quantitative research topics about politics

Research Topics & Ideas: Politics

100+ Politics-Related Research Ideas To Fast-Track Your Project

Finding and choosing a strong research topic is the critical first step when it comes to crafting a high-quality dissertation or thesis. If you’ve landed on this post, chances are you’re looking for a politics-related research topic , but aren’t sure where to start. Here, we’ll explore a variety of politically-related research ideas across a range of disciplines, including political theory and philosophy, comparative politics, international relations, public administration and policy.

NB – This is just the start…

The topic ideation and evaluation process has multiple steps . In this post, we’ll kickstart the process by sharing some research topic ideas. This is the starting point, but to develop a well-defined research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , along with a well-justified plan of action to fill that gap.

If you’re new to the oftentimes perplexing world of research, or if this is your first time undertaking a formal academic research project, be sure to check out our free dissertation mini-course. Also, be sure to sign up for our free webinar that explores how to find a high-quality research topic from scratch.

Overview: Politics-Related Topics

• Political theory and philosophy
• Comparative politics
• International relations
• Public administration
• Public policy
• Examples of politics-related dissertations

Topics & Ideas: Political Theory

• An analysis of the impact of feminism on political theory and the concept of citizenship in Saudi Arabia in the context of Vision 2030
• A comparative study of the political philosophies of Marxism and liberalism and their influence on modern politics
• An examination of how the Covid-19 pandemic affected the relationship between individual freedom and collective responsibility in political philosophy
• A study of the impact of race and ethnicity on French political philosophy and the concept of justice
• An exploration of the role of religion in political theory and its impact on secular democracy in the Middle East
• A Review of Social contract theory, comparative analysis of the political philosophies of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau
• A study of the concept of the common good in political philosophy and its relevance to the ongoing refugee crisis in Europe
• An examination of the relationship between political power and the rule of law in developing African countries
• A study of the impact of postmodernism on political theory and the concept of truth, a case study of the US
• An exploration of the role of virtue in political philosophy and its impact on the assessment of moral character in political leaders

Topics & Ideas: Comparative Politics

• A comparative study of different models of federalism and their impact on democratic governance: A case Study of South American federalist states
• The impact of ethnic and religious diversity on political stability and democracy in developing countries, a review of literature from Africa
• An analysis of the role of civil society in promoting democratic change in autocratic regimes: A case study in Sweden
• A comparative examination of the impact of globalization on political institutions and processes in South America and Africa.
• A study of the factors that contribute to successful democratization in authoritarian regimes, a review of the role of Elite-driven democratization
• A comparison of the political and economic systems of China and India and their impact on social development
• The impact of corruption on political institutions and democracy in South East Asia, a critical review
• A comparative examination of the impact of majoritarian representation (winner-take-all) vs proportional representation on political representation and governance
• An exploration of Multi-party systems in democratic countries and their impact on minority representation and policy-making.
• A study of the factors that contribute to successful decentralization and regional autonomy, a case study of Spain

Topics & Ideas: International Relations

• A comparative analysis of the effectiveness of diplomacy and military force in resolving international conflicts in Central Africa.
• The impact of globalization on the sovereignty of nation-states and the changing nature of international politics, a review of the role of Multinational Corporations
• An examination of the role of international aid organizations in promoting peace, security, and development in the Middle East.
• A study of the impact of economic interdependence on the likelihood of conflict in international relations: A critical review of weaponized interdependence
• A comparative analysis of the foreign policies of the EU and the US and their impact on international stability in Africa
• An exploration of the relationship between international human rights and national sovereignty during the Covid 19 pandemic
• A study of the role of decentralized autonomous organizations (DAO)s in international politics and their impact on state behaviour
• A comparative analysis of the effectiveness of international regimes in addressing global challenges such as climate change, arms control, and terrorism in Brazil
• An examination of the impact of the rise of BRICS on the international system and global governance
• A study of the role of ideology in shaping the foreign policies of states and the dynamics of international relations in the US

Tops & Ideas: Public Administration

• An analysis of the impact of digital technology on public administration and the delivery of public services in Estonia
• A review of models of public-private partnerships and their impact on the delivery of public services in Ghana
• An examination of the role of civil society organizations in monitoring and accountability of public administration in Papua New Guinea
• A study of the impact of environmentalism as a political ideology on public administration and policy implementation in Germany
• An exploration of the relationship between public administration and citizen engagement in the policy-making process, an exploration of gender identity concerns in schools
• A comparative analysis of the efficiency and effectiveness of public administration, decentralisation and pay and employment reform in developing countries
• A study of the role of collaborative leadership in public administration and its impact on organizational performance
• A systematic review of the challenges and opportunities related to diversity and inclusion in police services
• A study of the impact of corrupt public administration on economic development and regional growth in Eastern Europe
• An exploration of the relationship between public administration and civil rights and liberties, including issues related to privacy and surveillance, a case study in South Korea

Topics & Ideas: Public Policy

• An analysis of the impacts of public policy on income inequality and poverty reduction in South Sudan
• A comparative study of the effectiveness of legal and regulatory, economic and financial, and social and cultural instruments for addressing climate change in South Korea
• An examination of the role of interest groups in shaping public policy and the policy-making process regarding land-use claims
• A study of the impact of globalization on the development of public policies and programs for mitigating climate change in Singapore
• An exploration of the relationship between public policy and social justice in tertiary education in the UAE
• A comparative analysis of the impact of health policies for the management of diabetes on access to healthcare and health outcomes in developing countries
• Exploring the role of evidence-based policymaking in the design and implementation of public policies for the management of invasive invertebrates in Australia
• An examination of the challenges and opportunities of implementing educational dietary public policies in developing multicultural countries
• A study of the impact of public policies on urbanization and urban development in rural Indonesia
• An exploration of the role of media and public opinion in shaping public policy and the policy-making process in the transport industry of Malaysia

Examples: Politics Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a politics-related research topic, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses to see how this all comes together.

Below, we’ve included a selection of research projects from various politics-related degree programs to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• We, the Righteous Few: Immoral Actions of Fellow Partisans are Judged as Less Possible (Varnam, 2020)
• Civilizing the State: Civil Society and the Politics of Primary Public Health Care Provision in Urban Brazil (Gibson, 2012)
• Political regimes and minority language policies: evidence from Taiwan and southeast Asia (Wu, 2021)
• The Feminist Third Wave: Social Reproduction, Feminism as Class Struggle, and Contemporary Women’s Movements (Angulo, 2019)
• The Politics of Immigration under Authoritarianism (Joo, 2019)
• The politics of digital platforms: Sour Dictionary, activist subjectivities, and contemporary cultures of resistance (Okten, 2019)
• Vote choice and support for diverse candidates on the Boston City Council At-Large (Dolcimascolo, 2022)
• The city agenda: local governance and national influence in the policy agenda, 1900-2020 (Shannon, 2022)
• Turf wars: who supported measures to criminalize homelessness in Austin, Texas? (Bompiedi, 2021)
• Do BITs Cause Opposition Between Investor Rights and Environmental Protection? (Xiong, 2022)
• Revealed corruption and electoral accountability in Brazil: How politicians anticipate voting behavior (Diaz, 2021)
• Intersectional Solidarity: The Political Consequences of a Consciousness of Race, Gender and Sexuality (Crowder, 2020)
• The Congressional Hispanic Caucus and the Coalitional Representation of Latinxs in the U.S. House of Representatives (Munoz, 2019)

Looking at these titles, you can probably pick up that the research topics here are quite specific and narrowly-focused , compared to the generic ones presented earlier. In other words, to create a top-notch research topic, you must be precise and target a specific context with specific variables of interest . In other words, you need to identify a clear, well-justified research gap.

Get 1:1 Help

If you’re still feeling a bit unsure about how to find a research topic for your dissertation or research project, check out our Topic Kickstarter service below.

You Might Also Like:

Interesting thesis.

I really appreciate your work which will greatly help me rethink on my topic

Please how can I get the full thesis?

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

• Print Friendly

Top Political Research Topics for 2022

Getting an idea of what branch of political science you want to investigate before you research helps to provide structure and meaning to your paper.

Political science is a diverse and expansive subject, with many unique disciplines. Developing a quality political science blog or essay begins with choosing the right topic. Getting an idea of what branch of political science you want to investigate before you research helps to provide structure and meaning to your paper.

What Makes an Interesting Political Research Topic?

In order for a political topic to be interesting, it must be both engaging and relevant .

The process for choosing a topic that meets both the criteria starts when the author defines what branch or field of political study they want to investigate. From there, political scientists  can narrow down their focus until they’ve pinpointed the perfect topic for their research.

Political Science Research Topics: Domestic

There is no shortage of pertinent and insightful topics pertaining to domestic issues in the United States. If you’re looking for a political science research topic for the US, consider writing about any one of these complex issues.

• The perception of the Black Lives Matter Movement across the political divide.
• Potential candidacies for the upcoming 2022 midterm elections. 
• The state of the 2nd amendment in 2022.
• What changes should be made to the US constitution?
• What rights should Americans have regarding their internet privacy?
• How should the Biden administration handle the border between the US and Mexico?
• Should revisions be made to the current two-party system of politics?
• Write about the potential implications of a reconstruction era under President Lincoln.
• Should there be a cap on immigration to America?
• Should the electoral college be abolished?
• How should politicians work to battle disinformation?
• What does “freedom” mean in America?
• How can politicians work to increase political participation among the youth?
• Should America adopt a socialist economic system?
• America’s role as a global military power.
• How to enfranchise minority voters in America.
• The controversial legacy of the Patriot Act.
• How to tackle America’s decaying infrastructure.
• Should some form of reparations be paid to the African American community for racial injustices done to them? (i.e. slavery, Jim Crow, Redlining)
• America’s role in the global War on Terrorism.

Political Science Research Topics: International

Diving into topics related to international politics can help bring a more diverse audience into your readership. Consider researching one of these international political science research topics.

• How should global powers work to better prevent pandemics from worsening in the future?
• What should be done - if anything - to curb the power of global financial institutions?
• Human rights violations in Kazakhstan.
• The conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan. 
• Is the United Nations effective at achieving its stated goals?
• How should the current generation work to preserve the planet for future generations?
• What should be done to address global poverty?
• How can new technology be used to address over-consumption in the industrialized world?
• Does social media increase global co-operation or foster nationalism? 
• What do rising sea levels mean for coastal populations? 
• Who has a right to the Arctic circle?
• Should sanctions be put on Israel for illegal actions taken in the Gaza strip?
• What should be done to address corruption in global politics?
• Should corporations be fined for working with suppliers that use slave labor?
• The Syrian Civil War.
• Wildfires in Australia.
• Rising global ocean temperatures and the implications.
• Increasing tensions at the Ukrainian/Russian border.
• Should there be agreed upon international standards for internet privacy?
• Global immigration trends.

Political Science Research Topics: Comparative Politics

Comparative political topics involve investigating two or more positions, groups, or phenomena for the purposes of developing new insights. Tackling any one of these topics is a great way to start developing your comparative political science abilities.

• United Kingdom vs. European Union Politics
• United States vs. European Union Politics
• Declining forest rates in the Amazon vs. the United States
• How should world governments work to avoid another global war?
• Secular Nations vs. Religious Nations
• Collectivism vs. Individualism
• The concept of “Manifest Destiny” and how it compares to other forms of imperialist thought.
• Erosion of democracy in countries across the world.
• What are some of the root causes of political violence?
• Western Colonialism vs. Eastern Imperialism 
• Tensions in the middle east: 1970’s vs. Today
• North Korea vs. South Korea
• Causes of immigration around the globe
• How has the perceived efficacy of the federal government changed decade over decade?
• How have technological innovations in the 21st century shaped our lives - for better, and for worse?
• The controversy surrounding Taiwan’s recognition as an independent nation.
• Response to COVID-19 in the U.S. vs. other nations.
• Illicit drug use in America vs. Europe.
• The developing political landscape of contemporary Africa
• Israel & Palestine. 

Political Science Research Topics: Philosophy

Some of the most thought-provoking political science subjects pertain to philosophy. Exploring these political science essay topics can help widen your view of the world and expand your insights.

• Are our political beliefs influenced more by reason, or by emotion?
• Are we born with set political beliefs?
• How should prisoners be treated by the law?
• Ethical concerns surrounding globalization.
• War: Is there ever a situation where it is morally permissible?
• Should one allow their religious views to impact their politics?
• What is more important: freedom, or safety?
• The complex relationship between morality and legality.
• The death penalty.
• The legality of drugs.
• The differences between Eastern and Western political ideology.
• Does the state have a monopoly on violence?
• War propaganda in the entertainment industry: is it immoral, or overstated?
• Discuss internet misinformation and its destabilizing effect on global political structures.
• How does today’s idea of “democracy” hold up to the common definition of the concept in the early 20th century?
• Discuss the radicalizing effects of alienation in society.
• Egalitarianism vs. Utilitarianism 
• Are covert government operations ever morally justifiable or necessary?
• Who should be held accountable for crimes committed during a war?
• Do unethical political means justify ethical outcomes?

Political Science Research Topics: Law

The law and its interpretations are one of the most controversial and contentious fields in the realm of political science. Legal analysts and lawyers spend extensive amounts of time researching precedent and past cases in order to develop their arguments. Here are some of the most pertinent topics being discussed in recent years.

• The illegality of cannabis in the Federal government.
• The Human Rights act of 1998.
• Bail reform.
• What limitations should be placed on police interrogation methods?
• How should the federal government work to secure voting rights in America?
• States’ rights.
• Gender bias in custody battles.
• Criminalization of the homeless.
• Corruption in the judicial system.
• Constitutional amendments.
• Should the internet be regulated as a public good?
• How can the judicial system work to hold wealthy & influential criminals accountable?
• Police accountability.
• Transparency in the legal system.
• LGBT protections.
• Expansions on environmental protections.
• The Jeffrey Epstein case.
• Expunging records for citizens with marijuana priors.
• Discuss the benefits and concessions that come with having a jury of your peers.
• Do we need laws prohibiting the use of AI for specific activities (i.e. war)?

Political Science Research Topics: Economics

Economic research is another highly specialized field of political science. These topics pertain to all manner of issues related to finance, commerce, trade, policy, and more. 

• The financialization of public life.
• Rising global inflation.
• The economic impact of COVID-19.
• What should be done about the lack of affordable housing in the United States?
• Who should have to pay for the efforts to tackle climate change?
•  How can global economic institutions be held accountable for their role in facilitating illegal activities (i.e. money laundering, tax avoidance)
• Discuss the global economic fallout caused by the 2008 Financial Crisis.
• Why do so many young Americans feel alienated and disenfranchised by Capitalism?
• National conservatism vs. Economic globalism.
•  How has the phenomenon of American companies moving their manufacturing overseas negatively impacted the financial security of the United States?
• Should the US do away with the greenback?
• The rise of Cryptocurrency as a global financial system.
• Work-from-home: revolutionary, or transitory?
• How should world governments hold the global 1% accountable for paying their taxes?
• Should the government provide more economic stimulus to struggling companies owned by minority business owners?
• The economic realities of libertarian theory.
• Is global capitalism effective at managing and solving problems in the 21st century?
• What new economic theories have taken shape in the last two decades?
• The “gig economy”.
• Why does poverty exist in the world’s wealthiest country?

About Author

Send Your First Survey Today!

Set up and begin receiving results within minutes. Sign up for free, no contract required.

Helpfull is the easiest way to get feedback from thousands of people in minutes. Whether you're comparing images, text or surveys; our pool of qualified testers give you their real detailed opinion to help you make better decisions and be more informed.

Political Science Research Topics: Uncovering New Perspectives

• Political Theory

Political Science Research Topics cover a wide range of issues, including power dynamics, governance structures, and political behavior. These topics delve into areas such as comparative politics, international relations, political theory, and public policy.

Some popular research topics in political science include the impact of social media on political activism, the effectiveness of democratic institutions, and the role of gender in political decision-making. Other areas of interest may include the study of political violence, the influence of nationalism on state policies, and the dynamics of political parties in multi-party systems.

Researchers in political science often explore how political systems affect economic outcomes , the role of identity politics in shaping policies, and the impact of globalization on national sovereignty. These topics provide valuable insights into understanding and addressing the complexities of modern political landscapes.

The Evolution Of Political Science Research

Early approaches to political science research.

The early days of political science research were marked by a focus on qualitative analysis of historical and philosophical texts. Scholars delved into ancient political writings and analyzed the political systems of past societies to draw conclusions about governance and power dynamics. This was a crucial period that laid the foundation for the development of modern political science research methodologies.

Modern Methodologies And Techniques

In the contemporary landscape, political science research has evolved to incorporate a diverse array of methodologies and techniques. Quantitative research methods, such as surveys and statistical analysis, have gained prominence, allowing scholars to gather large datasets and draw empirical conclusions. Moreover, qualitative research approaches, such as case studies and ethnographic research, provide in-depth insights into complex political phenomena. The integration of these varied methodologies has enriched the field of political science research, enabling scholars to explore a wide range of political issues with depth and precision.

Impact Of Technology On Political Science Research

The advent of technology has revolutionized political science research, offering new tools and platforms for data collection, analysis, and dissemination. Big data analytics and machine learning algorithms have empowered researchers to handle large volumes of political information and uncover intricate patterns within datasets. The proliferation of digital platforms has enhanced online collaboration and communication among scholars, fostering a global exchange of ideas and research findings. Additionally, technological advancements have facilitated the creation of interactive visualizations and simulations, enabling researchers to present their findings in engaging and accessible formats.

Credit: phys.org

Changing Perspectives In Political Science Research

Political science research is continually evolving, with changing perspectives shaping the way scholars approach the study of politics and governance. In this blog post, we will explore the shifting landscape of political science research, focusing on interdisciplinary approaches, global and local influences, as well as the impact of current events on research topics.

Interdisciplinary Approaches

In recent years, there has been a growing emphasis on interdisciplinary approaches in political science research. Scholars are increasingly integrating insights from fields such as sociology, anthropology, economics, and psychology to gain a more comprehensive understanding of political phenomena. This interdisciplinary approach allows researchers to analyze political issues from multiple perspectives, enriching the depth and breadth of their findings.

Global And Local Influences

Political science research is no longer confined to national or regional boundaries. Instead, scholars are increasingly exploring the interconnectedness of global and local influences on political systems. This shift in focus allows for a more nuanced understanding of how global trends and events impact local governance, as well as how local contexts shape global political dynamics.

Influence Of Current Events On Research Topics

The dynamic nature of politics means that current events often shape the research agenda in political science. From geopolitical shifts to social movements, contemporary events influence the choice of research topics and methodologies adopted by political science scholars. This responsiveness to real-time developments ensures that political science research remains relevant and engaged with the pressing issues of our time.

Emerging Trends In Political Science Research

In the dynamic field of political science research, new and innovative trends are constantly shaping the way scholars understand and analyze the complexities of global politics. As the world faces unprecedented challenges, emerging trends in political science research are shedding light on crucial areas such as environmental politics and sustainability, social justice and equality, and comparative politics and international relations. These evolving themes are providing unique avenues for exploration and understanding within the realm of political science.

Environmental Politics And Sustainability

Environmental politics and sustainability have become paramount concerns as societies grapple with the urgent need to address climate change and environmental degradation. Scholars are delving into the intricate connections between political systems, policies, and environmental sustainability, seeking to understand how governments and international organizations can effectively tackle these pressing issues. Emerging research topics include the role of political actors in promoting environmental conservation, the impact of global agreements on environmental governance, and the intersection between environmental policies and social equity.

Social Justice And Equality

The pursuit of social justice and equality has garnered significant attention in political science research. Emerging trends in this field encompass a wide spectrum of topics, including the examination of policies aimed at reducing inequality, the evaluation of political systems in fostering inclusive societies, and the role of grassroots movements in advancing social justice agendas. Moreover, scholars are exploring the impact of discrimination on political participation and the effectiveness of affirmative action programs in promoting equal representation in governance structures.

Comparative Politics And International Relations

Comparative politics and international relations remain integral areas of study within political science research. The evolving dynamics of global politics have prompted scholars to delve into comparative analyses of political systems, diplomatic relations, and transnational governance mechanisms. Emerging research in this domain encompasses diverse topics such as the influence of cultural factors on diplomatic negotiations, the role of non-state actors in international relations, and the impact of globalization on state sovereignty. Additionally, comparative studies on the effectiveness of different political systems in addressing global challenges have gained traction among researchers.

Exploring Contemporary Political Science Research Topics

In the ever-changing landscape of political science research, there are several contemporary topics that are gaining prominence due to their relevance in the modern political environment. These topics delve into the digital realm, the behavior and opinions of the public, and the analysis of governance and public policy. Here, we will explore these contemporary political science research topics in detail, shedding light on the latest areas of study and investigation in political science.

Digital Democracy And Political Participation

The digital revolution has significantly impacted political processes, creating new avenues for participation and engagement. In the realm of political science research, the study of digital democracy and political participation explores the impact of technology on political processes, the role of social media in shaping political discourse, and the implications of online platforms on citizen engagement. Researchers delve into the dynamics of digital democracy, analyzing the influence of digital tools on political participation and the ways in which they shape political outcomes. Highlighting the intersection of technology and governance, this area of study is pivotal in understanding the evolving nature of democracy in the digital age.

Political Behavior And Public Opinion

Political behavior and public opinion form the bedrock of political science research, delving into the intricacies of how individuals interact with the political system and form their opinions on various issues. Research in this area encompasses the study of voting behavior, political attitudes, and the factors influencing public opinion formation. Scholars investigate the impact of social, economic, and cultural factors on political behavior, drawing insights into the motivations behind individual and collective political actions. Understanding the nuances of political behavior and public opinion is crucial in deciphering the dynamics of political processes and the functioning of democratic societies.

Governance And Public Policy Analysis

Governance and public policy analysis constitute a significant focus in contemporary political science research, offering insights into the mechanisms of decision-making, policy implementation, and the evaluation of governmental actions. Researchers in this field analyze the structures and processes of governance, scrutinizing the role of institutions, policymakers, and stakeholders in shaping public policies. Moreover, the examination of public policy encompasses the assessment of policy effectiveness, the impact of policy decisions on various societal sectors, and the formulation of evidence-based recommendations for policy improvement. The study of governance and public policy analysis provides a comprehensive understanding of the complexities of governing systems and the implications of policy choices on diverse segments of society.

The Future Of Political Science Research

In the rapidly evolving landscape of political science research, the future holds great promise and presents new challenges. As advancements in technology and changes in societal expectations shape the direction of the field, political science researchers must adapt and innovate to address emerging issues and opportunities. In this article, we will explore key areas of development that are set to influence the future of political science research.

Advancements In Data Analysis And Artificial Intelligence

The proliferation of big data and the advent of artificial intelligence (AI) have revolutionized political science research. With the ability to process and analyze vast amounts of information, researchers can discern complex patterns and correlations that were previously inaccessible. The integration of AI into data analysis tools has significantly enhanced the efficiency and accuracy of research methodologies, enabling scholars to uncover new insights and perspectives. Machine learning algorithms, in particular, have the potential to revolutionize predictive modeling and scenario analysis in political science, offering valuable foresight into future political developments.

Ethical Considerations In Political Science Research

As the capabilities of technology expand, ethical considerations in political science research become increasingly pertinent. The collection and use of data, particularly personal and sensitive information, raise concerns regarding privacy, consent, and data protection. Researchers must navigate the ethical dimensions of their work, ensuring that their methods are transparent, respectful of human subjects, and aligned with ethical standards. Addressing ethical considerations in political science research is crucial to maintaining the integrity and credibility of the field amidst evolving ethical norms and legal frameworks.

Anticipated Areas Of Growth And Development

• Rise of computational political science, leveraging advanced computational methods to analyze political phenomena.
• Increased emphasis on interdisciplinary research, fostering collaborations between political science and other disciplines such as sociology, economics, and environmental studies.
• Integration of qualitative and quantitative research approaches, recognizing the complementary value of both methodologies in generating comprehensive insights.
• Exploration of global political dynamics, with a focus on understanding the interconnectedness of geopolitical events and power structures.

The anticipated areas of growth and development in political science research highlight the expanding scope and depth of the discipline. By embracing technological innovations, addressing ethical considerations, and exploring new avenues of inquiry, political science researchers are poised to contribute significantly to our understanding of political phenomena and their broader societal implications.

Frequently Asked Questions On Political Science Research Topics

What are some trending political science research topics.

Political science research topics that are currently trending include the impact of social media on political movements, the role of climate change in global politics, and the influence of populism on democracy.

How Can I Choose A Unique Political Science Research Topic?

To choose a unique political science research topic, consider focusing on niche areas or underexplored themes within political science. Look for interdisciplinary connections and seek inspiration from current events and emerging global issues.

What Are Some Research Methods For Political Science Topics?

Research methods for political science topics include qualitative and quantitative approaches, content analysis, case studies, surveys, and interviews. The choice of method depends on the specific research question and the nature of the topic being studied.

In considering political science research topics, it’s important to explore diverse areas like comparative politics, international relations, and public policy. These topics offer a wide range of avenues for exploration and analysis, providing ample opportunities for insightful research and academic inquiry.

By delving into these areas, scholars can contribute to a deeper understanding of complex political dynamics and help shape future policy and decision-making.

Related Post

Why did theodore roosevelt start his own political party: uncovering the motives, culture sociology definition : uncovering the intricacies, difference between psychology and sociology: unraveling the variances, assistant professor of political science mark lawrence schrad: expert insights, leave a reply cancel reply.

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Recent Post

How to vote on dream snaps: unlock the power of your voice, who was voted off in the survivor: the shocking elimination revealed, where to vote maui: your complete guide, breaking news: find out who was voted out of survivor last night, who got eliminated tonight on dancing with the stars: shocking results revealed, who got voted off dancing with stars: shocking eliminations.

Our passion lies in making the complex and fascinating world of political science accessible to learners of all levels, fostering a deep understanding of political dynamics, governance, and global affairs.

© 2023 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED​ BY - PoliticalScienceGuru

By joining our mailing list, you’re not just subscribing to a newsletter; you’re becoming part of the PoliticalScienceGuru.com family.

Explore your training options in 10 minutes Get Started

• Graduate Stories
• Partner Spotlights
• Bootcamp Prep
• Bootcamp Admissions
• University Bootcamps
• Coding Tools
• Software Engineering
• Web Development
• Data Science
• Tech Guides
• Tech Resources
• Career Advice
• Online Learning
• Internships
• Apprenticeships
• Tech Salaries
• Associate Degree
• Bachelor's Degree
• Master's Degree
• University Admissions
• Best Schools
• Certifications
• Bootcamp Financing
• Higher Ed Financing
• Scholarships
• Financial Aid
• Best Coding Bootcamps
• Best Online Bootcamps
• Best Web Design Bootcamps
• Best Data Science Bootcamps
• Best Technology Sales Bootcamps
• Best Data Analytics Bootcamps
• Best Cybersecurity Bootcamps
• Best Digital Marketing Bootcamps
• Los Angeles
• San Francisco
• Browse All Locations
• Digital Marketing
• Machine Learning
• See All Subjects
• Bootcamps 101
• Full-Stack Development
• Career Changes
• View all Career Discussions
• Mobile App Development
• Cybersecurity
• Product Management
• UX/UI Design
• What is a Coding Bootcamp?
• Are Coding Bootcamps Worth It?
• How to Choose a Coding Bootcamp
• Best Online Coding Bootcamps and Courses
• Best Free Bootcamps and Coding Training
• Coding Bootcamp vs. Community College
• Coding Bootcamp vs. Self-Learning
• Bootcamps vs. Certifications: Compared
• What Is a Coding Bootcamp Job Guarantee?
• How to Pay for Coding Bootcamp
• Ultimate Guide to Coding Bootcamp Loans
• Best Coding Bootcamp Scholarships and Grants
• Education Stipends for Coding Bootcamps
• Get Your Coding Bootcamp Sponsored by Your Employer
• GI Bill and Coding Bootcamps
• Tech Intevriews
• Our Enterprise Solution
• Connect With Us
• Publication
• Reskill America
• Partner With Us

• Resource Center
• Bachelor’s Degree
• Master’s Degree

The Top 10 Most Interesting Political Science Research Topics

Coming up with good political science research topics may seem like a daunting task. Whether you’re interested in foreign policy, international conflict, or immigration policy, it is worthwhile to take some time to research and find out which topics are currently relevant before diving into research. You want a topic that is manageable and meaningful. After all, you are going to invest a good deal of time and effort in answering the central questions of your project.

