that they should focus on one individual of the group for set intervals. Students could also choose to focus on an individual animal for longer and more frequent observations, though that comes with its own limitations.

Initial observations of specific behaviors helped students construct their data-collection instruments, which are used to construct a basic ethogram. Students determined how they would collect data, which helped to develop observational skills and rudimentary experimental design. I provided students with some examples of ethogram templates. (Many zoos have a basic version posted for students, such as this one: Virtual Classroom | Animal Ethograms - Denver Zoo .)

Finally, students used the list of behaviors they collected for their ethogram to observe their animal(s) several more times. They were required to create a data-collection tool to record the number of times each behavior was observed during a specified period of time for at least three more observation periods. These data were used to create a time-budget study, which is a study that identifies the activities an animal is performing in order to determine how the animal uses its energy during a specific time period.

Overall, ethograms and time-budget studies ease students into research before they are introduced to experimental variables and more advanced research methodology. Plus, it’s fun because they choose their own study animal, so it allows for an authentic final assessment in which students demonstrate the skills they have learned and take ownership of their project.

Weekly Modules

For context, this course consisted of a three-credit lecture and a one-credit lab. The first six weeks of the 15-week laboratory portion were conducted in a synchronous virtual format, using BioInteractive materials to teach the basic skills necessary to start the ethogram project. (The first six weeks, as well as the culminating project description, are presented here.) Starting in Week 7, we also conducted in-person lab activities that enhanced students’ background knowledge on animal behavior and taxonomy. All work for the ethogram project was submitted through the course learning management system.

Week 1: Science Literacy Part 1 & Evaluating Science in the News

The first week of lab class introduced students to the process of science by having them evaluate scientific news articles to prepare them for the literature review of their animal behavior project. During our synchronous meeting time, I provided a minilecture on scientific literacy, pseudoscience, and understanding logical fallacies, followed by a short quiz using an online polling system. I then assigned students into breakout groups. Each team completed the short handout for the activity “Evaluating Science in the News,” which involves using the CRAP (Currency, Reliability, Authority, and Purpose) test to evaluate a science news source.

Each team evaluated a “science” article about SARS-CoV-2 that was filled with misinformation by filling out the handout. I assigned the extended version of the “ Scientist Role Models” activity as homework because I wanted them to begin creating their science identity so that they considered themselves as scientists.

Week 2: Scientific Literacy Part 2: Reading Scientific Articles

During Week 2, we continued exploring scientific literacy to scaffold skills they learned in Week 1. The synchronous virtual meeting began with a case study activity that provided students with information about experimental design and basic data analysis. This case study also showed an animal observation study in which there is no laboratory experiment, but data were still collected based on a hypothesis.

We discussed the case study as a class, with students responding in the chat or out loud. Once we completed the case study, I created teams for another article analysis activity. We used this activity to become familiar with the structure of a scientific paper and describe what kind of information is provided in each section (abstract, introduction, methods, results, and conclusion). The activity goals were:

• Identify hypotheses in scientific writing.
• Evaluate evidence in support of a claim in scientific and journalistic writing.
• Identify appropriate search terms.
• Effectively search library databases to find relevant peer-reviewed scientific literature.
• Gain experience reviewing peer-reviewed literature.

Here are guiding questions that I asked students to keep in mind when reading a scientific article. (I also provided an optional resource article: “How to (Seriously) Read a Scientific Paper.” )

• What basic research question are the authors trying to answer?
• What makes that research question significant? (That is, why try to answer that question? Why does it matter?)
• What data did the authors collect?
• What is the authors’ interpretation of their data?
• Do you think that the data they collected supports their conclusions? Why or why not?

This activity consisted of two parts:

Part 1: I reviewed how scientists formulate a hypothesis, test it, and share their information with their peers through publication. I briefly introduced a topic using a short video. While students watched the video, I asked them to focus on how an observation, no matter how trivial, could help form a testable scientific question and emphasized that observation is the beginning of all scientific investigations.

I used a video about penguin defecation to maintain the theme of research related to animal observation. It gave students a chuckle, but is related to actual research, which they review in Part 2 of the activity.

Part 2: Students were divided into groups to read an article about penguin defecation ( Meyer-Rochow and Gal 2003 ) related to the research depicted in the video. Students were asked to work as a team to identify various components of the article, including the scientist’s hypothesis, the evidence used to accept or reject the hypothesis, and whether the hypothesis was accepted or rejected. For the activity, students chose one person from their group to be the notetaker and one person to report back to the entire class when we reconvened.

When the groups finished, we reconvened and students shared out. I recommend doing this as a group activity after they watch the video, with a follow-up discussion, because both of my sections found this particularly difficult. The article was a bit complex for them to understand, but as we talked through it, they understood the importance of becoming familiar with primary literature. I also reminded students that they were not expected to fully understand the paper.

Homework for Week 2 consisted of a similar reading assignment that related to the work they would do in Week 4 (Lizard Evolution Lab). Students watched a BioInteractive video on reproductive isolation and speciation in lizards , then read “Rapid evolution of a native species following invasion by a congener” ( Stuart et al. 2014 ).

In the directions for the article analysis, I reminded students that they were working toward a course goal of being able to understand scientific journal articles. I also allayed students’ concerns about the complexity of the article by reassuring them that I would do my best to teach them the background information needed to understand each article before we read it. I also told them to focus their attention on what they wanted to glean from the article.

Week 3: Sampling Distribution Lab

During Week 3, students were introduced to graph analysis and the concept of sample distributions using the Sampling and Normal Distribution Click & Learn and its accompanying worksheet. I converted the worksheet to a Google Form that students could easily fill out and submit online, since they would be working asynchronously. During the synchronous meeting, we did a quick recap of the article that students read for their homework from Week 2. I also showed the annotated summary of the same article entitled “There's a new kid in town” posted on Science in the Classroom .

After the article discussion, I did a minilecture on sampling distribution and how to use the Click & Learn. I then allowed students to work individually or in teams during class time. I stayed online in the virtual classroom so that students could pop in if they had questions for me. This activity proved to be difficult for some students, so I set up individual virtual meetings to go over their questions. No homework was assigned this week as they were working on the activity asynchronously.

Week 4: Lizard Evolution Lab

Week 4 included one of the favorite activities for both of my groups. Like in Week 3, I spent the synchronous meeting time showing students how to use the Lizard Evolution Virtual Lab and its accompanying worksheet. I also showed the related video The Origin of Species: Lizards in an Evolutionary Tree , which helped students understand how the data for the virtual lab were collected. I reminded them that observational skills were key to this research and that this was the research from the article they read in Week 2.

As in Week 3, I converted the worksheet questions into a Google Form. Similarly, no homework was assigned as they worked on this virtual lab asynchronously.

Week 5: Animal Behavior & Communication Part 1

Students were now ready to apply their skills. For Week 5, I used the synchronous time to go over the following topics with students via videos, a minilecture, and exemplars of previous work:

• How to keep a field journal (discussion and examples posted)
• Overview on ethograms and how they are created (videos and examples posted)
• Various types of animal behaviors that can be observed and methods of sampling animal behavior (videos)

I found several good video examples on YouTube and various examples of ethograms, which I also posted in the learning management system.

For homework, students reviewed the materials, then conducted an initial observation of an animal species of their choice. I’ve written about a similar project here: “Teaching Ecology and Animal Behavior in an Online Setting.” These observations helped them decide on the animal species they would like to study.

I also asked them to find at least two peer-reviewed articles about their animal species. I will admit that I was surprised that, at this point, students struggled with understanding what this meant. Many started off with non-peer-reviewed resources, such as encyclopedias and popular websites. I provided feedback on their resources and did not award the points for the assignment until they submitted peer-reviewed articles. In some cases, this took a virtual meeting to discuss this with students.

Week 6: Animal Behavior & Communication Part 2

For Week 6, students were introduced to a more in-depth example of animal observations so they could apply their problem-solving skills, as well as the knowledge we had learned in class thus far. This example really created a deeper understanding of the process of science once students saw how it was done.

For the synchronous class time, we used the How Animals Use Sound to Communicate Click & Learn. Students were provided with a Google Doc version of the accompanying worksheet so they could fill it in as we worked through the Click & Learn. With the class, I clicked through and discussed the “Introduction” slides to provide students with the knowledge base for the activity.

On Slides 3 and 4, students watched a video of the various animal behaviors identified and defined by the researchers. On Slide 3, I played the video and asked students to try to identify which of the auditory signals they observed the animals using. After this, we moved to Slide 4, which has the same video but highlights the auditory signals that students should have observed. This really showed that observational work, especially when there are multiple animals, is difficult.

This example connected with what students should have done during their observations the previous week. The example also assisted them in that week’s homework, which was constructing their data-collection tool. In addition, we discussed how animals use sound to communicate as we continued to watch the videos. This was much more interesting than reading about animal behavior in their textbook!

At this point, students should also have been thinking about the types of behaviors they could have been observing in Week 5. Some opted to redo their initial observation because they realized they did not adequately observe their animal. I loved that this happened because it let them experience the actual process of science in action. In other words, they realized that their original observational skills were not honed and were better able to understand the types of behaviors they should be looking for in their chosen species.

Once we finished the introduction of the Click & Learn, as a class, we worked through the first case study about how elephants communicate across long distances. This case study begins with an introduction to various types of elephant sounds and describes the combination of low- and high-frequency vocalizations used in elephant communication. This is a great thinking exercise that shows students how observational research can be used to develop a quantitative research study.

As homework for this week, students were asked to revise/develop descriptions of the behaviors they had identified. Then, they developed a definition for each behavior and created their data-collection sheet for the time-budget study.

The time-budget study was created by each student based on the list of behaviors they had generated. Once they identified the timeframe (e.g., observing animals for two 15-minute intervals twice per week at a specific time of day) for their observations, they would count how many times the animal presented with each behavior within the time they observed the animal. This is where they would use the ethogram to create a checklist used during the time-budget study observations. They were provided with a detailed instruction sheet for the entire project.

Once students submitted their data-collection table and received feedback from me (either written or via a meeting), they could start collecting data. They were required to collect data on three separate dates.

After Week 6

After working through Weeks 5 and 6, which helped students design their projects, students collected data for the rest of the semester (Weeks 7–14), with at least three separate data-collection periods required for their time-budget study. The final assessment for the course included an oral presentation of their results, as well as a written paper. I created a slide template for them and a sample of a research paper (I used a former student’s paper with permission), as many were not familiar with how to present authentic research.

After Week 6, the students met for in-person lab exercises (we were masked and in full PPE) where we practiced skills they would need to successfully complete their project. For example, they practiced behavioral observation skills via a pill-bug experiment where they made their own hypotheses and tested them.

During these final weeks, I also scheduled time to meet with students in-person to discuss issues with their projects. I tried to highlight the importance of interacting with a mentor (in this case, me) and helped them practice the skills they would use in graduate school or at work.

All but one student out of 30 successfully completed the project. The final presentations were conducted virtually. Students proudly presented their authentic research and clearly showed how they had developed their research skills with this project. I was ecstatic that students were able to accomplish so much during a global pandemic. They were able to get a feel for what it is like to work with a research mentor and develop their own research projects. I really enjoy mentoring students, and this is a perfect way to interact with them and model for them what it is to be mentored and to engage them in the process of science. Through the creation of the student-mentor bond, I was able to help them begin to see themselves as scientists. The seed for the base of their science identity was planted.

American Association for the Advancement of Science. Vision and Change in Undergraduate Biology Education: A Call to Action . Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2011.

Asai, D. J. “Race Matters.” Cell 181, 4 (2020): 754–757. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.03.044 .

Branchaw, J. L., P. A. Pape-Lindstrom, K. D. Tanner, S. A. Bissonnette, T. L. Cary, B. A. Couch, A. J. Crowe, et al. “Resources for Teaching and Assessing the Vision and Change Biology Core Concepts. CBE—Life Sciences Education 19, 2 (2020): es1. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.19-11-0243 .

Meyer-Rochow, V. B., and J. Gal. “Pressures produced when penguins pooh—calculations on avian defaecation.” Polar Biology 27, 1 (2003): 56–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00300-003-0563-3 .

Stuart, Y. E., T. S. Campbell, P. A. Hohenlohe, R. G. Reynolds, L. J. Revell, and J. B. Losos. “Rapid evolution of a native species following invasion by a congener.” Science 346, 6208 (2014): 463–466. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1257008 .

Melissa Haswell is currently the Associate Dean of Science and Mathematics at Delta College in Michigan. Previously, she taught introductory biology and science ethics for a biology majors program, and anatomy and physiology, and pathophysiology for the nursing program at Davenport University, a private university in Michigan. When she’s not focused on working to improve higher education, she enjoys hiking and camping with her husband and Dalmatian, Chloe, as well as reading, cooking, and spending time with their two cats.

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Open Access

Essays articulate a specific perspective on a topic of broad interest to scientists.

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A guide to open science practices for animal research

Contributed equally to this work with: Kai Diederich, Kathrin Schmitt

Affiliation German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, German Centre for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R), Berlin, Germany

* E-mail: [email protected]

• Kai Diederich, 
• Kathrin Schmitt, 
• Philipp Schwedhelm, 
• Bettina Bert, 
• Céline Heinl

Published: September 15, 2022

• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001810
• Reader Comments

Translational biomedical research relies on animal experiments and provides the underlying proof of practice for clinical trials, which places an increased duty of care on translational researchers to derive the maximum possible output from every experiment performed. The implementation of open science practices has the potential to initiate a change in research culture that could improve the transparency and quality of translational research in general, as well as increasing the audience and scientific reach of published research. However, open science has become a buzzword in the scientific community that can often miss mark when it comes to practical implementation. In this Essay, we provide a guide to open science practices that can be applied throughout the research process, from study design, through data collection and analysis, to publication and dissemination, to help scientists improve the transparency and quality of their work. As open science practices continue to evolve, we also provide an online toolbox of resources that we will update continually.

Citation: Diederich K, Schmitt K, Schwedhelm P, Bert B, Heinl C (2022) A guide to open science practices for animal research. PLoS Biol 20(9): e3001810. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001810

Copyright: © 2022 Diederich et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: I have read the journal’s policy and the authors of this manuscript have the following competing interests: All authors are employed at the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment and part of the German Centre for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R) which developed and hosts animalstudyregistry.org , a preregistration platform for animal studies and animaltestinfo.de, a database for non-technical project summaries (NTS) of approved animal study protocols within Germany.

Abbreviations: CC, Creative Commons; CIRS-LAS, critical incident reporting system in laboratory animal science; COVID-19, Coronavirus Disease 2019; DOAJ, Directory of Open Access Journals; DOI, digital object identifier; EDA, Experimental Design Assistant; ELN, electronic laboratory notebook; EU, European Union; IMSR, International Mouse Strain Resource; JISC, Joint Information Systems Committee; LIMS, laboratory information management system; MGI, Mouse Genome Informatics; NC3Rs, National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research; NTS, non-technical summary; RRID, Research Resource Identifier

Introduction

Over the past decade, the quality of published scientific literature has been repeatedly called into question by the failure of large replication studies or meta-analyses to demonstrate sufficient translation from experimental research into clinical successes [ 1 – 5 ]. At the same time, the open science movement has gained more and more advocates across various research areas. By sharing all of the information collected during the research process with colleagues and with the public, scientists can improve collaborations within their field and increase the reproducibility and trustworthiness of their work [ 6 ]. Thus, the International Reproducibility Networks have called for more open research [ 7 ].

However, open science practices have not been adopted to the same degree in all research areas. In psychology, which was strongly affected by the so-called reproducibility crisis, the open science movement initiated real practical changes leading to a broad implementation of practices such as preregistration or sharing of data and material [ 8 – 10 ]. By contrast, biomedical research is still lagging behind. Open science might be of high value for research in general, but in translational biomedical research, it is an ethical obligation. It is the responsibility of the scientist to transparently share all data collected to ensure that clinical research can adequately evaluate the risks and benefits of a potential treatment. When Russell and Burch published “The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique” in 1959, scientists started to implement their 3Rs principle to answer the ethical dilemma of animal welfare in the face of scientific progress [ 11 ]. By replacing animal experiments wherever possible, reducing the number of animals to a strict minimum, and refining the procedures where animals have still to be used, this ethical dilemma was addressed. However, in recent years, whether the 3Rs principle is sufficient to fully address ethical concerns about animal experiments has been questioned [ 12 ].

Most people tolerate the use of animals for scientific purposes only under the basic assumption that the knowledge gained will advance research in crucial areas. This implies that performed experiments are reported in a way that enables peers to benefit from the collected data. However, recent studies suggest that a large proportion of animal experiments are never actually published. For example, scientists working within the European Union (EU) have to write an animal study protocol for approval by the competent authorities of the respective country before performing an animal experiment [ 13 ]. In these protocols, scientists have to describe the planned study and justify every animal required for the project. By searching for publications resulting from approved animal study protocols from 2 German University Medical Centers, Wieschowski and colleagues found that only 53% of approved protocols led to a publication after 6 years [ 14 ]. Using a similar approach, Van der Naald and colleagues determined a publication rate of 60% at the Utrecht Medical Center [ 15 ]. In a follow-up survey, the respective researchers named so-called “negative” or null-hypothesis results as the main cause for not publishing outcomes [ 15 ]. The current scientific system is shaped by publishers, funders, and institutions and motivates scientists to publish novel, surprising, and positive results, revealing one of the many structural problems that the numerous efforts towards open science initiatives are targeting. Non-publication not only strongly contradicts ethical values, but also it compromises the quality of published literature by leading to overestimation of effect sizes [ 16 , 17 ]. Furthermore, publications of animal studies too often show poor reporting that strongly impairs the reproducibility, validity, and usefulness of the results [ 18 ]. Unfortunately, the idea that negative or equivocal findings can also contribute to the gain of scientific knowledge is frequently neglected.

So far, the scientific community using animals has shown limited resonance to the open science movement. Due to the strong controversy surrounding animal experiments, scientists have been reluctant to share information on the topic. Additionally, translational research is highly competitive and researchers tend to be secretive about their ideas until they are ready for publication or patent [ 19 , 20 ]. However, this missing openness could also point to a lack of knowledge and training on the many open science options that are available and suitable for animal research. Researchers have to be convinced of the benefits of open science practices, not only for science in general, but also for the individual researcher and each single animal. Yet, the key players in the research system are already starting to value open science practices. An increasing number of journals request open sharing of data, funders pay for open access publications and institutions consider open science practices in hiring decisions. Open science practices can improve the quality of work by enabling valuable scientific input from peers at the early stages of research projects. Furthermore, the extended communication that open science practices offer can draw attention to research and help to expand networks of collaborators and lead to new project opportunities or follow-up positions. Thus, open science practices can be a driver for careers in academia, particularly those of early career researchers.

Beyond these personal benefits, improving transparency in translational biomedical research can boost scientific progress in general. By bringing to light all the recorded research outputs that until now have remained hidden, the publication bias and the overestimation of effect sizes can be reduced [ 17 ]. Large-scale sharing of data can help to synthesize research outputs in preclinical research that will enable better decision-making for clinical research. Disclosing the whole research process will help to uncover systematic problems and support scientists in thoroughly planning their studies. In the long run, we predict that the implementation of open science practices will lead to the use of fewer animals in unintentionally repeated experiments that previously showed unreported negative results or in the establishment of methods by avoiding experimental dead ends that are often not published. More collaborations and sharing of materials and methods can further reduce the number of animal experiments used for the implementation of new techniques.

Open science can and should be implemented at each step of the research process ( Fig 1 ). A vast number of tools are already provided that were either directly conceptualized for animal research or can be adapted easily. In this Essay, we provide an overview of open science tools that improve transparency, reliability, and animal welfare in translational in vivo biomedical research by supporting scientists to clearly communicate their research and by supporting collaborative working. Table 1 lists the most prominent open science tools we discuss, together with their respective links. We have structured this Essay to guide you through which tools can be used at each stage of the research process, from planning and conducting experiments, through to analyzing data and communicating the results. However, many of these tools can be used at many different steps. Table 1 has been deposited on Zenodo and will be updated continuously [ 21 ].

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• TIFF original image

Application of open science practices at each step of the research process can maximize the impact of performed animal experiments. The implementation of these practices will lead to less time pressure at the end of a project. Due to the connection of most of these open science practices, spending more time in the planning phase and during the conduction of experiments will save time during the data analysis and publication of the study. Indeed, consulting reporting guidelines early on, preregistering a statistical plan, and writing down crucial experimental details in an electronic lab notebook, will strongly accelerate the writing of a manuscript. If protocols or even electronic lab notebooks were made public, just citing these would simplify the writing of publications. Similarly, if a data management plan is well designed before starting data collection, analyzing, and depositing data in a public repository, as is increasingly required, will be fast. NTS, non-technical summary.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001810.g001

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001810.t001

Planning the study

Transparent practices can be adopted at every stage of the research process. However, to ensure full effectivity, it is highly recommended to engage in detailed planning before the start of the experiment. This can prevent valuable time from being lost at the end of the study due to careless decisions being made at the beginning. Clarifying data management at the start of a project can help avoiding filing chaos that can be very time consuming to untangle. Keeping clear track of a project and study design will also help if new colleagues are included later on in the project or if entire project parts are handed over. In addition, all texts written on the rationale and hypothesis of the study or method descriptions, or design schemes created during the planning phase can be used in the final publications ( Fig 1 ). Similarly, information required for preregistration of animal studies or for reporting according to the ARRIVE guidelines are an extension of the details required for ethical approval [ 22 , 23 ]. Thus, the time burden within the planning phase is often overestimated. Furthermore, the thorough planning of experiments can avoid the unnecessary use of animals by preventing wrong avenues from being pursued.

Implementing open scientific practices at the beginning of a project does not mean that the idea and study plan must be shared immediately, but rather is critical for making the entire workflow transparent at the end of the project. However, optional early sharing of information can enable peers to give feedback on the study plan. Studies potentially benefit more from this a priori input than they would from the classical a posteriori peer-review process.

Most people perceive guidelines as advice that instructs on how to do something. However, it is sometimes useful to consider the term in its original meaning; “the line that guides us”. In this sense, following guidelines is not simply fulfilling a duty, but is a process that can help to design a sound research study and, as such, guidelines should be consulted at the planning stage of a project. The PREPARE guidelines are a list of important points that should be thought-out before starting a study involving animal experiments in order to reduce the waste of animals, promote alternatives, and increase the reproducibility of research and testing [ 24 ]. The PREPARE checklist helps to thoroughly plan a study and focuses on improving the communication and collaboration between all involved participants of the study (i.e., animal caretakers and scientists). Indeed, open science begins with the communication within a research facility. It is currently available in 33 languages and the responsible team from Norecopa, Norway’s 3R-center, takes requests for translations into further languages.

The UK Reproducibility Network has also published several guiding documents (primers) on important topics for open and reproducible science. These address issues such as data sharing [ 25 ], open access [ 26 ], open code and software [ 27 ], and preprints [ 28 ], as well as preregistration and registered reports [ 27 ]. Consultation of these primers is not only helpful in the relevant phases of the experiment but is also encouraged in the planning phase.

Although the ARRIVE guidelines are primarily a reporting guideline specifically designed for preparing a publication containing animal data, they can also support researchers when planning their experiments [ 22 , 23 ]. Going through the ARRIVE website, researchers will find tools and explanations that can support them in planning their experiments [ 29 ]. Consulting the ARRIVE checklist at the beginning of a project can help in deciding what details need to be documented during conduction of the experiments. This is particularly advisable, given that compliance to ARRIVE is still poor [ 18 ].

Experimental design

To maximize the validity of performed experiments and the knowledge gained, designing the study well is crucial. It is important that the chosen animal species reflects the investigated disease well and that basic characteristics of the animal, such as sex or age, are considered carefully [ 30 ]. The Canadian Institutes of Health Research provides a collection of resources on the integration of sex and gender in biomedical research with animals, including tips and tools for researchers and reviewers [ 31 ]. Additionally, it is advisable to avoid unnecessary standardization of biological and environmental factors that can reduce the external validity of results [ 32 ]. Meticulous statistical planning can further optimize the use of animals. Free to use online tools for calculating sample sizes such as G*Power or the inVivo software package for R can further support animal researchers in designing their statistical plan [ 33 , 34 ]. Randomization for the allocation of groups can be supported with specific tools for scientists like Research Randomizer, but also by simple online random number generators [ 35 ]. Furthermore, it might be advisable when designing the study to incorporate pathological analyses into the experimental plan. Optimal planning of tissue collection, performance of pathological procedures according to accepted best practices, and use of optimal pathological analysis and reporting methods can add some extra knowledge that would otherwise be lost. This can improve the reproducibility and quality of translational biomedicine, especially, but not exclusively, in animal studies with morphological endpoints. In all animal studies, unexpected deaths in experimental animals can occur and be the cause of lost data or missed opportunities to identify health problems [ 36 , 37 ].

To support researchers in designing their animal research, the National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs) has also developed the Experimental Design Assistant (EDA) [ 38 , 39 ]. This online tool helps researchers to better structure in vivo research by creating detailed schemes of the study design. It provides feedback on the entered design, drawing researcher’s attention to crucial decisions in the project. The resulting schemes can be used to transparently share the study design by uploading it into a study preregistration, enclosing it in a grant application, or submitting it with a final manuscript. The EDA can be used for different study designs in diverse scenarios and helps to communicate researcher plans to others [ 40 ]. The EDA might be particularly of interest to clarify very complex study designs involving multiple experimental groups. Working with the EDA might appear rather complex in the beginning, but the NC3R provides regular webinars that can help to answer any questions that arise.

Preregistration

Preregistration is an effective tool to improve the quality and transparency of research. To preregister their work, scientists must determine crucial details of the study before starting any experiment. Changes occurring during a study can be outlined at the end. A preregistered study plan should include at least the hypothesis and determine all the parameters that are known in advance. A description of the planned study design and statistical analysis will enable reviewers and peers to better retrace the workflow. It can prevent the intentional use of the flexibility of analysis to reach p -values under a certain significance level (e.g., p-hacking or HARKing (Hypothesizing After Results are Known)). With preregistration, scientists can also claim their idea at an early stage of their research with a citable individual identifier that labels the idea as their own. Some open preregistration platforms also provide a digital object identifier (DOI), which makes the registered study citable. Three public registries actively encourage the preregistration of animal studies conducted around the world: OSF registry, preclinicaltrials.eu, and animalstudyregistry.org [ 41 – 45 ]. Scientists can choose the registry according to their needs. Preregistering a study in a public registry supports scientists in planning their study and later to critically reevaluate their own work and assess its limitations and potentials.

As an alternative to public registries, researchers can also submit their study plan to one of hundreds of journals already publishing registered reports, including many journals open to animal research [ 8 ]. A submitted registered report passes 2 steps of peer review. In the first step, reviewers comment on the idea and the study design. After an “in-principle-acceptance,” researchers can conduct their study as planned. If the authors conduct the experiments as described in the accepted study protocol, the journal will publish the final study regardless of the outcome. This might be an attractive option, especially for early career researchers, as a manuscript is published at the beginning of a project with the guarantee of a future final publication.

The benefits of preregistration can already be observed in clinical research, where registration has been mandatory for most trials for more than 20 years. Preregistration in clinical research has helped to make known what has been tested and not just what worked and was published, and the implementation of trial registration has strongly reduced the number of publications reporting significant treatment effects [ 46 ]. In animal research, with its unrealistically high percentage of positive results, preregistration seems to be particularly worthwhile.

Research data management

To get the most out of performed animal experiments, effective sharing of data at the end of the study is essential. Sharing research data optimally is complex and needs to be prepared in advance. Thus, data management can be seen as one part of planning a study thoroughly. Many funders have recognized the value of the original research data and request a data management plan from applicants in advance [ 25 , 47 ]. Various freely available tools such as DMPTool or DMPonline already exist to design a research data management plan that complies to the requirements of different funders [ 48 , 49 ]. The data management plan defines the types of data collected and describes the handling and names responsible persons throughout the data lifecycle. This includes collecting the data, analyzing, archiving, and sharing it. Finally, a data management plan enables long-term access and the possibility for reuse by peers. Developing such a plan, whether it is required by funders or not, will later simplify the application of the FAIR data principle (see section on the FAIR data principle). The Longwood Medical Area Research Data Management Working Group from the Harvard Medical School developed a checklist to assist researchers in optimally managing their data throughout the data lifecycle [ 50 ]. Similarly, the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) provides a great research data management toolkit including a checklist for researchers planning their project [ 51 ]. Consulting this checklist in the planning phase of a project can prevent common errors in research data management.

Non-technical project summary

One instrument specifically conceived to create transparency on animal research for the general public is the so-called non-technical project summary (NTS). All animal protocols approved within the EU must be accompanied by these comprehensible summaries. NTSs are intended to inform the public about ongoing animal experiments. They are anonymous and include information on the objectives and potential benefits of the project, the expected harm, the number of animals, the species, and a statement of compliance with the requirements of the 3Rs principle. However, beyond simply informing the public, NTSs can also be used for meta-research to help identify new research areas with an increased need for new 3R technologies [ 52 , 53 ]. NTSs become an excellent tool to appropriately communicate the scientific value of the approved protocol and for meta-scientists to generate added value by systematically analyzing theses summaries if they fulfill a minimum quality threshold [ 54 , 55 ]. In 2021, the EU launched the ALURES platform ( Table 1 ), where NTSs from all member states are published together, opening the opportunities for EU-wide meta-research. NTSs are, in contrast to other open science practices, mandatory in the EU. However, instead of thinking of them as an annoying duty, it might be worth thoroughly drafting the NTS to support the goals of more transparency towards the public, enabling an open dialogue and reducing extreme opinions.

Conducting the experiments

Once the experiments begin, documentation of all necessary details is essential to ensure the transparency of the workflow. This includes methodological details that are crucial for replicating experiments, but also failed attempts that could help peers to avoid experiments that do not work in the future. All information should be stored in such a way that it can be found easily and shared later. In this area, many new tools have emerged in recent years ( Table 1 ). These tools will not only make research transparent for colleagues, but also help to keep track of one’s own research and improve internal collaboration.

Electronic laboratory notebooks

Electronic laboratory notebooks (ELNs) are an important pillar of research data management and open science. ELNs facilitate the structured and harmonized documentation of the data generation workflow, ensure data integrity, and keep track of all modifications made to the original data based on an audit trail option. Moreover, ELNs simplify the sharing of data and support collaborations within and outside the research group. Methodological details and research data become searchable and traceable. There is an extensive amount of literature providing advice on the selection and the implementation process of an ELN depending on the specific needs and research area and its discussion would be beyond the scope of this Essay [ 56 – 58 ]. Some ELNs are connected to a laboratory information management system (LIMS) that provides an animal module supporting the tracking of animal details [ 59 ]. But as research involving animals is highly heterogeneous, this might not be the only decision point and we cannot recommend a specific ELN that is suitable for all animal research.

ELNs are already established in the pharmaceutical industry and their use is on the rise among academics as well. However, due to concerns around costs for licenses, data security, and loss of flexibility, many research institutions still fear the expenses that the introduction of such a system would incur [ 56 ]. Nevertheless, an increasing number of academic institutions are implementing ELNs and appreciating the associated benefits [ 60 ]. If your institution already has an ELN, it might be easiest to just use the option available in the research environment. If not, the Harvard Medical School provides an extensive and updated overview of various features of different ELNs that can support scientists in choosing the appropriate one for their research [ 61 ]. There are many commercial ELN products, which may be preferred when the administrative workload should be outsourced to a large extent. However, open-source products such as eLabFTW or open BIS provide a greater opportunity for customization to meet specific needs of individual research institutions [ 62 – 64 ]. A huge number of options are available depending on the resources and the features required. Some scientists might prefer generic note taking tools such as Evernote or just a simple Word document that offers infinite flexibility, but specific ELNs can further support good record keeping practice by providing immutability, automated backups, standardized methods, and protocols to follow. Clearly defining the specific requirements expected might help to choose an adequate system that would improve the quality of the record compared to classical paper laboratory notebooks.

Sharing protocols

Adequate sharing of methods in translational biomedical sciences is key to reproducibility. Several repositories exist that simplify the publication and exchange of protocols. Writing down methods at the end of the project bears the risk that crucial details might be missing [ 65 ]. On protocols.io, scientists can note all methodological details of a procedure, complete them with uploaded documents, and keep them for personal use or share them with collaborators [ 66 ]. Authors can also decide at any point in time to make their protocol public. Protocols published on protocols.io receive a DOI and become citable; they can be commented on by peers and adapted according to the needs of the individual researcher. Protocol.io files from established protocols can also be submitted together with some context and sample datasets to PLOS ONE , where it can be peer-reviewed and potentially published [ 67 , 68 ]. Depending on the affiliation of the researchers to academia or industry and on an internal or public sharing of files, protocols.io can be free of charge or come with costs. Other journals also encourage their authors to deposit their protocols in a freely accessible repository, such as protocol exchange from Nature portfolio [ 69 ]. Another option might be to separately submit a protocol that was validated by its use in an already published research article to an online and peer-reviewed journal specific for research protocols, such as Bio-Protocol. A multitude of journals, including eLife and Science already collaborate with Bio-Protocol and recommend authors to publish the method in Bio-Protocol [ 70 ]. Bio-Protocol has no submission fees and is freely available to all readers. Both protocols.io and Bio-Protocol allow the illustration of complex scientific methods by uploading videos to published protocols. In addition, protocols can be deposited in a general research repository such as the Open Science Framework (OSF repository) and referenced in appropriate publications.

Sharing critical incidents

Sharing critical or even adverse events that occur in the context of animal experimentation can help other scientists to avoid committing the same mistakes. The system of sharing critical incidents is already established in clinical practice and helps to improve medical care [ 71 , 72 ]. The online platform critical incident reporting system in laboratory animal science (CIRS-LAS) represents the first preclinical equivalent to these clinical systems [ 73 ]. With this web-based tool, critical incidents in animal research can be reported anonymously without registration. An expert panel helps to analyze the incident to encourage an open dialogue. Critical incident reporting is still very marginal in animal research and performed procedures are very variable. These factors make a systemic analysis and a targeted search of incidence difficult. However, it may be of special interest for methods that are broadly used in animal research such as anesthesia. Indeed, a broad feed of this system with data on errors occurring in standard procedures today could help avoid critical incidences in the future and refine animal experiments.

Sharing animals, organs, and tissue

When we think about open science, sharing results and data are often in focus. However, sharing material is also part of a collaborative and open research culture that could help to greatly reduce the number of experimental animals used. When an animal is killed to obtain specific tissue or organs, the remainder is mostly discarded. This may constitute a wasteful practice, as surplus tissue can be used by other researchers for different analyses. More animals are currently killed as surplus than are used in experiments, demonstrating the potential for sharing these animals [ 74 , 75 ].

Sharing information on generated surplus is therefore not only economical, but also an effective way to reduce the number of animals used for scientific purposes. The open-source software Anishare is a straightforward way for breeders of genetically modified lines to promote their surplus offspring or organs within an institution [ 76 ]. The database AniMatch ( Table 1 ) connects scientists within Europe who are offering tissue or organs with scientists seeking this material. Scientists already sharing animal organs can support this process by describing it in publications and making peers aware of this possibility [ 77 ]. Specialized research communities also allow sharing of animal tissue or animal-derived products worldwide that are typically used in these fields on a collaborative basis via the SEARCH-framework [ 78 , 79 ]. Depositing transgenic mice lines into one of several repositories for mouse strains can help to further minimize efforts in producing new transgenic lines and most importantly reduce the number of surplus animals by supporting the cryoconservation of mouse lines. The International Mouse Strain Resource (IMSR) can be used to help find an adequate repository or to help scientists seeking a specific transgenic line find a match [ 80 ].

Analyzing the data

Animal researchers have to handle increasingly complex data. Imaging, electrophysiological recording, or automated behavioral tracking, for example, produce huge datasets. Data can be shared as raw numerical output but also as images, videos, sounds, or other forms from which raw numerical data can be generated. As the heterogeneity and the complexity of research data increases, infinite possibilities for analysis emerge. Transparently reporting how the data were processed will enable peers to better interpret reported results. To get the most out of performed animal experiments, it is crucial to allow other scientists to replicate the analysis and adapt it to their research questions. It is therefore highly recommended to use formats and tools during the analysis that allow a straightforward exchange of code and data later on.

Transparent coding

The use of non-transparent analysis codes have led to a lack of reproducibility of results [ 81 ]. Sharing code is essential for complex analysis and enables other researchers to reproduce results and perform follow-up studies, and citable code gives credit for the development of new algorithms ( Table 1 ). Jupyter Notebooks are a convenient way to share data science pipelines that may use a variety of coding languages, including like Python, R or Matlab, and also share the results of analyses in the form of tables, diagrams, images, and videos. Notebooks contain source code and can be published or collaboratively shared on platforms like GitHub or GitLab, where version control of source code is implemented. The data-archiving tool Zenodo can be used to archive a repository on GitHub and create a DOI for the archive. Thereby contents become citable. Using free and open-source programming language like R or Python will increase the number of potential researchers that can work with the published code. Best practice for research software is to publish the source code with a license that allows modification and redistribution.

Choice of data visualization

Choosing the right format for the visualization of data can increase its accessibility to a broad scientific audience and enable peers to better judge the validity of the results. Studies based on animal research often work with very small sample sizes. Visualizing these data in histograms may lead to an overestimation of the outcomes. Choosing the right dot plots that makes all recorded points visible and at the same time focusses on the summary instead of the individual points can further improve the intuitive understanding of a result. If the sample size is too low, it might not be meaningful to visualize error bars. A variety of freely available tools already exists that can support scientists in creating the most appropriate graphs for their data [ 82 ]. In particular, when representing microscopy results or heat maps, it should be kept in mind that a large part of the population cannot perceive the classical red and green representation [ 83 ]. Opting for the color-blind safe color maps and checking images with free tools such as color oracle ( Table 1 ) can increase the accessibility of graphs. Multiple journals have already addressed flaws in data visualization and have introduced new policies that will accelerate the uptake of transparent representation of results.

Publication of all study outcomes

Open science practices have received much attention in the past few years when it comes to publication of the results. However, it is important to emphasize that although open science tools have their greatest impact at the end of the project, good study preparation and sharing of the study plan and data early on can greatly increase the transparency at the end.

The FAIR data principle

To maximize the impact and outcome of a study, and to make the best long-term use of data generated through animal experiments, researchers should publish all data collected during their research according to the FAIR data principle. That means the data should be findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable. The FAIR principle is thus an extension of open access publishing. Data should not only be published without paywalls or other access restrictions, but also in such a manner that they can be reused and further processed by others. For this, legal as well as technical requirements must be met by the data. To achieve this, the GoFAIR initiative has developed a set of principles that should be taken into account as early as at the data collection stage [ 49 , 84 ]. In addition to extensively described and machine-readable metadata, these principles include, for example, the application of globally persistent identifiers, the use of open file formats, and standardized communication protocols to ensure that humans and machines can easily download the data. A well-chosen repository to upload the data is then just the final step to publish FAIR data.

FAIR data can strongly increase the knowledge gained from performed animal experiments. Thus, the same data can be analyzed by different researchers and could be combined to obtain larger sample sizes, as already occurs in the neuroimaging community, which works with comparable datasets [ 85 ]. Furthermore, the sharing of data enables other researchers to analyze published datasets and estimate measurement reliabilities to optimize their own data collection [ 86 , 87 ]. This will help to improve the translation from animal research into clinics and simultaneously reduce the number of animal experiment in future.

Reporting guidelines

In preclinical research, the ARRIVE guidelines are the current state of the art when it comes to reporting data based on animal experiments [ 22 , 23 ]. The ARRIVE guidelines have been endorsed by more than 1,000 journals who ask that scientists comply with them when reporting their outcomes. Since the ARRIVE guidelines have not had the expected impact on the transparency of reporting in animal research publications, a more rigorous update has been developed to facilitate their application in practice (ARRIVE 2.0 [ 23 ]). We believe that the ARRIVE guidelines can be more effective if they are implemented at a very early stage of the project (see section on guidelines). Some more specialized reporting guidelines have also emerged for individual research fields that rely on animal studies, such as endodontology [ 88 ]. The equator network collects all guidelines and makes them easily findable with their search tool on their website ( Table 1 ). MERIDIAN also offers a 1-stop shop for all reporting guidelines involving the use of animals across all research sectors [ 89 ]. It is thus worth checking for new reporting guidelines before preparing a manuscript to maximize the transparency of described experiments.

Identifiers

Persistent identifiers for published work, authors, or resources are key for making public data findable by search engines and are thus a prerequisite for compliance to FAIR data principles. The most common identifier for publications will be a DOI, which makes the work citable. A DOI is a globally unique string assigned by the International DOI Foundation to identify content permanently and provide a persistent link to its location on the Internet. An ORCID ID is used as a personal persistent identifier and is recommendable to unmistakably identify an author ( Table 1 ). This will avoid confusions between authors with the same name or in the case of name changes or changes of affiliation. Research Resource Identifiers (RRID) are unique ID numbers that help to transparently report research resources. RRID also apply to animals to clearly identify the species used. RRID help avoid confusion between different names or changing names of genetic lines and, importantly, make them machine findable. The RRID Portal helps scientists find a specific RRID or create one if necessary ( Table 1 ). In the context of genetically altered animal lines, correct naming is key. The Mouse Genome Informatics (MGI) Database is the authoritative source of official names for mouse genes, alleles, and strains ([ 90 ]).

Preprint publication

Preprints have undergone unprecedented success, particularly during the height of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic when the need for rapid dissemination of scientific knowledge was critical. The publication process for scientific manuscripts in peer-reviewed journals usually requires a considerable amount of time, ranging from a few months to several years, mainly due to the lengthy review process and inefficient editorial procedures [ 91 , 92 ]. Preprints typically precede formal publication in scientific journals and, thus, do not go through a peer review process, thus, facilitating the prompt open dissemination of important scientific findings within the scientific community. However, submitted papers are usually screened and checked for plagiarism. Preprints are assigned a DOI so they can be cited. Once a preprint is published in a journal, its status is automatically updated on the preprint server. The preprint is linked to the publication via CrossRef and mentioned accordingly on the website of the respective preprint platform.