In this article, we will show you ten examples of political science research topics for bachelor’s degree students. We also show you how to craft political science research questions that work. With this list of currently relevant political science research paper topics, you can be sure you’ll work on something meaningful and relevant.

Find your bootcamp match

What makes a strong political science research topic.

A strong research topic is original and relevant. It builds on previous studies published by reputable sources. It’s broad enough to be relatable but narrow enough to be unique. To get some ideas, you can explore the most recent topics published in Cambridge University Press’s American Political Science Review . It covers all areas of political science, from American politics to foreign relations.

Ask teachers from your academic department what they are currently writing about. Talk to your academic advisor if you can’t find a strong topic. Finally, make sure that your topic follows the guidelines set by your teacher.

Tips for Choosing a Political Science Research Topic

• Pick a meaningful topic. The research will be more enjoyable if you find it personally interesting. For instance, if immigration policy is a topic of personal value to you, you can center your research topic around it and this will help you stay engaged in your research.
• Discuss research ideas with classmates. They can help you find insight from a fresh perspective.
• Make sure your topic has a manageable size. One of the major requirements for choosing a topic is making sure that it will be manageable. Explore some key questions in your chosen field until you narrow your own topic down to something you can take on successfully.
• Use reputable sources. Choose authoritative articles published in peer-reviewed journals. Make sure you choose the ones relevant to your topic, whether that is democratic governments, the political behavior of a particular group, or a particular authoritarian regime.
• Join the current scholarly debate. Make your topic part of cutting-edge research. Discussing things like current forms of government or current political events will help you ensure your chosen topic will contribute to salient issues of political theory as well as critical policy debates.

What’s the Difference Between a Research Topic and a Research Question?

A research topic is a focused area of study in a scientific field or subfield. The goal of the research question is to narrow down that area even further. By answering the research question, you contribute to understanding the topic. The research question guides your research and writing, leading you to make a contribution to that particular topic and field.

How to Create Strong Political Science Research Questions

Gather information on your topic to get familiar with the current research. Find an interesting aspect to explore. Identify the gaps in the research mentioned in articles about your topic. Now, try to find a question that would address that gap.

Start your question with what, why, when, or how. The question must be clear and focused. You can also use guides to develop a research question by narrowing the topic to help you get started.

Top 10 Political Science Research Paper Topics

1. building government capacity to address global environmental challenges.

Complex tradeoffs are part of environmental policy, especially in the 21st Century. Green technology investments can boost the economy and create jobs. But workers in the oil and coal industry will lose them. This is all part of an ongoing discussion about environmental protection and the political attitudes of different groups towards green policies.

The public will support climate policy only if the costs are fairly distributed. Governments have to generate transparent policies to earn the trust of the citizens. This controversial topic demands a good deal of research, an understanding of environmental policy, an analysis of policy outcomes, and the development of new political theories.

2. Influence of Social Movements and Advocacy Groups on Policymaking

The government often makes its policies behind closed doors. In response, social movements organize to get access to and take part in policymaking. Every representative democracy needs the participation of social movements and advocacy groups. They help to hold the American government accountable, ensuring the human rights of citizens are protected.

Social movements and advocacy groups have a powerful influence on public opinion, and can influence the political participation of specific groups. American politics has to consider their ideas to improve political attitudes. Political science researchers have to expand on this topic to understand collective action.

3. Effect of an Interdependent World on the Roles of Governments and Institutions

Many of the policy challenges at a domestic level are now global, and political leaders know this. Governments need policies to regulate institutions, promote international cooperation, and lessen political disputes. They need to train their workforce with a global mindset. This also has a direct impact on political campaigns and electoral politics.

As globalization influences the political development of all nations, government employees are now working on an international stage. They need knowledge of international relations to share knowledge and collaborate. Policymaking for an interdependent world is a relevant political science topic.

4. Prosperity and Equality Through Public Policy

The COVID-19 pandemic is challenging the financial stability of many families. Technological disruptions cause unexpected changes in the international markets. Clearly, we cannot take for granted the economic resilience of the country. The government uses economic policy to protect prosperity and equality. Economic development is a major topic in political science research.

5. Factors Influencing Policymaking Around Taxes, Regulation, and Trade

Tax policy affects economic development and social progress. Economic reform is part of the international conversation on the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development . Trade regulation and immigration policies are frequently discussed in political science research, making them a great topic for any aspiring political scientist.

6. Influence of Gender, Race, Class, and Other Aspects of Identity on Policymaking

Diversity and intersectionality are becoming necessary topics in modern politics. Educational institutions and public companies are adopting equity and inclusion goals. The expectations for incorporating diversity in policymaking are higher than ever. Policymaking to prevent discrimination and create the grounds for fair immigration policy is a highly relevant topic.

7. The Role of Government in Providing Affordable Healthcare

Universal Health Coverage (UHU) is a World Health Organization (WHO) initiative to provide global access to healthcare services. The United States has reaffirmed its commitment to achieving this goal.

The COVID-19 pandemic made clear the need for international cooperation in health. International relations theories have to change to make UHU possible. Global health policymaking is a pressing research topic in modern politics.

8. Mitigating Cyber Breaches And Security Challenges Through Policymaking

Countries are adopting cyber security strategies through policymaking. Some of them have a dedicated agency for cyber security. Worldwide, information and technology assets are growing in importance. Cyber security is now part of contemporary world politics and the economic development of nations.

Cyber regulation comes with a whole new set of policymaking challenges that contemporary world politics needs to tackle. It involves international cooperation and coordination. Policymaking to neutralize cyber threats is a growing topic in modern politics research.

9. Harnessing Data for Good Governance

Partnerships between public institutions and private companies facilitate the use of big data. This comes with several institutional challenges, like combining data sources. Regulating data access and addressing privacy concerns will need extensive policymaking. Modernizing data governance is a current topic in political science research.

10. Regulating Disinformation In the United States Through Public Policy

Americans are turning to social media and biased websites to make sense of politics. The proliferation of misinformation is fueling division and polarization, and can depress public confidence and discourage political participation. Regulating disinformation through public policy is becoming an urgent topic.

Regulating freedom of speech is not common in the American political tradition. Political scientists use cost-benefit analysis to find balanced solutions for these complex problems. There are growing opportunities for research on the topic of misinformation regulation and the role of government in the digital age.

Other Examples of Political Science Research Topics & Questions

Political science research topics.

• Ethnic Conflict Between Americans and Arab-Americans in the United States
• Telecommunications Policies in China
• The Supreme Court and Reproductive Rights
• The Evolution of Affirmative Action Initiatives
• The Development of a Constitutional Right of Privacy

Political Science Research Questions

• How can public leaders balance political realities and policy priorities?
• What developments in science and technology are changing political attitudes?
• Will public-private partnerships change the approach of government to public problems?
• How do policymakers navigate the tensions between private power and democratic values?
• How can public policymaking integrate a human rights perspective?

Choosing the Right Political Science Research Topic

It is important to know how to choose a research topic if you want to pursue a political science degree . The right political science research topic is engaging and manageable. Choose a topic that is interesting to you. It will keep you engaged and motivated during the research process. Keep in mind that your initial research topic might change. As your expertise grows, your topic will become more precise.

Political Science Research Topics FAQ

Political science is a field of knowledge that studies political phenomena. American politics, political theories, and international politics are common topics in political science. Political scientists use comparative politics and policy analysis to improve public problems.

Political science research is important because it improves public policies and can lead to necessary legal reform. It helps citizens understand American politics and foreign policy issues. Research in political science improves international cooperation and global environmental policies, and helps us make sense of major world events.

Yes, you can get a political science degree online. You can get a bachelor’s or a master’s degree in political science without going to college. There are several online political science degree options from good universities. With a Graduate Equivalency Degree (GED), you can get a political science associate degree in two years.

"Career Karma entered my life when I needed it most and quickly helped me match with a bootcamp. Two months after graduating, I found my dream job that aligned with my values and goals in life!"

Venus, Software Engineer at Rockbot

With a degree in political science, you can get a job as a legislative assistant or a campaign manager. Social media managers for political institutions are also in demand. With a graduate degree in political science, you can become a policy analyst or an urban planner. Political scientists can work in either academia or the private sector.

About us: Career Karma is a platform designed to help job seekers find, research, and connect with job training programs to advance their careers. Learn about the CK publication .

What's Next?

Get matched with top bootcamps

Ask a question to our community, take our careers quiz.

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

• Skip to search box
• Skip to main content

Princeton University Library

Politics research guide, survey the literature, sources for paper ideas, get statistical help, pol course guides.

• Find Books & Articles
• American Politics
• Conflict & Security
• Demographic & Socioeconomic
• Economic & Financial
• Elections & Voting
• Identities (Ethnicity, Gender, Religion, etc.)
• Media & Political Communication
• Migration and Refugees
• Political & Governance Indicators
• Surveys & Public Opinion
• Collect and Cite Your Sources
• POL Dept. Orientation Resources

Politics Librarian

Topical Reviews

• Oxford Bibliographies: Political Science This link opens in a new window Hundreds of annotated guides to recent scholarship in topics across all subfields of political science and international relations.
• Oxford Research Encyclopedia: Politics Provides up-to-date, peer-reviewed surveys of major topics, theories, and research questions across all areas of political science.
• Oxford Research Encyclopedia: International Studies These peer-reviewed articles cover major topics, theories, and research questions across many subfields of international studies/international relations, like conflict, security, human rights, diplomacy, etc. This is the follow-up to the International Studies Association's International Studies Encyclopedia Online .
• Oxford Handbooks Online These handbooks provide a great source for authoritative reviews of research across political science, political theory, and related disciplines. Most of these we also have in print.
• Routledge Handbooks Online This link opens in a new window These handbooks provide overviews current research and future trends in the social sciences and humanities, with a strong collection in politics, particularly international relations and area studies.
• Annual Review of Political Science This link opens in a new window Comprehensive review of the literature in political science. Can help students identify major tends in the field as well as find general overviews of research in specific subject areas of politics.
• Elgar Research Handbooks Online Large collection of handbooks on topics across political science and public policy.

Political Theory Sources

• Cambridge Collections Online This link opens in a new window Searchable full text access to the complete Cambridge Companions to literature, philosophy, religion, and classics.
• Philosophy Compass This link opens in a new window Peer-reviewed survey articles on contemporary work in philosophy.
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Authoritative source of full-text articles with current bibliographies on many topics of philosophy.
• Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Provides full-text articles with current bibliographies on virtually every aspect of philosophy.
• Encyclopedia of Political Theory - Mark Bevir, ed. Thorough discussions of a diverse range of political theories and concepts.
• Past Masters This link opens in a new window Searchable full-text works in several languages from major philosophers and theologians.

Major Encyclopedias Covering the Whole Discipline

• SAGE Handbook of Political Science Published in 2020, this handbook provides a thorough overview of the discipline. Each of the 92 chapters gives a comprehensive overview of major topics within each subfield. Thematic sections include, Political Theory, Methods, Political Sociology, Comparative Politics, Public Policies and Administration, International Relations, and Major Challenges for Politics and Political Science in the 21st Century.
• International Encyclopedia of Political Science (2011) Covers all aspects of politics, from political theory and methodology to political sociology, comparative politics, public policies, and international relations.
• The Encyclopedia of Political Science Covers all areas of political science and provides medium-length entries with short bibliographies for further reading. Created under the direction of the American Political Science Association. Also in print at JA61 .E513 2011 (Trustee Reading Room Reference).
• International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.) This link opens in a new window Covering 26 volumes in print, this major encyclopedia aims to capture the "state of the art" of the social and behavioral sciences, expanding its focus to include related biological fields, such as evolutionary science, genetics, cognitive neuroscience, psychiatry, and health. Topics include anthropology, archaeology, demography, economics, education, geography, history, law, linguistics, philosophy, political science, psychiatry, psychology, and sociology.
• CQ Researcher This link opens in a new window Offers reports and analysis on a variety of current policy issues. Includes background information, pro/con debates, and a chronology, plus resources for additional research.
• Facts On File Issues and Controversies This link opens in a new window Explore current issues and events with in-depth articles made to inspire thought-provoking debates. Topic pages feature the latest related news coverage from Reuters® as well as a variety of helpful background information, from the key pro/con arguments to chronologies of related events to primary documents. Updated weekly. 1995–present.
• World News Digest (Facts on File) This link opens in a new window Digest of major news stories around the world. 1940+

Need statistical help?

Firestone Library's Data & Statistical Services section has 2 full-time consultants and a group of advanced graduate students who can help you! See the DSS website to make an appointment with one of the consultants or find the schedule for their virtual drop-in hours.

If you're in the social sciences, the Politics Department's Program for Quantitative and Analytical Political Science also provides a Consulting Service to advise on research design, statistics, formal theory, and computational questions arising from your research.

The library also provides numerous training workshops on R, Stata, visualization tools, and GIS software.

• POL 324: Congressional Politics by Jeremy Darrington Last Updated Dec 5, 2023 16 views this year
• Next: Find Books & Articles >>
• Last Updated: Mar 7, 2024 3:53 PM
• URL: https://libguides.princeton.edu/politics

• Search Menu
• Browse content in Arts and Humanities
• Browse content in Archaeology
• Anglo-Saxon and Medieval Archaeology
• Archaeological Methodology and Techniques
• Archaeology by Region
• Archaeology of Religion
• Archaeology of Trade and Exchange
• Biblical Archaeology
• Contemporary and Public Archaeology
• Environmental Archaeology
• Historical Archaeology
• History and Theory of Archaeology
• Industrial Archaeology
• Landscape Archaeology
• Mortuary Archaeology
• Prehistoric Archaeology
• Underwater Archaeology
• Urban Archaeology
• Zooarchaeology
• Browse content in Architecture
• Architectural Structure and Design
• History of Architecture
• Residential and Domestic Buildings
• Theory of Architecture
• Browse content in Art
• Art Subjects and Themes
• History of Art
• Industrial and Commercial Art
• Theory of Art
• Biographical Studies
• Byzantine Studies
• Browse content in Classical Studies
• Classical History
• Classical Philosophy
• Classical Mythology
• Classical Literature
• Classical Reception
• Classical Art and Architecture
• Classical Oratory and Rhetoric
• Greek and Roman Epigraphy
• Greek and Roman Law
• Greek and Roman Papyrology
• Greek and Roman Archaeology
• Late Antiquity
• Religion in the Ancient World
• Digital Humanities
• Browse content in History
• Colonialism and Imperialism
• Diplomatic History
• Environmental History
• Genealogy, Heraldry, Names, and Honours
• Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing
• Historical Geography
• History by Period
• History of Emotions
• History of Agriculture
• History of Education
• History of Gender and Sexuality
• Industrial History
• Intellectual History
• International History
• Labour History
• Legal and Constitutional History
• Local and Family History
• Maritime History
• Military History
• National Liberation and Post-Colonialism
• Oral History
• Political History
• Public History
• Regional and National History
• Revolutions and Rebellions
• Slavery and Abolition of Slavery
• Social and Cultural History
• Theory, Methods, and Historiography
• Urban History
• World History
• Browse content in Language Teaching and Learning
• Language Learning (Specific Skills)
• Language Teaching Theory and Methods
• Browse content in Linguistics
• Applied Linguistics
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Computational Linguistics
• Forensic Linguistics
• Grammar, Syntax and Morphology
• Historical and Diachronic Linguistics
• History of English
• Language Acquisition
• Language Evolution
• Language Reference
• Language Variation
• Language Families
• Lexicography
• Linguistic Anthropology
• Linguistic Theories
• Linguistic Typology
• Phonetics and Phonology
• Psycholinguistics
• Sociolinguistics
• Translation and Interpretation
• Writing Systems
• Browse content in Literature
• Bibliography
• Children's Literature Studies
• Literary Studies (Asian)
• Literary Studies (European)
• Literary Studies (Eco-criticism)
• Literary Studies (Romanticism)
• Literary Studies (American)
• Literary Studies (Modernism)
• Literary Studies - World
• Literary Studies (1500 to 1800)
• Literary Studies (19th Century)
• Literary Studies (20th Century onwards)
• Literary Studies (African American Literature)
• Literary Studies (British and Irish)
• Literary Studies (Early and Medieval)
• Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers)
• Literary Studies (Gender Studies)
• Literary Studies (Graphic Novels)
• Literary Studies (History of the Book)
• Literary Studies (Plays and Playwrights)
• Literary Studies (Poetry and Poets)
• Literary Studies (Postcolonial Literature)
• Literary Studies (Queer Studies)
• Literary Studies (Science Fiction)
• Literary Studies (Travel Literature)
• Literary Studies (War Literature)
• Literary Studies (Women's Writing)
• Literary Theory and Cultural Studies
• Mythology and Folklore
• Shakespeare Studies and Criticism
• Browse content in Media Studies
• Browse content in Music
• Applied Music
• Dance and Music
• Ethics in Music
• Ethnomusicology
• Gender and Sexuality in Music
• Medicine and Music
• Music Cultures
• Music and Religion
• Music and Media
• Music and Culture
• Music Education and Pedagogy
• Music Theory and Analysis
• Musical Scores, Lyrics, and Libretti
• Musical Structures, Styles, and Techniques
• Musicology and Music History
• Performance Practice and Studies
• Race and Ethnicity in Music
• Sound Studies
• Browse content in Performing Arts
• Browse content in Philosophy
• Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
• Epistemology
• Feminist Philosophy
• History of Western Philosophy
• Metaphysics
• Moral Philosophy
• Non-Western Philosophy
• Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Language
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Perception
• Philosophy of Action
• Philosophy of Law
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic
• Practical Ethics
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Browse content in Religion
• Biblical Studies
• Christianity
• East Asian Religions
• History of Religion
• Judaism and Jewish Studies
• Qumran Studies
• Religion and Education
• Religion and Health
• Religion and Politics
• Religion and Science
• Religion and Law
• Religion and Art, Literature, and Music
• Religious Studies
• Browse content in Society and Culture
• Cookery, Food, and Drink
• Cultural Studies
• Customs and Traditions
• Ethical Issues and Debates
• Hobbies, Games, Arts and Crafts
• Lifestyle, Home, and Garden
• Natural world, Country Life, and Pets
• Popular Beliefs and Controversial Knowledge
• Sports and Outdoor Recreation
• Technology and Society
• Travel and Holiday
• Visual Culture
• Browse content in Law
• Arbitration
• Browse content in Company and Commercial Law
• Commercial Law
• Company Law
• Browse content in Comparative Law
• Systems of Law
• Competition Law
• Browse content in Constitutional and Administrative Law
• Government Powers
• Judicial Review
• Local Government Law
• Military and Defence Law
• Parliamentary and Legislative Practice
• Construction Law
• Contract Law
• Browse content in Criminal Law
• Criminal Procedure
• Criminal Evidence Law
• Sentencing and Punishment
• Employment and Labour Law
• Environment and Energy Law
• Browse content in Financial Law
• Banking Law
• Insolvency Law
• History of Law
• Human Rights and Immigration
• Intellectual Property Law
• Browse content in International Law
• Private International Law and Conflict of Laws
• Public International Law
• IT and Communications Law
• Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law
• Law and Politics
• Law and Society
• Browse content in Legal System and Practice
• Courts and Procedure
• Legal Skills and Practice
• Primary Sources of Law
• Regulation of Legal Profession
• Medical and Healthcare Law
• Browse content in Policing
• Criminal Investigation and Detection
• Police and Security Services
• Police Procedure and Law
• Police Regional Planning
• Browse content in Property Law
• Personal Property Law
• Study and Revision
• Terrorism and National Security Law
• Browse content in Trusts Law
• Wills and Probate or Succession
• Browse content in Medicine and Health
• Browse content in Allied Health Professions
• Arts Therapies
• Clinical Science
• Dietetics and Nutrition
• Occupational Therapy
• Operating Department Practice
• Physiotherapy
• Radiography
• Speech and Language Therapy
• Browse content in Anaesthetics
• General Anaesthesia
• Neuroanaesthesia
• Browse content in Clinical Medicine
• Acute Medicine
• Cardiovascular Medicine
• Clinical Genetics
• Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
• Dermatology
• Endocrinology and Diabetes
• Gastroenterology
• Genito-urinary Medicine
• Geriatric Medicine
• Infectious Diseases
• Medical Toxicology
• Medical Oncology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Medicine
• Rehabilitation Medicine
• Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonology
• Rheumatology
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports and Exercise Medicine
• Clinical Neuroscience
• Community Medical Services
• Critical Care
• Emergency Medicine
• Forensic Medicine
• Haematology
• History of Medicine
• Browse content in Medical Dentistry
• Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
• Paediatric Dentistry
• Restorative Dentistry and Orthodontics
• Surgical Dentistry
• Browse content in Medical Skills
• Clinical Skills
• Communication Skills
• Nursing Skills
• Surgical Skills
• Medical Ethics
• Medical Statistics and Methodology
• Browse content in Neurology
• Clinical Neurophysiology
• Neuropathology
• Nursing Studies
• Browse content in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
• Gynaecology
• Occupational Medicine
• Ophthalmology
• Otolaryngology (ENT)
• Browse content in Paediatrics
• Neonatology
• Browse content in Pathology
• Chemical Pathology
• Clinical Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics
• Histopathology
• Medical Microbiology and Virology
• Patient Education and Information
• Browse content in Pharmacology
• Psychopharmacology
• Browse content in Popular Health
• Caring for Others
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Self-help and Personal Development
• Browse content in Preclinical Medicine
• Cell Biology
• Molecular Biology and Genetics
• Reproduction, Growth and Development
• Primary Care
• Professional Development in Medicine
• Browse content in Psychiatry
• Addiction Medicine
• Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Learning Disabilities
• Old Age Psychiatry
• Psychotherapy
• Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology
• Epidemiology
• Public Health
• Browse content in Radiology
• Clinical Radiology
• Interventional Radiology
• Nuclear Medicine
• Radiation Oncology
• Reproductive Medicine
• Browse content in Surgery
• Cardiothoracic Surgery
• Gastro-intestinal and Colorectal Surgery
• General Surgery
• Neurosurgery
• Paediatric Surgery
• Peri-operative Care
• Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
• Surgical Oncology
• Transplant Surgery
• Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery
• Vascular Surgery
• Browse content in Science and Mathematics
• Browse content in Biological Sciences
• Aquatic Biology
• Biochemistry
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
• Developmental Biology
• Ecology and Conservation
• Evolutionary Biology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Microbiology
• Molecular and Cell Biology
• Natural History
• Plant Sciences and Forestry
• Research Methods in Life Sciences
• Structural Biology
• Systems Biology
• Zoology and Animal Sciences
• Browse content in Chemistry
• Analytical Chemistry
• Computational Chemistry
• Crystallography
• Environmental Chemistry
• Industrial Chemistry
• Inorganic Chemistry
• Materials Chemistry
• Medicinal Chemistry
• Mineralogy and Gems
• Organic Chemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Polymer Chemistry
• Study and Communication Skills in Chemistry
• Theoretical Chemistry
• Browse content in Computer Science
• Artificial Intelligence
• Computer Architecture and Logic Design
• Game Studies
• Human-Computer Interaction
• Mathematical Theory of Computation
• Programming Languages
• Software Engineering
• Systems Analysis and Design
• Virtual Reality
• Browse content in Computing
• Business Applications
• Computer Security
• Computer Games
• Computer Networking and Communications
• Digital Lifestyle
• Graphical and Digital Media Applications
• Operating Systems
• Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography
• Atmospheric Sciences
• Environmental Geography
• Geology and the Lithosphere
• Maps and Map-making
• Meteorology and Climatology
• Oceanography and Hydrology
• Palaeontology
• Physical Geography and Topography
• Regional Geography
• Soil Science
• Urban Geography
• Browse content in Engineering and Technology
• Agriculture and Farming
• Biological Engineering
• Civil Engineering, Surveying, and Building
• Electronics and Communications Engineering
• Energy Technology
• Engineering (General)
• Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology
• History of Engineering and Technology
• Mechanical Engineering and Materials
• Technology of Industrial Chemistry
• Transport Technology and Trades
• Browse content in Environmental Science
• Applied Ecology (Environmental Science)
• Conservation of the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Environmental Sustainability
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Environmental Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Environmental Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environmental Science)
• Nuclear Issues (Environmental Science)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Environmental Science)
• History of Science and Technology
• Browse content in Materials Science
• Ceramics and Glasses
• Composite Materials
• Metals, Alloying, and Corrosion
• Nanotechnology
• Browse content in Mathematics
• Applied Mathematics
• Biomathematics and Statistics
• History of Mathematics
• Mathematical Education
• Mathematical Finance
• Mathematical Analysis
• Numerical and Computational Mathematics
• Probability and Statistics
• Pure Mathematics
• Browse content in Neuroscience
• Cognition and Behavioural Neuroscience
• Development of the Nervous System
• Disorders of the Nervous System
• History of Neuroscience
• Invertebrate Neurobiology
• Molecular and Cellular Systems
• Neuroendocrinology and Autonomic Nervous System
• Neuroscientific Techniques
• Sensory and Motor Systems
• Browse content in Physics
• Astronomy and Astrophysics
• Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics
• Biological and Medical Physics
• Classical Mechanics
• Computational Physics
• Condensed Matter Physics
• Electromagnetism, Optics, and Acoustics
• History of Physics
• Mathematical and Statistical Physics
• Measurement Science
• Nuclear Physics
• Particles and Fields
• Plasma Physics
• Quantum Physics
• Relativity and Gravitation
• Semiconductor and Mesoscopic Physics
• Browse content in Psychology
• Affective Sciences
• Clinical Psychology
• Cognitive Psychology
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Criminal and Forensic Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational Psychology
• Evolutionary Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems in Psychology
• Music Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational Psychology
• Psychological Assessment and Testing
• Psychology of Human-Technology Interaction
• Psychology Professional Development and Training
• Research Methods in Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Browse content in Social Sciences
• Browse content in Anthropology
• Anthropology of Religion
• Human Evolution
• Medical Anthropology
• Physical Anthropology
• Regional Anthropology
• Social and Cultural Anthropology
• Theory and Practice of Anthropology
• Browse content in Business and Management
• Business Strategy
• Business Ethics
• Business History
• Business and Government
• Business and Technology
• Business and the Environment
• Comparative Management
• Corporate Governance
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Entrepreneurship
• Health Management
• Human Resource Management
• Industrial and Employment Relations
• Industry Studies
• Information and Communication Technologies
• International Business
• Knowledge Management
• Management and Management Techniques
• Operations Management
• Organizational Theory and Behaviour
• Pensions and Pension Management
• Public and Nonprofit Management
• Strategic Management
• Supply Chain Management
• Browse content in Criminology and Criminal Justice
• Criminal Justice
• Criminology
• Forms of Crime
• International and Comparative Criminology
• Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
• Development Studies
• Browse content in Economics
• Agricultural, Environmental, and Natural Resource Economics
• Asian Economics
• Behavioural Finance
• Behavioural Economics and Neuroeconomics
• Econometrics and Mathematical Economics
• Economic Systems
• Economic History
• Economic Methodology
• Economic Development and Growth
• Financial Markets
• Financial Institutions and Services
• General Economics and Teaching
• Health, Education, and Welfare
• History of Economic Thought
• International Economics
• Labour and Demographic Economics
• Law and Economics
• Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
• Microeconomics
• Public Economics
• Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics
• Welfare Economics
• Browse content in Education
• Adult Education and Continuous Learning
• Care and Counselling of Students
• Early Childhood and Elementary Education
• Educational Equipment and Technology
• Educational Strategies and Policy
• Higher and Further Education
• Organization and Management of Education
• Philosophy and Theory of Education
• Schools Studies
• Secondary Education
• Teaching of a Specific Subject
• Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs
• Teaching Skills and Techniques
• Browse content in Environment
• Applied Ecology (Social Science)
• Climate Change
• Conservation of the Environment (Social Science)
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Social Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environment)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Social Science)
• Browse content in Human Geography
• Cultural Geography
• Economic Geography
• Political Geography
• Browse content in Interdisciplinary Studies
• Communication Studies
• Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences
• Browse content in Politics
• African Politics
• Asian Politics
• Chinese Politics
• Comparative Politics
• Conflict Politics
• Elections and Electoral Studies
• Environmental Politics
• European Union
• Foreign Policy
• Gender and Politics
• Human Rights and Politics
• Indian Politics
• International Relations
• International Organization (Politics)
• International Political Economy
• Irish Politics
• Latin American Politics
• Middle Eastern Politics
• Political Methodology
• Political Communication
• Political Philosophy
• Political Sociology
• Political Behaviour
• Political Economy
• Political Institutions
• Political Theory
• Politics and Law
• Public Administration
• Public Policy
• Quantitative Political Methodology
• Regional Political Studies
• Russian Politics
• Security Studies
• State and Local Government
• UK Politics
• US Politics
• Browse content in Regional and Area Studies
• African Studies
• Asian Studies
• East Asian Studies
• Japanese Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Middle Eastern Studies
• Native American Studies
• Scottish Studies
• Browse content in Research and Information
• Research Methods
• Browse content in Social Work
• Addictions and Substance Misuse
• Adoption and Fostering
• Care of the Elderly
• Child and Adolescent Social Work
• Couple and Family Social Work
• Developmental and Physical Disabilities Social Work
• Direct Practice and Clinical Social Work
• Emergency Services
• Human Behaviour and the Social Environment
• International and Global Issues in Social Work
• Mental and Behavioural Health
• Social Justice and Human Rights
• Social Policy and Advocacy
• Social Work and Crime and Justice
• Social Work Macro Practice
• Social Work Practice Settings
• Social Work Research and Evidence-based Practice
• Welfare and Benefit Systems
• Browse content in Sociology
• Childhood Studies
• Community Development
• Comparative and Historical Sociology
• Economic Sociology
• Gender and Sexuality
• Gerontology and Ageing
• Health, Illness, and Medicine
• Marriage and the Family
• Migration Studies
• Occupations, Professions, and Work
• Organizations
• Population and Demography
• Race and Ethnicity
• Social Theory
• Social Movements and Social Change
• Social Research and Statistics
• Social Stratification, Inequality, and Mobility
• Sociology of Religion
• Sociology of Education
• Sport and Leisure
• Urban and Rural Studies
• Browse content in Warfare and Defence
• Defence Strategy, Planning, and Research
• Land Forces and Warfare
• Military Administration
• Military Life and Institutions
• Naval Forces and Warfare
• Other Warfare and Defence Issues
• Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution
• Weapons and Equipment

• < Previous chapter
• Next chapter >

28 Quantitative Approaches

Department of Political Science, University of Pennsylvania

Jon Pevehouse is Professor of Political Science at the University of Wisconsin.