After initial skepticism, most publishers now allow papers to be posted on preprint servers prior to submission. An increasing number of journals even allow direct submission of a preprint to their peer review process. The US National Institutes of Health and the Wellcome Trust, among other funders, also encourage prepublication and permit researchers to cite preprints in their grant applications. There are now numerous preprint repositories for different scientific disciplines. BioASAP provides a searchable database for preprint servers that can help in identifying the one that best matches an individual’s needs [ 93 ]. The most popular repository for animal research is bioRxiv, which is hosted by the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory ( Table 1 ).

The early exchange of scientific results is particularly important for animal research. This acceleration of the publication process can help other scientists to adapt their research or could even prevent animal experiments if other scientists become aware that an experiment has already been done before starting their own. In addition, preprints can help to increase the visibility of research. Journal articles that have a corresponding preprint publication have higher citation and Altmetric counts than articles without preprint [ 94 ]. In addition, the publication of preprints can help to combat publication bias, which represents a major problem in animal research [ 16 ]. Since journals and readers prioritize cutting-edge studies with positive results over inconclusive or negative results, researchers are reluctant to invest time and money in a manuscript that is unlikely to be accepted in a high-impact journal.

In addition to the option of publishing as preprint, other alternative publication formats have recently been introduced to facilitate the publication of research results that are hard to publish in traditional peer-reviewed journals. These include micro publications, data repositories, data journals, publication platforms, and journals that focus on negative or inconclusive results. The tool fiddle can support scientists in choosing the right publication format [ 95 , 96 ].

Open access publication

Publishing open access is one of the most established open science strategies. In contrast to the FAIR data principle, the term open access publication refers usually to the publication of a manuscript on a platform that is accessible free of charge—in translational biomedical research, this is mostly in the form of a scientific journal article. Originally, publications accessible free of charge were the answer to the paywalls established by renowned publishing houses, which led to social inequalities within and outside the research system. In translational biomedical research, the ethical aspect of urgently needed transparency is another argument in favor of open access publication, as these studies will not only be findable, but also internationally readable.

There are different ways of open access publishing; the 2 main routes are gold open access and green open access. Numerous journals offer now gold open access. It refers to the immediate and fully accessible publication of an article. The Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) provides a complete and updated list for high-quality, open access, and peer-reviewed journals [ 97 ]. Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin offers a specific tool for biomedical open access journals that supports animal researchers to choose an appropriate journal [ 49 ]. In addition, the Sherpa Romeo platform is a straightforward way to identify publisher open access policies on a journal-by-journal basis, including information on preprints, but also on licensing of articles [ 51 ]. Hybrid open access refers to openly accessible articles in otherwise paywalled journals. By contrast, green open access refers to the publication of a manuscript or article in a repository that is mostly operated by institutions and/or universities. The publication can be exclusively on the repository or in combination with a publisher. In the quality-assured, global Directory of Open Access Repositories (openDOAR), scientists can find thousands of indexed open access repositories [ 49 ]. The publisher often sets an embargo during which the authors cannot make the publication available in the repository, which can restrict the combined model. It is worth mentioning that gold open access is usually more expensive for the authors, as they have to pay an article processing charge. However, the article’s outreach is usually much higher than the outreach of an article in a repository or available exclusively as subscription content [ 98 ]. Diamond open access refers to publications and publication platforms that can be read free of charge by anyone interested and for which no costs are incurred by the authors either. It is the simplest and fairest form of open access for all parties involved, as no one is prevented from participating in scientific discourse by payment barriers. For now, it is not as widespread as the other forms because publishers have to find alternative sources of revenue to cover their costs.

As social media and the researcher’s individual public outreach are becoming increasingly important, it should be remembered that the accessibility of a publication should not be confused with the licensing under which the publication is made available. In order to be able to share and reuse one’s own work in the future, we recommend looking for journals that allow publications under the Creative Commons licenses CC BY or CC BY-NC. This also allows the immediate combination of gold and green open access.

Creative commons licenses

Attributing Creative Commons (CC) licenses to scientific content can make research broadly available and clearly specifies the terms and conditions under which people can reuse and redistribute the intellectual property, namely publications and data, while giving the credit to whom it deserves [ 49 ]. As the laws on copyright vary from country to country and law texts are difficult to understand for outsiders, the CC licenses are designed to be easily understandable and are available in 41 languages. This way, users can easily avoid accidental misuse. The CC initiative developed a tool that enables researchers to find the license that best fits their interests [ 49 ]. Since the licenses are based on a modular concept ranging from relatively unrestricted licenses (CC BY, free to use, credit must be given) to more restricted licenses (CC BY-NC-ND, only free to share for non-commercial purposes, credit must be given), one can find an appropriate license even for the most sensitive content. Publishing under an open CC license will not only make the publication easy to access but can also help to increase its reach. It can stimulate other researchers and the interested public to share this article within their network and to make the best future use of it. Bear in mind that datasets published independently from an article may receive a different CC license. In terms of intellectual property, data are not protected in the same way as articles, which is why the CC initiative in the United Kingdom recommends publishing them under a CC0 (“no rights reserved”) license or the Public Domain Mark. This gives everybody the right to use the data freely. In an animal ethics sense, this is especially important in order to get the most out of data derived from animal experiments.

Data and code repositories

Sharing research data is essential to ensure reproducibility and to facilitate scientific progress. This is particularly true in animal research and the scientific community increasingly recognizes the value of sharing research data. However, even though there is increasing support for the sharing of data, researchers still perceive barriers when it comes to doing so in practice [ 99 – 101 ]. Many universities and research institutions have established research data repositories that provide continuous access to datasets in a trusted environment. Many of these data repositories are tied to specific research areas, geographic regions, or scientific institutions. Due to the growing number and overall heterogeneity of these repositories, it can be difficult for researchers, funding agencies, publishers, and academic institutions to identify appropriate repositories for storing and searching research data.

Recently, several web-based tools have been developed to help in the selection of a suitable repository. One example is Re3data, a global registry of research data repositories that includes repositories from various scientific disciplines. The extensive database can be searched by country, content (e.g., raw data, source code), and scientific discipline [ 49 ]. A similar tool to help find a data archive specific to the field is FAIRsharing, based at Oxford University [ 102 ]. If there is no appropriate subject-specific data repository or one seems unsuitable for the data, there are general data repositories, such as Open Science Framework, figshare, Dryad, or Zenodo. To ensure that data stored in a repository can be found, a DOI is assigned to the data. Choosing the right license for the deposited code and data ensures that authors get credit for their work.

Publication and connection of all outcomes

If scientists have used all available open science tools during the research process, then publishing and linking all outcomes represents the well-deserved harvest ( Fig 2 ). At the end of a research process, researchers will not just have 1 publication in a journal. Instead, they might have a preregistration, a preprint, a publication in a journal, a dataset, and a protocol. Connecting these outcomes in a way that enables other scientists to better assess the results that link these publications will be key. There are many examples of good open science practices in laboratory animal science, but we want to highlight one of them to show how this could be achieved. Blenkuš and colleagues investigated how mild stress-induced hyperthermia can be assessed non-invasively by thermography in mice [ 103 ]. The study was preregistered with animalstudyregistry.org , which is referred to in their publication [ 104 ]. A deviation from the originally preregistered hypothesis was explained in the manuscript and the supplementary material was uploaded to figshare [ 105 ].

Application of open science practices can increase the reproducibility and visibility of a research project at the same time. By publishing different research outputs with more detailed information than can be included in a journal article, researchers enable peers to replicate their work. Reporting according to guidelines and using transparent visualization will further improve this reproducibility. The more research products that are generated, the more credit can be attributed. By communicating on social media or additionally publishing slides from delivered talks or posters, more attention can be raised. Additionally, publishing open access and making the work machine-findable makes it accessible to an even broader number of peers.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001810.g002

It might also be helpful to provide all resources from a project in a single repository such as Open Science Framework, which also implements other, different tools that might have been used, like GitHub or protocols.io.

Communicating your research

Once all outcomes of the project are shared, it is time to address the targeted peers. Social media is an important instrument to connect research communities [ 106 ]. In particular, Twitter is an effective way to communicate research findings or related events to peers [ 107 ]. In addition, specialized platforms like ResearchGate can support the exchange of practical experiences ( Table 1 ). When all resources related to a project are kept in one place, sharing this link is a straightforward way to reach out to fellow scientists.

With the increasing number of publications, science communication has become more important in recent years. Transparent science that communicates openly with the public contributes to strengthening society’s trust in research.

Conclusions

Plenty of open science tools are already available and the number of tools is constantly growing. Translational biomedical researchers should seize this opportunity, as it could contribute to a significant improvement in the transparency of research and fulfil their ethical responsibility to maximize the impact of knowledge gained from animal experiments. Over and above this, open science practices also bear important direct benefits for the scientists themselves. Indeed, the implementation of these tools can increase the visibility of research and becomes increasingly important when applying for grants or in recruitment decisions. Already, more and more journals and funders require activities such as data sharing. Several institutions have established open science practices as evaluation criteria alongside publication lists, impact factor, and h-index for panels deciding on hiring or tenure [ 108 ]. For new adopters, it is not necessary to apply all available practices at once. Implementing single tools can be a safe approach to slowly improve the outreach and reproducibility of one’s own research. The more open science products that are generated, the more reproducible the work becomes, but also the more the visibility of a study increases ( Fig 2 ).

As other research fields, such as social sciences, are already a step ahead in the implementation of open science practices, translational biomedicine can profit from their experiences [ 109 ]. We should thus keep in mind that open science comes with some risks that should be minimized early on. Indeed, the more open science practices become incentivized, the more researchers could be tempted to get a transparency quality label that might not be justified. When a study is based on a bad hypothesis or poor statistical planning, this cannot be fixed by preregistration, as prediction alone is not sufficient to validate an interpretation [ 110 ]. Furthermore, a boom of data sharing could disconnect data collectors and analysts, bearing the risk that researchers performing the analysis lack understanding of the data. The publication of datasets could also promote a “parasitic” use of a researcher’s data and lead to scooping of outcomes [ 111 ]. Stakeholders could counteract such a risk by promoting collaboration instead of competition.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, we have seen an explosion of preprint publications. This unseen acceleration of science might be the adequate response to a pandemic; however, the speeding up science in combination with the “publish or perish” culture could come at the expense of the quality of the publication. Nevertheless, a meta-analysis comparing the quality of reporting between preprints and peer-reviewed articles showed that the quality of reporting in preprints in the life sciences is at most slightly lower on average compared to peer-reviewed articles [ 112 ]. Additionally, preprints and social media have shown during this pandemic that a premature and overconfident communication of research results can be overinterpreted by journalists and raise unfounded hopes or fears in patients and relatives [ 113 ]. By being honest and open about the scope and limitations of the study and choosing communication channels carefully, researchers can avoid misinterpretation. It should be noted, however, that by releasing all methodological details and data in research fields such as viral engineering, where a dual use cannot be excluded, open science could increase biosecurity risk. Implementing access-controlled repositories, application programming interfaces, and a biosecurity risk assessment in the planning phase (i.e., by preregistration) could mitigate this threat [ 114 ].

Publishing in open access journals often involves higher publication costs, which makes it more difficult for institutes and universities from low-income countries to publish there [ 115 ]. Equity has been identified as a key aim of open science [ 116 ]. It is vital, therefore, that existing structural inequities in the scientific system are not unintentionally reinforced by open science practices. Early career researchers have been the main drivers of the open science movement in other fields even though they are often in vulnerable positions due to short contracts and hierarchical and strongly networked research environments. Supporting these early career researchers in adopting open science tools could significantly advance this change in research culture [ 117 ]. However, early career researchers can already benefit by publishing registered reports or preprints that can provide a publication much faster than conventional journal publications. Communication in social media can help them establish a network enabling new collaborations or follow-up positions.

Even though open science comes with some risks, the benefits easily overweigh these caveats. If a change towards more transparency is accompanied by the implementation of open science in the teaching curricula of the universities, most of the risks can be minimized [ 118 ]. Interestingly, we have observed that open science tools and infrastructure that are specific to animal research seem to mostly come from Europe. This may be because of strict regulations within Europe for animal experiments or because of a strong research focus in laboratory animal science along with targeted research funding in this region. Whatever the reason might be, it demonstrates the important role of research policy in accelerating the development towards 3Rs and open science.

Overall, it seems inevitable that open science will eventually prevail in translational biomedical research. Scientists should not wait for the slow-moving incentive framework to change their research habits, but should take pioneering roles in adopting open science tools and working towards more collaboration, transparency, and reproducibility.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the valuable input and comments from Sebastian Dunst, Daniel Butzke, and Nils Körber that have improved the content of this work.

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Optimizing animal health, welfare, and performance through the study of basic and applied animal science.

The Department of Animal Science conducts critical research targeting animal health, reproduction, nutrition, their relationship with people and the environment, and more. We are proud to be part of a Tier 1 Research University, devoting the resources needed to maintain world-class facilities and attract world-class people.

Animal Science Research Areas

The Animal Science research program at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln is conducted through some 30 externally and internally funded projects managed under the Agricultural Research Division of IANR. Research activity ranges from basic molecular biology aspects of genetics/genomics/functional genomics and physiology to applied aspects of breeding and genetics, nutrition, meat science and processing, growth, heat and cold stress, production and management strategies and integrated interdisciplinary beef systems projects. Significant collaborative research is conducted in the areas of pre-harvest food safety, nutrient and waste management, animal health, and beef production systems. Interdisciplinary research is encouraged and support is provided for joint projects across departments and between multi-state project participants. Research is conducted in vivo in small animal, poultry and livestock housing laboratories in Animal Science, at all of the animal units managed by the Department, and at facilities owned and managed by cooperating producers. Cell, embryo, and tissue culture work is also conducted.

For more information on some of the research conducted in the Department of Animal Science, visit the following areas:

Research Areas

• Cornell University Home
• College of Agriculture & Life Sciences Home

Animal Science

Our research areas

Faculty members in animal science conduct research in basic and applied aspects of animal biology. These are organized in several areas of excellence:

• Food animal production systems
• Integrative animal biology
• Equine and companion animal biology and society
• International animal agriculture

Examples of recent & ongoing research projects

• Development and Implementation of Marketing Programs, Carcass Evaluation and Production Management Systems for Beef Farms Typical of the Northeast.
• An educational program for traditional and non-traditional beef production
• Beef price and market analysis
• Cornell University Beef Cattle Management Website
• Reversal Of Obesogenic Programming In Newborns Via Formula Fortified With Nr
• Regulation Of The Novel Fibroblast Growth Factor-21 And Its Role In Coordinating Lipid Metabolism In Early Lactating Dairy Cows
• Regulation And Role Of The Insulin-Sensitizing Hormone Adiponectin In Transition Dairy Cows
• Adiponectin In Transition Cows
• Elucidation of aflatoxin Exposure Among Rural Haitians And Acceptability Of Peanut-Based Animal Feed For Farmers
• Diversion Of Mycotoxins From The Haitian Food Chain At Several Critical Points
• Phenotypic And Genomic Database Creation For Cattle In Industry Populations
• Reproduction In Cows
• Pre and Post-Harvest Evaluation of Alfalfa-Grass in Mixed Stands for Maximizing Results
• Meadow Fescue-Alfalfa Mixtures for Improved Forage Quality
• Alfalfa-grass management to maximize milk production from dairy cattle
• Impact Of Rumination And Activity Monitoring With The Hr System For Identification Of Postpartum Health Disorders On Dairy Cow Health And Profitability
• Defining Therapeutic Approaches For Lactating Dairy Cows With Low Fertility After Resynchronization Of Ovulation In Commercial Dairy Farms
• Dairy Manure-Based Anaerobic Digesters
• African Goat Improvement Network (AGIN); genetic characterization and improvement of indigenous goats
• Identification of the genetic mechanisms underlying mastitis in dairy cattle
• Genetic characterization of population structure and signatures of selection among global cattle populations using high-density SNP data
• Identifying genetic mechanisms underlying production, adaptation, and disease traits in livestock
• Increasing Reproductive Efficiency in Chickens
• On-Farm Research Partnership: Evaluation Of Manure Injection Equipment Using Yield Monitoring Technology
• Breaking The Nutrient Management Glass Ceiling: Using Forage Yield Monitors To Improve Nutrient Recycling And Environmental Protection
• Developing Protocols For A Cover Crop Program In The Chesapeake Bay Watershed In Ny
• Integrating Nutrient Reduction Tools And Programs In Ny
• Using Yield Monitors To Measure Alfalfa/Grass Yields And Improve Whole Farm Nutrient Management
• Potassium And Sulfur Management Of Alfalfa; Farmer Driven Testing Of Management Methods
• Refining And Harmonizing Phosphorus Indices In The Chesapeake Bay Region To Improve Critical Source Area Identification And To Address Nutrient Management Priorities
• Greenseeker Technology For Greater Corn Yield And Enhanced Nitrogen Fertilizer Use For Corn
• Manure Injection
• Antioxidative Role Of Gpx In Transgenic Mice
• Removal Of Feather Lipids To Improve Nutritional Value And Processing Of Feathers For Animal Feed
• Developing A New Generation Of Feed Protein Supplements From Marine Biofuel Production
• Biofuel Mass As Feed Protein

Define the role of sphingolipids as mediators of insulin resistance to support milk production and growth

Delineate the mechanisms that impair liver and gut health

Define new approaches to enhance nutrient digestibility

Identify nutritional approaches to prevent endotoxemia and enhance resilience during heat stress

Explore the role of lysophospholipids as immunomodulators

Reduce the negative environmental impact of dairy production

Educate the public about animal-sourced food production

• McFadden Lab Website
• Evaluation Of Direct Fed Probiotic Combination On The Milk Yield Performance Of Multiparous, Lactating Dairy Cattle
• Associations Of Nutritional Strategy And Grouping Management During The Dry Period And Early Lactation With Biomarkers Of Energy Metabolism And Inflammation, Health, Milk Yield, And Reproductive Performance.
• Manure Technologies
• Management Systems to Improve Economic and Environmental Sustainability of Dairy Enterprises
• Ovarian follicle development
• Mechanism of ovulation
• Pluripotent Stem Cells For The Improvement Of Livestock
• Bovine Pluripotent Stem Cells
• Forage-Based Parasite Control In Sheep And Goats In The Northeast US
• Innovative methods of controlling barber pole worms and treating deer worm in small ruminants

Early Life Management

Undergraduate Research

Students are encouraged to identify a research area or a faculty member in an area of interest to the student. Research projects can be pursued for academic credit (ANSCI 4990), most often after the first year. Students involved in undergraduate research may choose to enroll in the Honors Program as seniors and develop an honors thesis.

Animal Science Fair Project Ideas

• Projects & Experiments
• Chemical Laws
• Periodic Table
• Scientific Method
• Biochemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Medical Chemistry
• Chemistry In Everyday Life
• Famous Chemists
• Activities for Kids
• Abbreviations & Acronyms
• Weather & Climate
• Ph.D., Biomedical Sciences, University of Tennessee at Knoxville
• B.A., Physics and Mathematics, Hastings College

Animals are great subjects for science fair projects, particularly if you have a pet or an interest in zoology. Do you want to do a science fair project with your pet or another type of animal? Here is a collection of ideas that you can use for your project.

• Are insects attracted to/repelled by a magnet? Does the presence of a magnetic field affect egg hatching rates of insect or other animal eggs?
• Do pet fish have a color preference for their food? (This assumes you can separate out the colors of a food.) Do pet birds have a color preference for their toys?
• What type of soil do earthworms prefer?
• What natural substances repel insect pests? Examples of insects to test include mosquitoes, ants or flies.
• On a related note, what substances might be used to attract and trap flies, beetles or other pests?
• Do animals display handedness (right-handed, left-handed) like humans? You can test this with a cat and a toy, for example.
• Are cockroaches (or other insects or creatures) attracted to or repelled by light? You probably already suspect cockroaches prefer dark. What other stimuli could you test? Does it matter if it is white light or would you get the same response from specific colors of light? You could test other types of stimuli, such as music, noise, vibration, heat, cold. You get the idea.
• An advanced version of the cockroach project is to select insects that don't run from light (for example). If you allow these insects to mate and keep selecting progeny that doesn't evade light, can you obtain a culture of cockroaches that don't mind light?
• Test household insect repellents . Are there any species against which they are ineffective?
• Can dogs or cats or birds hear ultrasonic insect and rodent repellent devices?
• Can cats hear a dog whistle?
• Are cats equally interested in different laser colors besides the "red dot"?
• What methods serve to disrupt the chemical trail that ants follow?
• How many nematodes (roundworms) are there in a soil sample from your backyard? What are the pros and cons of having these organisms in the soil?
• Do hummingbirds have a color preference for their food?
• What type of light attracts the most moths?
• Does catnip repel insects? If so, which types?
• Which types of animal fossils are present in your area? What does this tell you about the climate and ecology in the past?

Know the Rules

Before you start any science fair project involving animals, make sure it is okay with your school or whoever is in charge of the science fair. Projects with animals may be prohibited or they may require special approval or permission. It's better to make sure your project is acceptable before you get to work! Some animals may be allowed on school grounds, but most either won't be allowed or shouldn't be brought in because they may pose a risk to students or the facility. Even organisms that aren't dangerous may causes allergies in some students.

A Note on Ethics

Science fairs that allow projects with animals will expect you to treat the animals in an ethical manner . The safest type of project is one which involves observing natural behavior of animals or, in the case of pets, interacting with animals in a usual manner. Don't do science fair project that involves harming or killing an animal or puts an animal at risk for injury. As an example, it may be fine to examine data on how much of an earthworm can be cut before the worm becomes unable to regenerate and dies. Actually performing such an experiment probably won't be allowed for most science fairs. In any case, there are lots of projects you can do that don't involve ethical concerns.

Take Pictures and Video

You may be unable to bring your animal science fair project to the school or otherwise put it on display, yet you'll want visual aids for your presentation. Take lots of pictures of your project . Video is another great way to document animal behavior. For some projects, you may be able to bring in preserved specimens or examples of fur or feathers , etc.

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The Solar Eclipse and Wildlife

Eclipses offer a rare opportunity to study animal behavior in unusual conditions..

On Monday, April 8, Americans from coast to coast will have their eyes turned to the skies. But as this year’s solar eclipse approaches totality, they shouldn’t forget to look around them, too.

Eclipses, one of nature’s most unusual and dramatic phenomena, have well-documented effects on animal behavior. In previous eclipses, observers have noticed a general quieting of animal activity around them, with many animals becoming inactive or going silent. A 2017 study at a South Carolina zoo — located in the path of totality of an eclipse that year — found that 75 percent of observed animals changed their behavior during the event.

But why? Given their rarity, the full effect of eclipses on animals isn’t yet well-understood. For some wildlife, however, the event seems to suppress typical daytime activity while triggering the types of behaviors associated with nightfall.

During an eclipse — particularly in the path of totality — the sky darkens, and temperatures can drop . This can lead birds (many of which are known to change their behavior in response to lighting intensity) to quiet their calling and leave the sky , with some behaving as if they’re preparing to roost . Bees and other diurnal insects may become less active, while some flowers close their petals . Spiders have been observed spinning down their webs, as many do before nightfall.

Meanwhile, though the effects here seem less pronounced, some nighttime animals may start to become active as the eclipse nears totality. Frogs, crickets , and owls have been observed calling, as they often do at dusk. In the 2017 eclipse, which took place in August, fireflies became active in some areas.

Overall, however, eclipses are often marked by a lull in animal activity, with diurnal animals resuming their regular behavior as the event subsides.

Where can I watch wildlife during the solar eclipse?

While a partial eclipse will be visible across the contiguous United States, the effects on animals are likely to be more significant closer to the path of totality — the band of earth’s surface where the moon can be seen fully covering the sun. This path will cross fifteen eastern states from Texas to Maine throughout Monday afternoon. Full totality will last just a few minutes in any given location, but changes in light may be noticeable in the hours before and after the event.

Wildlife can be observed anywhere, from a local park to your own backyard. For best viewing opportunities, find somewhere quiet — ideally away from roads or large crowds — where it will be easier to listen for changes in sounds during the solar eclipse.

More than 30 national wildlife refuges and 27 national park units fall in the path of totality, for those able to make the trip. Many will be hosting official viewing events; you can check with your local park’s website or social media accounts for more information.

A citizen science opportunity

For those interested in helping scientists better understand the solar eclipse’s effects on wildlife, there are several opportunities to participate. Researchers hope these initiatives — using technologies and platforms unavailable to them in past eclipses — can provide the data needed to draw broader conclusions about animal behavior.

• NASA’s Eclipse Soundscape Project invites Americans to document their experiences of the eclipse through audio recordings and written notes.
• Solar Eclipse Safari , a project run by researchers at NC State, asks participants to document changes in animal behavior during the event.

You can also document your experiences using citizen science apps such as iNaturalist and eBird , which serve as public databases for researchers and amateur naturalists alike.

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Kelly Nichols, Ph.D.

Position Title Assistant Professor

• +1-530-761-6698
• [email protected]
• B.Sc., University of Guelph, Canada, 2013
• M.Sc., University of Guelph, Canada, 2015
• Ph.D., Wageningen University, the Netherlands, 2019

Research Interests:

Dairy cattle play a crucial role in the global food ecosystem as net producers of human food (e.g., milk) from human-inedible resources (e.g., agricultural byproducts). Maintaining production of high-quality milk while addressing issues related to environmental sustainability and resource availability requires deeper understanding of the interactions between key dietary components like energy and protein, and the dynamics of digestion and metabolism in response to nutritional manipulation.

The Nichols’ Lab focuses on characterizing the digestive and metabolic flexibility of dairy cattle to elevate our understanding of dietary protein and energy interactions, mammary gland metabolism, and postabsorptive nutrient utilization to improve the transfer of dietary nutrients into milk.

We conduct studies investigating metabolite flux at the tissue level (e.g., mammary gland), energy and nitrogen balance, digestibility, and milk production in response to nutritional interventions. Further, we are interested in how the postabsorptive efficiencies of nutrients (e.g., amino acids) interact and change with the physiological state of the cow throughout and across lactations. Experiments to explore these gaps in knowledge utilize intensive characterizations of metabolism using arteriovenous difference methodology and isotopically labelled metabolites at various stages of lactation in response to nutritional manipulation.

Our lab has strong collaborations with global animal nutrition companies and other top-tier university research groups, with opportunities for interested students to gain international experience in the animal nutrition industry.

Publications

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Top 100 Agriscience Fair Project Ideas [2024]

Agriscience fair projects might sound daunting, but they’re actually incredibly exciting opportunities for students to dive into the world of agriculture, science, and innovation. Whether you’re passionate about animals, plants, technology, or the environment, there’s a perfect agriscience project waiting for you. Let’s explore some fascinating agriscience fair project ideas that will spark your curiosity and creativity!

How Do I Choose a PhD Research Topic?

Table of Contents

Choosing a PhD research topic is a significant decision that requires careful consideration. Here are some steps to help you navigate the process:

• Identify Your Interests: Reflect on your passions, strengths, and areas of expertise. What topics or subjects fascinate you the most? Consider the fields or disciplines where you excel and enjoy working.
• Conduct a Literature Review: Explore existing research in your field of interest. Identify gaps, unanswered questions, or areas where further investigation is needed. This will help you narrow down potential research topics and formulate research questions.
• Consider Relevance and Impact: Evaluate the relevance and potential impact of different research topics. Think about how your research could contribute to advancing knowledge in your field, addressing practical challenges, or making a positive impact on society.
• Assess Feasibility: Consider the resources, time, and expertise required to pursue each research topic. Make sure the topic you pick for your PhD research is something you can actually do with the resources and time you have.
• Consult with Advisors and Experts: Seek guidance from your academic advisors, mentors, or experts in your field. Make sure the topic you pick for your PhD research is something you can actually do with the resources and time you have.
• Define Your Research Objectives: Clearly define the objectives and goals of your research. What specific questions do you want to answer or problems do you want to solve? Formulate a research proposal outlining the scope, methodology, and expected outcomes of your study.
• Consider Your Career Goals: Think about how your research topic aligns with your long-term career goals. Will it contribute to your academic development, career advancement, or professional aspirations? Select a subject that matches where you want to go in your career and what you like to do.
• Stay Flexible and Open-Minded: Remain open to exploring new ideas and adapting your research topic as you delve deeper into the literature and conduct preliminary investigations. Your research interests may evolve over time, so be willing to adjust your focus accordingly.
• Seek Inspiration: Look for inspiration from diverse sources such as conferences, seminars, academic journals, or interdisciplinary collaborations. Engage with peers and colleagues to brainstorm ideas and gain fresh perspectives on potential research topics.
• Trust Your Instincts: Ultimately, trust your instincts and choose a research topic that excites and motivates you. Pursuing a PhD is a long and challenging journey, so select a topic that you are passionate about and genuinely interested in exploring in depth.

Top 100 Agriscience Fair Project Ideas: Category Wise

Animal science projects.

• The Effect of Different Feeding Strategies on Poultry Growth Rates.
• Investigating the Impact of Temperature on Egg Hatchability in Quails.
• Analyzing the Behavior of Dairy Cows in Various Housing Systems.
• Studying the Relationship Between Stress and Milk Production in Goats.
• Comparing the Nutritional Content of Eggs from Free-Range and Caged Chickens.

Plant Science Projects

• Investigating the Effects of Soil Amendments on Tomato Plant Growth.
• Analyzing the Impact of Different Irrigation Methods on Crop Yield.
• Examining the Role of Mycorrhizal Fungi in Enhancing Plant Nutrient Uptake.
• Studying the Effects of Planting Density on Corn Yield.
• Investigating the Allelopathic Effects of Cover Crops on Weed Suppression.

Environmental Science Projects

• Assessing the Impact of Agricultural Runoff on Water Quality in Local Streams.
• Investigating the Efficacy of Bioremediation Techniques for Soil Contaminated with Pesticides.
• Analyzing the Effects of Tillage Practices on Soil Erosion Rates.
• Studying the Relationship Between Agricultural Practices and Pollinator Populations.
• Investigating the Role of Riparian Buffers in Mitigating Nutrient Runoff from Farms.

Technology and Innovation Projects

• Designing and Building a Low-Cost Automated Chicken Coop.
• Developing a Smartphone App for Monitoring Crop Diseases.
• Building a Solar-Powered Irrigation System for Small-Scale Farms.
• Designing a Prototype for a Smart Livestock Tracking Collar.
• Investigating the Feasibility of Vertical Farming in Urban Environments.

Social and Economic Impact Projects

• Analyzing the Economic Viability of Transitioning to Organic Farming Practices.
• Assessing Consumer Preferences for Locally Grown Produce.
• Investigating the Role of Agricultural Cooperatives in Empowering Small-Scale Farmers.
• Studying the Impact of Agricultural Extension Programs on Farmer Knowledge and Practices.
• Analyzing the Socioeconomic Factors Affecting Food Security in Rural Communities.

Food Science and Nutrition Projects

• Investigating the Nutritional Content of Different Varieties of Apples.
• Analyzing the Effects of Cooking Methods on the Vitamin C Content of Vegetables.
• Studying the Shelf Life of Homemade vs. Store-Bought Preserves.
• Investigating the Antioxidant Properties of Locally Grown Berries.
• Analyzing the Effects of Fermentation on the Nutrient Profile of Dairy Products.

Genetics and Breeding Projects

• Studying the Inheritance Patterns of Coat Color in Rabbits.
• Investigating the Genetic Diversity of Heirloom Tomato Varieties.
• Analyzing the Relationship Between Genotype and Milk Production in Dairy Cattle.
• Studying the Heritability of Disease Resistance in Chickens.
• Investigating the Genetic Basis of Drought Tolerance in Wheat Varieties.

Sustainable Agriculture Projects

• Designing a Permaculture Garden for Urban Food Production.
• Investigating the Effects of Agroforestry Practices on Soil Health.
• Analyzing the Carbon Sequestration Potential of Cover Crops.
• Studying the Benefits of Crop Rotation for Pest Management.
• Investigating the Role of Soil Microorganisms in Nitrogen Fixation.

Aquaculture and Fisheries Projects

• Analyzing the Impact of Temperature on Fish Growth Rates in Aquaculture Systems.
• Investigating the Effects of Different Feeding Regimens on Fish Health.
• Studying the Nutritional Requirements of Ornamental Fish Species.
• Analyzing the Environmental Impacts of Aquaculture Operations on Local Waterways.
• Investigating the Use of Aquaponics Systems for Sustainable Food Production.

Climate Change Adaptation Projects

• Assessing the Resilience of Agricultural Systems to Extreme Weather Events.
• Investigating the Effects of Elevated CO2 Levels on Crop Physiology.
• Studying the Relationship Between Climate Change and Pest Dynamics in Agricultural Ecosystems.
• Analyzing the Impact of Sea Level Rise on Coastal Farming Communities.
• Investigating Strategies for Mitigating Heat Stress in Livestock During Heatwaves.

Urban Agriculture Projects

• Designing a Rooftop Garden for Urban Food Production.
• Investigating the Feasibility of Aquaponics Systems in Urban Settings.
• Analyzing the Benefits of Community Gardens for Food Security and Social Cohesion.
• Studying the Effects of Urban Heat Islands on Plant Growth in Cities.
• Investigating Innovative Solutions for Vertical Farming in Urban Environments.

Soil Science Projects

• Analyzing the Effects of Soil Compaction on Crop Yields.
• Investigating the Role of Soil Microorganisms in Nutrient Cycling.
• Studying the Impact of Soil pH on Plant Growth and Nutrient Availability.
• Analyzing Soil Texture and Its Effects on Water Retention.
• Investigating Soil Erosion Control Techniques for Sloping Landscapes.

Horticulture Projects

• Studying the Effects of Pruning on Fruit Tree Growth and Yield.
• Investigating the Effects of Light Intensity on Indoor Plant Growth.
• Analyzing the Nutritional Content of Different Varieties of Leafy Greens.
• Studying the Effects of Plant Hormones on Flowering and Fruit Development.
• Investigating the Role of Mycorrhizal Fungi in Enhancing Ornamental Plant Growth.

Pest Management Projects

• Analyzing the Efficacy of Biological Control Agents for Pest Management.
• Investigating the Effects of Insect Pheromones on Pest Behavior.
• Studying the Impact of Companion Planting on Pest Populations.
• Analyzing the Effects of Neonicotinoid Pesticides on Pollinator Health.
• Investigating Integrated Pest Management Strategies for Sustainable Crop Protection.

Aquaponics and Hydroponics Projects

• Designing a Home Aquaponics System for Sustainable Food Production.
• Investigating the Effects of Different Fish Species on Hydroponic Plant Growth.
• Studying Nutrient Cycling in Aquaponics Systems.
• Analyzing the Effects of pH and Nutrient Levels on Hydroponic Crop Yield.
• Investigating Innovative Designs for Vertical Hydroponic Gardens.

Agricultural Engineering Projects

• Designing a Low-Cost Drip Irrigation System for Small-Scale Farmers.
• Investigating the Efficiency of Solar-Powered Water Pumping Systems.
• Studying the Effects of Windbreaks on Wind Erosion in Agricultural Fields.
• Analyzing the Efficiency of Different Tractor Implements for Soil Tillage.
• Investigating the Design of Greenhouse Structures for Climate Control.

Biotechnology Projects

• Studying the Effects of Genetically Modified Crops on Pest Resistance.
• Investigating the Use of Biodegradable Mulches for Weed Control.
• Analyzing the Effects of Genetic Engineering on Crop Yield and Quality.
• Studying the Potential of CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing for Crop Improvement.
• Investigating the Use of Plant Biostimulants for Enhancing Crop Productivity.

Animal Welfare Projects

• Analyzing the Effects of Enrichment Activities on Livestock Behavior .
• Investigating the Welfare Implications of Different Housing Systems for Poultry.
• Studying the Effects of Transport Stress on Livestock Health and Performance.
• Analyzing the Welfare Benefits of Free-Range vs. Conventional Egg Production Systems.
• Investigating Pain Management Strategies for Livestock During Surgical Procedures.

Rural Development Projects

• Analyzing the Impact of Agricultural Extension Programs on Farmer Knowledge and Practices.
• Investigating Strategies for Improving Access to Markets for Small-Scale Farmers.
• Studying the Role of Women in Agriculture and Rural Development.
• Analyzing the Economic Impacts of Agritourism on Rural Communities.
• Investigating Sustainable Livelihood Strategies for Rural Farming Families.

Aquatic Ecology Projects

• Studying the Effects of Agricultural Runoff on Aquatic Ecosystems.
• Investigating the Impacts of Aquaculture Operations on Water Quality.
• Analyzing the Effects of Climate Change on Aquatic Biodiversity.
• Studying the Role of Wetlands in Nutrient Filtration and Habitat Restoration.
• Investigating the Effects of Invasive Species on Native Aquatic Communities.

Agriscience fair project ideas offer an exciting opportunity for students to explore the intersection of agriculture, science, and innovation.

Whether you’re interested in animal science, plant science, technology, or social and economic impacts, there’s a wide range of captivating project ideas to choose from.

By delving into these projects, students can develop valuable skills, gain insights into real-world agricultural issues, and contribute to building a more sustainable and resilient food system for the future.

So, roll up your sleeves, unleash your creativity, and embark on an agriscience adventure that will leave a lasting impact!

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How do animals respond to eclipses? Help NASA find out.

A massive citizen science project will study how the animal kingdom reacts to April 8’s total solar eclipse. Here’s how and where to partake.

Tens of millions of sky-gazers are expected to watch the total solar eclipse above North America on April 8. Cheers, shrieks, and cries will welcome totality—the few fleeting minutes when day turns to haunting dusk. But humans won’t be the only species affected.  

The early onset of darkness disrupts animals’ circadian rhythms, sparking a possible chorus of owl hoots, cricket chirps, or even coyote calls, depending on the eclipse-viewing location. For centuries, biologists and spectators have shared stories about how animals respond to eclipses , yet few formal studies have tested this. NASA hopes to change that this year—and you could help.

Through the citizen-science project Eclipse Soundscapes , NASA is studying how these interstellar marvels impact the animal kingdom. Eclipse enthusiasts have a host of ways to participate : recording data, analyzing audio, or submitting their own multisensory observations, says Henry Trae Winter III, co-lead on the Eclipse Soundscapes project and chief scientist and co-founder of the ARISA Lab .

The project, inspired by a similar citizen-science study from the 1932 eclipse over New England, centers on how crickets respond to the event’s false dusk. These insects, which are largely dispersed across the U.S.’s path of totality from Texas to Maine , provide an ideal opportunity for widespread comparison. “If there’s something different in the south than the north, we can pull out why,” says Winter, noting they can analyze everything from temperature differences to eclipse duration (which will begin approximately 1:45 p.m. to about 4:30 p.m. EST) to analyze varying reactions. This intel could help scientists model how future weather events like storms could impact animals.

( 2024 will be huge for astrotourism—here’s how to plan your trip .)

While Eclipse Soundscapes focuses on crickets, which Winter says eclipse-chasers could hear any place that’s above 55 degrees Fahrenheit on eclipse day, the team’s massive data set—expected to be among the largest soundscapes recordings in history—will be free and open to the public.

To partake as an Eclipse Soundscapes observer, Winter suggests avoiding large-scale eclipse gatherings where crowd chatter will drown out critter sounds. Instead, eavesdrop on the animal kingdom via wild and more remote natural spaces—such as these five wildlife-packed getaways along April 8’s path of totality.

Ouachita National Forest, Arkansas

Arkansas ’ stretch of the 1.8-million-acre Ouachita National Forest , a mosaic of streams, peaks, rivers, and dense pine forests, brims with wildlife, including many species that could audibly respond to the area’s four minutes of totality. Listen for the barred owl, known for its “ who cooks for you ” call, or the long-eared owl, which often communicates via low hoots . Crickets will likely also join the eclipse symphony, as could the forest’s numerous bands of coyotes .

Cache River State Natural Area, Illinois

This swampy, 18,000-acre getaway in southern Illinois is known for its frogs , which experts say could get particularly noisy on eclipse day. Listen for bird-voiced tree frogs, southern leopard frogs, and bullfrogs, or watch for foxes and opossums , which could make unusual midday appearances. Travelers may enjoy these sounds throughout the park, but for a particularly unique totality seat, join Cache Bayou Outfitters’ solar-eclipse kayak trip .

Cuyahoga Valley National Park, Ohio

Cuyahoga Valley National Park’s thick oak, hickory, and beech forests will see roughly 3.5 minutes of totality on April 8. These dusky skies could kick off a harmony of animal calls, from frogs and toads, which reappear here in the early spring months, to the barn, barred, or great horned owls. For a multisensory perch, hit the Beaver Marsh , a former trash heap turned biodiverse wetland habitat with numerous frogs, turtles, birds, and its namesake and nocturnal beavers—which scientists say could skitter out from their daytime abodes as the skies dim.

( It was a toxic wasteland. Now it’s a national park .)

Letchworth State Park, New York

Birds are among the most boisterous animals during solar eclipses . The darkness may stimulate their urge to roost, increase their activity levels, or alter their song patterns. Watch and listen to the avian eclipse responses from one of New York State’s best birding locales, Letchworth State Park , which will experience around three minutes of totality. This patchwork of soaring cliffs, maples and beeches, and thunderous waterfalls, known as the “Grand Canyon of the East,” is a state Bird Conservation Area , as well as an Audubon Important Bird Area . It’s home to dozens of avian species, including turkey vultures and great horned owls, as well as beavers and river otters, which may emerge during totality near the Genesee riverbanks.