• Published: 02 September 2009
• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions Icon Permissions

This article surveys quantitative research on international relations, tracking its development and assessing the contribution that this body of literature has made. The aim is to analyze how quantitative work has informed some key debates in the field of international relations. It concludes with three observations about the use of these methods. First, quantitative analyses are now increasingly common in the field. The use of statistical techniques started during the Cold War, but the end of the superpower rivalry corresponded with a sharp increase in both the amount of quantitative research and the topics on which this research focused. Secondly, concomitant to the general rise of statistical approaches in the discipline and the end of the Cold War, researchers became increasingly interested in the roles of domestic politics and international institutions in shaping global outcomes. Thirdly, and most importantly, while some continue to criticize quantitative approaches as atheoretical, statistical work in the field of international relations has advanced our empirical understanding and has pushed theoretical boundaries.

Over the past half‐century, there has been a substantial rise in the amount of quantitative research conducted in the field of international relations. The range of issue areas covered in this research has also expanded. Whereas early statistical research in international relations focused primarily on international security— especially the causes and consequences of war—more recent work has addressed a remarkably wide array of topics and has shed considerable light on (as well as generated) some of the most heated debates in the field.

The purpose of this chapter is to survey quantitative research on international relations, tracking its development and assessing the contribution that this body of literature has made. We make no pretense of offering a comprehensive survey of this literature; nor do we attempt to explain particular statistical techniques. Rather, we aim to analyze how quantitative work has informed some key debates in the field of international relations.

1 Why Use Quantitative Techniques to Study International Relations?

There are a variety of general reasons why researchers have relied on statistical techniques to study international relations (on these issues see, e.g., Bueno de Mesquita 1985 ; Braumoeller and Sartori 2004 ). First, these techniques are especially useful when analyzing a large number of observations. Many key questions in international relations involve comparisons across the global system at different points in time; others involve comparisons across different regions or countries. Consequently, empirical research in international relations often entails the analysis of large data‐sets. Secondly, scholars often wish to make generalizations about global affairs based on a set of cases. Statistical research facilitates these inferences about the broader population through the analysis of representative samples and the laws of probability.

Thirdly, various statistical techniques allow researchers to assess the direction and the strength of relationships. For the purposes of testing theories, it is obviously important to understand whether the key independent variable(s) specified by a theory covary with the dependent variable. Quantitative techniques can help researchers gauge the extent of such covariation. These techniques can also help address the directionality of causation between an independent variable and the dependent variable, ensuring that any observed effect of an independent variable on the dependent variables does not actually stem from the dependent variable's influence on the independent variable. Furthermore, these techniques can shed light on the magnitude of an independent variable's impact on the dependent variable, a very important issue that is often given short shrift. Fourthly, and related, certain quantitative methods are well suited to testing competing explanations of a given outcome. Multivariate models, for example, allow researchers to compare the effects of factors emphasized in competing theories. These models also allow researchers to account for the effects of variables that could be related to both the core independent variable(s) and the dependent variable, thereby reducing the likelihood of observing a spurious correlation between them.

Despite these and other advantages, however, quantitative methods also have well‐known limitations. Critics have charged that the variables included in statistical models sometimes lack internal or external validity. They have argued that existing measures of some central concepts—such as political power, conflict, interests, and preferences—are crude at best and inaccurate at worst. Others contend that important variables in certain international relations theories—for example, norms or ideas—cannot be measured at all, thus rendering quantitative tests of these theories impossible. Critics also charge that quantitative tests in the field of international relations sometimes violate key statistical assumptions, thereby casting doubt on the results generated by these tests. Finally, various observers maintain that some quantitative studies are not firmly grounded in international relations theories, and that they focus too heavily on establishing whether variables are correlated without paying enough attention to the underlying causes of any such correlation.

Over time, researchers have paid increasing attention to many of these critiques, attempting to improve measurement techniques, conduct sensitivity analyses, and better link theory to statistical models. Moreover, while researchers should always be sensitive to measurement issues, these are not concerns relevant only to quantitative research. All empirical analysis, whether quantitative or qualitative, requires the operationalization and measurement of concepts and variables. One advantage of quantitative research is that judgments about measurement tend to be especially transparent and replicable. If a scholar disagrees with a coding or measurement scheme, he or she can readily replicate and adjust that scheme accordingly.

2 Quantitative Research on International Relations during the Cold War

Quantitative research in the field of international relations has been characterized by a number of trends. First, most of the early quantitative work in the field focused on international security, largely as a result of the discipline's preoccupation with issues involving the cold war. More recently, quantitative research has covered a much broader array of topics, particularly those related to the international political economy and international institutions. Secondly, much of the initial quantitative literature was systemic in orientation: It treated states as unitary actors and paid little attention to domestic politics. Both of these trends began to change near the end of the cold war, an event that contributed to broadening the range of issues that have been analyzed using quantitative techniques.

Until about a half‐century ago, quantitative research on international relations was virtually nonexistent. That changed with Karl Deutsch's pioneering work on integration and other topics (e.g. Deutsch et al. 1957 ) and with the advent of J. David Singer's Correlates of War (COW) Project. The latter research effort was launched in the early 1960s. Since then, it has spawned hundreds of quantitative studies of international relations. During the first few decades of its existence, the COW Project relied on relatively simple bivariate and multivariate techniques to uncover patterns in war, as well as other aspects of international security. The history of this project and its contributions to the study of international relations have been documented elsewhere, so we will not address these issues here ( Vasquez 1987 ; Singer 1990 ). Nevertheless, it is worth noting that many of the studies we take up in this chapter rely on data generated by the COW Project.

Much of this research project focused on testing hypotheses drawn from realist theories of international relations (on realist theories, see Waltz 1979 ; Jervis 1999 ). In keeping with this realist focus, quantitative research during the cold war was largely systemic in orientation and tended to treat states as unitary actors. 1 Within this literature, analyses of arms racing were particularly influential. Indeed, one of the pioneering quantitative works in the field of international relations addressed the link between arms races and war. In Statistics of Deadly Quarrels , Lewis Richardson (1960) —a meteorologist by training—attempted to model the circumstances under which countries engage in arms races that spiral out of control and the conditions under which countries grow weary of such competition, resulting in a peaceful resolution. Spurred by interest in the growing pace and intensity of the cold war arms race, scholars produced a sizeable body of statistical work that adapted Richardson's basic model to investigate military spending as well as more general patterns of conflict and cooperation among the major powers (Goldstein and Freeman 1990) .

Many systemic theories argue that patterns of global outcomes are shaped by the structure of the international system and that variations in this structure occur when the global distribution of power changes. Owing in part to the influential work of Kenneth Waltz (1979) , quantitative researchers often measure the global distribution of power in terms of polarity—that is, whether one (hegemonic or unipolar), two (bipolar), or more than two (multipolar) particularly powerful states exist. A large portion of the quantitative work on this issue has focused on resolving long‐standing debates about whether polarity influences the outbreak of international war. However, quantitative studies have generated no consensus on either the strength or the nature of this relationship ( Levy 1984 ; Hopf 1991 ; Mansfield 1994 ). In part, these disagreements stem from differences in how polarity is defined and measured, illustrating why it is important to pay careful attention to whether empirical results are sensitive to the measurement and operationalization of key variables.

Polarity, however, is not the only dimension of the system's structure. Another dimension is the concentration of power in the system, which is determined by the number of major powers and the relative inequality of power among these states (Singer, Bremer, and Stuckey 1972) . Focusing on concentration rather than polarity has a number of advantages (Mansfield 1994) , and various efforts have been made to assess the relationship between concentration and the outbreak of war. In a review of this literature, Randolph Siverson and Michael Sullivan (1983) suggest that a low level of concentration (that is, a more uniform distribution of power) is associated with more conflict. More recently, Edward Mansfield (1994) has found the relationship to have an inverted U‐shape: at both low and high levels of concentration, major‐power war is least likely to occur. At intermediate levels of concentration, such wars occur most frequently.

In addition to the system's structure, realist theories have placed a heavy emphasis on political—military alliances. Numerous cold war‐era quantitative studies attempted to link the creation, operation, cohesiveness, and dissolution of alliances to inter‐state conflict. In one of the first studies of this sort, J. David Singer and Melvin Small (1968) concluded that the relationship between alliances and war was conditional on the time period analyzed—increases in the number of alliances correlated with peace in the nineteenth century, but with war in the twentieth century. Later research by Siverson and Sullivan (1983) found that the effects of alliances on war depend on whether the focus is on major or minor powers. In a review of research conducted in the COW Project, John Vasquez (1987) argues that alliances seem to be associated with war, but not causally. The latest wave of quantitative research on this topic has distinguished between different types of alliances. Brett Ashley Leeds (2003) , for example, shows that whether the alliance agreement provides for the defense of members, increases an aggressive member's offensive capabilities, or guarantees neutrality in the event of hostilities influences whether it deters or encourages aggression. Defense pacts tend to inhibit conflict, whereas offensive and neutrality agreements tend to promote belligerence.

While this review is not meant to be exhaustive, it does suggest some features of the early quantitative literature: acceptance of the unitary actor assumption, an emphasis on structural theories, and a focus on security concerns. Moreover, in each of these areas of research, initial results yielded considerable debate. These disagreements led researchers to refine the measures and tests that were used, and to focus on the particular conditions under which a theory holds. In this way, quantitative analysis has advanced various theoretical debates in the field.

2.1 International Political Economy

While many quantitative studies during the cold war addressed security issues, a handful of studies began to analyze systemic theories of the international political economy. Part of that literature focused on testing hegemonic stability theory, which holds that the relatively liberal international economy that existed during much of the nineteenth century and after the Second World War is attributable to the power preponderance of Great Britain during the former era and the United States during the latter ( Kindleberger 1973 ; Gilpin 1987 ).

In an effort to test this theory, a number of statistical studies have been conducted, but the results have been far from uniform. John Conybeare (1983) , for example, evaluated the relationship between the international distribution of power and nominal tariff levels on manufactured goods in 1902 and in 1971, controlling for a host of economic, political, and military factors. He found little evidence that power relations affect national tariff levels, and therefore concluded that hegemonic stability theory does not provide an adequate explanation of trade policy. Similarly, Timothy McKeown (1991) conducted a time‐series analysis of the relationship between variables associated with hegemony and the ratio of imports to national income for a set of advanced industrial states during the period from 1880 to 1989. Measuring the distribution of power using several variables, McKeown found only a modest influence of these measures on the ratio of imports to national income, leading him to share Conybeare's skepticism about the explanatory power of hegemony stability theory.

Other studies, however, have found more support for the view that hegemony affects the global trading system. For example, Robert Pahre (1999) distinguishes between periods of benevolent and malevolent hegemony. He finds that hegemony generally has a malign effect on the international political economy. In addition, hegemons having more foes than friends tend to be benevolent, but malevolent hegemony can induce cooperative behavior on the part of the remaining states in the international system.

Finally, Mansfield (1994) analyzes the effects of hegemony and the concentration of capabilities on the level of global trade as a percentage of total global production from 1850 to 1965. He finds that whether hegemony promotes global trade depends heavily on how it is defined and measured. Furthermore, there is a U‐shaped relationship between the concentration of capabilities and global trade. The ratio of global trade to global production is highest when the level of concentration is both relatively high and relatively low, whereas this ratio is lowest when concentration is at an intermediate level.

In addition to analyzing the effects of hegemony, quantitative research on the international political economy during the cold war and its immediate aftermath also focused on the political economy of national security. One strand of research addressed the influence of political—military alliances on trade patterns. Central to the effects of alliances on trade are the efficiency gains from overseas commerce, which increase each trade partner's national income and can be used to augment each state's military power. Joanne Gowa (1994) argues that states can address the security implications of foreign commerce by trading more freely with their allies than with their (actual or potential) adversaries. To test these arguments, Gowa and Mansfield (1993 ; Gowa 1994 ) conducted a statistical analysis of the effects of alliances on trade flows between major powers during the twentieth century. They find strong evidence that allies trade more extensively than other states. A number of subsequent studies have largely confirmed this finding, while covering a wider range of countries and years, and using statistical techniques designed for data that are both cross‐sectional and time series ( Morrow, Siverson, and Tabares 1998 ; 1999 ; Gowa and Mansfield 2004 ).

A related strand of work centers on the influence of political—military conflict on trade. One set of studies focuses on the effects of political cooperation and conflict on bilateral trade flows. In two influential articles, Brian Pollins (1989 a ; 1989 b ) found that cooperative political relations significantly increased the flow of trade. A second set of studies considers the effects of political—military conflict on trade. Some research finds that wars significantly reduce trade, both globally and between combatants ( Gowa 1994 ; Mansfield 1994 ). However, other studies have concluded that conflicts—a category that includes wars as well as other less intense political disputes—have little influence on trade patterns, since traders may anticipate conflict and adjust their overseas business relations accordingly ( Morrow, Siverson, and Tabares 1998 ; 1999 ).

3 Quantitative Research on International Relations since the Mid‐1990s

Since the mid‐1990s, there have been a number of dramatic changes in quantitative international relations research. First, it has grown more pervasive. A recent survey, for example, found that the portion of articles in the leading international relations journals that rely on statistical analysis rose from about 25 percent in the late 1970s to almost 45 percent by the late 1990s (Sprinz and Wolinsky‐Nahmias 2004, 7) . Secondly, this work has become increasingly sophisticated, involving a wider range of techniques. Whereas earlier work relied heavily on simple bivariate correlations or ordinary least‐squares regression models, recent research has taken advantage of the many innovations that have been made in statistical analysis over the past few decades. Thirdly, contemporary studies cover a much broader array of substantive topics than before. Rather than focusing primarily on testing systemic theories, much of the more recent quantitative work analyzes how domestic politics affects international relations. Furthermore, contemporary statistical research that does focus on systemic theories is often designed to test neoliberal institutional and even constructivist approaches, rather than realist theories. Fourthly, and closely related, recent quantitative studies span a variety of issue areas that received little attention in statistical research during the cold war, including economic sanctions, monetary policy, human rights, and environmental politics.

What explains the rapid proliferation of quantitative research in the field of international relations over the past decade or so? We suspect a handful of forces are at play. An increasing emphasis on quantitative methods training in Ph.D. programs, the growing amount of quantitative work in other subfields of political science (such as American politics and political economy), the decline in computing costs and the simultaneous rise in computation power to estimate more complex models, and more readily available data‐sets (especially over the internet) have each contributed to the proliferation of quantitative work in the field.

Not only has the amount of quantitative research expanded, but the range of methods has expanded too. This development stems from a number of sources. First, important advances have been made in related fields, especially economics and sociology, including improvements in time‐series modeling and duration models; the analysis of rare events, simultaneous relationships, endogeneity, and nonrandom selection; and the analysis of data that are both a time series and cross‐ sectional.

Secondly, the field of international relations underwent an important theoretical shift soon after the end of the cold war, placing less emphasis on realist and neorealist models. Realism, of course, has not been abandoned. There continues to be much research conducted in this theoretical tradition, and much of the statistical research conducted in other traditions is careful to account for variables emphasized by realists. However, the end of the cold war led many observers to question whether realism was the most appropriate theoretical lens through which to view international relations.

Researchers began turning to other approaches with increasing frequency. Among systemic theories, the contemporary era has been marked by the rise of constructivism and by heightened interest in neoliberal institutionalism. 2 Among alternative approaches, this era has been marked by the rapid growth of work on the links between domestic politics and international relations (Milner 1997) . Furthermore, whereas research in the field of international relations— quantitative and qualitative—focused largely on international security during the cold war, the end of this period stimulated rising interest in international political economy, international institutions, and various other substantive issues. These developments have had important implications for statistical research in the field.

3.1 The Liberal Peace

Shifting theoretical tides in the aftermath of the cold war led to the creation of various data‐sets that were both cross‐sectional and time series. Usually, the cross‐ sectional units were countries (a “monadic” research design) or pairs of countries (a “dyadic” design). In almost all cases, data on issues of interest to international relations scholars are reported on an annual basis; as such, the temporal units are generally years. Consider, for example, the voluminous literature that has been produced on the democratic peace. During the late 1980s, scholars displayed growing interest in the proposition that relations between democracies are particularly cooperative and peaceful (Doyle 1986) . Indeed, Jack Levy (1989) went so far as to characterize the argument that democracies rarely if ever fight each other as the closest thing that the field of international relations has to a law. Although a few scattered tests of this proposition had been conducted earlier, the 1990s and early 2000s were marked by an enormous amount of research on this topic, most of it statistical (e.g. Russett 1993 ; Russett and Oneal 2001 ).

Quantitative studies of the democratic peace typically rely on a dyadic research design. Data are compiled on pairs of states over the longest available period of time, usually the post‐Second World War era, but (depending on data availability) sometimes the entire nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The dependent variable in these studies is the outbreak of conflict, usually defined as a militarized inter‐state dispute (Jones, Bremer, and Singer 1996) , but sometimes defined as war.

During the course of the 1990s, interest in the democratic peace grew broader. Bruce Russett and John Oneal (2001) , for example, analyzed whether there was a more general liberal peace. Drawing on long‐standing arguments by Immanuel Kant and others, they hypothesized that democracy, high levels of economic interdependence, and participation in international organizations combine to inhibit inter‐state conflict. These developments led to models of conflict in which the key independent variables were not just regime type, but also the flow of trade between the states in each dyad (usually normalized by their national incomes to construct a measure of interdependence) and the extent to which they participated in intergovernmental organizations ( Russett and Oneal 2001 ; Pevehouse and Russett 2006 ).

Initial statistical studies provided considerable support for the democratic peace and for a more general liberal peace, yet these studies also provoked various criticisms. Some observers questioned whether the democratic peace might be a function of chance alone (Spiro 1994) , while others charged that the effects of democracy grew out of the similar interests and preferences that democracies share about international affairs ( Gartzke 1998 ; Gowa 1999 ). Still others challenged the statistical techniques that were being used to test the liberal peace. What should be done to address the temporal dependence that exists in these data‐sets (Beck, Katz, and Tucker 1998) , the fact that there may be unmeasured heterogeneity in the data stemming from factors such as history or culture that are specific to a particular country or dyad (Green, Kim, and Yoon 1998) , or the fact that inter‐state conflict is a rare event (King and Zeng 2001) ? These concerns have led researchers to use a variety of different techniques and have cast doubt on some aspects of the liberal peace, although most studies confirm that democratic dyads are less likely to fight than other country pairs. 3

One key issue in research on the liberal peace is whether international trade affects the outbreak of political—military conflict. The bulk of the available evidence indicates that heightened interdependence inhibits conflict (Russett and Oneal 2001) , a result that accords with arguments advanced by commercial liberals. Most of these studies use the ratio of international trade to national income as a measure of interdependence. However, a number of studies using alternative measures of interdependence have found little support for the liberal position (e.g. Barbieri 2005 ). Equally, while most studies of this topic treat interdependence as exogenous, some recent research argues that it is endogenous. When interdependence is treated in this way, the evidence that it is inversely related to conflict is far weaker (Keshk, Pollins, and Reuveny 2004) .

Partially as a result of these inconclusive findings, some scholars have investigated the particular conditions under which heightened interdependence inhibits hostilities. For example, Mansfield and Pevehouse (2000) argue that extensive trade ties dampen conflict only when the trade partners belong to the same preferential trading arrangement. Joseph Grieco and Christopher Gelpi (2003) contend that the relationship is mediated by the regime type of the states involved: Because democratic governments are more sensitive than other governments to political pressure exerted by private traders, the pacific influence of heightened trade will be felt more strongly in democratic than in nondemocratic states. Thus, the effects of interdependence may be more complex than suggested by earlier theoretical or empirical work.

The links between domestic politics and international security have also been studied in the quantitative literature on the use of military force by the United States. Although this literature emerged in the latter part of the cold war (Ostrom and Job 1986) , the bulk of this research has been conducted more recently and has focused on how domestic processes influence the incentives of US presidents to use force. As with nearly every area of literature reviewed here, disagreements and discontinuities have emerged. Initial contributors to this literature suggested that domestic economic conditions directly shaped a leader's incentives to engage in conflict (Ostrom and Job 1986) . More recently, however, some contributors have argued that the domestic environment influences only perceptions of threat (Fordham 1998) ; others have argued that domestic factors play no role in the process (Gowa 1998) . In addition, debates have emerged as to whether particular domestic institutions, such as Congress, directly influence the propensity to use force (Howell and Pevehouse 2005) . Methodological debates have ensued as well, including a suggestion that existing models suffer from selection on the dependent variable   (Meernik 1994) and pay insufficient attention to time‐series dynamics (Mitchell and Moore 2002) .

In each of these newer research areas, debates over measurement, boundary conditions, and estimation techniques have both theoretical and empirical implications. In essence, these debates are more about what a theory predicts, the conditions under which we expect the theory to hold, and whether competing theories offer more compelling accounts of the evidence. While it might be easy to dismiss debates in these literatures as solely statistical in nature, they are essential to how we reformulate theories in light of evidence, a topic we return to in the conclusion.

3.2 Domestic Politics, International Institutions, and International Political Economy

Interest in how domestic politics affects international affairs has not been limited to the study of international security. On the contrary, there is a burgeoning quantitative literature on the influence of domestic factors on trade and monetary relations, foreign direct investment (FDI), foreign aid, and economic sanctions. William Bernhard and David Leblang (2006) , for example, study the links between domestic politics and market behavior, placing particular emphasis on how democratic competition promotes change in currency, bond, and equity markets, and on how such change influences the ability of democratic politicians to retain office. Equally, a sizable number of quantitative studies have analyzed how partisanship, the number of “veto points” in government, a country's regime type, and other domestic political factors influence foreign trade relations ( Lohmann and O'Halloran 1994 ; Mansfield, Milner, and Rosendorff 2000 ; 2002 ; Milner and Judkins 2004 ; Henisz and Mansfield 2006 ).

In addition, recent statistical work has addressed the effects of domestic politics on FDI. Quan Li and Adam Resnick (2003) , for example, find that democracy has a mixed effect on FDI in developing countries. Strong property rights promote FDI and these rights are stronger in democracies than other countries. However, the direct effect of democracy is different: Holding constant the strength of property rights, democracies received less FDI than other countries during the last few decades of the twentieth century. Conversely, Nathan Jensen (2006) finds that democracies attract more FDI than other states, based on an analysis of both developed and developing countries covering roughly the same period of time. Additional quantitative research on the links between domestic institutions and FDI is likely to refine these findings and to specify the conditions under which these empirical relationships hold.

Quantitative work on the domestic politics of foreign economic relations has also focused on sanctions. Lisa Martin (2000 , ch. 4 ) examines how partisanship affects the decision to impose sanctions. She finds that, in the United States, the executive branch typically takes the lead in wielding sanctions when the government is “unified” (that is, when the executive and legislative branches are controlled by the same party), whereas Congress typically does so when the government is “divided” (that is, when these branches are controlled by different parties).

A number of other quantitative studies of economic sanctions have considered the impact of nonrandom selection, an issue that has attracted attention throughout the field of international relations. In one study, T. Clifton Morgan and Valerie Schwebach (1997) examine the conditions under which sanctions lead a target country to change policy without the state sending the sanctions resorting to force. They use Gary Hufbauer, Jeffrey Schott, and Kimberly Ann Elliott's data (1990) on sanctions to test their argument, but recognize that relying solely on these data could introduce a selection bias if the same factors that affect whether states become involved in sanctions also influence the outcome of sanctions. For this reason, they supplement the sanctions data with a set of inter‐state crises in which sanctions were not imposed. Morgan and Schwebach find that sanctions have neither a statistically significant nor a substantively large effect on the outcome of such disputes; nor do they influence which crises escalate to war.