Congress Avenue Bridge, Austin

For a unique eclipse-response experiment, head to Congress Avenue Bridge in Austin . From spring to late fall, this concrete link over Lady Bird Lake is home to an estimated 1.5 million Mexican free-tailed bats—the largest urban bat population in North America. Experts say the area’s nearly two minutes of totality’s darkness could see throngs of the winged mammals swooping out to the east for their feasts.

( Bats are the real superheroes of the animal world. Here's why .)

Related Topics

• CITIZEN SCIENCE
• SOLAR ECLIPSES
• ANIMAL BEHAVIOR
• EDUCATIONAL TRAVEL

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30 Best Animal Science Colleges – 2024

April 2, 2024

Animal science majors are a unique breed (pun intended) and are best served by seeking out top academic programs that will meet their specific needs. Some are pursuing an animal science degree as a prelude to veterinary school while others plan to head right into the field of animal management. The schools listed below offer programs that are viewed favorably by both graduate schools and employers, making them ideal landing spots for animal science majors on various tracks (another pun?). Additionally, these best animal science colleges all offer excellent animal facilities and laboratories and offer students a plethora of hands-on learning opportunities.

You’ll find schools on this list from all across the United States, including the East and West Coasts, the South, and the Midwest. The list includes an occasional private school like Cornell, but is predominately made up of public universities.

Methodology 

Click here to read our methodology for the Best Animal Science Colleges.

Best Colleges for Animal Science

Here’s a quick preview of the first ten animal science institutions that made our list. Detailed profiles and stats can be found when you scroll below.

1) Cornell University

2) University of California-Davis

3) University of Florida

4) North Carolina State University

5) Texas A & M University-College Station

6) University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

7) California Polytechnic State University-San Luis Obispo

8) Purdue University-Main Campus

9) Virginia Tech

10) Iowa State University

All of the schools profiled below have a history of producing excellent results for the graduates. For each of the best animal science colleges, College Transitions will provide you with—when available—each school’s:

• Cost of Attendance
• Acceptance Rate
• Graduation Rate
• Retention Rate

We will also include a longer write-up of each college’s:

• Academic Highlights – Includes facts like student-to-faculty ratio, average class size, number of majors offered, and most popular majors.
• Professional Outcomes – Includes info on the rate of positive outcomes, companies employing alumni, and graduate school acceptances.

Cornell University

Academic Highlights: A diverse array of academic programs includes 80 majors and 120 minors spread across the university’s seven schools/colleges. Classes are a bit larger at Cornell than at many other elite institutions. Still, 55% of sections have fewer than 20 students. Most degrees conferred in 2022 were in computer science (17%), engineering (13%), business (13%), and biology (13%). The SC Johnson College of Business houses two undergraduate schools, both of which have phenomenal reputations.

Professional Outcomes: Breaking down the graduates of the College of Arts and Sciences, the largest school at Cornell, 68% entered the workforce, 28% entered graduate school, 1% pursued other endeavors such as travel or volunteer work, and the remaining 3% were still seeking employment six months after receiving their diplomas. The top sectors attracting campus-wide graduateswere financial services (18%), technology (17%), consulting (15%), and education (10%). Of the students from A&S going on to graduate school, 15% were pursuing JDs, 5% MDs, and 22% PhDs.

• Enrollment: 15,735
• Cost of Attendance: $88,150
• Median SAT: 1520
• Median ACT: 34
• Acceptance Rate: 7%
• Retention Rate: 97%
• Graduation Rate: 95%

University of California, Davis

Academic Highlights: UC Davis offers 100+ undergraduate majors across four schools: the College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, the College of Biological Sciences, the College of Engineering, and the College of Letters and Science. 50% engage in some type of research/creative project outside the classroom. The areas of study with the largest number of degrees awarded were biology, the social sciences, psychology, and engineering. Programs in engineering, computer science, and animal science are nationally renowned.

Professional Outcomes: Many recent grads found homes at Silicon Valley or other California-based employers. Corporations employing 200 or more Aggies include Genentech, Google, Apple, Cisco, Meta, Oracle, Amazon, Microsoft, Salesforce, and LinkedIn. Ten years out of school, median earnings rise to $112k. Within one year of graduating, 39% of Aggies elect to continue their education; the most popular degrees pursued are master’s, MDs or other health doctorates, law, and MBA/MPA.

• Enrollment: 31,797 (undergraduate); 9,053 (graduate)
• Cost of Attendance: $41,389 (in-state); $73,963 (out-of-state)
• Median SAT: Test Blind
• Median ACT: Test Blind
• Acceptance Rate: 42%
• Retention Rate: 93%
• Graduation Rate: 87%

University of Florida

• Gainesville, FL

Academic Highlights: With 16 colleges and 100 undergraduate majors to choose from, educational experiences are exceptionally diverse. The Warrington College of Business and the Wertheim College of Engineering are highly respected, so it’s no surprise that those two programs confer the greatest percentage of degrees—12% and 14%, respectively. Biology (11%), the social sciences (11%), and health professions (8%) are next in popularity. 53% of sections enroll fewer than 20 students, and 33% of students partake in an undergraduate research experience.

Professional Outcomes: By graduation day, 66% of the Class of 2022 had already procured a first job. The top occupational areas were engineering (13%), health care (13%), computer science (5%), and marketing (4%). 200+ Gator alumni can be found at top corporations like Google, EY, Raymond James, Deloitte, Apple, Amazon, Microsoft, Oracle, and PwC. The average salary for all 2022 grads was $69k, with a high of $100k for computer science majors. Of those pursuing advanced degrees, a master’s degree was the most popular pursuit (63%) followed by law school (11%).

• Enrollment: 34,552 (undergraduate); 20,659 (graduate)
• Cost of Attendance: $23,530 (in-state); $45,808 (out-of-state)
• Median SAT: 1400
• Median ACT: 31
• Acceptance Rate: 23%
• Graduation Rate: 90%

North Carolina State University

• Raleigh, NC

Academic Highlights: NC State offers more than 100 majors and 120 minors. 64% of sections enroll 29 or fewer students. Engineering is the most popular area of concentration as 24% of Class of 2022 graduates earned a degree in that field. Business/marketing comes in second at 17% followed by biology (10%) and agriculture (7%). NC State has an exceptional regional reputation and an expanding national one with the College of Engineering near the top of many rankings. Programs in design, architecture, and animal science are also very strong.

Professional Outcomes: 54% of students graduating in 2022 had already accepted full-time jobs before exiting; 27% were heading to graduate/professional school. Members of that class reported an average starting salary of $62,024 (with a slightly higher median). Including all graduating years, the companies employing the largest number of alumni are Cisco, Red Hat, SAS, IBM, Lenovo, Amazon, Microsoft, Intel, Google, Deloitte, Facebook, and Salesforce. Many recent grads also work for the university itself and for the Wake County Public School System.

• Enrollment: 26,254 (undergraduate); 10,446 (graduate)
• Cost of Attendance: $27,451 (in-state); $51,662 (out-of-state)
• Median SAT: 1340
• Median ACT: 28
• Acceptance Rate: 47%
• Retention Rate: 94%
• Graduation Rate: 86%

Texas A&M University — College Station

• College Station, TX

Academic Highlights: With nineteen schools and colleges and 130+ undergraduate degree programs, Texas A&M is a massive operation. As the name implies, there is a heavy emphasis on agriculture, engineering, and business, which all place well in national rankings and garner deep respect from major corporations and graduate/professional schools. Class sizes trend large, but 24% of courses enroll fewer than 20 students and personal connections with professors are entirely possible, particularly through the research-oriented LAUNCH program.

Professional Outcomes: On graduation day, 54% of students had already received at least one job offer and 22% were heading to graduate/professional school. Many Aggies go on to work at major oil, tech, and consulting firms; more than 500 are employed at each of ExxonMobil, Halliburton, Chevron, EY, Amazon, Microsoft, Intel, Accenture, and PWC. Starting salaries were strong—on average, College of Engineering grads made $80k and College of Agriculture & Life Sciences grads netted $54k. A&M is also the eighth-largest producer of law students in the entire country.

• Enrollment: 57,512 (undergraduate); 16,502 (graduate)
• Cost of Attendance: $31,058 (in-state); $59,336 (out-of-state)
• Median SAT: 1270
• Acceptance Rate: 63%
• Retention Rate: 95%
• Graduation Rate: 84%

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

• Champaign-Urbana, IL

Academic Highlights: Eight of UIUC’s fifteen schools cater to undergraduate students. There are 150 academic programs offered, including those at the acclaimed Grainger College of Engineering and Gies College of Business. In sheer volume of degrees conferred, engineering and business/marketing are tied at 19%, followed by the social sciences (9%) and psychology (6%). 39% of sections are capped at 19 students. 29% of undergraduates work with a faculty member on a research project; another 22% have some type of fieldwork, practicum, or clinical experience.

Professional Outcomes: 95% of the members of the Class of 2022 landed at their next destination within six months of graduation, with 38% matriculating directly into an advanced degree program. 57% were employed full-time; the most popular sectors were finance, consulting, healthcare, electronics, and education. Corporations landing the most recent Illini grads were KPMG, Deloitte, Epic Systems, EY, PwC, and Amazon. The average salary across all Class of 2022 majors was an extremely solid $75,000.

• Enrollment: 35,120 (undergraduate); 21,796 (graduate)
• Cost of Attendance: $35,926-$41,190 (in-state); $55,386-$63,290 (out-of-state)
• Median SAT: 1440
• Median ACT: 32
• Acceptance Rate: 79%
• Graduation Rate: 85%

Cal Poly San Luis Obispo

• San Luis Obispo

Academic Highlights: Across all divisions, there are 60+ majors and 80+ minors offered. The majority of courses–59%–fall between twenty and forty students. Cal Poly’s student-to-faculty ratio is a high 18:1, but such is the cost of an uber-affordable STEM degree from an excellent institution. Over one-quarter of all degrees conferred (22%) are in engineering, and Cal Poly gets recognition in many specialty areas of the field including industrial engineering, mechanical engineering, aerospace engineering, computer engineering, and civil engineering.

Professional Outcomes: Within nine months of graduating, 91% of graduates are “positively engaged” in their next life activity. Top employers of Cal Poly grads include many of the top tech, consulting, engineering, and financial firms in the country such as Google, Deloitte, KPMG, Microsoft, Northrop Grumman, Adobe, EY, and Apple. Overall, grads enjoy a terrific median starting salary of $72,000. Of the 14% of alumni who directly enter graduate school, the six most commonly attended schools are all in California.

• Enrollment: 20,963
• Cost of Attendance: $32,000 (in-state); $53,000 (out-of-state)
• Median SAT: 1337
• Median ACT: 30
• Acceptance Rate: 30%

Purdue University — West Lafayette

• West Lafayette, IN

Academic Highlights: Purdue offers over 200 majors at ten discipline-specific colleges, and 38% of course sections have an enrollment of 19 or fewer. Engineering and engineering technologies majors earn 34% of the degrees conferred by the university; the College of Engineering cracks the top ten on almost every list of best engineering schools. The Krannert School of Management is also well-regarded by employers; 11% of degrees conferred are in business. Other popular majors include computer science (10%) and agriculture (5%)—both are incredibly strong.

Professional Outcomes: Shortly after receiving their diplomas, 70% of 2022 grads headed to the world of employment while 24% headed to graduate/professional school. The top industries entered by grads in recent years are (1) health care, pharmaceuticals, and medical devices; (2) finance, insurance, and consulting; (3) manufacturing and machinery; (4) airline, aviation, and aerospace. Companies employing the greatest number of recent alumni were Amazon, Deloitte, PepsiCo, Labcorp, Lockheed Martin, and Microsoft. The average starting salary was $68k across all degree programs.

• Enrollment: 37,949 (undergraduate); 12,935 (graduate)
• Cost of Attendance: $22,812 (in-state); $41,614 (out-of-state)
• Median SAT: 1330
• Acceptance Rate: 53%
• Retention Rate: 91%

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

• Blacksburg, VA

Academic Highlights : Eight undergraduate colleges that offer 110+ distinct bachelor’s degrees are housed within Virginia Tech. 33% of sections contain fewer than 20 students, and 21% of recent graduates report participating in some type of undergraduate research experience. Engineering is the area where the greatest number of degrees are conferred (23%), but business (20%) is a close second. Both disciplines are among the most respected at Tech, along with computer science. Other popular majors include the family and consumer sciences (8%), social sciences (8%), biology (8%), and agriculture (4%).

Professional Outcomes: Within six months of graduating, 56% of the Class of 2022 were employed and 18% were in graduate school. One recent class sent large numbers to major corporations that included Deloitte (67), KPMG (44), Lockheed Martin (39), Capital One (30), EY (28), Booz Allen Hamilton (18), and Northrop Grumman (12). The median salary for 2022 graduates was $67,000. Among recent grads who decided to pursue an advanced degree, the greatest number stayed at VT, while others enrolled at Virginia Commonwealth University, George Mason University, William & Mary, Columbia, Duke, and Georgia Tech.

• Enrollment: 30,434 (undergraduate); 7,736 (graduate)
• Cost of Attendance: $37,252 (in-state); $58,750 (out-of-state)
• Median ACT: 29
• Acceptance Rate: 57%

Iowa State University

Academic Highlights:  With more than 100 majors available across six undergraduate colleges, Iowa State has no shortage of academic pathways to explore. The student-to-faculty ratio is 19:1, yet, courses are a mix of large and small. 31% of sections enroll fewer than 20 students and 22% enroll more than 50. In terms of sheer popularity, engineering wins the day accounting for 23% of degrees earned in 2022. Business (18%), agricultural fields (10%), biology (5%), and education (5%) also see high volume.

Professional Outcomes: Graduates of the College of Liberal Arts & Sciences are employed in fairly large numbers by the likes of John Deere, Principal Financial Group, and Amazon. Overall, the most alumni work for Wells Fargo, Bayer, Corteva Agriscience, Collins Aerospace, Cargill, and Microsoft. Most remain in Iowa after graduation but many also move to Minnesota, Chicago, California, or Texas. The average starting salary for an engineering grad was $74,716 in 2023.

• Enrollment: 25,241
• Cost of Attendance: $24,204 (In-State); $41,390 (Out-of-State)
• Median SAT: 1220
• Median ACT: 24
• Acceptance Rate: 90%
• Retention Rate: 86%
• Graduation Rate: 74%

University of Wisconsin – Madison

• Madison, WI

Academic Highlights: There are 230+ undergraduate majors offered across eight schools and colleges, including the top-ranked School of Business and College of Engineering as well as the College of Letters and Science, the College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, and the Schools of Nursing, Education, Pharmacy, and Human Ecology. Undergrads can expect a mix of large and small classes, with 44% of sections enrolling fewer than 20 students. Business (18%), biology (12%), the social sciences (11%), and engineering (10%) are most popular.

Professional Outcomes: In a recent year, 46% of job-seeking grads graduated with an offer.  Top employers included UW-Madison, Epic, Kohl’s, Oracle, Deloitte, and UW Health. Across all graduating years, companies employing 250+ alumni include Google, Target, Microsoft, Amazon, Apple, PwC, Accenture, and Meta. 28% of recent grads enrolled directly in graduate/professional school; the majority stayed at UW–Madison while others headed to Columbia, Northwestern, and Carnegie Mellon. The university is the top producer of Peace Corps volunteers.

• Enrollment: 37,230 (undergraduate); 12,656 (graduate)
• Cost of Attendance: $28,916 (in-state); $58,912 (out-of-state)
• Acceptance Rate: 49%
• Graduation Rate: 89%

The Ohio State University — Columbus

• Columbus, OH

Academic Highlights: There are 200+ undergraduate majors and 18 schools and colleges housed within OSU. Business sees the greatest percentage of degrees conferred at 18% followed by engineering (15%), health professions (10%), and the social sciences (9%). It makes sense that so many flock to the business and engineering schools as they are among the highest-rated undergraduate programs in their respective disciplines. 40% of sections enroll fewer than 20 students, and approximately 20% of students gain research experience.

Professional Outcomes: Upon receiving their diplomas, 56% of Class of 2022 graduates were entering the world of employment while 17% were already accepted into graduate or professional school.  Hordes of Buckeyes can be found at many of the nation’s leading companies. More than 2,000 alumni work for JPMorgan Chase, more than 1,000 are employed by Amazon, and more than 600 work for Google and Microsoft. Of the grads who directly matriculate into graduate or professional school, many continue in one of OSU’s own programs.

• Enrollment: 45,728 (undergraduate); 14,318 (graduate)
• Cost of Attendance: $27,241 (in-state); $52,747 (out-of-state)
• Median SAT: 1340-1450
• Median ACT: 29-32
• Graduation Rate: 88%

Clemson University

• Clemson, SC

Academic Highlights: There are seven undergraduate colleges within the larger university. Class sizes are mixed, and many sections are smaller than you would expect for such a large university where the student-to-faculty ratio is 16:1. Fifteen percent of classes have single-digit enrollments, and 55% contain fewer than 30 students. Business and engineering also the most popular majors with a 21% and 18% market share of diplomas, respectively. The next most frequently conferred degrees are in biology (9%), the social sciences (7%), and health professions (7%).

Professional Outcomes: Within six months of graduation, 92% of 2022 grads had already entered the working world or were pursuing a graduate degree. The top employers of newly-minted diploma holders include Michelin, Amazon, Vanguard, and Wells Fargo. Computing and Applied Sciences reported a median starting salary of $62,000. College of Business graduates enjoyed median earnings of $60,000. Of the 19% of recent graduates directly entering grad school, the largest number retained their Tiger stripes by continuing their studies at Clemson.

• Enrollment: 22,566
• Cost of Attendance:
• Median SAT: 1310
• Acceptance Rate: 43%
• Retention Rate: 92%

University of Georgia

Academic Highlights: UGA boasts seventeen distinct colleges and schools that offer 125+ majors. Business is the most commonly conferred undergrad degree, accounting for 29% of diplomas earned. It is followed by biology (10%), social sciences (8%), communication & journalism (8%), and psychology (7%). Top-ranked programs include animal science, business, communications, and public and international affairs. 49% of sections enroll fewer than 20 students, and no matter your major, UGA encourages you to conduct research with a member of the school’s faculty.

Professional Outcomes: 96% of the Class of 2022 was employed or continuing their education six months after graduation. Popular employers include Accenture, PricewaterhouseCoopers, the Walt Disney Company, and Deloitte. Salaries vary between colleges; engineering grads had a median starting salary of $65k while journalism and communication grads reported a $50k median. In 2022, 24% of graduates enrolled directly into a graduate/professional degree program, with the most commonly attended schools including Columbia, Duke, Emory, Georgia Tech, Penn, and UVA.

• Enrollment: 30,714 (undergraduate); 9,893 (graduate)
• Cost of Attendance: $28,142 (in-state); $48,538 (out-of-state)

Pennsylvania State University — University Park

• State College, PA

Academic Highlights: Penn State offers 275 majors and a number of top-ranked programs in a host of disciplines. The College of Engineering is rated exceptionally well on a national scale and is also the most popular field of study, accounting for 15% of the degrees conferred. The Smeal College of Business is equally well-regarded, earning high rankings in everything from supply chain management to accounting to marketing. It attracts 15% of total degree-seekers. 61% of classes have an enrollment below thirty students.

Professional Outcomes: By graduation, 70% of Nittany Lions have found their next employment or graduate school home. 98% of College of Business grads are successful within three months of exiting, flocking in large numbers to stellar finance, accounting, consulting, and technology firms. Hundreds of alumni work at Citi, Salesforce, and Meta, and more than 500 currently work at each of IBM, Deloitte, PwC, Amazon, EY, JPMorgan Chase, Microsoft, Google, and Oracle. 75% of 2022 grads employed full-time earned starting salaries greater than $50k.

• Enrollment: 41,745 (undergraduate); 7,020 (graduate)
• Cost of Attendance: $32,656 (in-state); $52,610 (out-of-state)
• Median SAT: 1300
• Acceptance Rate: 55%

Michigan State University

• East Lansing, MI

Academic Highlights: This highly regarded state institution boasts over 200 programs—undergraduate, graduate, and professional—across 17 degree-granting colleges. A 17:1 student-to-faculty ratio rates in the average range for public universities of MSU’s size and scope. Class sizes are a genuine mix of small seminars and giant lecture halls. 16% of the degrees conferred in 2022 were in the business/marketing category. The next most common degrees were earned in communication/journalism (12%), engineering (11%), and the social sciences (8%).

Professional Outcomes: Within months of strutting across the graduation stage, 56% of Class of 2022 members had landed full-time employment, 27% were pursuing advanced degrees, and 6% were still looking for a job. The top employers of this group included big names like General Motors, Ford Motor Company, Deloitte, Epic Systems, Target, PepsiCo, and Microsoft. The median starting salary earned was $60,000. Among the grads schools favored by recent alumni are the University of Michigan, New York University, Columbia University, and Boston University.

• Enrollment: 39,201
• Cost of Attendance: $27,805 (In-State); $55,189 (Out-of-State)
• Median ACT: 27
• Acceptance Rate:
• Retention Rate: 89%
• Graduation Rate: 82%

Rutgers University — New Brunswick

• New Brunswick, NJ

Academic Highlights: Rutgers is divided into 17 schools and colleges, collectively offering 100+ undergraduate majors. 41% of class sections have an enrollment of nineteen or fewer students. The greatest number of degrees are conferred in business (20%), computer science (12%), engineering (10%), health professions (10%), biology (9%), and social sciences (7%). Rutgers Business School sends many majors to top Wall Street investment banks, and programs in computer science, public health, and criminal justice have a terrific national reputation.

Professional Outcomes: Upon graduation, 82% of Class of 2022 grads had secured a first job or were heading to an advanced degree program. 67% headed directly to the world of employment, where the companies hiring the largest number of grads included Amazon, Johnson & Johnson, L’Oréal, and JP Morgan Chase. Investment banks like Goldman Sachs and Citi also employ hundreds of alumni, as do companies like Verizon, Bristol-Meyers Squibb, Novartis, Pfizer, and Google. The median starting salary across all majors was $70,000.

• Enrollment: 36,344 (undergraduate); 14,293 (graduate)
• Cost of Attendance: $37,849 (in-state); $57,138 (out-of-state)
• Median SAT: 1370
• Acceptance Rate: 66%

University of Minnesota–Twin Cities

• Minneapolis, MN

Academic Highlights: There are 150 majors available across eight freshman-admitting undergraduate colleges. 65% of class sections enroll 29 or fewer students. The most commonly conferred degrees are in biology (13%), business & marketing (11%), engineering (10%), the social sciences (10%), computer science (9%), and psychology (8%). The College of Science and Engineering and the Carlson School of Management have strong national reputations, and the chemistry, economics, psychology, and political science departments are also well-regarded.

Professional Outcomes: The top seven companies snatching up the largest number of recent grads are all companies headquartered in the state of Minnesota: Medtronic, Target, 3M, United Health Group, US Bank, and Cargill. Google, Apple, and Meta all employ hundreds of Twin Cities alumni. The mean starting salary for recent grads was $50k. With 130 graduate programs in science, art, engineering, agriculture, medicine, and the humanities, the University of Minnesota retains many of its graduates as they pursue their next degrees.

• Enrollment: 39,248 (undergraduate); 15,707 (graduate)
• Cost of Attendance: $33,032-$35,632 (in-state); $54,446-$57,046
• Acceptance Rate: 75%
• Retention Rate: 90%

University of Connecticut

Academic Highlights: UConn is home to fourteen schools and colleges as well as 115+ undergraduate majors. The four most commonly conferred undergraduate degrees are in business (15%), engineering (12%), the social sciences (12%), and health professions/nursing (12%). In terms of prestige and national reputation, programs in business, pharmacy, and nursing carry a good deal of weight. The school also does a nice job of creating a balance of classroom experiences—53% of sections enroll fewer than 20 students and only 18% contain more than fifty.

Professional Outcomes: 90% of the Class of 2022 experienced a positive outcome (job, grad school, military, volunteer position) within six months of earning their degrees. Among the 59% who found employment, the largest numbers landed at Aetna, Cigna, PwC, The Hartford, Travelers, and Raytheon Technologies; the median starting salary was $62,400. Massive numbers of alumni are employed by Pratt & Whitney, Pfizer, IBM, and Deloitte. 30% of 2022 graduates immediately entered a graduate or professional program, with many choosing to stay at UConn.

• Enrollment: 18,983 (undergraduate); 8,020 (graduate)
• Cost of Attendance: $41,606 (in-state); $64,478 (out-of-state)
• Graduation Rate: 83%

University of Maryland, College Park

• College Park, MD

Academic Highlights: Undergraduates can select from 100+ majors across twelve colleges. 18% of degrees are conferred in computer science, followed by the social sciences (13%), with  criminology, government and politics, and economics being the most popular majors.  Engineering (13%), business (11%), and biology (8%) are next in line. The School of Business, the School of Engineering, and the College of Journalism are all top-ranked, as are programs in computer science and criminology. 46% of sections enroll fewer than twenty students.

Professional Outcomes: Within six months of graduating, 96% of Class of 2022 grads had positive outcomes. 67% found employment; the companies/organizations that hired the greatest number of grads included Northrop Grumman, Deloitte, Amazon, and EY. Meta, Apple, and Google employ more than 200 alumni each.  The mid-50% salary range for 2022 grads was $55k-$83k. 21% of the Class of 2022 headed directly to graduate and professional school; 11% entered doctoral programs, 5% entered medical school, and 5% entered law school.

• Enrollment: 30,353 (undergraduate); 10,439 (graduate)
• Cost of Attendance: $31,540 (in-state); $60,918 (out-of-state)
• Median ACT: 33
• Acceptance Rate: 84%

University of Vermont

• Burlington, VT

Academic Highlights: With over 100 majors and 100 advanced degree programs, the University of Vermont has offerings in just about any major you can name. They sport a student-to-faculty ratio of 19:1 and 41% of sections enroll no more than 19 students. The most popular majors are fairly evenly spread around with biology (12%), natural resources and conservation (10%), business (9%), and nursing (9%)  all attracting similar numbers of undergraduates.

Professional Outcomes:  Over the last three years, graduates have enjoyed a 94% success rate. Alumni earned an average starting salary of $49,909 during that span of time. Roughly 90% of grads stated that their current job was related to their career goals. Top employers included Mass General Hospital, Beta Technologies, and GlobalFoundries. Looking at the Class of 2022 who enrolled in advanced degree programs, common universities included Northeastern, BU, Simmons, NYU, and Cornell.

• Enrollment: 11,898
• Cost of Attendance: $32,834 (In-State); $59,278 (Out-of-State)
• Median SAT: 1350
• Acceptance Rate: 60%
• Graduation Rate: 76%

Kansas State University

• Manhattan, KS

Academic Highlights:  K-State offers 250+ majors, minors, and certificates in a wide variety of academic disciplines. Impressively, this state university has 47% of sections enrolling fewer than 20 students; the student-to-faculty ratio is 18:1. 20% of all 2022 degrees were awarded in business, while agriculture (12%), engineering (11%), interdisciplinary studies (8%), and biology (7%) are also popular. The engineering program has a strong national reputation.

Professional Outcomes: Six months after graduation, 96% of K-State alumni are employed or pursuing further education. The most common employers for 2023 graduates were Koch Industries, Textron, the US Army, Garmin, Burns & McConnell. Thirty percent of grads enjoy a starting salary of more than $70,000 and 23% earn between $60k-$69k. Those attending graduate school primarily flocked to K-State, the University of Kansas, the University of Missouri, the University of Nebraska, and Wichita State University.

• Enrollment: 15,046
• Cost of Attendance: $23,896 (In-State); $40,368 (Out-of-State)
• Median ACT: 23
• Acceptance Rate: 95%
• Graduation Rate: 69%

Auburn University

Academic Highlights: The faculty-student ratio is 20:1, but only about 35% of classes enroll fewer than 20 students. Overall, undergraduates can choose from over 150 majors across 12 colleges, which include highly regarded business and engineering programs. Majors in architecture, apparel merchandising & design, and interior design receive high marks, as does nursing. In 2022, the greatest number of degrees conferred were in business (24%) followed by engineering (18%), biological/life sciences (10%), and health professions (6%).

Professional Outcomes: Within six months of graduating, 58% of the Class of 2022 were employed full-time, 23% had entered graduate programs. 59% were pursuing master’s degrees, 28% professional degrees, and 4% doctorates. In 2022, the average starting salary was $58,708; engineering graduates enjoyed the highest average starting salary ($71,656). At least ten recent grads can be found at each of Vanderbilt, Emory, Columbia, Georgia Tech, NYU, and Johns Hopkins.

• Enrollment: 25,379
• Cost of Attendance: $27,932 (in-state); $49,340 (out-of-state)
• Median SAT: 1320
• Acceptance Rate: 44%
• Graduation Rate: 81%

Oregon State University

• Corvallis, Oregon

Academic Highlights: Across its 11 colleges, graduate schools, and Honors College, OSU offers close to 200 degree programs. While 28% of classes have fewer than 20 students another 21% of sections enroll more than 50 individuals. The three most commonly earned degrees are in engineering (17%) computer science (15%), and business (15%). Other popular areas of study are biology (7%), natural resources and conservation (6%), and the social sciences (5%).

Professional Outcomes:  Large number of College of Business alums work at companies such as Nike, Boeing, Intel, Deloitte, Oracle, KPMG, and Adidas.  Including all majors, many others work for Amazon, Salesforce, Meta, Apple, Google, and NVIDIA. An impressive 67% of those applying to medical school are accepted, a figure far higher than the national average. Med schools where recent grads now attend include Harvard, Yale, the University of Chicago, and UCLA.

• Enrollment: 28,905
• Cost of Attendance: $28,866 (In-State); $51,642 (Out-of-State)
• Median SAT: 1260
• Median ACT: 26
• Acceptance Rate: 83%
• Retention Rate: 87%
• Graduation Rate: 70%

University of Rhode Island

• Kingston, RI

Academic Highlights:  URI hosts students from 48 states and 66 countries, all of who have come for the school’s 100+ majors and minors and the respectable 17:1 student-to-faculty ratio. Overall, 39% of undergraduate sections enroll 19 or fewer students. Health professions is the most commonly earned degree area (15%), followed by business (14%), journalism (8%), engineering (8%), biology (8%), and the social sciences (8%). Nursing, CS, business, psychology, and economics are all well-respected programs by employers and grad schools.

Professional Outcomes:  Nursing majors at URI have a 92% employment rate and an average starting salary of $75,000. Including all majors, 75% of grads go right into the world of employment and 15% go directly into graduate school. The companies employing the largest number of URI alumni include Fidelity Investments, Lifespan, CVS Health, Moderna, Amazon, Johnson & Johnson, Takeda, and Microsoft.

• Enrollment: 13,927
• Cost of Attendance: $31,308 (In-State); $50,704 (Out-of-State)
• Acceptance Rate: 76%
• Retention Rate: 85%
• Graduation Rate: 71%

University of Tennessee – Knoxville

• Knoxville, TN

Academic Highlights:  With 360 undergraduate programs, 14 degree-granting colleges and schools, 500 study abroad programs, and 1,700 instructional faculty, nothing is small at the University of Tennessee. With an 18:1 student-to-faculty ratio, this university offers 28% of courses in a more intimate setting of fewer than 20 students; the bulk of courses enroll 20-49 students (57%). Business (24%) is easily the most popular major with engineering (11%), biology (7%), the social sciences (7%), and parks and recreation (7%) next in line.

Professional Outcomes:  Six months after receiving their diplomas, 64% of UT-Knoxville alumni have found jobs and 27% have started their graduate school careers. The top employers of the Class of 2023 were the UT Medical Center, PepsiCo, and Axle Logistics. Among those headed to graduate/professional school, the five most commonly attended institutions were the University of Tennessee, UT Health Science Center, Lincoln Memorial University, East Tennessee University, and Belmont University.

• Enrollment: 27,039
• Cost of Attendance: $33,910 (In-State); $52,400 (Out-of-State)
• Median SAT: 1235
• Acceptance Rate: 68%
• Graduation Rate: 73%

Texas Tech University

• Lubbock, TX

Academic Highlights:  Texas Tech has 1,900 faculty members across 10 colleges and 150 academic programs. With a fairly high 21:1 student-to-faculty ratio just 33% of course sections enroll fewer than 20 students. Business/marketing (20%) is by far the most popular major, followed by biology (10%), engineering (10%), journalism (10%), and family & consumer sciences (9%). Petroleum engineering gets the most acclaim, but the business, CS, and psychology departments are also very solid.

Professional Outcomes:  The most popular industries entered by Texas Tech include utilities ($96k median starting salary), petroleum engineering ($97k), manufacturing ($64k), finance and insurance ($49k), and transportation and warehousing ($57k). The companies employing the most Red Raider alumni are Dell Technologies, JP Morgan Chase and Co., Microsoft, Oxy, ConocoPhillips, Kimley-Horn, and Pioneer Natural Resources Company.

• Enrollment: 32,579
• Cost of Attendance: $30,277 (In-State); $42,877 (Out-of-State)
• Median SAT: 1180
• Median ACT: 25
• Acceptance Rate: 67%
• Graduation Rate: 64%

Washington State University

• Pullman, WA

Academic Highlights: At WSU, students can choose from 95 majors, 86 minors, and more than 100 in-major specializations and also enjoy a stellar 14:1 student-to-faculty ratio. That level of support leads to 35% of courses enrolling 19 or fewer students versus 19% that enroll 50 or more. 21% of all degrees in 2022 were conferred in the area of business/marketing. Also popular were engineering (10%), the social sciences (10%), biology (9%), and psychology (8%).

Professional Outcomes:  Graduates of WSU tend to concentrate in Seattle, Portland, Spokane, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. The greatest number of alumni are presently employed by Boeing, Microsoft, Amazon, SEL, Starbucks, Amazon Web Services, T-Mobile, Google, Nike, Meta, and CBRE. Many students who enroll immediately in an advanced degree program do so at Washington State itself. They offer 140 graduate programs and certificates.

• Enrollment: 22,612
• Cost of Attendance: $29,944 (In-State); $45,628 (Out-of-State)
• Median SAT: 1140
• Retention Rate: 81%
• Graduation Rate: 62%

Cal Poly – Pomona

Academic Highlights:  Cal Poly Pomona is a massive institution with 1,076 faculty members at over 25,000 undergraduate students. The average size for an undergraduate class section is 32 students and the student-to-faculty ratio is 25:1. While a polytechnic institute, the most commonly conferred degree in 2022 was actually business (29%). Next up are engineering (18%), the social sciences (9%), science technologies (6%), and agriculture (4%).

Professional Outcomes:  An excellent 91% of the Class of 2023 had already achieved positive outcomes within six months of leaving campus. The employers locking down the largest number of recent Cal Poly Pomona grads were Accenture, Bain & Company, Boston Consulting Group, Bloomberg, DraftKings, Meta, Morgan Stanley, NIH, Nike, PwC, and Tesla Motors. The graduate destinations of Class of 2023 members included Harvard, Brown, Duke, Stanford, Oxford, Yale, USC, UPenn, and Georgia Tech.

• Enrollment: 25,181
• Cost of Attendance: $29,226 (In-State); $41,406 (Out-of-State)
• Median SAT: N/A
• Median ACT: N/A
• Graduation Rate: 66%

West Virginia University

• Morgantown, WV

Academic Highlights:  Students from all 50 states and 90 nations flock to Morgantown to study one of 310 majors offered in WVU’s 13 colleges and schools. The school has a 17:1 student-to-faculty ratio and, impressively, is able to keep enrollment in 45% of class sections at 19 students or fewer; 15% contain 50 or more students. Students are spread evenly across many of the most popular majors including nursing (6%), sports kinesiology (5%), general studies (4), mechanical engineering (4%), Exercise science, criminology (3%), journalism (3%), and finance (3%).

Professional Outcomes: Between 40 and 250 West Virginia University alumni work for the following companies: Amazon, Deloitte, Aramco, Amazon Web Services, Microsoft, Eaton, ADP, Google, PepsiCo, Oracle, Salesforce, and Insight Global. Many alumni remain in the state of West Virginia after graduation, but sizable numbers also migrate to Washington DC, Pittsburgh, New York City, and Baltimore.

• Enrollment: 19,059
• Cost of Attendance: $22,668 (In-State); $40,380 (Out-of-State)
• Average SAT: 1107
• Acceptance Rate: 77%
• Graduation Rate: 61%

We hope you have found our list of the Best Colleges for Animal Science to be useful and informative as you continue your college search process. We also invite you to check out some of our other resources and tools including:

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Nudging in a virtual supermarket for more animal welfare

A study indicates that gentle pushes can change purchasing behavior.

It may be possible to change the purchasing behavior of consumers noticeably using some simple strategies. At least this is what a study, carried out by the University of Bonn and the Technical University of Munich, indicates. The researchers investigated the effect of nudging on the sale of products produced with high animal welfare standards in a virtual supermarket. Nudges are gentle prods or pushes designed to promote certain behaviors -- such as placing some products in more visible positions. In the experiment, the participants in the nudging group selected products produced with high animal welfare standards about twice as frequently as the control group. The extent to which these results can be transferred to real purchasing decisions is still unclear. The study has now been published in the journal Appetite.

Nudging describes the act of pushing or prodding someone in a certain direction. In the field of economics, it is used to describe measures that can influence human behavior in a gentle way without banning things or offering monetary incentives. "We tested this strategy in a virtual supermarket," explains Dr. Nina Weingarten from the Institute for Food and Resource Economics at the University of Bonn. "We wanted to find out whether it could motivate consumers to pay more attention to animal welfare aspects when making purchases."

Food produced according to high animal welfare standards has only been moderately successful up to now in Germany. It is unlikely that this is due to a lack of information because various organic labels are now available and a four-stage animal husbandry labeling system has been used over the last few years to label the packaging on many meat products in red, blue, orange or green. Nevertheless, animal welfare products are still considered niche items in many supermarket ranges. As a result, only 13 percent of the meat products offered in supermarkets are produced according to husbandry standards that exceed the minimum legal guidelines.

Footsteps on the floor as guides

"Therefore, we wanted to test whether it was possible to improve sales of animal welfare products by increasing their availability and visibility," says Weingarten. The researchers used two digital supermarkets in the form of 3D simulations with graphics based on modern video games for this purpose. The customers saw the shelves from a first-person perspective and were able to pick up and examine the products from all sides, place them in their shopping cart and finally purchase them at the end. "However, the purchasing decision was only hypothetical," explains Prof. Monika Hartmann, Head of the Department of Agricultural and Food Market Research at the University of Bonn. "The participants were not expected to actually pay for their shopping and no real products were delivered to them afterwards."

The researchers divided the test subjects into two groups. One group were asked to go shopping in a conventional supermarket, while the other group visited a supermarket containing various nudging elements. For example, markings on the floor shaped like footprints guided customers to a special "animal welfare shelf." "Consumers in this group were able to find meat, milk and eggs produced with high animal welfare standards in one central location on an additional shelf," says Weingarten. Large banners placed in various different locations also made the customers aware of this additional shelf. The implementations were a huge success: The nudging group selected animal welfare products almost twice as frequently as the control group on average.

Further studies needed

The extent to which the results can be transferred to the purchase of real food is still unclear. "Many people are extremely price sensitive and animal welfare products are generally significantly more expensive," explains the psychologist. "In our experiment, however, we suspect that this only played a minor role because the purchases were only virtual." Nevertheless, the data from the study did show that price-sensitive customers also selected the more expensive animal welfare products less frequently from the digital counters in the supermarket than customers who are less price sensitive. They thus behaved in a similar way to what we would also expect in reality.

Another aspect was also interesting in this context: These price-sensitive test subjects were also influenced by the nudging measures and purchased more food produced according to high animal welfare standards. It thus appears that these gentle nudges also had an effect on these people. "However, we need to carry out more studies to see how reliable these effects actually are," says Prof. Hartmann. In addition, there has been little research up to now into whether nudging has a long-term effect or whether the effect of these measures wears off quickly. "This is another question that we are not yet able to answer."

Participating institutes and funding

The University of Bonn and the Technical University of Munich participated in the study. The project was funded by the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture (BMEL).

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Story Source:

Materials provided by University of Bonn . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Nina Weingarten, Leonie Bach, Jutta Roosen, Monika Hartmann. Every step you take: Nudging animal welfare product purchases in a virtual supermarket . Appetite , 2024; 197: 107316 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2024.107316

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Advancing the conservation and understanding of Wyoming's migratory hooved animals (mule deer, elk, pronghorn, etc.). The Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit is led by USGS federal researchers. The Wyoming Migration Initiative is a University of Wyoming’s Zoology and Physiology Department-based collaborative of biologists, photographers, mapmakers, and writers working to research animal migration and share that information with the public using a variety of engagement platforms, including in-person learning opportunities. This collaborative works closely with the Wyoming Game and Fish Department, often developing collaborative projects designed to provide useful information for state wildlife managers.

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A guide to open science practices for animal research

Kai diederich.

German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, German Centre for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R), Berlin, Germany

Kathrin Schmitt

Philipp schwedhelm, bettina bert, céline heinl.

Translational biomedical research relies on animal experiments and provides the underlying proof of practice for clinical trials, which places an increased duty of care on translational researchers to derive the maximum possible output from every experiment performed. The implementation of open science practices has the potential to initiate a change in research culture that could improve the transparency and quality of translational research in general, as well as increasing the audience and scientific reach of published research. However, open science has become a buzzword in the scientific community that can often miss mark when it comes to practical implementation. In this Essay, we provide a guide to open science practices that can be applied throughout the research process, from study design, through data collection and analysis, to publication and dissemination, to help scientists improve the transparency and quality of their work. As open science practices continue to evolve, we also provide an online toolbox of resources that we will update continually.

Open science has become a buzzword in the scientific community that too often misses the practical application for individual researchers. This Essay, provides a guide to choosing the most appropriate tools to make animal research more transparent.