In a related study, Daniel Drezner (2000) argues that many observers fail to appreciate the usefulness of sanctions, because a selection bias is at work. The most successful sanctions, Drezner argues, are the ones that are threatened but never implemented, since sanctions impose costs on both the sending country and the target state. Drezner uses statistical methods to show that a large number of sanctions attempts end when sanctions are threatened and before they are imposed, because the targets of these actions comply with the senders' demands. Equally, these cases generate more concessions on the part of targets than cases in which sanctions are actually imposed, providing evidence of a selection effect to which researchers need to pay careful attention.

Selection effects are hardly limited to economic sanctions. James Vreeland (2003) , for example, analyzes whether International Monetary Fund (IMF) programs succeed in promoting growth, a topic of considerable importance and one marked by substantial disagreement. He argues that existing empirical studies of this topic are flawed because they fail to account for both the factors prompting governments to enter into agreements with the IMF and the subsequent effects of these agreements on growth. Vreeland develops a model to account for nonrandom selection and then uses it to assess the effects of IMF agreements. He finds that governments turn to the IMF when their foreign reserve position is weak, but also to help offset domestic opposition to reform programs. Moreover, Vreeland finds that, when controlling for conditions that drive states to the Fund, IMF programs reduce economic growth and that participation in these programs exacerbates incomes inequalities within states.

Over the past decade, the issue of nonrandom selection has also generated increasing attention outside the area of international political economy. Studies of international security, for example, began emphasizing the distinction between the onset of conflict and the escalation of conflict. Moreover, scholars recognized that some of the same factors would probably influence both outcomes, creating a source of potential bias. To address this issue, William Reed (2000) , Paul Huth and Todd Allee (2003) , and others have used selection models that account for the possibility that factors affecting whether countries become embroiled in a dispute might also affect whether the dispute escalates. In some cases, the effects of variables when these two stages of conflict are modeled independently change when these stages are analyzed using a unified selection model. For example, Reed (2000, 88) finds that regime type has a statistically significant impact on the escalation of hostilities until one controls for its influence on the onset of conflict. This avenue of inquiry has contributed to a broader methodological argument concerning the need to account for selection processes in the field of international relations. 4

Most recently, researchers have analyzed whether there are selection effects in the formation and implementation of international agreements. Inspired by theoretical debates in the literature on compliance with international institutions (Downs, Rocke, and Barsoom 1996) , scholars started examining whether the states that choose to enter international agreements do so because they intend to comply with those agreements. If so, then the agreements may have little independent effect on compliance or other aspects of state behavior. In a recent quantitative study, Jana von Stein (2005) finds that the states that enter into IMF agreements are predisposed to take steps that are in accord with these agreements. In her view, this evidence suggests that international institutions help to distinguish “compliant” from “noncompliant” types of states. As such, participating in an international institution helps a state to signal its willingness to abide by its overseas commitments. 5

More generally, there has been considerable debate in the field of international relations over whether international institutions are endogenous. There are various well‐known statistical techniques (including instrumental variables regression and other related two‐stage estimators) that can be used to examine whether institutions are actually endogenous and, if so, to model institutions as endogenous when assessing their impact on international relations. The methodological concerns discussed in this section are more than worries over statistical nuance. In fact, they are central to the theoretical debates in the field, reflecting a concern about exactly what theories predict and how to test those predictions adequately.

4 Conclusions

In this chapter, we have reviewed some of the burgeoning literature in the field of international relations that utilizes quantitative techniques. We conclude with three observations about the use of these methods. First, as is obvious even to the casual observer, quantitative analyses are now increasingly common in the field. The use of statistical techniques started during the cold war, but the end of the superpower rivalry corresponded with a sharp increase in both the amount of quantitative research and the topics on which this research focused. Both trends seem likely to persist.

Secondly, concomitant to the general rise of statistical approaches in the discipline and the end of the cold war, researchers became increasingly interested in the roles of domestic politics and international institutions in shaping global outcomes. Also, the scope of questions analyzed with quantitative analyses has continued to expand. Recent quantitative work on international security, for example, has placed considerable emphasis on state failure (Goldstone et al. 2002) , civil wars and genocide ( Valentino, Huth, and Balch‐Lindsay 2004 ; Doyle and Sambanis 2006 ), human rights ( Poe and Tate 1994 ; Poe, Tate, and Keith 1999 ; Hafner‐Burton and Tsutsui 2005 ), and the environment ( Midlarsky 1998 ; Neumayer 2002 ).

Thirdly, and most importantly, while some continue to criticize quantitative approaches as atheoretical, statistical work in the field of international relations has advanced our empirical understanding and has pushed theoretical boundaries. It is difficult to imagine current theorizing regarding liberalism, neoclassical realism, or human security without taking into account the knowledge generated by large‐n studies. More than simply confirming preconceived notions about the relationship posited by theory, quantitative studies have generated new insights while helping to specify conditions under which relationships hold.

The rise in quantitative work has had important implications for the field of international relations. Some critics of quantitative analysis point to inconsistent findings, measurement problems, and problems of operationalization as weaknesses of statistical approaches. However, while empirical investigation (quantitative or qualitative) must be informed by theory, debates over measurement, operationalization, and method force scholars to think about theory. Exactly what does a given theory predict? What variables are crucial to the theory's prediction? Is the predicted relationship direct or conditional? Good theory informs good empirical analysis, but good empirical analysis is needed to update and refine theories. Quantitative techniques are powerful and valuable tools of empirical analysis, and the field of international relations is far richer for their heightened use.

Barbieri, K.   2005 . The Liberal Illusion: Does Trade Promote Peace? Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Google Scholar

Google Preview

Beck, N. , Katz, J. , and Tucker, R.   1998 . Taking time seriously: time‐series‐cross‐section analysis with a binary dependent variable.   American Journal of Political Science , 42: 1260–88. 10.2307/2991857

Bernhard, W. , and Leblang, D.   2006 . Democratic Processes and Financial Markets: Pricing Politics . New York: Cambridge University Press.

Braumoeller, B. , and Sartori, A.   2004 . The promise and perils of statistics in international relations. Pp. 129–51 in Models, Numbers, and Cases: Methods for Studying International Relations , ed. D. Sprinz and Y. Wolinsky‐Nahamias . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Bueno de Mesquita, B.   1985 . Towards a scientific understanding of international conflict: a personal view.   International Studies Quarterly , 29: 121–36. 10.2307/2600500

Conybeare, J. A. C.   1983 . Tariff protection in developed and developing countries: a cross‐sectional and longitudinal analysis.   International Organization , 37: 441–67. 10.1017/S0020818300032744

Deutsch, K. W. , Burrell, S. A. , Kann, R. A. , Maurice Lee, M. , Lichterman, R. E. L. , Lowenheim, F. L. , and Van Wagenen, R. W.   1957 . Political Community and the North Atlantic Area: International Organization in the Light of Historical Experience . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Downs, G. W. , Rocke, D. M. , and Barsoom, P. N.   1996 . Is the good news about compliance good news about cooperation?   International Organization , 50: 379–406. 10.1017/S0020818300033427

Doyle, M. W.   1986 . Liberalism and world politics.   American Political Science Review , 80: 1151–69. 10.2307/1960861

——and Sambanis, N.   2006 . Making War and Building Peace: United Nations Peace Operations . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Drezner, D.   2000 . Bargaining, enforcement, and multilateral sanctions: when is cooperation counterproductive?   International Organization , 54: 73–102. 10.1162/002081800551127

Fordham, B.   1998 . The politics of threat perception and the use of force: a political economy model of US uses of force, 1949–1994.   International Studies Quarterly , 42: 567–90. 10.1111/0020-8833.00096

Gartzke, E.   1998 . Kant we all just get along? Opportunity, willingness, and the origins of the democratic peace.   American Journal of Political Science , 42: 1–27. 10.2307/2991745

Gilpin, R.   1987 . The Political Economy of International Relations . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Goldstein, J. , and Freeman, J.   1990 . Three Way Street: Strategic Reciprocity in World Politics . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Goldstone, J. , Gurr, T. R. , Harff, B. , Levy, M. , Marshall, M. , Bates, R. , Epstein, D. , Kahl, C. , Woodward, M. , Surko, P. , and Unger, A.   2002 . State Failure Task Force Report: Phase III Findings . McLean, Va.: Science Applications International Corporation.

Gowa, J.   1994 . Allies, Adversaries, and International Trade . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

—— 1998 . Politics at the water's edge: parties, voters, and the use of force abroad.   International Organization , 52: 307–24. 10.1162/002081898753162839

—— 1999 . Ballots and Bullets: The Elusive Democratic Peace . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Gowa, J. , and Mansfield, E. D.   1993 . Power politics and international trade.   American Political Science Review , 87: 408–20. 10.2307/2939050

—— —— 2004 . Alliances, imperfect markets, and major‐power trade.   International Organization , 58: 775–805.

Green, D. P. , Kim, S. Y. , and Yoon, D.   1998 . Dirty pool.   International Organization , 55: 441–68.

Grieco, J. , and Gelpi, C.   2003 . Economic interdependence, the democratic state, and the liberal peace. Pp. 44–59 in Economic Interdependence and International Conflict: New Perspectives on an Enduring Debate , ed. E. D. Mansfield and B. M. Pollins . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Hafner‐Burton, E. M. , and Tsutsui, K.   2005 . Human rights in a globalizing world: the paradox of empty promises.   American Journal of Sociology , 110: 1373–411. 10.1086/428442

Henisz, W. J. , and Mansfield, E. D.   2006 . Votes and vetoes: the political determinants of commercial openness.   International Studies Quarterly , 50: 189–211. 10.1111/j.1468-2478.2006.00398.x

Hopf, T.   1991 . Polarity, the offense defense balance, and war.   American Political Science Review , 85: 475–93. 10.2307/1963170

Howell, W. , and Pevehouse, J.   2005 . Presidents, Congress, and the use of force.   International Organization , 59: 209–32.

Hufbauer, G. , Schott, J. , and Elliot, K. A.   1990 . Economic Sanctions Reconsidered: History and Current Policy . Washington, DC: Institute of International Economics.

Huth, P. , and Allee, T.   2003 . The Democratic Peace and Territorial Conflict in the Twentieth Century . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Jensen, N. M.   2006 . Nation‐States and the Multinational Corporation: A Political Economy of Foreign Direct Investment . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Jervis, R.   1999 . Realism, neoliberalism, and cooperation: understanding the debate.   International Security , 24: 42–63. 10.1162/016228899560040

Jones, D. M. , Bremer, S. A. , and Singer, J. D.   1996 . Militarized interstate disputes, 1816–1992: rationale, coding rules, and empirical patterns.   Conflict Management and Peace Science , 15: 163–213. 10.1177/073889429601500203

Keohane, R. O. , and Martin, L. L.   1995 . The promise of institutionalist theory.   International Security , 20: 39–51. 10.2307/2539214

Keshk, O. , Pollins, B. , and Reuveny, R.   2004 . Trade still follows the flag: the primacy of politics in a simultaneous model of interdependence and armed conflict.   Journal of Politics , 66: 1155–79.

Kindleberger, C.   1973 . The World in Depression, 1929–1939 . Berkeley: University of California Press.

King, G. , and Zeng, L.   2001 . Explaining rare events in international relations.   International Organization , 55: 693–715. 10.1162/00208180152507597

Koremenos, B.   2005 . Contracting around international uncertainty.   American Political Science Review , 99: 549–65.

Leeds, B. A.   2003 . Do alliances deter aggression? The influence of military alliances on the initiation of militarized interstate disputes.   American Journal of Political Science , 47: 427–39. 10.1111/1540-5907.00031

Levy, J.   1984 . Size and stability in the modern great power system.   International Interactions , 10: 341–58. 10.1080/03050628408434620

—— 1989 . The causes of war: a review of theories and evidence. Pp. 209–313 in Behavior, Society, and Nuclear War , vol. i., ed. P. E. Tetlock , J. L. Husbands , R. Jervis , P. C. Stern , and C. Tilly . New York: Oxford University Press.

Li, Q. , and Resnick, A.   2003 . Reversal of fortunes: democratic institutions and foreign direct investment inflows to developing countries.   International Organization , 57: 175–211.

Lohmann, S. , and O'Halloran, S.   1994 . Divided government and US trade policy: theory and evidence.   International Organization , 48: 595–632. 10.1017/S0020818300028320

McKeown, T.   1991 . A liberal trade order? The long‐run pattern of imports to the advanced capitalist states.   International Studies Quarterly , 35: 151–72. 10.2307/2600468

Mansfield, E. D.   1994 . Power, Trade, and War . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Milner, H. V. , and Rosendorff, B. P.   2000 . Free to trade: democracies, autocracies, and international trade.   American Political Science Review , 94: 305–21. 10.2307/2586014

—— —— —— 2002 . Why democracies cooperate more: electoral control and international trade agreements.   International Organization , 56: 477–513. 10.1162/002081802760199863

——and Pevehouse, J.   2000 . Trade blocs, trade flows, and international conflict.   International Organization , 54: 775–808. 10.1162/002081800551361

——and Snyder, J.   2005 . Electing to Fight: Why Emerging Democracies Go to War . Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

Martin, L.   2000 . Democratic Commitments: Legislatures and International Cooperation . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Meernik, J.   1994 . Presidential decision making and the political use of military force.   International Studies Quarterly , 38: 121–38. 10.2307/2600874

Midlarsky, M.   1998 . Democracy and the environment: an empirical assessment.   Journal of Peace Research , 35: 341–61. 10.1177/0022343398035003005

Milner, H. V.   1997 . Interests, Institutions, and Information: Domestic Politics and International Relations . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

——and Judkins, B.   2004 . Partisanship, trade policy, and globalization: is there a left—right divide on trade policy?   International Studies Quarterly , 48: 95–119. 10.1111/j.0020-8833.2004.00293.x

Mitchell, S. , and Moore, W.   2002 . Presidential uses of force during the cold war: aggregation, truncation, and temporal dynamics.   American Journal of Political Science , 46: 438–52. 10.2307/3088387

Morgan, T. C. , and Schwebach, V.   1997 . Fools suffer gladly: the use of economic sanctions in international crises.   International Studies Quarterly , 41: 27–50. 10.1111/0020-8833.00032

Morrow, J. , Siverson, R. , and Tabares, T.   1998 . The political determinants of international trade: the major powers, 1907–90.   American Political Science Review , 92: 649–61. 10.2307/2585487

—— —— —— 1999 . Correction to “The political determinants of international trade. ” American Political Science Review , 93: 931–3. 10.2307/2586123

Neumayer, E.   2002 . Do democracies exhibit stronger international environmental commitment? A cross‐country analysis.   Journal of Peace Research , 39: 139–64. 10.1177/0022343302039002001

Ostrom, C. , and Job, B.   1986 . The president and the political use of force.   American Political Science Review , 80: 541–66. 10.2307/1958273

Pahre, R.   1999 . Leading Questions: How Hegemony Affects the International Political Economy . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Pevehouse, J. , and Russett, B.   2006 . Democratic international governmental organizations promote peace.   International Organization , 60: 969–1000.

Poe, S. C. , and Tate, C. N.   1994 . Repression of human rights to personal integrity in the 1980s: a global analysis.   American Political Science Review , 88: 853–72. 10.2307/2082712

—— ——and Keith, L. C.   1999 . Repression of the human right to personal integrity revisited: a global cross‐national study covering the years 1976–1993.   International Studies Quarterly , 43: 291–313. 10.1111/0020-8833.00121

Pollins, B.   1989 a . Does trade still follow the flag?   American Political Science Review , 83: 465–80. 10.2307/1962400

—— 1989 b . Conflict, cooperation, and commerce: the effect of international political interactions on bilateral trade flows.   American Journal of Political Science , 33: 737–61. 10.2307/2111070

Reed, W.   2000 . A unified statistical model of conflict onset and escalation.   American Journal of Political Science , 44: 84–93. 10.2307/2669294

Richardson, L. F.   1960 . Statistics of Deadly Quarrels , ed. Q. Wright and C. C. Lienau . Pacific Grove, Calif.: Boxwood.

Ruggie, J.   1998 . Constructing the World Polity: Essays on International Institutionalization . London: Routledge.

Russett, B.   1993 . Grasping the Democratic Peace . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

——and Oneal, J. R.   2001 . Triangulating Peace: Democracy, Interdependence, and International Organizations . New York: Norton.

Signorino, C.   2002 . Strategy and selection in international relations.   International Interactions , 28: 93–115. 10.1080/03050620210389

Singer, J. D.   1990 . One man's view: a personal history of the Correlates of War Project. Pp. 11–28 in Prisoners of War? Nation‐States in the Modern Era , ed. C. Gochman and A. Sabrosky . Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books.

Bremer, S. , and Stuckey, J.   1972 . Capability distribution, uncertainty, and major power war, 1820–1965. Pp. 19–48 in Peace, War, and Numbers , ed. B. Russett . Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage.

——and Small, M.   1968 . Alliance aggregation and the onset of war, 1815–1914. Pp. 247–86 in Quantitative International Politics: Insights and Evidence , ed. J. D. Singer . New York: Free Press.

Siverson, R. , and Sullivan, M.   1983 . The distribution of power and the onset of war.   Journal of Conflict Resolution , 27: 473–94. 10.1177/0022002783027003004

Spiro, D.   1994 . The insignificance of the liberal peace.   International Security , 19: 50–86. 10.2307/2539196

Sprinz, D. , and Wolinksy‐Nahmias, Y.   2004 . Methodology in international relations research. Pp. 1–17 in Models, Numbers, and Cases: Methods for Studying International Relations , ed. D. Sprinz and Y. Wolinsky‐Nahamias . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Valentino, B. , Huth, P. , and Balch‐Lindsay, D.   2004 . “ Draining the sea:” mass killing and guerilla warfare.   International Organization , 58: 375–407.

Vasquez, J.   1987 . The steps to war: toward a scientific explanation of Correlates of War findings.   World Politics , 40: 108–45. 10.2307/2010196

von Stein, J.   2005 . Do treaties constrain or screen? Selection bias and treaty compliance.   American Political Science Review , 99: 611–22.

Vreeland, J.   2003 . The IMF and Economic Development . New York: Cambridge University Press.

Waltz, K.   1979 . Theory of International Politics . Reading, Mass.: Addison‐Wesley.

Wilkenfeld, J.   1972 . Models for the analysis of foreign conflict behavior of states. Pp. 275–98 in Peace, War, and Numbers , ed. B. Russett . Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage.

Of course, there were various exceptions to this tendency. For example, a large quantitative literature emerged on internal–external conflict linkages. Partially inspired by an interest in the diversionary theory of war, scholars attempted to determine whether domestic strife gave rise to international conflict and vice versa ( Wilkenfeld 1972 ). The studies, however, found little evidence of this type of relationship.

For an overview of constructivism, see Ruggie (1998) . For an overview of neoliberal institutional‐ ism, see Keohane and Martin (1995) .

Furthermore, these modeling issues have influenced related work on democratic transitions and the outbreak of conflict (Mansfield and Snyder 2005).

For a review of selection models and instances where alternatives to these models may be superior, see Signorino (2002) .

Recently, Koremenos (2005) has linked questions of regime design and flexibility to issues of enforcement, opening a new avenue of quantitative research on international organizations.

• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Institutional account management
• Rights and permissions
• Get help with access
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

• school Campus Bookshelves
• menu_book Bookshelves
• perm_media Learning Objects
• login Login
• how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
• hub Instructor Commons
• Download Page (PDF)
• Download Full Book (PDF)
• Periodic Table
• Physics Constants
• Scientific Calculator
• Reference & Cite
• Tools expand_more
• Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

Quantitative Research Methods for Political Science, Public Policy and Public Administration (Jenkins-Smith et al.)

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 7200

• Jenkins-Smith et al.
• University of Oklahoma via University of Oklahoma Libraries

The focus of this book is on using quantitative research methods to test hypotheses and build theory in political science, public policy and public administration. It is designed for advanced undergraduate courses, or introductory and intermediate graduate-level courses. The first part of the book introduces the scientific method, then covers research design, measurement, descriptive statistics, probability, inference, and basic measures of association. The second part of the book covers bivariate and multiple linear regression using the ordinary least squares, the calculus and matrix algebra that are necessary for understanding bivariate and multiple linear regression, the assumptions that underlie these methods, and then provides a short introduction to generalized linear models. The book fully embraces the open access and open source philosophies. The book is freely available in the SHAREOK repository; it is written in R Markdown files that are available in a public GitHub repository; it uses and teaches R and RStudio for data analysis, visualization and data management; and it uses publicly available survey data (from the Meso-Scale Integrated Socio-geographic Network) to illustrate important concepts and methods. We encourage students to download the data, replicate the examples, and explore further! We also encourage instructors to download the R Markdown files and modify the text for use in different courses.

Thumbnail: Person Holding Document Papers. (Pixabay License; via Pixabay )

Introduction to Political Science Research Methods - 1st Edition

(4 reviews)

Josh Franco, Rancho San Diego, CA

Charlotte Lee, Berkeley, CA

Kau Vue, Fresno, CA

Publisher: Academic Senate for California Community Colleges

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Eliot Dickinson, Professor, Western Oregon University on 4/5/24

I can compare it to a major research methods textbook that I used for years. That book has 15 chapters, while this one has ten, which is actually more conducive to the 11-week quarter system still found on the West Coast. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

I can compare it to a major research methods textbook that I used for years. That book has 15 chapters, while this one has ten, which is actually more conducive to the 11-week quarter system still found on the West Coast.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The book is factually accurate, free of significant errors, and objective in its analysis.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

This text can be used for years, as the examples and cases are relevant for our times.

Clarity rating: 5

The text is written in a way that the average college freshman will be able to understand.

Consistency rating: 5

The text is consistent from chapter to chapter, from beginning to end, with a glossary of key terms at the end of each chapter.

Modularity rating: 5

The text is broken up into very readable chapters that are not overwhelming. Students will appreciate this aspect of the text, since it is succinct and offers units of reasonable length.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

It is organized like most other research methods textbooks. It includes opening chapters on the history and development of political science, so that it can also be used in a "Scope and Methods of PS" course.

Interface rating: 5

The text is easy to navigate with both a brief table of contents and a detailed table of contents, and the images and charts are clear throughout.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

It reads well although there there is a typo in the first paragraph of the first page and another typo on the third page. It would be helpful to correct these in future editions.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The text is culturally and politically correct. It's perfectly accessible to everyone.

This is a valuable contribution to higher education and, being an open resource, is helpful to students.

Reviewed by Hakseon Lee, Professor, James Madison University on 3/23/24

Most materials that are supposed to be taught at an introductory political science research methods are covered. Quantitative analysis section is relatively short, but considering it is an "intro" textbook, it's understandable. BTW Including Ch. 9... read more

Most materials that are supposed to be taught at an introductory political science research methods are covered. Quantitative analysis section is relatively short, but considering it is an "intro" textbook, it's understandable. BTW Including Ch. 9 Research Ethics is very helpful for students understand research on “human subjects” more in depth.

Overall, explanations of abstract and complex concepts are well presented. The concepts and definitions provided in the glossary are accurate as well.

The textbook is written for undergraduate political science major students, and the level of complexity is quite relevant to them. Research methods materials are not fast changing subject and the textbook’s contents have longevity.

The textbook is written very clearly and easy to understand. After each chapter, summary of each subsection in chapters are provided in a very succinct and clear way, and I believe the summary sections are beneficial to students

Even though the textbook is written by several authors, they followed the same format of each chapter: providing clear learning objectives, summary, review questions, critical thinking questions, suggestions for further study, and references. Students will not be confused at all reading chapter by chapter.

Having total of 10 chapters, the textbook can be easily used module by module structure. Each chapter has subsections which have clear learning objectives, and this will be helpful for instructors who plan to use the textbook sequentially.

Overall organization and structure follow conventional existing textbooks’ organization/structure. Majority of undergraduate research methods class are taught from history and development of research methods to quantitative analysis step by step, and the textbook follows the usual organization/structure.

The book is very much reader friendly. Table of contents are very well organized and readers can have an easy overlook of the textbook.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

I have not found significant or consistent grammatical errors at all.

Introducing diverse coauthors with cartoon images at the beginning of the textbook is helpful for students to learn about diverse authors. Also, examples used have diverse backgrounds.

Reviewed by Huei-Jyun Ye, Assistant Professor, Wabash College on 10/23/23

This textbook covers the scientific method of studying politics, theory and hypothesis building, conceptualization and operationalization, elements of research design, qualitative methods, quantitative methods, and research ethics. For the very... read more

This textbook covers the scientific method of studying politics, theory and hypothesis building, conceptualization and operationalization, elements of research design, qualitative methods, quantitative methods, and research ethics. For the very intro level (for freshmen or sophomores), this textbook will serve well. For advanced undergraduate courses, this textbook lacks an introduction to specific research methods like surveys, experiments, case comparisons, etc. This textbook touches a little bit on qualitative and quantitative approaches but does not explain the methods political scientists use. I feel this is a tradeoff for an introduction textbook. Instructors who are seeking materials explaining methods will need to find other supplements. Other than that, I would recommend using this book to explain the process of doing political science research.

The explanations of political science research methods are spot-on and comprehensible. I do not find big mistakes in the chapters.

I believe we can use this textbook for a long time as most of the concepts are standards of the field. Some examples address timely concerns that political scientists have been working on. The studies referred to in the textbook are also not obsolete.

The textbook is overall clear and easy to read. The authors make good efforts to explain the jargon in plain language. For example, when introducing conceptualization and operationalization, the author asks questions as if they were students and provides answers to explain the ideas. Different from throwing all the jargon and definitions to readers’ faces, students may find this conversation style more accessible.

The authors do a good job of setting a tone for this textbook, even though it is written by multiple authors. Each chapter starts with an outline, followed by content, glossary, summary, review questions, and suggestions for further study. Readers can expect all these elements in every chapter.

The chapters can be easily turned into sequential modules. What is even better is that the authors provide learning objectives for each section, not just for chapters. This design makes it easier for instructors to break down each chapter into smaller tasks. Students can know what to expect or take away from the subsections in each module. The summary and review questions at the end of each chapter also serve as a good wrap-up for individual modules.

The organization of the chapters is logical and straightforward. The subsections within each chapter are well-connected. Students would not have any problem building up their understanding of the research inquiry process when they read over the textbook.

The Introduction to Political Science Research Methods is reader-friendly. I have no difficulty in following the sections, and the formatting, including figures and tables, does not go off the place. Also, the PDF keeps the bookmarks so that readers can clearly see the structure on the sidebar and jump to different sections easily.

I do not notice major grammatical errors.

This book uses studies on various topics and has broad cultural implications. I appreciate that the examples and studies that the authors choose to demonstrate how to do political science research cover diversity and equity in society. The authors also present different schools of view without imposing a specific paradigm on the readers.

I recommend this book.

Reviewed by Lindsay Benstead, Professor of Politics & Global Affairs, Portland State University on 8/12/23

This textbook covers topics in a comprehensive overview of methodology used in Political Science. It is suitable for an introductory course (e.g., 100-200 level), in that it covers the 'History and Development of the Empirical Study of Politics,"... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This textbook covers topics in a comprehensive overview of methodology used in Political Science. It is suitable for an introductory course (e.g., 100-200 level), in that it covers the 'History and Development of the Empirical Study of Politics," which includes basic facts about the history of the field of Politics. It then covers topics in quantitative and qualitative analysis. Importantly, it includes a section on ethics.

In my review of the textbook and use in designing a new course, I found the information presented in the textbook to be accurate.

Since this textbook covers foundational topics in research methods, it is likely to remain relevant for a decade or more.

This textbook is written in a clear way that will be understood by students in introductory political science methods courses (e.g., 100-200 level). This is not to say that more advanced students would not benefit from reading this textbook, but only if they are undergraduate or graduate students just beginning their study of research methods in the field.

This book is internally consistent. In addition to content in each chapter, it includes m/c questions, open-ended questions, and resources for further study. These are presented at the end of each chapter in such a way that they can consistently be assigned to students on a weekly basis and used in the preparation of exams and quizzes.

Each chapter is broken up into multiple sections, making it easy for instructors to present the material in modular and easily digestible ways.

The book is well organized, proceeding in a logical way from introductory material through quantitative topics, followed by qualitative methods and research ethics.

The pdf interface is easily navigated.

There are not grammatical errors in the book that I noted.

The textbook has several authors. The authors provide cartoon images of themselves. The group of authors come from diverse backgrounds, making the book more likely to help students from diverse backgrounds know that Political Science is their field of study.

Table of Contents

• About the Authors
• History of this OER
• Table of Tables
• Table of Figures
• Chapter 1- Introduction
• Chapter 2- History and Development of the Empirical Study of Politics
• Chapter 3- The Scientific Method
• Chapter 4- Theories, Hypotheses, Variables, and Units
• Chapter 5- Conceptualization, Operationalization, Measurement
• Chapter 6- Elements of Research Design
• Chapter 7- Qualitative Methods
• Chapter 8- Quantitative Research Methods and Means of Analysis 
• Chapter 9- Research Ethics
• Chapter 10- Conclusion

Ancillary Material

• Academic Senate for California Community Colleges

About the Book

Welcome to the official website for  Introduction to Political Science Research Methods  and  Polimetrics: A Stata Companion to Introduction to Political Science Research Methods  workbook!

Introduction to Political Science Research Methods,  authored by Dr. Josh Franco, Dr. Charlotte Lee, Kau Vue, Dr. Dino Bozonelos, Dr. Masahiro Omae, and Dr. Steven Cauchon, is an Open Education Resource textbook licensed CC BY-NC that surveys the research methods employed in political science. The textbook includes chapters that cover: history and development of the empirical study of politics; the scientific method; theories, hypotheses, variables, and units; conceptualization, operationalization and measurement of political concepts; elements of research design including the logic of sampling; qualitative and quantitative research methods and means of analysis; and research ethics.

Polimetrics: A Stata Companion,  authored by Dr. Josh Franco, is an Open Education Resource workbook licensed CC BY-NC and designed as a Stata companion to  Introduction to Political Science Research Methods . This workbook provides a tour of the Stata software, an introduction to cross-sectional, time series, and panel data, and an introduction to a variety of models. I review models where the outcome is linear, binary, ordinal, categorical, and count. Additionally, I have an interpretation chapter on survival models.

About the Contributors

Dr. Josh Franco, Cuyamaca College, Political Science: Josh Franco is a full-time, tenure-track Assistant Professor at Cuyamaca College in east San Diego County, California. He holds a Ph.D. and M.A. in Political Science, B.A. in public policy, and A.A. in economics and political science. Dr. Franco has five years of experience working in the California State Government and U.S. House of Representatives. Additionally, he was recently published in the peer-reviewed Journal of Political Science Education.

Dr. Charlotte Lee, Berkeley City College, Political Science: Charlotte Lee is full-time faculty at Berkeley City College. She teaches courses in political science and global studies. She has conducted fieldwork in Eastern Europe and China, culminating in several peer-reviewed publications in comparative politics, and will draw on that research in writing OER materials on qualitative research methods. Dr. Lee has participated in several Peralta district wide OER workshops. In February 2019, she co-facilitated an ASCCC OER Task Force webinar on resources in political science. Her Ph.D. is in political science from Stanford University.

Kau Vue, M.A. M.P.A., Fresno City College, Political Science: Kau Vue is an instructor of political science at Fresno City College in Fresno, California. She holds an M.A. in political science, a Master’s in Public Administration (M.P.A.) and a B.A. in political science and economics.

Contribute to this Page

Political Methodology Lab

Search form

The core faculty of PML run the Models and Methods (M&M) field for the political science Ph.D. program at MIT. We teach various courses in the field, both for students who choose M&M as their first or second major field and for students who simply want to acquire advanced quantitative skills for their substantive empirical research. We also offer courses at the undergraduate level.

Our graduate course offerings are centered around the four-course Quantitative Research Methods sequence, which is normally taken while a student is in their first and second years of their graduate study. The Quant Sequence is supplemented by the two Math Camps which occur towards the end of summer. The sequence is designed to get students up to speed with the cutting-edge quantitative empirical research in political science and also to prepare them to become first-rate political methodologists. 

Other graduate courses include the Formal Theory class, as well as seminar classes focused on the intersections of quantitative methodology and major substative areas of political science, such as political economy and international relations.

Graduate Courses

17.8XX Math Camp I

The Math Prefesher is designed to introduce and review core mathematics and probability prerequisites that you will need to be successful in the quantitative methods courses in the Political Science department and elsewhere at MIT. In an intense one-week course, we will cover key concepts from calculus, linear algebra, probability theory, and an introduction to statistical computing. The learning will proceed through lectures, hands-on exercises, and homework. The aim of the course is to give you an opportunity to practice some of the mathematics you may have previously learned and to introduce you to areas that may be new to you so that you will be ready to enter classes that presume prior familiarity with these concepts, such as 17.800 Quantitative Research Methods I.   Syllabus

17.800 Quantitative Research Methods I: Regression

Graduate level introduction to statistical methods for political science and public policy research, with a focus on linear regression. Teaches students how to apply multiple regression models as used in much of political science and public policy research. Also covers fundamentals of probability and sampling theory. Syllabus.

17.802 Quantitative Research Methods II: Causal Inference

Survey of advanced empirical tools for political science and public policy research with a focus on statistical methods for causal inference, i.e. methods designed to address research questions that concern the impact of some potential cause (e.g., an intervention, a change in institutions, economic conditions, or policies) on some outcome (e.g., vote choice, income, election results, levels of violence). Covers a variety of causal inference designs, including experiments, matching, regression, panel methods, difference-in-differences, synthetic control methods, instrumental variable estimation, regression discontinuity designs, quantile regressions, and bounds.  Syllabus .

17.8XX Math Camp II

The math camp will prepare students to take Quant III and Quant IV as well as other advance classes in political methodology. The goal of the class will be to remind students of basic and intermediate mathematical concepts that are useful for Quant III and Quant IV and increase both mathematical fluency and problem solving ability. I will also try to give some programming tools that you may find useful when solving problem sets of Quant III. The prerequisites include Quant I and Quant II.  Syllabus .

17.804: Quantitative Research Methods III: Generalized Linear Models and Extensions

This course is the third course in the quantitative research methods sequence at the MIT political science department. Building on the first two courses of the sequence (17.800 and 17.802), this class covers advanced statistical tools for empirical analysis in modern political science. Our focus in this course will be on techniques for  model-based inference , including various regression models for cross-section data (e.g., binary outcome models, discrete choice models, sample selection models, event count models, survival outcome models, etc.) as well as grouped data (e.g., mixed effects models and hierarchical models). This complements the methods for  design-based inference  primarily covered in the previous course of the sequence. This course also covers basics of the fundamental statistical principles underlying these models (e.g., maximum likelihood theory, theory of generalized linear models, Bayesian statistics) as well as a variety of estimation techniques (e.g., numerical optimization, bootstrap, Markov chain Monte Carlo). The ultimate goal of this course is to provide students with adequate methodological skills for conducting cutting-edge empirical research in their own fields of substantive interest.   Syllabus.

17.806: Quantitative Research Methods IV: Advanced Topics 

This course is the fourth and final course in the quantitative methods sequence at the MIT political science department. The course covers various advanced topics in applied statistics, including those that have only recently been developed in the methodological literature and are yet to be widely applied in political science. The topics for this year are organized into three broad areas: (1) research computing, where we introduce various techniques for automated data collection, visualization, and analysis of massive datasets; (2) statistical learning, where we provide an overview of machine learning algorithms for predictive and descriptive inference; and (3) finite mixture models (e.g., Latent Dirichlet allocation for text analysis), as well as a variety of estimation techniques such as EM Algorithm and Variational Inference.   Syllabus .

17.810: Game Theory and Political Theory

This course provides an introduction to formal theoretical analysis in political science. This course is designed as a rigorous introduction to the concepts and models used to analyze political behavior in strategic contexts. The course focuses on non-cooperative game theory covering normal and extensive form games, games of incomplete information, repeated games, and bargaining. Qualified undergraduates can also take the course.  Syllabus .

17.830: Empirical Methods in Political Economy

This course surveys recent methodological approaches to the study of political economy. Unlike a typical graduate-level course in political science, we will focus on a limited number of readings each week, with the goal of understanding and evaluating in detail the analytical decisions made by the authors of each study. In addition to learning about advanced methods being used in the social sciences today, the goal of the class is for students to develop an appreciation for how publishable quantitative papers are constructed, from the questions they ask to how they defend and justify the methodological choices they make.   Syllabus . 

17.426: Empirical Models in International Relations

This course explores statistical methods as applied to international relations, with  reference to similar  applications in comparative politics and other fields . We will discuss  statistical approaches to analyzing  various  types  of  data used  by  IR  scholars.    We  will  read  both  methodological  and  applied  work,  familiarizing students with an array of models  and critically analyzing their strengths and weaknesses.  It  is  not  intended  as  a  substitute  for  Quantitative  Methods  I,  II,  and  III ,  but  as  a  complementary  course. The goal of the course is to expose students to the range of quantitative models applied in  international relations scholarship, assess the strengths and weaknesses of particular modeling choices,  and  to  develop  the  ability  to  design  empirical  research  projects  of  their  own.  It  is  strongly  recommended that students have taken Quantitative Methods I prior to this course.  Syllabus

17.212: Formal Approaches to American Political Institutions

This is the second in a two-course graduate sequence on American political institutions, emphasizing the concepts and methods in formal theory used to analyze domestic politics. It is organized thematically, according to strategic interactions and social problems that institutions may both solve and exacerbate, such as delegation, collective action, commitment, and preference aggregation. For each of these themes, we will learn some basic game theoretic modeling techniques; closely read a few formative papers; and apply our tools to the analysis of a wide range of specific problems in American politics, including questions about elections, political participation, polarization, representation, the internal organization of Congress and the bureaucracy, separation of powers, campaign finance, redistribution, public goods provision, and the legislative process.  Syllabus

17.850: Political Science Scope and Methods (Graduate)

The world is full of compelling stories, fascinating events, and baffling puzzles. But how do  these ideas translate into research? The purpose of this course is to help you move from  topics of interest to research questions, and to give you the skills necessary to answer those  questions with solid, well- designed empirical research. The course draws on current research  in political science to introduce you to the enterprise of scientific research in politics.  Specifically, the course reviews the basic principles of research design and eval uates the  strengths and weaknesses of various empirical approaches. Mastering these skills —indeed  internalizing them so that they become second nature —is one of the most important things  that you will learn in graduate school. You will emerge from this course not only a more  sophisticated consumer of the literature, but in a position to design and conduct your own  independent scholarly research. Syllabus

17.878: Qualitative Methods and Fieldwork

This course is intended for political science PhD students, though we will also be drawing on sociology and anthropology. By the end of the course, students should be well-equipped to undertake their own fieldwork. Students will also be familiar with the major debates surrounding qualitative research in the discipline, and they will be able to confidently assess the design, execution, and interpretation of qualitative field research.   Syllabus .

17.S953: New Methods for Causal Inference

This is a graduate-level seminar class on recent advancements in the field of statistical methods for causal inference. The purpose of this class is to provide students with experience and skills that are necessary to conduct research on methodological topics professionally. Although the class focuses on methods for causal inference, many of the research skills students will learn in the class will be transportable to methodological research in other subfields. After taking this class, students will be able to read typical articles from journals like the Journal of the American Statistical Association and Political Analysis quite comfortably. They will also be ready to embark on a methodological research project independently, particularly in the field of causal inference. Finally, they will also have built familiarity with cutting-edge causal inference methods potentially useful for their applied work. Syllabus .

17.S950: Bayesian Measurement Models

This course covers quantitative measurement from a Bayesian perspective. It focuses on the specification of measurement models linking observed data (i.e., manifest indicators) to unobserved constructs (i.e., latent variables) of interest. For estimation of these models, we will rely on the probabilistic programming language Stan, as called from R, though we will occasionally touch on other R-based methods. The goal is to get students comfortable specifying and estimating “bespoke” measurement models tailored for particular applications. The course applies this basic framework to a large range of problems and topics, including hierarchical models, factor analysis, item response theory, latent class analysis, ecological inference, network data, and text analysis. Each is covered only in enough depth to provide a sense of what a Bayesian approach to the problem might look like. The course assumes a solid grasp of generalized linear models and the theory of likelihood and Bayesian inference, so successful completion of 17.804 (Quantitative Research Methods III) or its equivalent is a prerequisite for enrollment. Syllabus .

Undergraduate Courses

17.801: Political Science Scope and Methods (Undergraduate)

This course introduces principles of empirical and theoretical analysis in political science through research projects currently conducted in the department. Introduces students to major research questions in political science - and to different ways of examining those questions. Emphasizes how this research in progress relates to larger themes, and how researchers confront obstacles to inference in political science. Includes substantial instruction and practice in writing (with revision) and oral presentations.  Syllabus.

17.803: Political Science Laboratory

This class introduces undergraduate political scientists to the basic quantitative tools of political science research. The central theme that runs throughout  the course will be causal inference, or how we can distinguish causation from mere association when studying complex political and social phenomena. This class emphasizes practical skills, and involves hands-on exercises, lab sessions, group work, discussion and presentation sessions along with more traditional problem sets. Throughout the semester, students will work on an original research project that involves data collection, analysis with a statistical computing language (R), and a final write-up of their findings.  Syllabus.

17.811: Game Theory and Political Theory

17.831: Data and Politics 

In this course, students will both learn how statistics are changing elections and how to use statis- tics to analyze political data. While the substantive focus will be on elections, the principles and methods learned in this course have broad applicability to the decision-making in a broad variety of fields. The course will be roughly divided into 4 sections organized around a different methodolog- ical topic, with an application to an electoral phenomenon. For each section, students will work with the professor on analyzing a unique dataset related to electoral politics. The first section will focus on data description and dimension reduction. The second section will involve the analysis of survey data on electoral behavior. The third section will use statistical models to predict electoral behavior using large datasets. The fourth section will focus on the design and implementation of original experiments in order to study political attitudes and behaviors.  Syllabus.

17.835 Machine Learning and Data Science in Politics 

Empirical studies in political science is entering a new era of “Big Data” where a diverse range of data sources have become available to researchers. Examples include network data from political campaigns, data from social media generated by individuals, campaign contribution and lobbying expenditure made by firms and individuals, and massive amount of international trade flows data. How can we take advantage of these new data sources and improve our understanding of politics? This course introduces various machine learning methods and their applications in political science research.  Syllabus .

• IPR Intranet

INSTITUTE FOR POLICY RESEARCH

• What We Study

Quantitative Methods for Policy Research

Focus areas.

• Improvements to experimental design and quality
• Data use, quality, and cost in policy research
• Facilitation of research networks and best practices
• Interdisciplinary training in methodological innovation

Under its research program on Quantitative Methods, the Statistics for Evidence-Based Policy and Practice, or STEPP , Center seeks to serve the practitioners and policymakers by developing and promoting state-of-the-art methods for researchers, especially in education and the applied social sciences. It seeks to generate strong evidence on research designs, synthesize and interpret results of multiple studies, and translate findings to inform policy and practice. The STEPP Center was founded in 2019 and evolved from IPR’s Q-Center.

A Message From Larry Hedges, Program Chair and STEPP Co-Director

We launched the Q-Center at IPR in 2006 to take advantage of a critical mass of scholars at the forefront of evidence-based research on social policy issues. Today, we seek to build on our foundational work by launching the STEPP Center to further develop and assess methods to generate, synthesize, and translate evidence to improve policy and practice.

Working Papers

Recently published articles and working papers in this program area include:

Jeff Dominitz and Charles F. Manski. 2024. Comprehensive OOS Evaluation of Predictive Algorithms with Statistical Decision Theory (WP-24-10).

Eli Finkel, Alexander Landry, James Druckman, Jay Van Bavel, and Rick Hoyle. 2024. Partisan Antipathy and the Erosion of Democratic Norms (WP-24-01).

Lorenzo Franchi, Natalia Barreto Parra, Anna Chorniy, Benjamin Weston, John Meurer, Jeffrey Whittle, Ronald Ackermann, and Bernard Black . 2023. A Comparative Assessment of Measures of Area-Level Socio-Economic Status (WP-23-43).

Faculty Experts

This collaborative group of interdisciplinary scholars stems from statistics, economics, education, political science, and other social science fields.

View all experts

‘An Existential Crisis’ for Science

Research training institute on cluster-randomized trials.

Faculty Organizers: Larry Hedges and Elizabeth Tipton

This two-week, in-depth training institute covers a range of specific topics in the design, implementation, and analysis of data for use in cluster-randomized trials, allowing researchers to account for the group effects of teachers and classrooms when measuring an intervention’s effects on individual student achievement. Support comes from the National Center for Education Research , housed in the U.S. Department of Education's Institute of Education Sciences.

Improving Evaluations of R&D in STEM Education 2024 Summer Institute

Northwestern University, with support from the National Science Foundation  is providing support for the 2024 Summer Research Training Institute on Improving Evaluations of Research and Development projects in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education.

Policy Brief: Using Generalization to Improve the Accuracy of Education Studies

If research studies are not based on the right combination of people, places, and contexts, then they are not much help in supplying evidence to make good policy. How can researchers best choose the classroom, school, and school district samples to evaluate educational programs? IPR statistician Elizabeth Tipton studies how to improve research methods so that evidence is more generalizable and provides concrete help for designing accurate studies.

Download the brief

• Tools and Resources
• Customer Services
• Contentious Politics and Political Violence
• Governance/Political Change
• Groups and Identities
• History and Politics
• International Political Economy
• Policy, Administration, and Bureaucracy
• Political Anthropology

Political Behavior

• Political Communication
• Political Economy

Political Institutions

• Political Philosophy
• Political Psychology
• Political Sociology
• Political Values, Beliefs, and Ideologies
• Politics, Law, Judiciary
• Post Modern/Critical Politics
• Public Opinion
• Qualitative Political Methodology
• Quantitative Political Methodology
• World Politics
• Share This Facebook LinkedIn Twitter

Article contents

Quantitative methods and feminist political science.

• Katelyn E. Stauffer Katelyn E. Stauffer Department of Political Science, University of South Carolina
•  and  Diana Z. O'Brien Diana Z. O'Brien Department of Political Science, Texas A&amp;M University
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.210
• Published online: 25 June 2018

Quantitative methods are among the most useful, but also historically contentious, tools in feminist research. Despite the controversy that sometimes surrounds these methods, feminist scholars in political science have often drawn on them to examine questions related to gender and politics. Researchers have used quantitative methods to explore gender in political behavior, institutions, and policy, as well as gender bias in the discipline. Just as quantitative methods have aided the advancement of feminist political science, a feminist perspective likewise has implications for data production, measurement, and analysis. Yet, the continued underrepresentation of women in the methods community needs to be addressed, and greater dialogue between feminist researchers and quantitative methodologists is required.

• feminist research
• quantitative methods
• women and politics
• research design

Introduction

Of the myriad of methods that can be deployed by feminist researchers, quantitative approaches are among both the most useful and also the most historically contentious. Whereas some feminist scholars have embraced quantitative methods, others have questioned their underlying assumptions and the appropriateness of their application to feminist studies. These critiques largely center on the association of quantitative methods with positivism and other epistemological concerns. Despite these debates, quantitative methods have become a central component of political science research generally and have been integrated into feminist political science more specifically.

Though applied to the study of politics as early as 1919 (see Ogburn & Goltra), quantitative techniques became integral to the discipline following the behavioral revolution of the 1960s, when political scientists became increasingly interested in understanding the underpinnings of individual political behavior (King, 1990 ). This disciplinary turn necessarily required the application of quantitative techniques, with scholars applying survey and experimental approaches to the study of politics. This shift toward political behavior also marked the first time that women were seriously incorporated into political analyses (Shanley & Schuck, 1974 ). Whereas the discipline’s previous focus on political institutions had largely obscured gender, the study of behavior shed light on women as political actors.

This increased attention to women in politics can be attributed not simply to the behavioral revolution, but also to the efforts of feminist researchers. Broadly speaking, feminist scholarship is the process of “documenting women’s lives, experiences, and concerns, illuminating gender-based stereotypes and biases” (Brooks & Hesse-Biber, 2007 , p. 4). Within political science, feminists have sought to incorporate women’s experiences into the study of politics, elucidate the gendered nature of political institutions, and document gender biases within the discipline.

The rise of quantitative methods, coupled with increased attention to women as political actors and feminist political science, together raise interesting questions about the interplay between these two lines of study. The diversity of perspectives in the feminist research tradition means there is no consensus among feminist scholars on what, if any, role quantitative methods should play in the research process. Likewise, the male dominance of the political methodology community means that it has not been forced to reckon with feminist political science. Researchers must now ask what role quantitative analysis should play in the study of feminist political science (and vice versa).

We contend that quantitative methods can and should be used in feminist research agendas, and that scholars using these methods have greatly advanced the feminist understanding of politics. Likewise, a feminist perspective can and should influence how quantitative researchers approach topics such as data production, measurement, and statistical analysis. Rather than being at odds with one another, we view feminism and quantitative methods as complementary when used appropriately.

In the sections that follow we first provide an overview of our key concepts. We next discuss the interplay between a feminist methodology and quantitative methods, offering a brief overview of the emergence of feminist research in political science. We then examine how feminist researchers have successfully used quantitative methods to offer new insights into American political development, political behavior, and political institutions, as well as to shed light on gender biases within political science. We note that just as quantitative methods have been an important tool in feminist political science, a feminist perspective likewise has implications for data production, measurement, and analysis. We conclude by discussing the gaps that remain between the two research traditions and calling for feminist methodology and quantitative analysis to be in even greater dialogue with one another.

Major Concepts

We begin by identifying and defining the major ideas underpinning these debates. First, we discuss epistemology, methodology, and methods. We then turn to feminist scholarship and quantitative methods broadly defined. Having clarified our concepts, in the subsequent sections we offer a more in-depth discussion of how feminist scholars have applied quantitative methods to the study of political science.

Epistemology, Methodology, and Methods

Epistemology refers to a theory of knowledge held by researchers (Ackerly & True, 2010 ; Harding, 1987 ). Epistemology serves as a guide for determining what constitutes fact, how evidence is defined and evaluated, and how conclusions are drawn from the research process. From a feminist perspective, knowledge production is an important topic that warrants careful evaluation and critique (Ackerly & True, 2010 , p. 27). Ultimately, the epistemology of the researcher plays a significant role in how she approaches research and the methods she employs.

While methodology and method are often used interchangeably, these terms are distinct and their differences have important implications for understanding the role played by quantitative methods in feminist political science. We adopt the definitions presented by Sandra Harding ( 1987 ). Harding defines methodology as a “theory and analysis of how research does or should proceed” (pp. 2–3). A feminist methodology thus uses feminist principles as the guiding force in approaching the research process, including posing questions, collecting data, and carrying out the project. Methodology does not demand a particular mode of analysis but rather guides how the analysis will be conducted.

Methods, in contrast, are the techniques employed to gather, produce, and analyze data. Here, researchers have many options at their disposal, including ethnography, interviews, case studies, experimentation, and statistical analysis. While a feminist methodology no doubt can (and should) guide the selection of a method, it does not demand a particular method. Indeed, there is no single “correct” feminist method, but rather a variety of valid approaches (Reinharz & Davidman, 1992 ; Brooks & Hesse-Biber, 2007 ; DeVault, 1996 ; Randall, 2010 ; Ackerly & True, 2010 ). It is the motivation and application of the method that make a work feminist, rather than the method itself. Research using statistical analyses or experimentation can be just as feminist as ethnographic work, as long as the researcher is guided by a feminist methodology when selecting and implementing these tools. Indeed, the diversity of methods used by researchers has been central to the success of feminist scholarship.

Feminist Scholarship

Defining feminism within the context of academic research is no small feat, and there are a number of distinct viewpoints across the social sciences alone. Indeed, it is perhaps more fitting to view feminism as a diverse collection of viewpoints rather than a single perspective. Some suggest that feminist scholarship is work that is oriented toward the improvement of the status of women and is undertaken by scholars who identify themselves as feminists (Eichler, 1997 ). Others argue that the researcher need not view herself as a feminist for her work to be classified as such, as long as her approach adheres to a set of common goals pursued by most feminist researchers (Ackerly & True, 2010 ). At its core, feminist research shares the common goal of challenging entrenched male power (Randall, 2010 ).

As an approach for conducting research, feminism is best situated as a methodology rather than method (Harding, 1987 ; Cook & Fonow, 1986 ). Indeed, most scholars writing on the topic of feminist methodology would likely agree that there is no distinct feminist method, as we have defined the term in this essay (Reinharz & Davidman, 1992 ; Brooks & Hesse-Biber, 2007 ; DeVault, 1996 ; Randall, 2010 ; Ackerly & True, 2010 ). Stanley and Wise ( 1990 ) suggest that many feminist scholars rebel against the idea of defining a feminist method, arguing that attempts to do so detract from the larger goals of feminism as a methodology. Rather, it is more appropriate to view feminism within the social sciences generally, and political science more specifically, as a methodological approach.

Feminist researchers share a sense of commitment to a set of common goals and seek to carry out their research based on feminist principles. In doing so, they are able to adapt and apply a diverse set of methods, including quantitative approaches. In their work Doing Feminist Research , Ackerly and True ( 2010 ) argue that a feminist methodology provides a “critical perspective on social and political life that draws our attention to the way in which social, political and economic norms, practices, and structures create injustices that are experienced differently or uniquely by certain groups of women” (p. 1). Thus, feminist research is essentially interested in understanding and interrogating social and political structures that systematically disadvantage women, and the power dynamics that underpin these structures.

A feminist perspective further demands that researchers consider how various components of the research process are themselves gendered. Decisions about what to research, what evidence to consider, how to collect and evaluate evidence, and even who to work with can all have ramifications for the research process. A feminist perspective requires the researcher consider biases that may be present at various stages of the process, and how these biases may shape the conclusions drawn from the work.

Quantitative Methods

In broad terms, quantitative research can be defined as “explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are analyzed using mathematically based methods (particularly statistics)” (Aliaga & Gunderson, 2002 ). They do so by “abstract[ing] from particular instances to seek general description to test causal hypotheses” (King, Keohane, & Verba, 1994 ). In this framework, researchers use data collected from a myriad of sources—including polls, surveys, roll call vote data, and more—to both describe phenomena of interest and test for patterns and associations between one factor (an independent or explanatory variable) and another (a dependent or outcome variable).

We adopt a broad definition of quantitative methods, defining any project that relies on statistical testing of numerical data as quantitative. This includes analyses of both experimental and observational data and allows for a host of statistical methods, from the most basic difference-in-means tests through more advanced techniques. For our purpose, the most important features to highlight are the diversity among quantitative methods, and the fact that these methods are used to create simplified representations of political systems, institutions, and behavior in order to allow for clearer inferences.

Quantitative Methods and Feminist Research

Of the many methods that can be deployed by feminist researchers, quantitative approaches are both among the most useful and also the most historically contentious. While some feminist researchers have embraced quantitative methods, others have questioned their underlying assumptions, and thus their utility for feminist research. In this latter camp, some even argue that quantitative methods are necessarily non-feminist in nature. Much of this tension is rooted in concerns over epistemology.