Introduction

Over the past decade, the quality of published scientific literature has been repeatedly called into question by the failure of large replication studies or meta-analyses to demonstrate sufficient translation from experimental research into clinical successes [ 1 – 5 ]. At the same time, the open science movement has gained more and more advocates across various research areas. By sharing all of the information collected during the research process with colleagues and with the public, scientists can improve collaborations within their field and increase the reproducibility and trustworthiness of their work [ 6 ]. Thus, the International Reproducibility Networks have called for more open research [ 7 ].

However, open science practices have not been adopted to the same degree in all research areas. In psychology, which was strongly affected by the so-called reproducibility crisis, the open science movement initiated real practical changes leading to a broad implementation of practices such as preregistration or sharing of data and material [ 8 – 10 ]. By contrast, biomedical research is still lagging behind. Open science might be of high value for research in general, but in translational biomedical research, it is an ethical obligation. It is the responsibility of the scientist to transparently share all data collected to ensure that clinical research can adequately evaluate the risks and benefits of a potential treatment. When Russell and Burch published “The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique” in 1959, scientists started to implement their 3Rs principle to answer the ethical dilemma of animal welfare in the face of scientific progress [ 11 ]. By replacing animal experiments wherever possible, reducing the number of animals to a strict minimum, and refining the procedures where animals have still to be used, this ethical dilemma was addressed. However, in recent years, whether the 3Rs principle is sufficient to fully address ethical concerns about animal experiments has been questioned [ 12 ].

Most people tolerate the use of animals for scientific purposes only under the basic assumption that the knowledge gained will advance research in crucial areas. This implies that performed experiments are reported in a way that enables peers to benefit from the collected data. However, recent studies suggest that a large proportion of animal experiments are never actually published. For example, scientists working within the European Union (EU) have to write an animal study protocol for approval by the competent authorities of the respective country before performing an animal experiment [ 13 ]. In these protocols, scientists have to describe the planned study and justify every animal required for the project. By searching for publications resulting from approved animal study protocols from 2 German University Medical Centers, Wieschowski and colleagues found that only 53% of approved protocols led to a publication after 6 years [ 14 ]. Using a similar approach, Van der Naald and colleagues determined a publication rate of 60% at the Utrecht Medical Center [ 15 ]. In a follow-up survey, the respective researchers named so-called “negative” or null-hypothesis results as the main cause for not publishing outcomes [ 15 ]. The current scientific system is shaped by publishers, funders, and institutions and motivates scientists to publish novel, surprising, and positive results, revealing one of the many structural problems that the numerous efforts towards open science initiatives are targeting. Non-publication not only strongly contradicts ethical values, but also it compromises the quality of published literature by leading to overestimation of effect sizes [ 16 , 17 ]. Furthermore, publications of animal studies too often show poor reporting that strongly impairs the reproducibility, validity, and usefulness of the results [ 18 ]. Unfortunately, the idea that negative or equivocal findings can also contribute to the gain of scientific knowledge is frequently neglected.

So far, the scientific community using animals has shown limited resonance to the open science movement. Due to the strong controversy surrounding animal experiments, scientists have been reluctant to share information on the topic. Additionally, translational research is highly competitive and researchers tend to be secretive about their ideas until they are ready for publication or patent [ 19 , 20 ]. However, this missing openness could also point to a lack of knowledge and training on the many open science options that are available and suitable for animal research. Researchers have to be convinced of the benefits of open science practices, not only for science in general, but also for the individual researcher and each single animal. Yet, the key players in the research system are already starting to value open science practices. An increasing number of journals request open sharing of data, funders pay for open access publications and institutions consider open science practices in hiring decisions. Open science practices can improve the quality of work by enabling valuable scientific input from peers at the early stages of research projects. Furthermore, the extended communication that open science practices offer can draw attention to research and help to expand networks of collaborators and lead to new project opportunities or follow-up positions. Thus, open science practices can be a driver for careers in academia, particularly those of early career researchers.

Beyond these personal benefits, improving transparency in translational biomedical research can boost scientific progress in general. By bringing to light all the recorded research outputs that until now have remained hidden, the publication bias and the overestimation of effect sizes can be reduced [ 17 ]. Large-scale sharing of data can help to synthesize research outputs in preclinical research that will enable better decision-making for clinical research. Disclosing the whole research process will help to uncover systematic problems and support scientists in thoroughly planning their studies. In the long run, we predict that the implementation of open science practices will lead to the use of fewer animals in unintentionally repeated experiments that previously showed unreported negative results or in the establishment of methods by avoiding experimental dead ends that are often not published. More collaborations and sharing of materials and methods can further reduce the number of animal experiments used for the implementation of new techniques.

Open science can and should be implemented at each step of the research process ( Fig 1 ). A vast number of tools are already provided that were either directly conceptualized for animal research or can be adapted easily. In this Essay, we provide an overview of open science tools that improve transparency, reliability, and animal welfare in translational in vivo biomedical research by supporting scientists to clearly communicate their research and by supporting collaborative working. Table 1 lists the most prominent open science tools we discuss, together with their respective links. We have structured this Essay to guide you through which tools can be used at each stage of the research process, from planning and conducting experiments, through to analyzing data and communicating the results. However, many of these tools can be used at many different steps. Table 1 has been deposited on Zenodo and will be updated continuously [ 21 ].

Application of open science practices at each step of the research process can maximize the impact of performed animal experiments. The implementation of these practices will lead to less time pressure at the end of a project. Due to the connection of most of these open science practices, spending more time in the planning phase and during the conduction of experiments will save time during the data analysis and publication of the study. Indeed, consulting reporting guidelines early on, preregistering a statistical plan, and writing down crucial experimental details in an electronic lab notebook, will strongly accelerate the writing of a manuscript. If protocols or even electronic lab notebooks were made public, just citing these would simplify the writing of publications. Similarly, if a data management plan is well designed before starting data collection, analyzing, and depositing data in a public repository, as is increasingly required, will be fast. NTS, non-technical summary.

A copy of this table has been deposited at Zenodo and will be updated continuously 10.5281/zenodo.6497559 .

DOAJ, Directory of Open Access Journals; DOI, digital object identifier; EDA, Experimental Design Assistant; MGI, Mouse Genome Informatics; RRID, Research Resource Identifier.

Planning the study

Transparent practices can be adopted at every stage of the research process. However, to ensure full effectivity, it is highly recommended to engage in detailed planning before the start of the experiment. This can prevent valuable time from being lost at the end of the study due to careless decisions being made at the beginning. Clarifying data management at the start of a project can help avoiding filing chaos that can be very time consuming to untangle. Keeping clear track of a project and study design will also help if new colleagues are included later on in the project or if entire project parts are handed over. In addition, all texts written on the rationale and hypothesis of the study or method descriptions, or design schemes created during the planning phase can be used in the final publications ( Fig 1 ). Similarly, information required for preregistration of animal studies or for reporting according to the ARRIVE guidelines are an extension of the details required for ethical approval [ 22 , 23 ]. Thus, the time burden within the planning phase is often overestimated. Furthermore, the thorough planning of experiments can avoid the unnecessary use of animals by preventing wrong avenues from being pursued.

Implementing open scientific practices at the beginning of a project does not mean that the idea and study plan must be shared immediately, but rather is critical for making the entire workflow transparent at the end of the project. However, optional early sharing of information can enable peers to give feedback on the study plan. Studies potentially benefit more from this a priori input than they would from the classical a posteriori peer-review process.

Most people perceive guidelines as advice that instructs on how to do something. However, it is sometimes useful to consider the term in its original meaning; “the line that guides us”. In this sense, following guidelines is not simply fulfilling a duty, but is a process that can help to design a sound research study and, as such, guidelines should be consulted at the planning stage of a project. The PREPARE guidelines are a list of important points that should be thought-out before starting a study involving animal experiments in order to reduce the waste of animals, promote alternatives, and increase the reproducibility of research and testing [ 24 ]. The PREPARE checklist helps to thoroughly plan a study and focuses on improving the communication and collaboration between all involved participants of the study (i.e., animal caretakers and scientists). Indeed, open science begins with the communication within a research facility. It is currently available in 33 languages and the responsible team from Norecopa, Norway’s 3R-center, takes requests for translations into further languages.

The UK Reproducibility Network has also published several guiding documents (primers) on important topics for open and reproducible science. These address issues such as data sharing [ 25 ], open access [ 26 ], open code and software [ 27 ], and preprints [ 28 ], as well as preregistration and registered reports [ 27 ]. Consultation of these primers is not only helpful in the relevant phases of the experiment but is also encouraged in the planning phase.

Although the ARRIVE guidelines are primarily a reporting guideline specifically designed for preparing a publication containing animal data, they can also support researchers when planning their experiments [ 22 , 23 ]. Going through the ARRIVE website, researchers will find tools and explanations that can support them in planning their experiments [ 29 ]. Consulting the ARRIVE checklist at the beginning of a project can help in deciding what details need to be documented during conduction of the experiments. This is particularly advisable, given that compliance to ARRIVE is still poor [ 18 ].

Experimental design

To maximize the validity of performed experiments and the knowledge gained, designing the study well is crucial. It is important that the chosen animal species reflects the investigated disease well and that basic characteristics of the animal, such as sex or age, are considered carefully [ 30 ]. The Canadian Institutes of Health Research provides a collection of resources on the integration of sex and gender in biomedical research with animals, including tips and tools for researchers and reviewers [ 31 ]. Additionally, it is advisable to avoid unnecessary standardization of biological and environmental factors that can reduce the external validity of results [ 32 ]. Meticulous statistical planning can further optimize the use of animals. Free to use online tools for calculating sample sizes such as G*Power or the inVivo software package for R can further support animal researchers in designing their statistical plan [ 33 , 34 ]. Randomization for the allocation of groups can be supported with specific tools for scientists like Research Randomizer, but also by simple online random number generators [ 35 ]. Furthermore, it might be advisable when designing the study to incorporate pathological analyses into the experimental plan. Optimal planning of tissue collection, performance of pathological procedures according to accepted best practices, and use of optimal pathological analysis and reporting methods can add some extra knowledge that would otherwise be lost. This can improve the reproducibility and quality of translational biomedicine, especially, but not exclusively, in animal studies with morphological endpoints. In all animal studies, unexpected deaths in experimental animals can occur and be the cause of lost data or missed opportunities to identify health problems [ 36 , 37 ].

To support researchers in designing their animal research, the National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs) has also developed the Experimental Design Assistant (EDA) [ 38 , 39 ]. This online tool helps researchers to better structure in vivo research by creating detailed schemes of the study design. It provides feedback on the entered design, drawing researcher’s attention to crucial decisions in the project. The resulting schemes can be used to transparently share the study design by uploading it into a study preregistration, enclosing it in a grant application, or submitting it with a final manuscript. The EDA can be used for different study designs in diverse scenarios and helps to communicate researcher plans to others [ 40 ]. The EDA might be particularly of interest to clarify very complex study designs involving multiple experimental groups. Working with the EDA might appear rather complex in the beginning, but the NC3R provides regular webinars that can help to answer any questions that arise.

Preregistration

Preregistration is an effective tool to improve the quality and transparency of research. To preregister their work, scientists must determine crucial details of the study before starting any experiment. Changes occurring during a study can be outlined at the end. A preregistered study plan should include at least the hypothesis and determine all the parameters that are known in advance. A description of the planned study design and statistical analysis will enable reviewers and peers to better retrace the workflow. It can prevent the intentional use of the flexibility of analysis to reach p -values under a certain significance level (e.g., p-hacking or HARKing (Hypothesizing After Results are Known)). With preregistration, scientists can also claim their idea at an early stage of their research with a citable individual identifier that labels the idea as their own. Some open preregistration platforms also provide a digital object identifier (DOI), which makes the registered study citable. Three public registries actively encourage the preregistration of animal studies conducted around the world: OSF registry, preclinicaltrials.eu, and animalstudyregistry.org [ 41 – 45 ]. Scientists can choose the registry according to their needs. Preregistering a study in a public registry supports scientists in planning their study and later to critically reevaluate their own work and assess its limitations and potentials.

As an alternative to public registries, researchers can also submit their study plan to one of hundreds of journals already publishing registered reports, including many journals open to animal research [ 8 ]. A submitted registered report passes 2 steps of peer review. In the first step, reviewers comment on the idea and the study design. After an “in-principle-acceptance,” researchers can conduct their study as planned. If the authors conduct the experiments as described in the accepted study protocol, the journal will publish the final study regardless of the outcome. This might be an attractive option, especially for early career researchers, as a manuscript is published at the beginning of a project with the guarantee of a future final publication.

The benefits of preregistration can already be observed in clinical research, where registration has been mandatory for most trials for more than 20 years. Preregistration in clinical research has helped to make known what has been tested and not just what worked and was published, and the implementation of trial registration has strongly reduced the number of publications reporting significant treatment effects [ 46 ]. In animal research, with its unrealistically high percentage of positive results, preregistration seems to be particularly worthwhile.

Research data management

To get the most out of performed animal experiments, effective sharing of data at the end of the study is essential. Sharing research data optimally is complex and needs to be prepared in advance. Thus, data management can be seen as one part of planning a study thoroughly. Many funders have recognized the value of the original research data and request a data management plan from applicants in advance [ 25 , 47 ]. Various freely available tools such as DMPTool or DMPonline already exist to design a research data management plan that complies to the requirements of different funders [ 48 , 49 ]. The data management plan defines the types of data collected and describes the handling and names responsible persons throughout the data lifecycle. This includes collecting the data, analyzing, archiving, and sharing it. Finally, a data management plan enables long-term access and the possibility for reuse by peers. Developing such a plan, whether it is required by funders or not, will later simplify the application of the FAIR data principle (see section on the FAIR data principle). The Longwood Medical Area Research Data Management Working Group from the Harvard Medical School developed a checklist to assist researchers in optimally managing their data throughout the data lifecycle [ 50 ]. Similarly, the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) provides a great research data management toolkit including a checklist for researchers planning their project [ 51 ]. Consulting this checklist in the planning phase of a project can prevent common errors in research data management.

Non-technical project summary

One instrument specifically conceived to create transparency on animal research for the general public is the so-called non-technical project summary (NTS). All animal protocols approved within the EU must be accompanied by these comprehensible summaries. NTSs are intended to inform the public about ongoing animal experiments. They are anonymous and include information on the objectives and potential benefits of the project, the expected harm, the number of animals, the species, and a statement of compliance with the requirements of the 3Rs principle. However, beyond simply informing the public, NTSs can also be used for meta-research to help identify new research areas with an increased need for new 3R technologies [ 52 , 53 ]. NTSs become an excellent tool to appropriately communicate the scientific value of the approved protocol and for meta-scientists to generate added value by systematically analyzing theses summaries if they fulfill a minimum quality threshold [ 54 , 55 ]. In 2021, the EU launched the ALURES platform ( Table 1 ), where NTSs from all member states are published together, opening the opportunities for EU-wide meta-research. NTSs are, in contrast to other open science practices, mandatory in the EU. However, instead of thinking of them as an annoying duty, it might be worth thoroughly drafting the NTS to support the goals of more transparency towards the public, enabling an open dialogue and reducing extreme opinions.

Conducting the experiments

Once the experiments begin, documentation of all necessary details is essential to ensure the transparency of the workflow. This includes methodological details that are crucial for replicating experiments, but also failed attempts that could help peers to avoid experiments that do not work in the future. All information should be stored in such a way that it can be found easily and shared later. In this area, many new tools have emerged in recent years ( Table 1 ). These tools will not only make research transparent for colleagues, but also help to keep track of one’s own research and improve internal collaboration.

Electronic laboratory notebooks

Electronic laboratory notebooks (ELNs) are an important pillar of research data management and open science. ELNs facilitate the structured and harmonized documentation of the data generation workflow, ensure data integrity, and keep track of all modifications made to the original data based on an audit trail option. Moreover, ELNs simplify the sharing of data and support collaborations within and outside the research group. Methodological details and research data become searchable and traceable. There is an extensive amount of literature providing advice on the selection and the implementation process of an ELN depending on the specific needs and research area and its discussion would be beyond the scope of this Essay [ 56 – 58 ]. Some ELNs are connected to a laboratory information management system (LIMS) that provides an animal module supporting the tracking of animal details [ 59 ]. But as research involving animals is highly heterogeneous, this might not be the only decision point and we cannot recommend a specific ELN that is suitable for all animal research.

ELNs are already established in the pharmaceutical industry and their use is on the rise among academics as well. However, due to concerns around costs for licenses, data security, and loss of flexibility, many research institutions still fear the expenses that the introduction of such a system would incur [ 56 ]. Nevertheless, an increasing number of academic institutions are implementing ELNs and appreciating the associated benefits [ 60 ]. If your institution already has an ELN, it might be easiest to just use the option available in the research environment. If not, the Harvard Medical School provides an extensive and updated overview of various features of different ELNs that can support scientists in choosing the appropriate one for their research [ 61 ]. There are many commercial ELN products, which may be preferred when the administrative workload should be outsourced to a large extent. However, open-source products such as eLabFTW or open BIS provide a greater opportunity for customization to meet specific needs of individual research institutions [ 62 – 64 ]. A huge number of options are available depending on the resources and the features required. Some scientists might prefer generic note taking tools such as Evernote or just a simple Word document that offers infinite flexibility, but specific ELNs can further support good record keeping practice by providing immutability, automated backups, standardized methods, and protocols to follow. Clearly defining the specific requirements expected might help to choose an adequate system that would improve the quality of the record compared to classical paper laboratory notebooks.

Sharing protocols

Adequate sharing of methods in translational biomedical sciences is key to reproducibility. Several repositories exist that simplify the publication and exchange of protocols. Writing down methods at the end of the project bears the risk that crucial details might be missing [ 65 ]. On protocols.io, scientists can note all methodological details of a procedure, complete them with uploaded documents, and keep them for personal use or share them with collaborators [ 66 ]. Authors can also decide at any point in time to make their protocol public. Protocols published on protocols.io receive a DOI and become citable; they can be commented on by peers and adapted according to the needs of the individual researcher. Protocol.io files from established protocols can also be submitted together with some context and sample datasets to PLOS ONE , where it can be peer-reviewed and potentially published [ 67 , 68 ]. Depending on the affiliation of the researchers to academia or industry and on an internal or public sharing of files, protocols.io can be free of charge or come with costs. Other journals also encourage their authors to deposit their protocols in a freely accessible repository, such as protocol exchange from Nature portfolio [ 69 ]. Another option might be to separately submit a protocol that was validated by its use in an already published research article to an online and peer-reviewed journal specific for research protocols, such as Bio-Protocol. A multitude of journals, including eLife and Science already collaborate with Bio-Protocol and recommend authors to publish the method in Bio-Protocol [ 70 ]. Bio-Protocol has no submission fees and is freely available to all readers. Both protocols.io and Bio-Protocol allow the illustration of complex scientific methods by uploading videos to published protocols. In addition, protocols can be deposited in a general research repository such as the Open Science Framework (OSF repository) and referenced in appropriate publications.

Sharing critical incidents

Sharing critical or even adverse events that occur in the context of animal experimentation can help other scientists to avoid committing the same mistakes. The system of sharing critical incidents is already established in clinical practice and helps to improve medical care [ 71 , 72 ]. The online platform critical incident reporting system in laboratory animal science (CIRS-LAS) represents the first preclinical equivalent to these clinical systems [ 73 ]. With this web-based tool, critical incidents in animal research can be reported anonymously without registration. An expert panel helps to analyze the incident to encourage an open dialogue. Critical incident reporting is still very marginal in animal research and performed procedures are very variable. These factors make a systemic analysis and a targeted search of incidence difficult. However, it may be of special interest for methods that are broadly used in animal research such as anesthesia. Indeed, a broad feed of this system with data on errors occurring in standard procedures today could help avoid critical incidences in the future and refine animal experiments.

Sharing animals, organs, and tissue

When we think about open science, sharing results and data are often in focus. However, sharing material is also part of a collaborative and open research culture that could help to greatly reduce the number of experimental animals used. When an animal is killed to obtain specific tissue or organs, the remainder is mostly discarded. This may constitute a wasteful practice, as surplus tissue can be used by other researchers for different analyses. More animals are currently killed as surplus than are used in experiments, demonstrating the potential for sharing these animals [ 74 , 75 ].

Sharing information on generated surplus is therefore not only economical, but also an effective way to reduce the number of animals used for scientific purposes. The open-source software Anishare is a straightforward way for breeders of genetically modified lines to promote their surplus offspring or organs within an institution [ 76 ]. The database AniMatch ( Table 1 ) connects scientists within Europe who are offering tissue or organs with scientists seeking this material. Scientists already sharing animal organs can support this process by describing it in publications and making peers aware of this possibility [ 77 ]. Specialized research communities also allow sharing of animal tissue or animal-derived products worldwide that are typically used in these fields on a collaborative basis via the SEARCH-framework [ 78 , 79 ]. Depositing transgenic mice lines into one of several repositories for mouse strains can help to further minimize efforts in producing new transgenic lines and most importantly reduce the number of surplus animals by supporting the cryoconservation of mouse lines. The International Mouse Strain Resource (IMSR) can be used to help find an adequate repository or to help scientists seeking a specific transgenic line find a match [ 80 ].