Quantitative methods have been associated with a positivist research tradition. Positivism represents a distinct epistemological approach to knowledge and the research process. From a positivist perspective, knowledge is an objective truth, one that can be discovered and discerned through analysis (Brooks & Hesse-Biber, 2007 ; Ramazanoglu & Holland, 2002 ). The positivist tradition places a premium on objectivity, with research ideally devoid of the values and biases of the researcher. In this sense, many view quantitative methods as purporting to be “value free.”

Some feminists have challenged the positivist assertion that there is a knowable truth that can be assessed through empirical evidence. They argue that the “statistics as hard facts” mentality is fundamentally flawed (see Brooks & Hesse-Biber, 2007 ). Feminists note that no method can truly be value-free; rather, each piece of research (and the implementation of each method) is shaped by the biases and perspective of the individual carrying out the research. Indeed, a cornerstone of feminism as methodology is the understanding that the research process itself is shaped by gendered norms and practices (Ackerly & True, 2010 ). From the perspective of some feminist scholars, quantitative methods (and positivism more generally) adhere to a more masculine set of research approaches and values.

Yet, critiques of positivism have not been universal among feminist researchers. In fact, some argue that feminists should not only embrace objectivity in research but should push to further strengthen it (Harding, 1987 , 1998 ). Harding and other feminist empiricists posit that the research process is riddled with male biases that obscure women and their experiences. Feminist scholars should thus push for even stricter standards of objectivity to remove these biases from the research process. This will result in a more accurate picture of the social and political world. Being aware of biases in the research process, and correcting for these biases, is central to ascertaining this truth. In advocating for “strong objectivity,” feminists in this tradition contend that they will be able to gather data that will be more representative of women’s experiences.

Still other feminist scholars rebel against the notion that the use of quantitative methods means that a researcher necessarily subscribes to the assumptions and underpinnings of a positivist epistemology. While quantitative methods are most commonly associated with positivism, feminists from a wide range of epistemological approaches have applied these methods. Indeed, many feminists employ quantitative methods while rejecting the idea of an accessible universal “truth.” This framework makes use of quantitative tools while accepting that scientific inquiry can never truly be objective and impartial (and indeed perhaps should not be).

Within political science, feminist research addresses issues of authority, fairness, justice, and power and seeks to include gender in research paradigms where it has previously been ignored. Feminist researchers ask and answer questions related to these issues using a variety of methods and methodological approaches. Some scholars reject positivism generally, opting for interpretivist approaches. Others—both positivists and interpretivists—prefer qualitative techniques to quantitative methods. Indeed, within political science, female scholars across subfields are less likely to use quantitative tools (Breuning & Sanders, 2007 ; Teele & Thelen, 2017 ). Yet, large contingents of feminist scholars in political science are not only open to quantitative methods but have fully embraced these approaches.

Feminism in Political Science

Quantitative political science was developed to answer questions raised by the political world. Feminist political science likewise emerged in response to the contemporary women’s movement (Carroll & Zerilli, 1993 ). Feminists highlight the inequalities experienced by women in society, and the political consequences of these inequities. Feminism in academia challenges gender prejudice by calling attention to the underrepresentation of women within the academy and the exclusion of women from dominant research paradigms. That is, feminist scholars highlight both the absence of women as researchers and the absence of research relating to women’s experiences. In the context of political science, this means discussing the causes and consequences of men’s overrepresentation in the discipline and addressing potential problems in how the discipline treats (or fails to treat) gender in its research paradigms.

The integration of feminist research practices into political science is in large part due to women’s increased presence in the discipline. From the early 1970s onward, more women began entering the academy broadly, and political science specifically (Randall, 2010 ). This growth in women’s numbers—coupled with the creation of the Women’s Caucus for Political Science in 1969 1 (Sapiro, 1998 )—created an environment ripe for the incorporation of feminist ideas and research practices into the discipline. Indeed in the years since the Women’s Caucus was founded, the American Political Science Association (APSA) Women and Politics Research Section was created, and the number of articles and dissertations related to gender and politics has steadily increased (Carroll & Zerilli, 1993 ).

Scholars interested in the development of feminist political science discuss the process as having occurred in phases (Randall, 2010 ; Carroll & Zerilli, 1993 ; Lovenduski, 1998 ). Though useful for conceptual clarity, these phases often overlap with one another chronologically (Randall, 2010 ). The first stage was largely categorized by critiques of the discipline for its historic exclusion of women (see Bourque & Grossholtz, 1974 and Iglitzin, 1974 for notable examples). As Carroll and Zerilli ( 1993 ) note, political science traditionally characterized women as apolitical and treated them as invisible in politics. In their survey of research on political behavior, Bourque and Grossholtz ( 1974 ) note that a considerable number of studies made no reference to women at all. Those that did were often plagued by problematic assumptions that marginalized women as political actors. This work, for example, equated women with their roles as wives and mothers, treated masculine characteristics as the political norm, and assumed men’s inherent dominance in the political system (see Corder & Wolbrecht, 2016 for a more in-depth discussion of early treatments of gender). The primary contribution of this early work was not necessarily creating alternatives to the discipline’s practices, but rather identifying the shortcomings in women’s treatment in the political science literature (Bourque & Grossholtz, 1974 ). Defining this problem proved a vital first step and paved the way for feminist researchers to push the discipline toward the study of women and politics.

Having identified the problem of women’s exclusion, the second strand of feminist research began to more fully incorporate women into the study of politics. Carroll and Zerilli ( 1993 ) point to early work by Kirkpatrick ( 1974 , 1976 ) and Diamond ( 1977 ) at the elite level as particularly important for the inclusion of women in research on elite level politics, and for helping to dispel the myth that women were inherently apolitical. As more researchers examined women’s presence in elected office in more systematic ways, questions about the causes and consequences of women’s underrepresentation were more readily explored (Randall, 2010 ). Rather than relying on the stereotype that politics was an inherently masculine domain, this research focused on gender socialization and institutional characteristics (Diamond, 1977 ; Kirkpatrick, 1974 ; Jennings & Farah, 1981 ). Studies of behavior similarly began incorporating women into political analyses, including examining women’s interest (and participation) in politics (Baxter & Lansing, 1983 ; Sapiro, 1983 ; Welch, 1977 ; Rapoport, 1982 ). This research tradition is sometimes referred to as an “add women and stir” approach (Lovenduski, 1998 ; Randall, 2010 ; Beckwith, 2005 ). Yet, this category of research was/is useful because as Carroll and Zerilli ( 1993 ) note, incorporating women into existing frameworks, “pointed to the possible limitations and inadequacies of those frameworks” and often helped shed light on where “important adjustments were necessary” because “women did not always fit simply and neatly into the existing picture” (p. 60).

Randall ( 2010 ) classifies the third stage of feminist research as characterized by researchers who:

Raise more fundamental questions about their discipline: about limitations of the characteristic methodologies employed in political science, about the way that politics is conceptualized, and about the “gendered” character of political institutions and processes. (p. 119)

Feminists in this tradition have called into question the discipline’s understanding of what constitutes politics, arguing that the division between private and public spheres did not represent women’s view of politics (Carroll, 1989 ). This work, for example, explored women’s engagement in community-level institutions, voluntary associations, and neighborhood organizing (see Beckwith, 2005 ). Research in this vein has also asked questions about how institutions and political processes are themselves gendered. This research moves gender from an individual characteristic to an analytic tool used to study policy and institutions (Acker, 1992 ; Franceschet, 2011 ; Kathlene, 1994 ; Hawkesworth, 2003 ).

Feminist Political Science and Quantitative Methods

Feminist political science examines how gender and gendered experiences shape (and are shaped by) politics. As a methodology, feminism both reveals new research questions and also influences the methods selected to address these topics. Importantly, feminist research draws on a wide variety of approaches, including quantitative methods. In fact, it encourages using the method that is best suited for answering the research question, rather than selecting research problems based on their fit with popular disciplinary methods. By advocating for problem-driven—rather than methods-driven—scholarship, feminist methodology arguably opens up a broader set of options to researchers.

While in some academic disciplines quantitative methods and feminist approaches are viewed as being at odds with one another, statistical techniques have long been used for studying women’s political lives. In fact, the research project that first introduced quantitative methods to political science addressed a women-and-politics question. Published in the year prior to the ratification of the 19th Amendment, Ogburn and Goltra ( 1919 ) used quantitative methods to explore whether women held different policy preferences than men, and whether these different preferences would have electoral consequences once women were granted suffrage nationwide. The authors sought to answer this question using data from an election in Portland, Oregon in which women were allowed to vote. Of course, to modern feminist and quantitatively oriented scholars, Ogburn and Goltra’s analysis and treatment of gender is rudimentary at best. Today’s researchers would recognize a number of limitations (both empirical and theoretical) in their work. Yet, it is important to note that the first foray of political science into the world of quantitative methods focused on women as an analytic group/category.

Ogburn and Goltra ( 1919 ) provide an early example linking quantitative research and the study of gender and politics. In subsequent decades, the use of quantitative methods by political scientists increased steadily (King, 1990 ). The study of gender and politics, in contrast, continued to be marginalized. As the discipline became more oriented toward the study of political behavior, women in politics increasingly became a subject of inquiry (Shanley & Schuck, 1974 ; Beckwith, 2005 ). As feminist scholars shifted toward integrating the study of gender into political science, they generally conformed to the methodological norms and practices of the discipline (Beckwith, 2005 ). This necessarily meant the incorporation of quantitative methods.

Yet, beyond simply employing quantitative methods in their research, feminist scholars have been quick to adapt to, and contribute to, cutting edge trends in quantitative methods including causal inference and experimental studies. Stauffer and O’Brien ( 2018 ) note that scholars publishing in Politics & Gender (the official journal of the APSA Women and Politics Section) employ a wide array of quantitative methods, including both observational and experimental work. Indeed nearly 60% of papers published in P&G since its founding have incorporated some form of quantitative analysis, with 13% of quantitative articles including an experimental component. Applying a feminist lens to experimental design, political scientists have examined topics related to intersectionality (Cassese, Barnes, & Branton, 2015 ; Philpot & Walton, 2007 ), the gendered nature of elections (Barnes & Beaulieu, 2014 ; Cassese & Holman, 2017 ), mentorship networks (Kalla, Rosenbluth, & Teele, 2018 ), voter and elite bias (Teele, Kalla, and Rosenbluth, forthcoming ), and candidate emergence (Karpowitz, Monson, & Preece, 2017 ). These projects not only enhance our understanding of gender and politics but also provide insights into the design and analysis of experiments. In this sense, feminist scholars are not simply following methodological trends in the discipline, they are also actively contributing to their growth and expansion.

Quantitative Applications to Feminist Political Science

Within political science, many feminist scholars have adopted disciplinary norms concerning appropriate methods. While critics of these methods argue that they can obscure biases faced by women, feminist scholars have effectively employed them to challenge assumptions in the political science literature. Feminist political scientists use quantitative methods, for example, to ask new research questions, pose new answers to old questions, and to expose gaps in some of the discipline’s dominant paradigms. Quantitative approaches thus play a vital role in feminist political research. In the following paragraphs, we identify several important ways in which feminist scholars have used quantitative analyses to strengthen their research and our broader understanding of politics and political science.

Revealing the Gendered Nature of Political Development, Behavior, and Institutions

When combined with a feminist lens, quantitative methods have allowed scholars to reexamine and revise our understanding of politics and conventional political science. Choosing from a myriad of cases across virtually all subfields, we focus on examples from American political development, political behavior, and political institutions.

American Political Development

Quantitative approaches that take women and gender seriously have contributed greatly to our understanding of the historical development of American politics. This work, for example, provides further evidence of women’s extensive participation in American politics prior to women’s suffrage. Carpenter and Moore ( 2014 ) use statistical analyses of anti-slavery petitions to better understand women’s political participation both before and after the American Civil War. Their work shows that women were more successful at mobilizing support for the anti-slavery cause than their male counterparts, and that women’s engagement with the anti-slavery movement provided the civic skills and networks necessary for later activism.

Teele ( 2018 ) and McConnaughy ( 2013 ) likewise use statistical analyses of historical data to reexamine the political causes underlying the uneven expansion of women’s suffrage in U.S. states prior to the passage of the 19th Amendment. In examining the role of political coalitions (McConnaughy, 2013 ), strategic parties, and political competition (Teele, 2018 ), this work provides important insights into the gendered nature of the state. Corder and Wolbrecht ( 2016 ) use quantitative data to examine the political behavior of women once suffrage was achieved—a question largely unanswered by previous work. In doing so, they incorporate women into traditional accounts of political realignment, and illustrate that previous narratives that excluded women provide an incomplete picture.

Feminist political science has also applied quantitative methods to reveal systematic differences in how men and women experience the political world. Take, for example, female and male voters. Women have distinct ideological leanings (Box-Steffensmeier, De Boef, & Lin, 2004 ; Homola, 2017 ; Inglehart & Norris, 2000 ) and prioritize different issues (Clayton, Josefsson, Mattes, & Mozaffar, forthcoming ). Differences between men and women further extend to political behavior. Regression analyses using survey data show that women in the United States and abroad are generally less politically engaged than men (Desposato & Norrander, 2009 ; Inglehart & Norris, 2003 ; Kittilson & Schwindt-Bayer, 2012 ). Though women are just as (and often more) likely to vote, they are less likely to follow politics in the news, discuss politics with friends, or contact their representatives (Burns, Schlozman, & Verba, 2001 ; Frazer & Macdonald, 2003 ; Inglehart & Norris, 2003 ). They are also less likely to engage in elite challenging actions, including protest and civic activism (Desposato & Norrander, 2009 ). Understanding these differences has contributed to our understanding of the political world, led to a more nuanced understanding of politics, and has important consequences for research related to representation and government responsiveness. By highlighting these gaps, feminist scholars have emphasized the ways in which women are (and are not) represented in political power structures and institutions.

Quantitative research not only reveals how men and women engage in politics differently, but also provides insights into the meaning that individuals ascribe to the representation they receive. Statistical analysis in comparative politics reveals that when women see people “like them” in power, they can become more politically engaged and ambitious (Barnes & Burchard, 2013 ; Desposato & Norrander, 2009 ; Wolbrecht & Campbell, 2007 ). Though evidence in the U.S. context is more mixed (see Lawless, 2004 ), in some cases quantitative work has linked women’s presence to heightened perceptions of democratic legitimacy (Clayton, O’Brien, & Piscopo, 2017 ) and increases in engagement and feelings of self-efficacy (Atkeson, 2003 ; Burns, Schlozman, & Verba, 2001 ; Atkeson & Carillo, 2007 ). Further, analysis of survey data in both the United States and comparative contexts reveals that when symbolic effects manifest, they need not be limited to legislative and/or electoral contexts (Badas & Stauffer, 2018a , 2018b ; Barnes & Taylor-Robinson, 2018 ; Beauregard, 2016 ; Liu & Banasak, 2017 ; Schwindt-Bayer & Reyes-Housholder, 2017 ). This work not only has important implications for academic discussions of representation, but also normative implications related to justice, fairness, and equality in representative governments.

Just as feminist scholars have used statistical methods to highlight men’s and women’s distinct political behaviors, they have also found systematic differences in how women and men gain, maintain, and behave in political office. At the most foundational level, quantitative research shows that men are systematically overrepresented in virtually all political posts. Quantitative scholarship based on observational data been instrumental to identifying the cultural factors, social structures, and political institutions that shape women’s inclusion in, and exclusion from, office (Fox & Lawless, 2010 ; Kittilson, 2008 ; Krook & O’Brien, 2012 ; Paxton, Hughes, & Green, 2006 ; Paxton & Kunovich, 2003 ; Ross, 2008 ). Quantitative experimental research likewise offers valuable insights into the gender-based challenges female candidates must overcome when running for political office (Bauer, 2015 , 2017 ). Quantitative scholarship further illustrates that when women gain access to power, they often end up concentrated in low-prestige posts or positions associated with women’s traditional gender roles (Barnes & O’Brien, 2018 ; Escobar-Lemmon & Taylor-Robinson, 2009 ; Jalalzai, 2013 ; Reynolds, 1999 ). Statistical analyses further reveal distinct patterns in women’s and men’s behavior once in office (Barnes, 2016 ; Clayton, Josefsson, & Wang, 2017 ; Greene, & O’Brien, 2016 ), and show that women face unique challenges in these posts (Kathlene, 1994 ; O’Brien, 2015 ; Schwindt-Bayer, 2006 ).

While quantitative methods highlight disparities in men’s and women’s presence in political office, they also offer insights into remedying women’s underrepresentation. Work in this vein in comparative politics has focused particular attention on quota laws—legal requirements mandating the (s)election of female candidates for legislative office. Quota legislation has now been implemented in over 80 countries, and more than 30 others have at least one political party that voluntarily applies a quota policy during candidate selection (Dahlerup & Norris, 2014 ). Although quota policies alone are neither necessary nor sufficient for guaranteeing women’s election to national assemblies, quantitative analyses suggest that they are among the strongest predictors of women’s presence in legislatures (Paxton, Hughes, & Painter, 2010 ; Paxton & Hughes, 2015 ; Tripp & Kang, 2008 ) and may contribute to women’s ascension to other leadership posts (O’Brien & Rickne, 2016 ). Statistical analyses have also been instrumental in identifying the features that allow quota policies to be most successful, including placement mandates and sanctions for noncompliance (Schwindt-Bayer, 2009 ). Clearly, quantitative methods and feminist political science have drawn attention together to the most important set of electoral reforms of this generation and improved our studies of institutions and institutional design more generally.

Translating Feminist Scholarship to Policy and Politics

In addition to revealing the ways in which women and men experience politics differently, quantitative analyses provide a vehicle for feminist scholars to engage with questions of policy and politics outside of academia. Feminist research agendas should draw on, and be directly relevant to, (female) citizens’ experiences with politics. This work, in turn, provides important insights for improving women’s lives and eliminating gendered barriers that are damaging to women (and many men, too). To communicate these implications more broadly, feminist scholars must produce work that is compelling to policymakers. As Spalter-Roth and Hartmann ( 1987 ) argue, this is often difficult to accomplish in the absence of quantitative methods.

Using what they refer to as a “Dual Vision” of feminist policy research, organizations like the Institute for Women’s Policy Research (IWPR) seek to produce work that is informed by a feminist methodology but that is also accessible to policy actors and will stand up to the scrutiny of government organizations. In 1987 the organization issued its inaugural report, which examined the negative ramifications for women who did not have access to job-protected leave for medical and family reasons (Spalter-Roth & Hartmann, 1987 ). This research contributed to discussions that eventually resulted in the Family and Medical Leave Act. Today IWPR regularly appears before Congress to discuss policy matters related to women’s economic security and produces some of the most widely cited research on the gender wage gap.

Work by organizations like IWPR illustrates that those quantitative methods can be powerful tools for feminists seeking to apply social science findings to the policy sphere. This is not to suggest that all feminists must use quantitative methods in order to speak to policy-relevant matters (nor do Spalter-Roth and Hartmann make this claim). However, a collective research agenda that includes no quantitative component is likely to encounter difficulty garnering the attention of policymakers, whereas research that incorporates quantitative techniques will likely be more successful on this front.

Demonstrating Biases Against Women in the Discipline

Finally, quantitative methods have been used to document the challenges faced by female scholars in political science. Data on scholarship produced by men and women reveals disturbing patterns. Historically, female political scientists published at lower rates than their male counterparts (Young, 1995 ), and Teele and Thelen ( 2017 ) demonstrate the continued underrepresentation of women in the most prestigious political science journals. This underrepresentation can be attributed in part to women’s exclusion from co-authorship networks. Women are not only underrepresented in political science journals, they are also cited less than men (Maliniak, Powers, & Walter, 2013 ). Interestingly, women who attend the Society for Political Methodology’s female-only quantitative methods conference—Visions in Methodology (VIM)—are better networked and more productive in terms of publications than female scholars who have not attended the event (Barnes & Beaulieu, 2017 ).

As well as authorship patterns, quantitative methods have been used to demonstrate that female political scientists have different career trajectories. Sumner and Key ( 2017 ) use structural topic models to show that women are both more likely to research topics that diverge from those traditionally studied in political science and also to work in “practitioner” fields like public health and public policy. Quantitative methods have also been used to show that later in their careers, women are less likely to be promoted, even when controlling for publication productivity (Hesli, Lee, & Mitchell, 2012 ). Clearly, women within political science—some, but not all of whom also work in the field of gender and politics—have marshaled “mainstream” approaches to research in order to lay bare the challenges faced by female academics and enhance women’s status within the discipline.

Feminist Contributions to Quantitative Methods

When used in conjunction with a feminist methodology, quantitative methods advance feminist political science and policy activism. This contribution, moreover, is reciprocal. Just as quantitative methods can benefit feminist scholarship, feminist methodology can shape the development and application of quantitative methods, including the tools used to produce, gather, and analyze data.

Data Production

Feminist methodology has important lessons for data production. First, acknowledging the researcher’s role in the production of data is central to feminist scholarship. Feminist methodology thus forces us to confront the extent to which the data generated is the result of decisions made by the researcher. This is particularly true in quantitative work that relies on survey data. Here, feminist methodology demands that researchers understand the surveys that they use, exercise care in the construction of questions and survey implementation, and recognize the limitations and biases of survey measures.

A common concern in survey research, for example, is social desirability bias. That is, respondents may answer questions not based on their true opinions, but instead offer answers they believe the researcher wants to hear, or that will cast the respondent in a favorable light (Miner-Rubino & Jayaratne, 2007 ). This is especially concerning in surveys that use face-to-face or phone interviews. Social desirability bias provides a good example of the researcher influencing the data production process simply by her presence. For feminist research, this could lead to gender biases being masked in the data, or a failure to accurately measure certain attitudes and behaviors. A feminist approach to survey data requires all scholars (irrespective of sex) to ask where the researcher fits within the research process and how data production is shaped by her presence.

Feminist scholarship likewise highlights the need for all survey researchers to be careful in the construction of survey questions. On this point there are two primary concerns. First, does the question measure the intended concept? Second, does the question inadvertently reinforce gender stereotypes or problematic assumptions? The first point is important for practical reasons. If a question means one thing to the researcher and another to survey respondents, its utility is lost. On the second point, scholars must be aware of their own biases and attempt to remove these biases from survey questions. Early critiques of quantitative work argued that many surveys reinforced or cued gender stereotypes among participants (Randall, 1994 ; Bourque & Grossholtz, 1974 ; Iglitzin, 1974 ). More recent work by Bittner and Goodyear-Grant ( 2017 ) notes that the mere inclusion of a gender question with only male and female answer options on surveys reinforces an incorrect conception of gender as a binary and risks alienating individuals who do not view themselves this way.

Measurement

Closely related to issues of data production are matters related to measurement. For quantitative researchers, questions of variable construction and conceptualization are key to the research process. As with data production, there is room for a feminist perspective to influence how researchers think about measurement and the decisions that they make in the design and analysis of their data. Below we outline examples of ways that feminist methodology can shape these measurement considerations. Though by no means exhaustive, these examples are illustrative of the value of a feminist perspective.

As a consequence of the well-established gender gap in attitudes, preferences, and behaviors, sex is a near-ubiquitous control variable in studies of political behavior in American and comparative politics research. In these cases, however, sex is being used as a rough proxy for gender—which is a complex and multifaceted concept. New research, which draws heavily on feminist scholarship, seeks to disentangle the effects of sex and gender. McDermott ( 2016 ), for example, conducts a nationally representative survey to measure gendered personality traits. Her work reveals that the effects of gender, and gendered personality traits, supersede the effects of biological sex in explaining the gender gap in support for politically left and right parties in the United States. The magnitude of this effect is on par with other determinants of political behavior, including the Big Five personality traits.

Bittner and Goodyear-Grant ( 2017 ) likewise recognize that sex is not a substitute for gender. In a survey of over 6,000 Canadians, they measure both sex and gender. While sex is a dichotomous measure, gender is measured by asking respondents to place themselves on a scale ranging from 0 (100% masculine) to 100 (100% feminine) (pp. 1027–1028). Bittner and Goodyear-Grant find that for one-quarter of their sample, binary sex is not a good proxy for their finer-grained measure of gender. They also show that for some issue areas, including abortion, there are larger differences in opinion based on gender self-identification than sex. The analyses offered by McDermott and Bittner and Goodyear-Grant illustrate that feminist perspectives have meaningful implications for quantitative researchers. Feminist methodologies lead to a more nuanced set of results about the influences of sex and gender on public opinion. In fact, accounting for gender offers a more complete understanding of political attitudes and preferences. Even public opinion researchers who do not work on gender should be cognizant of these effects.

Beyond variable construction and measurement, a feminist perspective can prove insightful for researchers working with measurement models and latent concepts. One of the most common latent concepts in the behavior literature is political knowledge. Political knowledge researchers consistently observe that men are more knowledgeable than women (Delli-Carpini & Keeter, 1996 ; Gidengil, Giles, & Thomas, 2008 ; Kenski & Jamieson, 2001 ; Verba, Burns, & Schlozman, 1997 ). They base these findings on citizens’ responses to a battery of items asking questions about government. Typically, studies employing measures of political knowledge assume that the concept captures male knowledge and female knowledge equally well, yet work on survey construction shows this is not the case. Mondak and Anderson ( 2004 ), for example, find that the size of the gender gap is in large part a function of question type. Women are more likely to select “Don’t Know” when the option is present on survey items related to knowledge, whereas male respondents are more likely to guess. These sex differences in survey responses account for roughly half of the gender gap in political knowledge. Lizotte and Sidman ( 2009 ) argue that this greater propensity to guess among men is due to women being more risk-averse to negative outcomes (in this case answering a question incorrectly). They find that about one-third of the gender gap is the result of different guessing patterns.

These findings suggest that scholars should be cautious when assuming consistency in measurement across male and female respondents. They should likewise be sensitive to the possibility that these biases are not limited to gender but may also occur in other socio-economic groups (e.g., race and class). Acknowledging these differences can, in turn, guide the researcher in selecting more appropriate models to measure latent concepts. Lizotte and Sidman ( 2009 ), for example, use a joint Item Response Theory model to estimate respondents’ levels of political knowledge. This modeling strategy allows them to account for men’s greater propensity to guess within their model, ultimately producing more accurate measures of political knowledge, and thus a less biased estimate of the gender gap. A similar approach may be useful in a variety of circumstances.

Finally, the utility of a feminist perspective in quantitative studies of politics extends far beyond political behavior research. Applying a feminist lens to questions concerning democracy and democratization challenges existing paradigms and historical understandings. Caraway ( 2004 ), for example, contends there is a disconnect between theoretical work—which emphasizes universal suffrage as a necessary condition for democracy—with empirical work—which often substitutes universal male suffrage for universal suffrage. Indeed, Paxton ( 2000 ) illustrates how our understanding of democratization would differ if women’s suffrage were included in our analyses. By shifting toward a more inclusive indicator, Paxton shows that our understanding of when states completed democratic transitions, our perceptions of the emergence of democracy, and our narratives of democratic states are fundamentally incomplete if women are not incorporated into the analysis.

Integrating women and gender into studies of democracy has major implications for our understanding of the causes and consequences of democratization. Wang et al. ( 2017 ) examine the gendered aspects of democratization. They argue that providing civil rights to women increases the costs of repression and enables the formation of women’s organizing. Women’s organizing, in turn, is important for sparking protests that facilitate democratization. They provide support for this claim using sequence analysis methods to examine data covering 173 countries over the years 1900–2012 . New quantitatively oriented research by Barnhart, Dafoe, Saunders, and Trager ( 2018 ) likewise reexamines democratic peace theory via a gendered lens. They argue that it is not merely the rise of democracy itself, but the increasing enfranchisement of women, which causes the democratic peace. The authors posit that because female citizens generally prefer more peaceful options than men, incorporating women into political decision-making discourages leaders from acting aggressively.

Conclusions

Though some view feminism and quantitative methods as at odds with one another, as feminist empiricists we reject this notion. As we have shown in this essay, feminist scholars have successfully drawn on, and contributed to, quantitative approaches to the study of politics. When used in concert with feminist methodologies, quantitative methods enhance our understanding of the role gender plays in both politics and political science. A feminist perspective can likewise guide data production and measurement by quantitative researchers. Given that gender socialization is central to men’s and women’s lived experiences, the merging of feminist methodology and quantitative methods has broad ramifications across all political domains.

Despite the potential for a fruitful relationship between the two traditions, we believe that much work remains. While feminist political science has largely embraced quantitative approaches, these scholars rarely focus their attention on developing new methods. Indeed, an assessment of the political science curricula on political methodology and gender politics conducted by Cassese et al. ( 2015 ) showed that these two areas of scholarship are “distinct and nonoverlapping,” with gender and politics texts failing to address methods (and methods texts failing to address gender). This is in part because women, who make up the overwhelming majority of feminist researchers, are underrepresented in the field of political methodology (Dion, 2014 ; Sedowski & Brintnall, 2007 ). Women are a minority of members of the APSA Political Methodology Organized Section (Breuning & Sanders, 2007 , p. 348), and the Section’s summer meetings have failed to attract large numbers of female scholars (Dion, 2014 ). No women are included among the 20 most-cited quantitative researchers in the discipline (Masuoka, Grofman, & Feld, 2007 ), and only two women are represented among the Fellows of the Society of Political Methodology. There is a clear need for more cross-pollination between feminist and quantitative researchers. Drawing more gender and politics scholars into the methods community—and inspiring quantitative researchers to focus their energies on studying feminist topics and co-authoring with feminist scholars—will pay dividends for both groups and the discipline at large.

• Acker, J. (1992). From sex roles to gendered institutions. Contemporary Sociology , 21 (5), 565–569.
• Ackerly, B. , & True, J. (2010). Doing feminist research in political and social science . New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Aliaga, M. , & Gunderson, B. (2002). Interactive statistics . New York, NY: Pearson Education.
• Atkeson, L. R. (2003). Not all cues are created equal: The conditional impact of female candidates on political engagement. Journal of Politics , 65 (4), 1040–1061.
• Atkeson, L. R. , & Carrillo, N. (2007). More is better: The influence of collective female descriptive representation on external efficacy. Poltics & Gender , 3 (1), 79–101.
• Badas, A. , & Stauffer, K. E. (2018a). Michelle Obama as a political symbol: An intersectional approach to the study of public opinion towards the First Lady (Working Paper).
• Badas, A. , & Stauffer, K. E. (2018b). Someone like me: Descriptive representation and support for Supreme Court nominees. Political Research Quarterly , 71 (1), 127–142.
• Barnes, T. D. (2016). Gendering legislative behavior . New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
• Barnes, T. D. , & Beaulieu, E. (2014). Gender stereotypes and corruption: How candidates affect perceptions of election fraud. Politics & Gender , 10 (3), 365–391.
• Barnes, T. D. , & Beaulieu, E. (2017). Engaging women: Addressing the gender gap in women’s networking and productivity. PS: Political Science & Politics , 50 (2), 461–466.
• Barnes, T. D. , & Burchard, S. M. (2013). “Engendering” politics: The impact of descriptive representation on women’s political engagement in Sub-Saharan Africa. Comparative Political Studies , 46 (7), 767–790.
• Barnes, T. D. , & O’Brien, D. Z. (2018). Defending the realm: The appointment of female defense ministers worldwide . American Journal of Political Science . Advance online publication.
• Barnes, T. D. , & Taylor-Robinson, M. (2018). Women cabinet ministers and empowerment of women: Are the two related? In A. Alexander , C. Bolzendahl , & F. Jalalzai (Eds.), Measuring women’s political empowerment across the globe: Strategies, challenges and future research (pp. 229–255). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Barnhart, J. N. , Dafoe, A. , Saunders, E. N. , & Trager, R. F. (2018). The suffragist peace (Working Paper).
• Bauer, N. M. (2015). Emotional, sensitive, and unfit for office? Gender stereotype activation and support female candidates. Political Psychology , 36 (6), 691–708.
• Bauer, N. M. (2017). The effects of counterstereotypic gender strategies on candidate evaluations. Political Psychology , 38 (2), 279–295.
• Baxter, S. , & Lansing, M. (1983). Women and politics: The visible majority (Rev. ed.). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
• Beauregard, K. (2016). Women’s representation and gender gaps in political participation: Do time and success matter in a cross-national perspective? Politics, Groups, and Identities , 1–27. Advanced online publication.
• Beckwith, K. (2005). A common language of gender? Politics & Gender , 1 (1), 128–137.
• Bittner, A. , & Goodyear-Grant, E. (2017). Sex isn’t gender: Reforming concepts and measurements in the study of public opinion. Political Behavior , 39 (4), 1019–1041.
• Bourque, S. C. , & Grossholtz, J. (1974). Politics an unnatural practice: Political science looks at female participation. Politics & Society , 4 (2), 225–266.
• Box-Steffensmeier, J. M. , De Boef, S. , & Lin, T.-M. (2004). The dynamics of the partisan gender gap. American Political Science Review , 98 (3), 515–528.
• Breuning, M. , & Sanders, K. (2007). Gender and journal authorship in eight prestigious political science journals. PS: Political Science & Politics , 40 (2), 347–351.
• Brooks, A. , & Hesse-Biber, S. N. (2007). An invitation to feminist research. In S. N. Hesse-Biber & P. L. Leavy (Eds.), Feminist research practice: A primer (pp. 1–24). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Burns, N. , Lehman Schlozman, K. , & Verba, S. (2001). The private roots of public action . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Caraway, T. L. (2004). Inclusion and democratization: Class, gender, race, and the extension of suffrage. Comparative Politics , 36 (4), 443–460.
• Carpenter, D. , & Moore, C. D. (2014). When canvassers became activists: Antislavery petitioning and the political mobilization of American women. American Political Science Review , 108 (3), 479–498.
• Carroll, S. J. (1989). The personal is political: The intersection and private lives and public roles among women and men in elective and appointive office. Women & Politics , 9 (2), 51–67.
• Carroll, S. J. , & Zerilli, L. M. (1993). Feminist challenges to political science. In A. W. Finifter (Ed.), Political science: The state of the discipline II (pp. 55–76).
• Cassese, E. C. , Barnes, T. D. , & Branton, R. P. (2015). Racializing gender: Public opinion at the intersection. Politics & Gender , 11 (1), 1–26.
• Cassese, E. C. , & Holman, M. R. (2017). Party and gender stereotypes in campaign attacks. Political Behavior . Advance online publication.
• Cassese, E. C. , Holman, M. R. , Schneider, M. , & Bos, A. (2015). Building gender and methodology curriculum: Integrated skills, exercises, and practices. Journal of Political Science Education , 11 (1), 61–77.
• Clayton, A. , Josefsson, C. , Mattes, R. , & Mozaffar, S. (forthcoming). In whose interest? Gender and mass-elite priority congruence in Sub-Saharan Africa. Comparative Political Studies .
• Clayton, A. , Josefsson, C. , & Wang, V. (2017). Quotas and women’s substantive representation: Evidence from a content analysis of Ugandan plenary debates. Politics & Gender , 13 (2), 276–304.
• Clayton, A. , O’Brien, D. Z. , & Piscopo, J. (2017). All male panels? Representation and democratic legitimacy . Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, IL.
• Cook, J. A. , & Fonow, M. M. (1986). Knowledge and women’s interests: Issues of epistemology and methodology in feminist sociological research. Sociological Inquiry , 56 (1), 2–29.
• Corder, J. K. , & Wolbrecht, C. (2016). Counting women’s ballots: Female voters from suffrage through the New Deal . New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
• Dahlerup, D. , & Norris, P. (2014). On the fast track: An integrated theory for the global spread of electoral gender quotas. Paper presented at the American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Washington, DC.
• Delli-Carpini, M. X. , & Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans know about politics and why it matters . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
• Desposato, S. , & Norrander, B. (2009). The gender gap in Latin America: Con-textual and individual influences on gender and political participation. British Journal of Political Science , 39 (1), 141–162.
• DeVault, M. L. (1996). Talking back to sociology: Distinctive contributions of feminist methodology. Annual Review of Sociology , 22 (1), 29–50.
• Diamond, I. (1977). Sex roles in the state house . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
• Dion, M. (2014). An effort to increase women’s participation: The visions in methodology initiative. The Political Methodologist , 21 (2), 6.
• Eichler, M. (1997). Feminist methodology. Current Sociology , 45 (2), 9–36.
• Escobar-Lemmon, M. , & Taylor-Robinson, M. M. (2009). Getting to the top: Career paths of women in Latin America. Political Research Quarterly , 62 (4), 685–699.
• Fox, R. L. , & Lawless, L. (2010). If only they’d ask: Gender, recruitment, and political ambition. The Journal of Politics , 72 (2), 310–326.
• Franceschet, S. (2011). Gendered institutions and women’s substantive representation: Female legislators in Argentina and Chile. In M. Krook & F. Mackay (Eds.), Gender, politics and institutions: Towards a feminist institutionalism (pp. 58–78). New York, NY: Springer.
• Frazer, E. , & Macdonald, K. (2003). Sex differences in political knowledge in Britain. Political Studies , 51 (1), 67–83.
• Gidengil, E. , Giles, J. , & Thomas, M. (2008). The gender gap in self-perceived understanding of politics in Canada and the United States. Politics & Gender , 4 (4), 535–561.
• Greene, Z. , & O’Brien, D. Z. (2016). Diverse parties, diverse agendas? The parliamentary party’s role in platform formation. European Journal of Political Research , 55 (3), 435–453.
• Harding, S. (1987). Introduction: Is there a feminist method? In S. Harding (Ed.), Feminism and methodology (pp. 1–14). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
• Harding, S. (1998). Is science multicultural? Postcolonialisms, feminisms, and epistemologies . Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
• Hawkesworth, M. (2003). Congressional enactments of race–gender: Toward a theory of raced–gendered institutions. American Political Science Review , 97 (4), 529–550.
• Hesli, V. L. , Lee, J. M. , & McLaughlin Mitchell, S. (2012). Predicting rank attainment in political science: What else besides publications affects promotion? PS: Political Science & Politics , 45 (3), 475–492.
• Homola, J. (2017). Are parties equally responsive to women and men? British Journal of Political Science . Advance online publication.
• Iglitzin, L. (1974). The making of the apolitical woman: Femininity and sex stereotyping in girls. In J. Jaquette (Ed.), Women in politics (pp. 25–36). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
• Inglehart, R. , & Norris, P. (2000). The developmental theory of the gender gap: Women’s and men’s voting behavior in global perspective. International Political Science Review/Revue internationale de science politique , 21 (4), 441–463.
• Inglehart, R. , & Norris, P. (2003). Rising tide: Gender equality and cultural change around the world . New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
• Jalalzai, F. (2013). Shattered, cracked, or firmly intact? Women and the executive glass ceiling worldwide . New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
• Jennings, M. K. , & Farah, B. G. (1981). Social roles and political resources: An over-time study of men and women in party elites. American Journal of Political Science , 25 (3), 462–482.
• Kalla, J. , Rosenbluth, F. , & Langan Teele, D. (2018). Are you my mentor? A field experiment on gender, ethnicity, and political self-starters. Journal of Politics , 80 (1), 337–341.
• Karpowitz, C. F. , Monson, J. Q. , & Robinson Preece, J. (2017). How to elect more women: Gender and candidate success in a field experiment. American Journal of Political Science , 61 (4), 927–943.
• Kathlene, L. (1994). Power and influence in state legislative policymaking: The interaction of gender and position in committee hearing debates. American Political Science Review , 88 (3), 560–576.
• Kenski, K. , & Hall Jamieson, K. (2001). The 2000 presidential campaign and differential growth in knowledge: Does the “knowledge gap” hypothesis apply to gender as well as education. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, CA.
• King, G. (1990). On political methodology. Political Analysis , 2 , 1–29.
• King, G. , Keohane, R. , & Verba, S. (1994). Designing social inquiry . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Kirkpatrick, J. J. (1974). Political woman . New York, NY: Basic Books.
• Kirkpatrick, J. J. (1976). The new presidential elite: Men and women in national politics . New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
• Kittilson, M. C. (2008). Representing women: The adoption of family leave in comparative perspective. The Journal of Politics , 70 (2), 323–334.
• Kittilson, M. C. , & Schwindt-Bayer, L. A. (2012). The gendered effects of electoral institutions: Political engagement and participation . Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
• Krook, M. L. , & O’Brien, D. Z. (2012). All the president’s men? The numbers and portfolio allocations of female cabinet ministers. Journal of Politics , 74 (3), 840–855.
• Lawless, J. L. (2004). Politics of presence? Congresswomen and symbolic representation. Political Research Quarterly , 57 (1), 81–99.
• Liu, S.-J. S. , & Banaszak, L. A. (2017). Do government positions held by women matter? A cross-national examination of female ministers’ impacts on women’s political participation. Politics & Gender , 13 (1), 132–162.
• Lizotte, M.-K. , & Sidman, A. H. (2009). Explaining the gender gap in political knowledge. Politics & Gender , 5 (2), 127–151.
• Lovenduski, J. (1998). Gendering research in political science. Annual Review of Political Science , 1 (1), 333–356.
• Maliniak, D. , Powers, R. , & Walter, B. F. (2013). The gender citation gap in international relations. International Organization , 67 (4), 889–922.
• Masuoka, N. , Grofman, B. , & Feld, S. L. (2007). The political science 400: A 20-year update. PS: Political Science & Politics , 40 (1), 133–145.
• McConnaughy, C. M. (2013). The woman suffrage movement in American: A reassessment . New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
• McDermott, M. L. (2016). Masculinity, femininity, and American political behavior . New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
• Miner-Rubino, K. , & Epstein Jayaratne, T. (2007). Feminist survey research. In S. Nagy Hesse-Biber & P. L. Leavy (Eds.), Feminist research practice: A primer (pp. 1–24). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
• Mondak, J. J. , & Anderson, M. R. (2004). The knowledge gap: A reexamination of gender-based differences in political knowledge. Journal of Politics , 66 (2), 492–512.
• O’Brien, D. Z. (2015). Rising to the top: Gender, political performance, and party leadership in parliamentary democracies. American Journal of Political Science , 59 (4), 1022–1039.
• O’Brien, D. Z. , & Rickne, J. (2016). Gender quotas and women’s political leadership. American Political Science Review , 110 (1), 112–126.
• Ogburn, W. F. , & Goltra, I. (1919). How women vote. Political Science Quarterly , 34 (3), 413–433.
• Paxton, P. (2000). Women’s suffrage in the measurement of democracy: Problems of operationalization. Studies in Comparative International Development , 35 (3), 91–111.
• Paxton, P. , & Hughes, M. M. (2015). Women, politics, and power: A global perspective . Washington, DC: CQ Press.
• Paxton, P. , Hughes, M. M. , & Green, J. L. (2006). The international women’s movement and women’s political representation, 1983–2003. American Sociological Review , 71 (6), 898–920.
• Paxton, P. , Hughes, M. M. , & Painter, M. A. (2010). Growth in women’s political representation: A longitudinal exploration of democracy, electoral system and gender. European Journal of Political Research , 49 (1), 25–52.
• Paxton, P. , & Kunovich, S. (2003). Women’s political representation: The importance of ideology. Social Forces , 82 (1), 87–113.
• Philpot, T. S. , & Walton, H. (2007). One of our own: Black female candidates and the voters who support them. American Journal of Political Science , 51 (1), 49–62.
• Ramazanoglu, C. , & Holland, J. (2002). Feminist methodology: Challenges and choices . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Randall, V. (1994). Feminism and political analysis. In P. Norris , M. Githens , & J. Lovenduski (Eds.), Different roles, different voices: Women and politics in the United States and Europe (pp. 4–16). New York, NY: Harper Collins.
• Randall, V. (2010). Feminism. In D. Marsh & G. Stoker (Eds.), Theory and methods in political science (3rd ed., pp. 114–135). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave MacMillan.
• Rapoport, R. B. (1982). Sex differences in attitude expression: A generational explanation. Public Opinion Quarterly , 46 (1), 86–96.
• Reinharz, S. , & Davidman, L. (1992). Feminist methods in social research . New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
• Reynolds, A. (1999). Women in the legislatures and executives of the World: Knocking at the highest glass ceiling. World Politics , 51 (4), 547–572.
• Ross, M. L. (2008). Oil, Islam, and women. American Political Science Review , 102 (1), 107–123.
• Sapiro, V. (1983). The political integration of women: Roles, socialization, and politics . Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press.
• Sapiro, V. (1998). Feminist studies and political science–and vice versa. In A. Phillips (Ed.), Feminism and Politics (pp. 67–89). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
• Sedowski, L. , & Brintnall, M. (2007). Data snapshot: The proportion of women in the political science profession. PS: Political Science and Politics , 40 (1–3).
• Schwindt-Bayer, L. (2009). Making quotas work: The effect of gender quota laws on the election of women. Legislative Studies Quarterly , 34 (1), 5–28.
• Schwindt-Bayer, L. , & Reyes-Housholder, C. (2017). Citizen responses to female executives: Is it sex, novelty or both? Politics, Groups and Identities , 5 (3), 373–398.
• Schwindt-Bayer, L. A. (2006). Still supermadres? Gender and the policy riorities of Latin American legislators. American Journal of Political Science , 50 (3), 570–585.
• Shanley, M. L. , & Schuck, V. (1974). In search of political women. Social Science Quarterly , 55 (3), 632–644.
• Spalter-Roth, R. M. , & Hartmann, H. I. (1987). Science and politics: The “dual vision” of feminist policy research, the example of family and medical leave . Washington, DC: Institute for Women’s Policy Research.
• Stanley, L. , & Wise, S. (1990). Method, methodology and epistemology in feminist research processes. In L. Stanley (Ed.), Feminist praxis: Research, theory and epistemology in feminist sociology (pp. 20–60). Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
• Stauffer, K. E. , & O’Brien, D. Z. (2018). Fast friends or strange bedfellows? Quantitative methods and gender and politics research (Working Paper).
• Sumner, J. L. , & Key, E. (2017). You research like a girl: Gendered research agendas and their implications for the “leaky pipeline.” Paper presented at the 2017 SPSA Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA.
• Teele, D. L. (2018). How the West was won: Competition, mobilization, and women’s enfranchisement in the United States. Journal of Politics , 80 (2), 442–461.
• Teele, D. L. , Kalla, J. , & Rosenbluth, F. (forthcoming). The ties that double bind: Social roles and women’s under representation in politics. American Political Science Review .
• Teele, D. L. , & Thelen, K. (2017). Gender in the journals: Publication patterns in political science. PS: Political Science & Politics , 50 (2), 433–447.
• Tripp, A. M. , & Kang, A. (2008). The global impact of quotas: On the fast track to increased female legislative representation. Comparative Political Studies , 41 (3), 338–361.
• Verba, S. , Burns, N. , & Lehman Schlozman, K. (1997). Knowing and caring about politics: Gender and political engagement. The Journal of Politics , 59 (4), 1051–1072.
• Wang, Y.-T. , Lindenfors, P. , Sundström, A. , Jansson, F. , Paxton, P. , & Lindberg, S. I. (2017). Women’s rights in democratic transitions: A global sequence analysis, 1900–2012. European Journal of Political Research , 56 (4), 735–756.
• Welch, S. (1977). Women as political animals? A test of some explanations for male- female political participation differences. American Journal of Political Science , 21 , 711–730.
• Wolbrecht, C. , & Campbell, D. E. (2007). Leading by example: Female members of Parliament as political role models. American Journal of Political Science , 51 (4), 921–939.
• Young, C. D. (1995). An assessment of articles published by women in the 15 top political science journals. PS: Political Science & Politics , 28 (3), 525–533.

1. Since its inception, the Women’s Caucus for Political Science has advocated for increased gender equality in the discipline and has participated in activism outside of the academy. The Women’s Caucus successfully advocated for the American Political Science Association to boycott meetings in states that had not ratified the Equal Rights Amendment during the period of ratification, and the caucus has recently been active in advocating for a number of public policies, including the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009.

Related Articles

• Gender and Political Behavior
• Men's Political Representation
• Gender-Sensitive Parliaments
• Politometrics: Quantitative Models of Political Institutions
• Quantitative Methods in Foreign Policy
• The Political Economy of Gender
• Attitudes Toward Women and the Influence of Gender on Political Decision Making

Printed from Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Politics. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice).

date: 24 April 2024

• Cookie Policy
• Privacy Policy
• Legal Notice
• Accessibility
• [66.249.64.20|45.133.227.243]
• 45.133.227.243

Character limit 500 /500

Numbers, Facts and Trends Shaping Your World

Read our research on:

Full Topic List

Regions & Countries

• Publications
• Our Methods
• Short Reads
• Tools & Resources

Read Our Research On:

U.S. Surveys

Pew Research Center has deep roots in U.S. public opinion research.  Launched initially  as a project focused primarily on U.S. policy and politics in the early 1990s, the Center has grown over time to study a wide range of topics vital to explaining America to itself and to the world. Our hallmarks: a rigorous approach to methodological quality, complete transparency as to our methods, and a commitment to exploring and evaluating ongoing developments in data collection. Learn more about how we conduct our domestic surveys  here .

The American Trends Panel

Try our email course on polling

Want to know more about polling? Take your knowledge to the next level with a short email mini-course from Pew Research Center. Sign up now .

From the 1980s until relatively recently, most national polling organizations conducted surveys by telephone, relying on live interviewers to call randomly selected Americans across the country. Then came the internet. While it took survey researchers some time to adapt to the idea of online surveys, a quick look at the public polls on an issue like presidential approval reveals a landscape now dominated by online polls rather than phone polls.

Most of our U.S. surveys are conducted on the American Trends Panel (ATP), Pew Research Center’s national survey panel of over 10,000 randomly selected U.S. adults. ATP participants are recruited offline using random sampling from the U.S. Postal Service’s residential address file. Survey length is capped at 15 minutes, and respondents are reimbursed for their time. Respondents complete the surveys online using smartphones, tablets or desktop devices. We provide tablets and data plans to adults without home internet. Learn more  about how people in the U.S. take Pew Research Center surveys.

Methods 101

Our video series helps explain the fundamental concepts of survey research including random sampling , question wording , mode effects , non probability surveys and how polling is done around. the world.

The Center also conducts custom surveys of special populations (e.g., Muslim Americans , Jewish Americans , Black Americans , Hispanic Americans , teenagers ) that are not readily studied using national, general population sampling. The Center’s survey research is sometimes paired with demographic or organic data to provide new insights. In addition to our U.S. survey research, you can also read more details on our  international survey research , our demographic research and our data science methods.

Our survey researchers are committed to contributing to the larger community of survey research professionals, and are active in AAPOR and is a charter member of the American Association of Public Opinion Research (AAPOR)  Transparency Initiative .

Frequently asked questions about surveys

• Why am I never asked to take a poll?
• Can I volunteer to be polled?
• Why should I participate in surveys?
• What good are polls?
• Do pollsters have a code of ethics? If so, what is in the code?
• How are your surveys different from market research?
• Do you survey Asian Americans?
• How are people selected for your polls?
• Do people lie to pollsters?
• Do people really have opinions on all of those questions?
• How can I tell a high-quality poll from a lower-quality one?

Reports on the state of polling

• Key Things to Know about Election Polling in the United States
• A Field Guide to Polling: 2020 Edition
• Confronting 2016 and 2020 Polling Limitations
• What 2020’s Election Poll Errors Tell Us About the Accuracy of Issue Polling
• Q&A: After misses in 2016 and 2020, does polling need to be fixed again? What our survey experts say
• Understanding how 2020 election polls performed and what it might mean for other kinds of survey work
• Can We Still Trust Polls?
• Political Polls and the 2016 Election
• Flashpoints in Polling: 2016

Sign up for our Methods newsletter

The latest on survey methods, data science and more, delivered quarterly.

OTHER RESEARCH METHODS

Sign up for our weekly newsletter.

Fresh data delivered Saturday mornings

1615 L St. NW, Suite 800 Washington, DC 20036 USA (+1) 202-419-4300 | Main (+1) 202-857-8562 | Fax (+1) 202-419-4372 |  Media Inquiries

Research Topics

• Age & Generations
• Coronavirus (COVID-19)
• Economy & Work
• Family & Relationships
• Gender & LGBTQ
• Immigration & Migration
• International Affairs
• Internet & Technology
• Methodological Research
• News Habits & Media
• Non-U.S. Governments
• Other Topics
• Politics & Policy
• Race & Ethnicity
• Email Newsletters

ABOUT PEW RESEARCH CENTER  Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of  The Pew Charitable Trusts .

Copyright 2024 Pew Research Center

Terms & Conditions

Privacy Policy

Cookie Settings

Reprints, Permissions & Use Policy

• Privacy Policy

Buy Me a Coffee

Home » 500+ Quantitative Research Titles and Topics

500+ Quantitative Research Titles and Topics

Table of Contents

Quantitative research involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to identify patterns, trends, and relationships among variables. This method is widely used in social sciences, psychology , economics , and other fields where researchers aim to understand human behavior and phenomena through statistical analysis. If you are looking for a quantitative research topic, there are numerous areas to explore, from analyzing data on a specific population to studying the effects of a particular intervention or treatment. In this post, we will provide some ideas for quantitative research topics that may inspire you and help you narrow down your interests.