Analyzing the data

Animal researchers have to handle increasingly complex data. Imaging, electrophysiological recording, or automated behavioral tracking, for example, produce huge datasets. Data can be shared as raw numerical output but also as images, videos, sounds, or other forms from which raw numerical data can be generated. As the heterogeneity and the complexity of research data increases, infinite possibilities for analysis emerge. Transparently reporting how the data were processed will enable peers to better interpret reported results. To get the most out of performed animal experiments, it is crucial to allow other scientists to replicate the analysis and adapt it to their research questions. It is therefore highly recommended to use formats and tools during the analysis that allow a straightforward exchange of code and data later on.

Transparent coding

The use of non-transparent analysis codes have led to a lack of reproducibility of results [ 81 ]. Sharing code is essential for complex analysis and enables other researchers to reproduce results and perform follow-up studies, and citable code gives credit for the development of new algorithms ( Table 1 ). Jupyter Notebooks are a convenient way to share data science pipelines that may use a variety of coding languages, including like Python, R or Matlab, and also share the results of analyses in the form of tables, diagrams, images, and videos. Notebooks contain source code and can be published or collaboratively shared on platforms like GitHub or GitLab, where version control of source code is implemented. The data-archiving tool Zenodo can be used to archive a repository on GitHub and create a DOI for the archive. Thereby contents become citable. Using free and open-source programming language like R or Python will increase the number of potential researchers that can work with the published code. Best practice for research software is to publish the source code with a license that allows modification and redistribution.

Choice of data visualization

Choosing the right format for the visualization of data can increase its accessibility to a broad scientific audience and enable peers to better judge the validity of the results. Studies based on animal research often work with very small sample sizes. Visualizing these data in histograms may lead to an overestimation of the outcomes. Choosing the right dot plots that makes all recorded points visible and at the same time focusses on the summary instead of the individual points can further improve the intuitive understanding of a result. If the sample size is too low, it might not be meaningful to visualize error bars. A variety of freely available tools already exists that can support scientists in creating the most appropriate graphs for their data [ 82 ]. In particular, when representing microscopy results or heat maps, it should be kept in mind that a large part of the population cannot perceive the classical red and green representation [ 83 ]. Opting for the color-blind safe color maps and checking images with free tools such as color oracle ( Table 1 ) can increase the accessibility of graphs. Multiple journals have already addressed flaws in data visualization and have introduced new policies that will accelerate the uptake of transparent representation of results.

Publication of all study outcomes

Open science practices have received much attention in the past few years when it comes to publication of the results. However, it is important to emphasize that although open science tools have their greatest impact at the end of the project, good study preparation and sharing of the study plan and data early on can greatly increase the transparency at the end.

The FAIR data principle

To maximize the impact and outcome of a study, and to make the best long-term use of data generated through animal experiments, researchers should publish all data collected during their research according to the FAIR data principle. That means the data should be findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable. The FAIR principle is thus an extension of open access publishing. Data should not only be published without paywalls or other access restrictions, but also in such a manner that they can be reused and further processed by others. For this, legal as well as technical requirements must be met by the data. To achieve this, the GoFAIR initiative has developed a set of principles that should be taken into account as early as at the data collection stage [ 49 , 84 ]. In addition to extensively described and machine-readable metadata, these principles include, for example, the application of globally persistent identifiers, the use of open file formats, and standardized communication protocols to ensure that humans and machines can easily download the data. A well-chosen repository to upload the data is then just the final step to publish FAIR data.

FAIR data can strongly increase the knowledge gained from performed animal experiments. Thus, the same data can be analyzed by different researchers and could be combined to obtain larger sample sizes, as already occurs in the neuroimaging community, which works with comparable datasets [ 85 ]. Furthermore, the sharing of data enables other researchers to analyze published datasets and estimate measurement reliabilities to optimize their own data collection [ 86 , 87 ]. This will help to improve the translation from animal research into clinics and simultaneously reduce the number of animal experiment in future.

Reporting guidelines

In preclinical research, the ARRIVE guidelines are the current state of the art when it comes to reporting data based on animal experiments [ 22 , 23 ]. The ARRIVE guidelines have been endorsed by more than 1,000 journals who ask that scientists comply with them when reporting their outcomes. Since the ARRIVE guidelines have not had the expected impact on the transparency of reporting in animal research publications, a more rigorous update has been developed to facilitate their application in practice (ARRIVE 2.0 [ 23 ]). We believe that the ARRIVE guidelines can be more effective if they are implemented at a very early stage of the project (see section on guidelines). Some more specialized reporting guidelines have also emerged for individual research fields that rely on animal studies, such as endodontology [ 88 ]. The equator network collects all guidelines and makes them easily findable with their search tool on their website ( Table 1 ). MERIDIAN also offers a 1-stop shop for all reporting guidelines involving the use of animals across all research sectors [ 89 ]. It is thus worth checking for new reporting guidelines before preparing a manuscript to maximize the transparency of described experiments.

Identifiers

Persistent identifiers for published work, authors, or resources are key for making public data findable by search engines and are thus a prerequisite for compliance to FAIR data principles. The most common identifier for publications will be a DOI, which makes the work citable. A DOI is a globally unique string assigned by the International DOI Foundation to identify content permanently and provide a persistent link to its location on the Internet. An ORCID ID is used as a personal persistent identifier and is recommendable to unmistakably identify an author ( Table 1 ). This will avoid confusions between authors with the same name or in the case of name changes or changes of affiliation. Research Resource Identifiers (RRID) are unique ID numbers that help to transparently report research resources. RRID also apply to animals to clearly identify the species used. RRID help avoid confusion between different names or changing names of genetic lines and, importantly, make them machine findable. The RRID Portal helps scientists find a specific RRID or create one if necessary ( Table 1 ). In the context of genetically altered animal lines, correct naming is key. The Mouse Genome Informatics (MGI) Database is the authoritative source of official names for mouse genes, alleles, and strains ([ 90 ]).

Preprint publication

Preprints have undergone unprecedented success, particularly during the height of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic when the need for rapid dissemination of scientific knowledge was critical. The publication process for scientific manuscripts in peer-reviewed journals usually requires a considerable amount of time, ranging from a few months to several years, mainly due to the lengthy review process and inefficient editorial procedures [ 91 , 92 ]. Preprints typically precede formal publication in scientific journals and, thus, do not go through a peer review process, thus, facilitating the prompt open dissemination of important scientific findings within the scientific community. However, submitted papers are usually screened and checked for plagiarism. Preprints are assigned a DOI so they can be cited. Once a preprint is published in a journal, its status is automatically updated on the preprint server. The preprint is linked to the publication via CrossRef and mentioned accordingly on the website of the respective preprint platform.

After initial skepticism, most publishers now allow papers to be posted on preprint servers prior to submission. An increasing number of journals even allow direct submission of a preprint to their peer review process. The US National Institutes of Health and the Wellcome Trust, among other funders, also encourage prepublication and permit researchers to cite preprints in their grant applications. There are now numerous preprint repositories for different scientific disciplines. BioASAP provides a searchable database for preprint servers that can help in identifying the one that best matches an individual’s needs [ 93 ]. The most popular repository for animal research is bioRxiv, which is hosted by the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory ( Table 1 ).

The early exchange of scientific results is particularly important for animal research. This acceleration of the publication process can help other scientists to adapt their research or could even prevent animal experiments if other scientists become aware that an experiment has already been done before starting their own. In addition, preprints can help to increase the visibility of research. Journal articles that have a corresponding preprint publication have higher citation and Altmetric counts than articles without preprint [ 94 ]. In addition, the publication of preprints can help to combat publication bias, which represents a major problem in animal research [ 16 ]. Since journals and readers prioritize cutting-edge studies with positive results over inconclusive or negative results, researchers are reluctant to invest time and money in a manuscript that is unlikely to be accepted in a high-impact journal.

In addition to the option of publishing as preprint, other alternative publication formats have recently been introduced to facilitate the publication of research results that are hard to publish in traditional peer-reviewed journals. These include micro publications, data repositories, data journals, publication platforms, and journals that focus on negative or inconclusive results. The tool fiddle can support scientists in choosing the right publication format [ 95 , 96 ].

Open access publication

Publishing open access is one of the most established open science strategies. In contrast to the FAIR data principle, the term open access publication refers usually to the publication of a manuscript on a platform that is accessible free of charge—in translational biomedical research, this is mostly in the form of a scientific journal article. Originally, publications accessible free of charge were the answer to the paywalls established by renowned publishing houses, which led to social inequalities within and outside the research system. In translational biomedical research, the ethical aspect of urgently needed transparency is another argument in favor of open access publication, as these studies will not only be findable, but also internationally readable.

There are different ways of open access publishing; the 2 main routes are gold open access and green open access. Numerous journals offer now gold open access. It refers to the immediate and fully accessible publication of an article. The Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) provides a complete and updated list for high-quality, open access, and peer-reviewed journals [ 97 ]. Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin offers a specific tool for biomedical open access journals that supports animal researchers to choose an appropriate journal [ 49 ]. In addition, the Sherpa Romeo platform is a straightforward way to identify publisher open access policies on a journal-by-journal basis, including information on preprints, but also on licensing of articles [ 51 ]. Hybrid open access refers to openly accessible articles in otherwise paywalled journals. By contrast, green open access refers to the publication of a manuscript or article in a repository that is mostly operated by institutions and/or universities. The publication can be exclusively on the repository or in combination with a publisher. In the quality-assured, global Directory of Open Access Repositories (openDOAR), scientists can find thousands of indexed open access repositories [ 49 ]. The publisher often sets an embargo during which the authors cannot make the publication available in the repository, which can restrict the combined model. It is worth mentioning that gold open access is usually more expensive for the authors, as they have to pay an article processing charge. However, the article’s outreach is usually much higher than the outreach of an article in a repository or available exclusively as subscription content [ 98 ]. Diamond open access refers to publications and publication platforms that can be read free of charge by anyone interested and for which no costs are incurred by the authors either. It is the simplest and fairest form of open access for all parties involved, as no one is prevented from participating in scientific discourse by payment barriers. For now, it is not as widespread as the other forms because publishers have to find alternative sources of revenue to cover their costs.

As social media and the researcher’s individual public outreach are becoming increasingly important, it should be remembered that the accessibility of a publication should not be confused with the licensing under which the publication is made available. In order to be able to share and reuse one’s own work in the future, we recommend looking for journals that allow publications under the Creative Commons licenses CC BY or CC BY-NC. This also allows the immediate combination of gold and green open access.

Creative commons licenses

Attributing Creative Commons (CC) licenses to scientific content can make research broadly available and clearly specifies the terms and conditions under which people can reuse and redistribute the intellectual property, namely publications and data, while giving the credit to whom it deserves [ 49 ]. As the laws on copyright vary from country to country and law texts are difficult to understand for outsiders, the CC licenses are designed to be easily understandable and are available in 41 languages. This way, users can easily avoid accidental misuse. The CC initiative developed a tool that enables researchers to find the license that best fits their interests [ 49 ]. Since the licenses are based on a modular concept ranging from relatively unrestricted licenses (CC BY, free to use, credit must be given) to more restricted licenses (CC BY-NC-ND, only free to share for non-commercial purposes, credit must be given), one can find an appropriate license even for the most sensitive content. Publishing under an open CC license will not only make the publication easy to access but can also help to increase its reach. It can stimulate other researchers and the interested public to share this article within their network and to make the best future use of it. Bear in mind that datasets published independently from an article may receive a different CC license. In terms of intellectual property, data are not protected in the same way as articles, which is why the CC initiative in the United Kingdom recommends publishing them under a CC0 (“no rights reserved”) license or the Public Domain Mark. This gives everybody the right to use the data freely. In an animal ethics sense, this is especially important in order to get the most out of data derived from animal experiments.

Data and code repositories

Sharing research data is essential to ensure reproducibility and to facilitate scientific progress. This is particularly true in animal research and the scientific community increasingly recognizes the value of sharing research data. However, even though there is increasing support for the sharing of data, researchers still perceive barriers when it comes to doing so in practice [ 99 – 101 ]. Many universities and research institutions have established research data repositories that provide continuous access to datasets in a trusted environment. Many of these data repositories are tied to specific research areas, geographic regions, or scientific institutions. Due to the growing number and overall heterogeneity of these repositories, it can be difficult for researchers, funding agencies, publishers, and academic institutions to identify appropriate repositories for storing and searching research data.

Recently, several web-based tools have been developed to help in the selection of a suitable repository. One example is Re3data, a global registry of research data repositories that includes repositories from various scientific disciplines. The extensive database can be searched by country, content (e.g., raw data, source code), and scientific discipline [ 49 ]. A similar tool to help find a data archive specific to the field is FAIRsharing, based at Oxford University [ 102 ]. If there is no appropriate subject-specific data repository or one seems unsuitable for the data, there are general data repositories, such as Open Science Framework, figshare, Dryad, or Zenodo. To ensure that data stored in a repository can be found, a DOI is assigned to the data. Choosing the right license for the deposited code and data ensures that authors get credit for their work.

Publication and connection of all outcomes

If scientists have used all available open science tools during the research process, then publishing and linking all outcomes represents the well-deserved harvest ( Fig 2 ). At the end of a research process, researchers will not just have 1 publication in a journal. Instead, they might have a preregistration, a preprint, a publication in a journal, a dataset, and a protocol. Connecting these outcomes in a way that enables other scientists to better assess the results that link these publications will be key. There are many examples of good open science practices in laboratory animal science, but we want to highlight one of them to show how this could be achieved. Blenkuš and colleagues investigated how mild stress-induced hyperthermia can be assessed non-invasively by thermography in mice [ 103 ]. The study was preregistered with animalstudyregistry.org , which is referred to in their publication [ 104 ]. A deviation from the originally preregistered hypothesis was explained in the manuscript and the supplementary material was uploaded to figshare [ 105 ].

Application of open science practices can increase the reproducibility and visibility of a research project at the same time. By publishing different research outputs with more detailed information than can be included in a journal article, researchers enable peers to replicate their work. Reporting according to guidelines and using transparent visualization will further improve this reproducibility. The more research products that are generated, the more credit can be attributed. By communicating on social media or additionally publishing slides from delivered talks or posters, more attention can be raised. Additionally, publishing open access and making the work machine-findable makes it accessible to an even broader number of peers.

It might also be helpful to provide all resources from a project in a single repository such as Open Science Framework, which also implements other, different tools that might have been used, like GitHub or protocols.io.

Communicating your research

Once all outcomes of the project are shared, it is time to address the targeted peers. Social media is an important instrument to connect research communities [ 106 ]. In particular, Twitter is an effective way to communicate research findings or related events to peers [ 107 ]. In addition, specialized platforms like ResearchGate can support the exchange of practical experiences ( Table 1 ). When all resources related to a project are kept in one place, sharing this link is a straightforward way to reach out to fellow scientists.

With the increasing number of publications, science communication has become more important in recent years. Transparent science that communicates openly with the public contributes to strengthening society’s trust in research.

Conclusions

Plenty of open science tools are already available and the number of tools is constantly growing. Translational biomedical researchers should seize this opportunity, as it could contribute to a significant improvement in the transparency of research and fulfil their ethical responsibility to maximize the impact of knowledge gained from animal experiments. Over and above this, open science practices also bear important direct benefits for the scientists themselves. Indeed, the implementation of these tools can increase the visibility of research and becomes increasingly important when applying for grants or in recruitment decisions. Already, more and more journals and funders require activities such as data sharing. Several institutions have established open science practices as evaluation criteria alongside publication lists, impact factor, and h-index for panels deciding on hiring or tenure [ 108 ]. For new adopters, it is not necessary to apply all available practices at once. Implementing single tools can be a safe approach to slowly improve the outreach and reproducibility of one’s own research. The more open science products that are generated, the more reproducible the work becomes, but also the more the visibility of a study increases ( Fig 2 ).

As other research fields, such as social sciences, are already a step ahead in the implementation of open science practices, translational biomedicine can profit from their experiences [ 109 ]. We should thus keep in mind that open science comes with some risks that should be minimized early on. Indeed, the more open science practices become incentivized, the more researchers could be tempted to get a transparency quality label that might not be justified. When a study is based on a bad hypothesis or poor statistical planning, this cannot be fixed by preregistration, as prediction alone is not sufficient to validate an interpretation [ 110 ]. Furthermore, a boom of data sharing could disconnect data collectors and analysts, bearing the risk that researchers performing the analysis lack understanding of the data. The publication of datasets could also promote a “parasitic” use of a researcher’s data and lead to scooping of outcomes [ 111 ]. Stakeholders could counteract such a risk by promoting collaboration instead of competition.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, we have seen an explosion of preprint publications. This unseen acceleration of science might be the adequate response to a pandemic; however, the speeding up science in combination with the “publish or perish” culture could come at the expense of the quality of the publication. Nevertheless, a meta-analysis comparing the quality of reporting between preprints and peer-reviewed articles showed that the quality of reporting in preprints in the life sciences is at most slightly lower on average compared to peer-reviewed articles [ 112 ]. Additionally, preprints and social media have shown during this pandemic that a premature and overconfident communication of research results can be overinterpreted by journalists and raise unfounded hopes or fears in patients and relatives [ 113 ]. By being honest and open about the scope and limitations of the study and choosing communication channels carefully, researchers can avoid misinterpretation. It should be noted, however, that by releasing all methodological details and data in research fields such as viral engineering, where a dual use cannot be excluded, open science could increase biosecurity risk. Implementing access-controlled repositories, application programming interfaces, and a biosecurity risk assessment in the planning phase (i.e., by preregistration) could mitigate this threat [ 114 ].

Publishing in open access journals often involves higher publication costs, which makes it more difficult for institutes and universities from low-income countries to publish there [ 115 ]. Equity has been identified as a key aim of open science [ 116 ]. It is vital, therefore, that existing structural inequities in the scientific system are not unintentionally reinforced by open science practices. Early career researchers have been the main drivers of the open science movement in other fields even though they are often in vulnerable positions due to short contracts and hierarchical and strongly networked research environments. Supporting these early career researchers in adopting open science tools could significantly advance this change in research culture [ 117 ]. However, early career researchers can already benefit by publishing registered reports or preprints that can provide a publication much faster than conventional journal publications. Communication in social media can help them establish a network enabling new collaborations or follow-up positions.

Even though open science comes with some risks, the benefits easily overweigh these caveats. If a change towards more transparency is accompanied by the implementation of open science in the teaching curricula of the universities, most of the risks can be minimized [ 118 ]. Interestingly, we have observed that open science tools and infrastructure that are specific to animal research seem to mostly come from Europe. This may be because of strict regulations within Europe for animal experiments or because of a strong research focus in laboratory animal science along with targeted research funding in this region. Whatever the reason might be, it demonstrates the important role of research policy in accelerating the development towards 3Rs and open science.

Overall, it seems inevitable that open science will eventually prevail in translational biomedical research. Scientists should not wait for the slow-moving incentive framework to change their research habits, but should take pioneering roles in adopting open science tools and working towards more collaboration, transparency, and reproducibility.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the valuable input and comments from Sebastian Dunst, Daniel Butzke, and Nils Körber that have improved the content of this work.

Abbreviations

Funding statement.

The authors received no specific funding for this work.

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PolyU food scientist’s research on fungus-based fat replacer rolls out for low-fat dessert production at hotel

Dr Gail Jinhui Chang, Research Assistant Professor in the Department of Food Science and Nutrition at PolyU and a project investigator at RiFood

A groundbreaking fat replacer called AkkMore™ that developed by Dr Chang and her team. This formula has been used in the production of low-fat food products at hotel.

The Research Institute for Future Food (RiFood) at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University (PolyU) has developed a groundbreaking fat replacer called AkkMore™. This innovative formula has been used in the production of low-fat food products, including low-fat ice cream with a fat content of 3%.

AkkMore™ is a fungus and plant-based supplement targeting obesity or prediabetes. This innovative formula was developed by a research team led by Dr Gail Jinhui Chang, Research Assistant Professor in the Department of Food Science and Nutrition at PolyU and a project investigator at RiFood. 

Produced from natural fungal sources, AkkMore™ has been tested for its effectiveness in providing numerous health benefits, which include preventing obesity and other metabolic diseases, enhancing gut health, modulating the immune response, and reducing anxiety. It was awarded a silver medal at the 2022 Special Edition of the Geneva International Exhibition of Inventions. Dr. CHANG, said “Our research team has completed three rounds of animal trials on AkkMore™. The results show that the formula can effectively improve metabolism and aid in weight management. Moving forward, we are focusing on exploring applications of AkkMore™ in the development of healthy food.” 

The research team is currently developing “Cream Mate”, an AkkMore™-based cream substitute. Cream Mate enables cream products to contain less fat, have the ability to be frozen for a long time, and extend shelf-life while maintaining sensory appeal comparable to traditional cream. The use of Cream Mate helps reduce calorie intake and the consumption of dairy products in desserts, as well as minimise food waste due to expiration. This contributes to making food production more sustainable and economical.

In addition, RiFood is collaborating with Hotel ICON on the use of Cream Mate in the preparation of reduced-fat desserts that are served on the hotel’s regular menus, starting from 1 May.

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