Quantitative Research Titles

Quantitative Research Titles are as follows:

Business and Economics

• “Statistical Analysis of Supply Chain Disruptions on Retail Sales”
• “Quantitative Examination of Consumer Loyalty Programs in the Fast Food Industry”
• “Predicting Stock Market Trends Using Machine Learning Algorithms”
• “Influence of Workplace Environment on Employee Productivity: A Quantitative Study”
• “Impact of Economic Policies on Small Businesses: A Regression Analysis”
• “Customer Satisfaction and Profit Margins: A Quantitative Correlation Study”
• “Analyzing the Role of Marketing in Brand Recognition: A Statistical Overview”
• “Quantitative Effects of Corporate Social Responsibility on Consumer Trust”
• “Price Elasticity of Demand for Luxury Goods: A Case Study”
• “The Relationship Between Fiscal Policy and Inflation Rates: A Time-Series Analysis”
• “Factors Influencing E-commerce Conversion Rates: A Quantitative Exploration”
• “Examining the Correlation Between Interest Rates and Consumer Spending”
• “Standardized Testing and Academic Performance: A Quantitative Evaluation”
• “Teaching Strategies and Student Learning Outcomes in Secondary Schools: A Quantitative Study”
• “The Relationship Between Extracurricular Activities and Academic Success”
• “Influence of Parental Involvement on Children’s Educational Achievements”
• “Digital Literacy in Primary Schools: A Quantitative Assessment”
• “Learning Outcomes in Blended vs. Traditional Classrooms: A Comparative Analysis”
• “Correlation Between Teacher Experience and Student Success Rates”
• “Analyzing the Impact of Classroom Technology on Reading Comprehension”
• “Gender Differences in STEM Fields: A Quantitative Analysis of Enrollment Data”
• “The Relationship Between Homework Load and Academic Burnout”
• “Assessment of Special Education Programs in Public Schools”
• “Role of Peer Tutoring in Improving Academic Performance: A Quantitative Study”

Medicine and Health Sciences

• “The Impact of Sleep Duration on Cardiovascular Health: A Cross-sectional Study”
• “Analyzing the Efficacy of Various Antidepressants: A Meta-Analysis”
• “Patient Satisfaction in Telehealth Services: A Quantitative Assessment”
• “Dietary Habits and Incidence of Heart Disease: A Quantitative Review”
• “Correlations Between Stress Levels and Immune System Functioning”
• “Smoking and Lung Function: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “Influence of Physical Activity on Mental Health in Older Adults”
• “Antibiotic Resistance Patterns in Community Hospitals: A Quantitative Study”
• “The Efficacy of Vaccination Programs in Controlling Disease Spread: A Time-Series Analysis”
• “Role of Social Determinants in Health Outcomes: A Quantitative Exploration”
• “Impact of Hospital Design on Patient Recovery Rates”
• “Quantitative Analysis of Dietary Choices and Obesity Rates in Children”

Social Sciences

• “Examining Social Inequality through Wage Distribution: A Quantitative Study”
• “Impact of Parental Divorce on Child Development: A Longitudinal Study”
• “Social Media and its Effect on Political Polarization: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “The Relationship Between Religion and Social Attitudes: A Statistical Overview”
• “Influence of Socioeconomic Status on Educational Achievement”
• “Quantifying the Effects of Community Programs on Crime Reduction”
• “Public Opinion and Immigration Policies: A Quantitative Exploration”
• “Analyzing the Gender Representation in Political Offices: A Quantitative Study”
• “Impact of Mass Media on Public Opinion: A Regression Analysis”
• “Influence of Urban Design on Social Interactions in Communities”
• “The Role of Social Support in Mental Health Outcomes: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “Examining the Relationship Between Substance Abuse and Employment Status”

Engineering and Technology

• “Performance Evaluation of Different Machine Learning Algorithms in Autonomous Vehicles”
• “Material Science: A Quantitative Analysis of Stress-Strain Properties in Various Alloys”
• “Impacts of Data Center Cooling Solutions on Energy Consumption”
• “Analyzing the Reliability of Renewable Energy Sources in Grid Management”
• “Optimization of 5G Network Performance: A Quantitative Assessment”
• “Quantifying the Effects of Aerodynamics on Fuel Efficiency in Commercial Airplanes”
• “The Relationship Between Software Complexity and Bug Frequency”
• “Machine Learning in Predictive Maintenance: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “Wearable Technologies and their Impact on Healthcare Monitoring”
• “Quantitative Assessment of Cybersecurity Measures in Financial Institutions”
• “Analysis of Noise Pollution from Urban Transportation Systems”
• “The Influence of Architectural Design on Energy Efficiency in Buildings”

Quantitative Research Topics

Quantitative Research Topics are as follows:

• The effects of social media on self-esteem among teenagers.
• A comparative study of academic achievement among students of single-sex and co-educational schools.
• The impact of gender on leadership styles in the workplace.
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic performance of students.
• The effect of mindfulness meditation on stress levels in college students.
• The relationship between employee motivation and job satisfaction.
• The effectiveness of online learning compared to traditional classroom learning.
• The correlation between sleep duration and academic performance among college students.
• The impact of exercise on mental health among adults.
• The relationship between social support and psychological well-being among cancer patients.
• The effect of caffeine consumption on sleep quality.
• A comparative study of the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy and pharmacotherapy in treating depression.
• The relationship between physical attractiveness and job opportunities.
• The correlation between smartphone addiction and academic performance among high school students.
• The impact of music on memory recall among adults.
• The effectiveness of parental control software in limiting children’s online activity.
• The relationship between social media use and body image dissatisfaction among young adults.
• The correlation between academic achievement and parental involvement among minority students.
• The impact of early childhood education on academic performance in later years.
• The effectiveness of employee training and development programs in improving organizational performance.
• The relationship between socioeconomic status and access to healthcare services.
• The correlation between social support and academic achievement among college students.
• The impact of technology on communication skills among children.
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction programs in reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression.
• The relationship between employee turnover and organizational culture.
• The correlation between job satisfaction and employee engagement.
• The impact of video game violence on aggressive behavior among children.
• The effectiveness of nutritional education in promoting healthy eating habits among adolescents.
• The relationship between bullying and academic performance among middle school students.
• The correlation between teacher expectations and student achievement.
• The impact of gender stereotypes on career choices among high school students.
• The effectiveness of anger management programs in reducing violent behavior.
• The relationship between social support and recovery from substance abuse.
• The correlation between parent-child communication and adolescent drug use.
• The impact of technology on family relationships.
• The effectiveness of smoking cessation programs in promoting long-term abstinence.
• The relationship between personality traits and academic achievement.
• The correlation between stress and job performance among healthcare professionals.
• The impact of online privacy concerns on social media use.
• The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating anxiety disorders.
• The relationship between teacher feedback and student motivation.
• The correlation between physical activity and academic performance among elementary school students.
• The impact of parental divorce on academic achievement among children.
• The effectiveness of diversity training in improving workplace relationships.
• The relationship between childhood trauma and adult mental health.
• The correlation between parental involvement and substance abuse among adolescents.
• The impact of social media use on romantic relationships among young adults.
• The effectiveness of assertiveness training in improving communication skills.
• The relationship between parental expectations and academic achievement among high school students.
• The correlation between sleep quality and mood among adults.
• The impact of video game addiction on academic performance among college students.
• The effectiveness of group therapy in treating eating disorders.
• The relationship between job stress and job performance among teachers.
• The correlation between mindfulness and emotional regulation.
• The impact of social media use on self-esteem among college students.
• The effectiveness of parent-teacher communication in promoting academic achievement among elementary school students.
• The impact of renewable energy policies on carbon emissions
• The relationship between employee motivation and job performance
• The effectiveness of psychotherapy in treating eating disorders
• The correlation between physical activity and cognitive function in older adults
• The effect of childhood poverty on adult health outcomes
• The impact of urbanization on biodiversity conservation
• The relationship between work-life balance and employee job satisfaction
• The effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) in treating trauma
• The correlation between parenting styles and child behavior
• The effect of social media on political polarization
• The impact of foreign aid on economic development
• The relationship between workplace diversity and organizational performance
• The effectiveness of dialectical behavior therapy in treating borderline personality disorder
• The correlation between childhood abuse and adult mental health outcomes
• The effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive function
• The impact of trade policies on international trade and economic growth
• The relationship between employee engagement and organizational commitment
• The effectiveness of cognitive therapy in treating postpartum depression
• The correlation between family meals and child obesity rates
• The effect of parental involvement in sports on child athletic performance
• The impact of social entrepreneurship on sustainable development
• The relationship between emotional labor and job burnout
• The effectiveness of art therapy in treating dementia
• The correlation between social media use and academic procrastination
• The effect of poverty on childhood educational attainment
• The impact of urban green spaces on mental health
• The relationship between job insecurity and employee well-being
• The effectiveness of virtual reality exposure therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between childhood trauma and substance abuse
• The effect of screen time on children’s social skills
• The impact of trade unions on employee job satisfaction
• The relationship between cultural intelligence and cross-cultural communication
• The effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy in treating chronic pain
• The correlation between childhood obesity and adult health outcomes
• The effect of gender diversity on corporate performance
• The impact of environmental regulations on industry competitiveness.
• The impact of renewable energy policies on greenhouse gas emissions
• The relationship between workplace diversity and team performance
• The effectiveness of group therapy in treating substance abuse
• The correlation between parental involvement and social skills in early childhood
• The effect of technology use on sleep patterns
• The impact of government regulations on small business growth
• The relationship between job satisfaction and employee turnover
• The effectiveness of virtual reality therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic motivation in adolescents
• The effect of social media on political engagement
• The impact of urbanization on mental health
• The relationship between corporate social responsibility and consumer trust
• The correlation between early childhood education and social-emotional development
• The effect of screen time on cognitive development in young children
• The impact of trade policies on global economic growth
• The relationship between workplace diversity and innovation
• The effectiveness of family therapy in treating eating disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and college persistence
• The effect of social media on body image and self-esteem
• The impact of environmental regulations on business competitiveness
• The relationship between job autonomy and job satisfaction
• The effectiveness of virtual reality therapy in treating phobias
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic achievement in college
• The effect of social media on sleep quality
• The impact of immigration policies on social integration
• The relationship between workplace diversity and employee well-being
• The effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy in treating personality disorders
• The correlation between early childhood education and executive function skills
• The effect of parental involvement on STEM education outcomes
• The impact of trade policies on domestic employment rates
• The relationship between job insecurity and mental health
• The effectiveness of exposure therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between parental involvement and social mobility
• The effect of social media on intergroup relations
• The impact of urbanization on air pollution and respiratory health.
• The relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness
• The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating depression
• The correlation between early childhood education and language development
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in STEM fields
• The impact of trade policies on income inequality
• The relationship between workplace diversity and customer satisfaction
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and civic engagement in adolescents
• The effect of social media on mental health among teenagers
• The impact of public transportation policies on traffic congestion
• The relationship between job stress and job performance
• The effectiveness of group therapy in treating depression
• The correlation between early childhood education and cognitive development
• The effect of parental involvement on academic motivation in college
• The impact of environmental regulations on energy consumption
• The relationship between workplace diversity and employee engagement
• The effectiveness of art therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in vocational education
• The effect of social media on academic achievement in college
• The impact of tax policies on economic growth
• The relationship between job flexibility and work-life balance
• The effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between early childhood education and social competence
• The effect of parental involvement on career readiness in high school
• The impact of immigration policies on crime rates
• The relationship between workplace diversity and employee retention
• The effectiveness of play therapy in treating trauma
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in online learning
• The effect of social media on body dissatisfaction among women
• The impact of urbanization on public health infrastructure
• The relationship between job satisfaction and job performance
• The effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between early childhood education and social skills in adolescence
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in the arts
• The impact of trade policies on foreign investment
• The relationship between workplace diversity and decision-making
• The effectiveness of exposure and response prevention therapy in treating OCD
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in special education
• The impact of zoning laws on affordable housing
• The relationship between job design and employee motivation
• The effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation therapy in treating traumatic brain injury
• The correlation between early childhood education and social-emotional learning
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in foreign language learning
• The impact of trade policies on the environment
• The relationship between workplace diversity and creativity
• The effectiveness of emotion-focused therapy in treating relationship problems
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in music education
• The effect of social media on interpersonal communication skills
• The impact of public health campaigns on health behaviors
• The relationship between job resources and job stress
• The effectiveness of equine therapy in treating substance abuse
• The correlation between early childhood education and self-regulation
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in physical education
• The impact of immigration policies on cultural assimilation
• The relationship between workplace diversity and conflict resolution
• The effectiveness of schema therapy in treating personality disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in career and technical education
• The effect of social media on trust in government institutions
• The impact of urbanization on public transportation systems
• The relationship between job demands and job stress
• The correlation between early childhood education and executive functioning
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in computer science
• The effectiveness of cognitive processing therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in homeschooling
• The effect of social media on cyberbullying behavior
• The impact of urbanization on air quality
• The effectiveness of dance therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between early childhood education and math achievement
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in health education
• The impact of global warming on agriculture
• The effectiveness of narrative therapy in treating depression
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in character education
• The effect of social media on political participation
• The impact of technology on job displacement
• The relationship between job resources and job satisfaction
• The effectiveness of art therapy in treating addiction
• The correlation between early childhood education and reading comprehension
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in environmental education
• The impact of income inequality on social mobility
• The relationship between workplace diversity and organizational culture
• The effectiveness of solution-focused brief therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in physical therapy education
• The effect of social media on misinformation
• The impact of green energy policies on economic growth
• The relationship between job demands and employee well-being
• The correlation between early childhood education and science achievement
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in religious education
• The impact of gender diversity on corporate governance
• The relationship between workplace diversity and ethical decision-making
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in dental hygiene education
• The effect of social media on self-esteem among adolescents
• The impact of renewable energy policies on energy security
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in social studies
• The impact of trade policies on job growth
• The relationship between workplace diversity and leadership styles
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in online vocational training
• The effect of social media on self-esteem among men
• The impact of urbanization on air pollution levels
• The effectiveness of music therapy in treating depression
• The correlation between early childhood education and math skills
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in language arts
• The impact of immigration policies on labor market outcomes
• The effectiveness of hypnotherapy in treating phobias
• The effect of social media on political engagement among young adults
• The impact of urbanization on access to green spaces
• The relationship between job crafting and job satisfaction
• The effectiveness of exposure therapy in treating specific phobias
• The correlation between early childhood education and spatial reasoning
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in business education
• The impact of trade policies on economic inequality
• The effectiveness of narrative therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in nursing education
• The effect of social media on sleep quality among adolescents
• The impact of urbanization on crime rates
• The relationship between job insecurity and turnover intentions
• The effectiveness of pet therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between early childhood education and STEM skills
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in culinary education
• The impact of immigration policies on housing affordability
• The relationship between workplace diversity and employee satisfaction
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction in treating chronic pain
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in art education
• The effect of social media on academic procrastination among college students
• The impact of urbanization on public safety services.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

200+ Funny Research Topics

500+ Sports Research Topics

300+ American History Research Paper Topics

500+ Cyber Security Research Topics

500+ Environmental Research Topics

500+ Economics Research Topics

• Write my thesis
• Thesis writers
• Buy thesis papers
• Bachelor thesis
• Master's thesis
• Thesis editing services
• Thesis proofreading services
• Buy a thesis online
• Write my dissertation
• Dissertation proposal help
• Pay for dissertation
• Custom dissertation
• Dissertation help online
• Buy dissertation online
• Cheap dissertation
• Dissertation editing services
• Write my research paper
• Buy research paper online
• Pay for research paper
• Research paper help
• Order research paper
• Custom research paper
• Cheap research paper
• Research papers for sale
• Thesis subjects
• How It Works

100+ Quantitative Research Topics For Students

Quantitative research is a research strategy focusing on quantified data collection and analysis processes. This research strategy emphasizes testing theories on various subjects. It also includes collecting and analyzing non-numerical data.

Quantitative research is a common approach in the natural and social sciences , like marketing, business, sociology, chemistry, biology, economics, and psychology. So, if you are fond of statistics and figures, a quantitative research title would be an excellent option for your research proposal or project.

How to Get a Title of Quantitative Research

How to make quantitative research title, what is the best title for quantitative research, amazing quantitative research topics for students, creative quantitative research topics, perfect quantitative research title examples, unique quantitative research titles, outstanding quantitative research title examples for students, creative example title of quantitative research samples, outstanding quantitative research problems examples, fantastic quantitative research topic examples, the best quantitative research topics, grade 12 quantitative research title for students, list of quantitative research titles for high school, easy quantitative research topics for students, trending topics for quantitative research, quantitative research proposal topics, samples of quantitative research titles, research title about business quantitative.

Finding a great title is the key to writing a great quantitative research proposal or paper. A title for quantitative research prepares you for success, failure, or mediocre grades. This post features examples of quantitative research titles for all students.

Putting together a research title and quantitative research design is not as easy as some students assume. So, an example topic of quantitative research can help you craft your own. However, even with the examples, you may need some guidelines for personalizing your research project or proposal topics.

So, here are some tips for getting a title for quantitative research:

• Consider your area of studies
• Look out for relevant subjects in the area
• Expert advice may come in handy
• Check out some sample quantitative research titles

Making a quantitative research title is easy if you know the qualities of a good title in quantitative research. Reading about how to make a quantitative research title may not help as much as looking at some samples. Looking at a quantitative research example title will give you an idea of where to start.

However, let’s look at some tips for how to make a quantitative research title:

• The title should seem interesting to readers
• Ensure that the title represents the content of the research paper
• Reflect on the tone of the writing in the title
• The title should contain important keywords in your chosen subject to help readers find your paper
• The title should not be too lengthy
• It should be grammatically correct and creative
• It must generate curiosity

An excellent quantitative title should be clear, which implies that it should effectively explain the paper and what readers can expect. A research title for quantitative research is the gateway to your article or proposal. So, it should be well thought out. Additionally, it should give you room for extensive topic research.

A sample of quantitative research titles will give you an idea of what a good title for quantitative research looks like. Here are some examples:

• What is the correlation between inflation rates and unemployment rates?
• Has climate adaptation influenced the mitigation of funds allocation?
• Job satisfaction and employee turnover: What is the link?
• A look at the relationship between poor households and the development of entrepreneurship skills
• Urbanization and economic growth: What is the link between these elements?
• Does education achievement influence people’s economic status?
• What is the impact of solar electricity on the wholesale energy market?
• Debt accumulation and retirement: What is the relationship between these concepts?
• Can people with psychiatric disorders develop independent living skills?
• Children’s nutrition and its impact on cognitive development

Quantitative research applies to various subjects in the natural and social sciences. Therefore, depending on your intended subject, you have numerous options. Below are some good quantitative research topics for students:

• The difference between the colorific intake of men and women in your country
• Top strategies used to measure customer satisfaction and how they work
• Black Friday sales: are they profitable?
• The correlation between estimated target market and practical competitive risk assignment
• Are smartphones making us brighter or dumber?
• Nuclear families Vs. Joint families: Is there a difference?
• What will society look like in the absence of organized religion?
• A comparison between carbohydrate weight loss benefits and high carbohydrate diets?
• How does emotional stability influence your overall well-being?
• The extent of the impact of technology in the communications sector

Creativity is the key to creating a good research topic in quantitative research. Find a good quantitative research topic below:

• How much exercise is good for lasting physical well-being?
• A comparison of the nutritional therapy uses and contemporary medical approaches
• Does sugar intake have a direct impact on diabetes diagnosis?
• Education attainment: Does it influence crime rates in society?
• Is there an actual link between obesity and cancer rates?
• Do kids with siblings have better social skills than those without?
• Computer games and their impact on the young generation
• Has social media marketing taken over conventional marketing strategies?
• The impact of technology development on human relationships and communication
• What is the link between drug addiction and age?

Need more quantitative research title examples to inspire you? Here are some quantitative research title examples to look at:

• Habitation fragmentation and biodiversity loss: What is the link?
• Radiation has affected biodiversity: Assessing its effects
• An assessment of the impact of the CORONA virus on global population growth
• Is the pandemic truly over, or have human bodies built resistance against the virus?
• The ozone hole and its impact on the environment
• The greenhouse gas effect: What is it and how has it impacted the atmosphere
• GMO crops: are they good or bad for your health?
• Is there a direct link between education quality and job attainment?
• How have education systems changed from traditional to modern times?
• The good and bad impacts of technology on education qualities

Your examiner will give you excellent grades if you come up with a unique title and outstanding content. Here are some quantitative research examples titles.

• Online classes: are they helpful or not?
• What changes has the global CORONA pandemic had on the population growth curve?
• Daily habits influenced by the global pandemic
• An analysis of the impact of culture on people’s personalities
• How has feminism influenced the education system’s approach to the girl child’s education?
• Academic competition: what are its benefits and downsides for students?
• Is there a link between education and student integrity?
• An analysis of how the education sector can influence a country’s economy
• An overview of the link between crime rates and concern for crime
• Is there a link between education and obesity?

Research title example quantitative topics when well-thought guarantees a paper that is a good read. Look at the examples below to get started.

• What are the impacts of online games on students?
• Sex education in schools: how important is it?
• Should schools be teaching about safe sex in their sex education classes?
• The correlation between extreme parent interference on student academic performance
• Is there a real link between academic marks and intelligence?
• Teacher feedback: How necessary is it, and how does it help students?
• An analysis of modern education systems and their impact on student performance
• An overview of the link between academic performance/marks and intelligence
• Are grading systems helpful or harmful to students?
• What was the impact of the pandemic on students?

Irrespective of the course you take, here are some titles that can fit diverse subjects pretty well. Here are some creative quantitative research title ideas:

• A look at the pre-corona and post-corona economy
• How are conventional retail businesses fairing against eCommerce sites like Amazon and Shopify?
• An evaluation of mortality rates of heart attacks
• Effective treatments for cardiovascular issues and their prevention
• A comparison of the effectiveness of home care and nursing home care
• Strategies for managing effective dissemination of information to modern students
• How does educational discrimination influence students’ futures?
• The impacts of unfavorable classroom environment and bullying on students and teachers
• An overview of the implementation of STEM education to K-12 students
• How effective is digital learning?

If your paper addresses a problem, you must present facts that solve the question or tell more about the question. Here are examples of quantitative research titles that will inspire you.

• An elaborate study of the influence of telemedicine in healthcare practices
• How has scientific innovation influenced the defense or military system?
• The link between technology and people’s mental health
• Has social media helped create awareness or worsened people’s mental health?
• How do engineers promote green technology?
• How can engineers raise sustainability in building and structural infrastructures?
• An analysis of how decision-making is dependent on someone’s sub-conscious
• A comprehensive study of ADHD and its impact on students’ capabilities
• The impact of racism on people’s mental health and overall wellbeing
• How has the current surge in social activism helped shape people’s relationships?

Are you looking for an example of a quantitative research title? These ten examples below will get you started.

• The prevalence of nonverbal communication in social control and people’s interactions
• The impacts of stress on people’s behavior in society
• A study of the connection between capital structures and corporate strategies
• How do changes in credit ratings impact equality returns?
• A quantitative analysis of the effect of bond rating changes on stock prices
• The impact of semantics on web technology
• An analysis of persuasion, propaganda, and marketing impact on individuals
• The dominant-firm model: what is it, and how does it apply to your country’s retail sector?
• The role of income inequality in economy growth
• An examination of juvenile delinquents’ treatment in your country

Excellent Topics For Quantitative Research

Here are some titles for quantitative research you should consider:

• Does studying mathematics help implement data safety for businesses
• How are art-related subjects interdependent with mathematics?
• How do eco-friendly practices in the hospitality industry influence tourism rates?
• A deep insight into how people view eco-tourisms
• Religion vs. hospitality: Details on their correlation
• Has your country’s tourist sector revived after the pandemic?
• How effective is non-verbal communication in conveying emotions?
• Are there similarities between the English and French vocabulary?
• How do politicians use persuasive language in political speeches?
• The correlation between popular culture and translation

Here are some quantitative research titles examples for your consideration:

• How do world leaders use language to change the emotional climate in their nations?
• Extensive research on how linguistics cultivate political buzzwords
• The impact of globalization on the global tourism sector
• An analysis of the effects of the pandemic on the worldwide hospitality sector
• The influence of social media platforms on people’s choice of tourism destinations
• Educational tourism: What is it and what you should know about it
• Why do college students experience math anxiety?
• Is math anxiety a phenomenon?
• A guide on effective ways to fight cultural bias in modern society
• Creative ways to solve the overpopulation issue

An example of quantitative research topics for 12 th -grade students will come in handy if you want to score a good grade. Here are some of the best ones:

• The link between global warming and climate change
• What is the greenhouse gas impact on biodiversity and the atmosphere
• Has the internet successfully influenced literacy rates in society
• The value and downsides of competition for students
• A comparison of the education system in first-world and third-world countries
• The impact of alcohol addiction on the younger generation
• How has social media influenced human relationships?
• Has education helped boost feminism among men and women?
• Are computers in classrooms beneficial or detrimental to students?
• How has social media improved bullying rates among teenagers?

High school students can apply research titles on social issues  or other elements, depending on the subject. Let’s look at some quantitative topics for students:

• What is the right age to introduce sex education for students
• Can extreme punishment help reduce alcohol consumption among teenagers?
• Should the government increase the age of sexual consent?
• The link between globalization and the local economy collapses
• How are global companies influencing local economies?

There are numerous possible quantitative research topics you can write about. Here are some great quantitative research topics examples:

• The correlation between video games and crime rates
• Do college studies impact future job satisfaction?
• What can the education sector do to encourage more college enrollment?
• The impact of education on self-esteem
• The relationship between income and occupation

You can find inspiration for your research topic from trending affairs on social media or in the news. Such topics will make your research enticing. Find a trending topic for quantitative research example from the list below:

• How the country’s economy is fairing after the pandemic
• An analysis of the riots by women in Iran and what the women gain to achieve
• Is the current US government living up to the voter’s expectations?
• How is the war in Ukraine affecting the global economy?
• Can social media riots affect political decisions?

A proposal is a paper you write proposing the subject you would like to cover for your research and the research techniques you will apply. If the proposal is approved, it turns to your research topic. Here are some quantitative titles you should consider for your research proposal:

• Military support and economic development: What is the impact in developing nations?
• How does gun ownership influence crime rates in developed countries?
• How can the US government reduce gun violence without influencing people’s rights?
• What is the link between school prestige and academic standards?
• Is there a scientific link between abortion and the definition of viability?

You can never have too many sample titles. The samples allow you to find a unique title you’re your research or proposal. Find a sample quantitative research title here:

• Does weight loss indicate good or poor health?
• Should schools do away with grading systems?
• The impact of culture on student interactions and personalities
• How can parents successfully protect their kids from the dangers of the internet?
• Is the US education system better or worse than Europe’s?

If you’re a business major, then you must choose a research title quantitative about business. Let’s look at some research title examples quantitative in business:

• Creating shareholder value in business: How important is it?
• The changes in credit ratings and their impact on equity returns
• The importance of data privacy laws in business operations
• How do businesses benefit from e-waste and carbon footprint reduction?
• Organizational culture in business: what is its importance?

We Are A Call Away

Interesting, creative, unique, and easy quantitative research topics allow you to explain your paper and make research easy. Therefore, you should not take choosing a research paper or proposal topic lightly. With your topic ready, reach out to us today for excellent research paper writing services .

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Track in Quantitative and Analytical Political Science

The Departmental Track in Quantitative and Analytical Political Science (QAPS) is designed for students who wish to deepen their understanding of quantitative and analytical methods to study key questions in political science.

Prerequisite

MAT 175 (or its equivalent EGR 192, MAT 201, MAT 203)

Track Requirements

In addition to the prerequisite, students must complete four courses among those listed below in either quantitative or analytical methods, along with six other departmental courses.

Of the following eight courses, students must take four with at least one being in Quantitative Analysis as well as at least one from the Game Theory and Applications category.

Quantitative Analysis SOC 245/POL 245: Visualizing Data POL 345: Introduction to Quantitative Social Science POL 346: Applied Quantitative Analysis

Game Theory and Applications POL 250: Introduction to Game Theory POL 347: Game Theory in Politics ( formerly listed as: Mathematical Models in Political Science ) POL 349: Political Economy SPI 329/POL 350: Comparative Political Economy for Policy Making * POL 352: Comparative Political Economy *

* NOTE: Students may either take SPI 329/POL 350 or POL 352 - not both.

Senior Thesis

While a student in the track must write a thesis on a topic related to the student's primary field, the thesis must also incorporate quantitative and/or analytics methods at a level similar or superior to the material covered in the track requirements.  The student should meet with the QAPS advisor during the fall semester of senior year to confirm the suitability of their thesis research design.  On or before the thesis draft deadline, the appropriate content of the thesis must be certified by the QAPS advisor.

Questions regarding the Track in Quantitative and Analytical Political Science should be directed to  Prof. Germán Gieczewski .  

NOTE: Any student, regardless of whether they are pursuing the QAPS track, may utilize the QAPS Consulting Service , which is designed to help with research design, statistics, formal theory, and computational questions arising from one's research.  Visit the QAPS website for more information.

Please note: The degree will read A.B. in Politics and unlike University Certificates, the departmental track will not appear on the transcript. Concentrators who successfully complete the track’s requirements will receive a departmental attestation on Class Day.